Imaginary Elements in Two Dimensions

So far all results have been derived in the real projective plane and space, which required an
intuitive leap to include ideal points and lines in an ideal plane. Such points function like ordinary
ones, and indeed versions of two dimensional projective geometry exist with no special elements or
parallelism such as that of the lines and points of a bundle. A more radical intuitive leap is required
to include imaginary points, lines and planes. Ideal points were introduced to remove exceptions
due to parallel lines, making the axioms true without exception. Another case that raised exceptions
concerned the double points of an involution, and then of a measure, for it was found that real
double points do not always exist. An exception similarly arose when considering the intersection
of a line with a conic. A close connection between measures and conics arose for transformations
c.f. Figure $32 reproduced below for convenience.

On the left a breathing measure is constructed with double points where the line s intersects the
circle (or any conic in fact), while on the right where s does not intersect the circle the identical
construction of the measure yields no double points as well as the obvious absence of points of
intersection. The exceptions would be removed if on the right some kind of entity could play the
role of the points of intersection, and such an entity is known as an imaginary point. It functions
like a point but has no location on the real plane.

Taking the canonical equation of a conic i.e. 00x02+11x12+22x22=0 and substituting for a line with
equation kjxj=0, the points of intersection are given by the equation
2 2 2 2 2
k1 00x0 +11(k0x0+k2x2) +k1 22x2 =0 which is a quadratic equation with two roots for x0/x2. They
are complex conjugate points when the line does not meet the conic, customarily called imaginary
points, and for the circling measure these are its double points whether real or imaginary. So the
special case regarding the double points of a measure is removed: all measures have two double-
points, real or imaginary. The term 'imaginary' rather than 'complex' is used to avoid confusion in
the case of line complexes where 'complex line' means a line belonging to the complex whereas
'imaginary line' means a line that is not real. One aspect to note: (p(a+ib) q(a+ib) r(a+ib)) is not an
imaginary point, as in homogeneous coordinates it is the same as (p q r).

The equation of a circle is x 02+x12=kx22 where k=|22| is positive, and the line at infinity is (0 0 1) so
the points of intersection are x02+x12=0 as x2=0 on the line at infinity. Thus x1=ix0 giving the points
(x0 ix0 0)(1 i 0) i.e. all circles intersect the line at infinity in the points (1 i 0) and (1 -i 0). These
points are called the absolute circling points at infinity, often symbolised by I and J. For a start this
explains why the circle - a conic - is defined by only three points instead of five i.e. because it must
always contain the absolute circling points, actually requiring five in all. Also two circles now
intersect in four points, like any other respectable conic. Furthermore two conics now always
intersect in four points, all of which may be imaginary.
 The figure shows an involution on a circle with two
corresponding pairs AA' and BB'. The centre of the
involution is at the centre of the circle so that corresponding
points joined to a projecting point S are orthogonal (angles
in a semicircle are 90o). The involution of orthogonal lines
may be projected onto the ideal line where it will determine
an involution with imaginary double points.

Two lines (a b c) and (d e f) meet the ideal line in the points

A=(b -a 0)(-b/a 1 0) and B=(-e/d 1 0). If the cross-ratio of
A B I and J is -1 then

(b /ai ) (e /d+ i )
=1
(b /a+i ) (e /di )
so b/a=d /e

Thus the lines are (a b c) and (-b a af/e), showing that lines intersecting the ideal line in points
harmonic to I and J are orthogonal. This provides a projective definition of orthogonality to replace
the intuitive one used so far. Also the above involution of orthogonal lines has the circling points I
and J as its double points. This now removes the special case concerning double points of an
involution: all involutions have a pair of double points which may be imaginary (they need not be I
and J, of course). If I and J are joined to S in the above involution then the double lines of the
involution in {S} are (s0 s1 s2)+(1 i 0)=(s0+ s1+i s2) and (s0+ s1-i s2). S is the only real point on
those lines and they are called imaginary lines of the first kind because they contain one real point.
Clearly an imaginary line cannot contain two real points because they would define a real line. The
tangents to a central conic from an interior point are imaginary i.e. every point now contains
tangents to a conic.

Given an imaginary point (a0+ib0 a1+ib1 a2+ib2) suppose it lies on a real line (p 0 p1 p2). Then
pjaj+ipjbj=0. Since the real and imaginary parts must vanish independently, p jaj=0 and pjbj=0. This
is the same situation as if a j and bj were real points and since a unique line is determined by two
points it follows that only one real line lies in an imaginary point. The conjugate point
(a0-ib0 a1-ib1 a2-ib2) clearly contains the same real line, so a real line contains the conjuagate of
every imaginary point on it. Dually only one real point lies on an imaginary line, and the point
contains the conjugate of every imaginary line in it.

Imaginary conics now exist given by 00x02+11x12+22x22=0 where 00, 11 and 22 are all of the same
sign. It meets the axis x 1=0 in the points (1 0 iq) where q= 22 / 00 , which points are in
involution with respect to the origin and the ideal point on that axis. Thus these imaginary conics
meet an axis in an involution. The polar line of a point xj is given by ijxj which is 00x0+11x1+22x2
in the above case, and is real! Similarly a real line has a real pole. However a point can never lie
on its polar line for that would yield a real tangent. This indicates the validity of supposing that an
imaginary conic actually exists. Practically this means that if a point moves along a line p through
the centre of the conic, the point where its polar line meets p moves in the same direction and so
never coincides with it i.e. there is a circling measure unlike for a real conic where that measure has
real double points on the conic. Again note that the centre is real as it is the pole of the ideal line
which is real.
Path Curves

A transformation defined by a matrix M, when applied to a point x, yields another point y such that
y=Mx. If now M is applied to y then a third point z=My is obtained provided M is not an
involution. The series of points x y z ... lies on a path curve, passing between two invariant points.
This may also be expressed as yj=mijxj and so on. To transform a plane the inverse mij of M is used
i.e. the plane hj is transformed by mijhj = gi, say. Now if the point xj lies on hj so that hjxj=0 then
gjyj=mjkhkmjkxk=hkmkjmjkxk=hkIxk=hkIxk=0 as required to preserve incidences. As seen earlier the
adjoint matrix may be used instead of mij as the coordinates are homogeneous. Then a path
developable arises if mij is repeatedly applied to give a series of planes. If a point x j and an incident
plane hj are simultaneously transformed then the transforms of x j and hj remain incident, which
indicates that the cuspidal edge of the developable coincides with the path curve.

In practical problems a curve may be described by points with coordiantes referred to a convenient
reference system, and it is useful to find the corresponding canonical reference system. Given a
general transformation S=sij in the initial reference system, to find the corresponding canonical
M=mij note that in the latter system the invariant points are (1 0 0 0), (0 1 0 0), (0 0 1 0) and
(0 0 0 1) whereas for S they are four points tj, uj, vj and wj, say, which are the latent vectors of S.
The matrix C=cij that transforms the coordinates must transform tj into (1 0 0 0), uj into (0 1 0 0) and
so on, which may be expressed as

[ ][ ][ ]
c 00 c 01 c 02 c 03 t0 u0 v 0 w0 1 0 0 0
c 10 c 11 c 12 c 13 t1 u1 v 1 w1
=0 1 0 0
c 20 c 21 c 22 c 23 t2 u2 v 2 w2 0 0 1 0
c 30 c 31 c 32 c 33 t3 u3 v 3 w3 0 0 0 1

Expressing this as CT=I then C=IT-1=T-1 i.e. form the matrix T from the invariant points for S and
invert it to give C. Then a point x in the original coordinates is transformed to Cx just as t is
transformed to (1 0 0 0). Now a point p moves to q=Sp and the transformed p must move to the
transformed q i.e. Cq=MCp so q=C-1MCp which means S=C-1MC or, as S is known and M is
sought, M=CSC-1. To summarise, noting that C-1=T, form the matrix T from the invariant points to
give M=T-1ST. When starting from euclidean coordinates in a practical problem, t u v and w will
be the euclidean coordinates of the invariant tetrahedron with t 3=u3=v3=w3=1, or if working in a
plane then t u and v are those of the invariant triangle and S and M will be 3x3 matrices. The
principles are the same.
Imaginary Elements in Three Dimensions

In three dimensions there may in addition be imaginary planes which arise e.g. as the tangent planes
to a central quadric through an interior point. Another example is a self-projectivity of an axial
pencil which always has double planes although they may be imaginary. There are tangent lines to
a quadric in all points, real or imaginary. Real points have real polar planes with respect to an
imaginary quadric, and dually.

1. An imaginary plane (a0+ib0 a1+ib1 a2+ib2 a3+ib3) contains a line of real points, for there is a plane
satisfying ajxj=0 and another satisfying bjxj=0 which meet in a line of points xj such that (aj+ibj)xj=0.
2. Dually one real line k is incident with an imaginary point (a0+ib0 a1+ib1 a2+ib2+a3+ib3), for there
is a point for which ajxj=0 and another satisfying bjxj=0 which meet in a line (a j+bj)xj=0 containing
the imaginary point.
3. If an imaginary point aj+ibj lies on a real line pj then ajpj=0 and bjpj=0, so for the same reason the
conjugate point aj-ibj lies on pj.
4. An imaginary line L=aj+ibj+(cj+idj) in three dimensions may or may not contain real points, for
there is a line (aj+cj)xj=0 and a second line (bj+dj)yj=0. If those lines intersect then their point of
intersection lies on L, otherwise L is an imaginary line of the second kind containing no real points.
Similarly L may contain one real plane or none if it is of the second kind.
Also L could contain a line of real points and planes if (aj+cj)xj=0 and (bj+dj)yj=0 are the same
line. In addition if bj=-dj or aj=-cj for some then there is a real point a j+cj or bj+dj for that ,
or two real points P and Q if both conditions are met each for a distinct value of . That is peculiar
as then the real line PQ meets the imaginary one in two points.
5. There are 2 imaginary points on L, for let such a point be pj+iqj, then pj=aj+cj and qj=bj+dj so
there are 1 instances of pj and qj satisfying the requirement i.e. 2 imaginary points on L.

Thus through each imaginary point pj+iqj of L there passes exactly one real line on which lies the
conjugate point pj-iqj lying on the line M=aj-ibj+(cj-idj), there being 2 such real lines. Thus they
form a congruence with the imaginary lines L and M as directrices. For a real line pj through an
arbitrary point sj to meet both L and M, let sj form a flat pencil aj+ibj+(cj+idj)+sj with the points
of L. A line of that pencil is real if aj+cj+sj=0 as then the line is ib j+idj, which is real as the
common factor i may be removed, and similarly aj-cj+sj=0 for it to meet M. Thus pj meets the
two real lines bj+dj and bj-dj and there is only one such line through sj, meeting L and M in
conjugate imaginary points. Dually in a plane there lies only one real line meeting both L and M.
Hence of the 2 lines of the congruence there is exactly one in each real point of space, and in each
real plane, so it is a linear congruence. If L contains a real point then the above argument fails, but
otherwise there cannot be two congruence lines through a real point so it is elliptic i.e. an elliptic
congruence has two imaginary directrices of the second kind.

Jocob Steiner (1796 - 1863 Switzerland) did remarkable work to keep projective geometry free
from algebra, and devised methods of handling imaginary points, lines and planes of a purely
synthetic form (as non-algebraic methods are called). These are based on involutions with
imaginary double points as representative of complex imaginary points. A detailed account is given
in Edwards (Projective Geometry).
 ???

These points can be regarded as a degenerate two-point conic equal to the Cayley absolute conic
(Appendix #C). It was described there how the length of AB is derived from a cross ratio involving
A and B and the points where AB meets the absolute conic. A line k jxj=0 meets the absolute conic
x02+x12=0 in the points given by x02+(k0x0/k1+k2x2/k1)2=0
i.e. x02(k12+k02)+x0x2(2k0k2)+k22x22 =0 giving x0/x2=(-k0k2ik1k2)/(k02+k12).
Similarly x1/x2=(-k1k2ik0k2)/(k02+k12). As x2 0 both x1 and x2 0 since these expressions in the
kj are well defined, finite and constant for a fixed line. The points are then
(-k0ik1 -k1ik0 (k02+k12)/k2). Defining k=k0/k1 the cross ratio with two points (x 0 x1 -(x0k0+x1k1)/k2)
and (y0 y1 -(y0k0+y1k1)/k2) is now
( x0 k i ) ( y 0k + i)
( x 0k +i ) ( y 0k i )