Fall 2013

University of Arkansas
Ralph E. Martin Department of Chemical Engineering
CHEG 4813: Chemical Process Safety
Exam 4
Closed Book SectionSample Questions

Explain the following terms:

Stability class
A: extremely unstable
B: moderately unstable
C: slightly unstable
D: neutrally stable (used regardless of wind speed for overcast conditions during day or
night and for any sky conditions during the hour before or after sunset or sunrise)
E: slightly stable
F: moderately stable
Depend on wind speed and quantity of sunlight
Atmospheric stability relates to vertical mixing of the air.
Classified by 3 stability classes
Unstable
o Sun heats ground faster than the heat can be removes so air temperature near the
ground is higher than the air temperature at higher elevations (early morning)
Instable because air of lower density is below air of greater densityenhances
mechanical turbulence in the air
Neutral
o Air above the ground warms and the wind speed increases, reducing the effect of
solar energy input. Air temperature difference does not influence atmospheric
mechanical turbulence.
Stable
o Sun cannot heat the ground as fast as the ground cools so temperature near the
ground is lower than the air temperature at higher elevations. Stable because air of
higher density is below the air of lower density. Buoyancy suppresses mechanical
turbulence.

Dispersion coefficient
Dispersion coefficients are a function of atmospheric conditions and the distance downwind
from the release. The atmospheric conditions are classified according to six different
stability classes, shown in table 5-1. The stability classes depend on wind speed and quantity
of sunlight. During the day, increased wind speed results in greater atmospheric stability,
whereas at night the reverse is true. This is due to a change in vertical temperature profiles
from day to night.
The dispersion coefficients y and z for a continuous source are given in Figure 5-10 and 5-
11, with the corresponding correlations given in Tanle 5-2.
Represent standard deviations of the concentration in the downwind (x), crosswind (y), and
vertical (z) directions
Function of atmospheric conditions and the distance downwind from the release
x, y, z

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Surface roughness
Surface roughness is a measure of the texture of a surface. It is quantified by the vertical
deviations of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the surface is
rough; if they are small the surface is smooth. Roughness is typically considered to be the
high frequency, short wavelength component of a measured surface

Meander
Dispersion of smoke plumes in the horizontal by means of the crosswind component
(fluctuations) of the horizontal wind speed. The result is a plume that wanders from side to
side.
Change of direction due to variability in wind direction
Atmospheric dispersion is highly variable especially in a convective boundary layer (CBL)
where large-scale updrafts and downdrafts lead to substantial plume meandering. For an
elevated source, the meander is most significant in light winds and causes ground-level
concentrations to vary essentially between in-plume peaks and the zero ambient level.

Short answer:

What does stability class indicate? Why is it important?

Indicates amount of turbulence present in the air and the amount of mixing able to take
place
IMPORTANT: Indicates meteorological information which influence concentration effects
and indicate amount of mixing able to take place and dispersion

What is the difference between unstable, neutral, and stable atmospheric conditions?
Unstable: atmospheric condition where the sun heats the ground faster than heat is removed
causing temperatures low to the ground to be higher than those above it. This difference is
density enhances mechanical turbulence.
Neutral: atmospheric conditions where the temperature gradient is minimal and there is low
turbulence in the air.
Stable: atmospheric conditions where the ground cools faster than the sun heats it up,
causing denser than air molecules to settle close to the ground, and the mechanical
turbulence is reduced.
o Unstable: A, B, C
o Neutral: D
o Stable: E, F
Usually, E & F occur only at night because there is no sunlight. So the worst-
case scenario during the day would have D-stability.

What time of day can stable atmospheric conditions occur?

Usually, E and F occur only at night because there is no sunlight. So the worst-case scenario
during the day would have D-stability.
Stable conditions (E and F) occur at night when the sun cannot heat the ground and the air
temperature at the ground is lower than at higher elevations therefore higher density below
lower density

What is the surface roughness (in the context of atmospheric flow)? How is surface roughness
related to the mean obstacle height?
Surface roughness can affect turbulence and stability. A high surface roughness can increase
turbulence. The higher the obstacle height, the better mixing or more turbulent atmospheric
conditions will exist.

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What causes a plume meander?

Alterations in atmospheric conditions, wind at various speeds and directions, also surface
roughness. Thermal constraint also cause meander by inducing heat to the toxic plume or
puff.

All other things being equal, how is the concentration of a passive contaminant at a given
location related to the (gas) mass release rate? (if the release continues for a very long time?)
Long time is most likely meant to be a continuous release and to be modeled as a plume.
Plume and concentration relate by the following equation

o <C> = , Qm = E

Therefore, the concentration is proportional to the mass release rate. If <c>
increases so does Qm.

All other things being equal, how is the concentration of a passive contaminant at a given
location related to the wind speed? (Plumes and puffs)
Plume <c>=1/u u increases, <c> decreases
Puff no change in <c>, change in location.

All other things being equal, how is the concentration of a passive contaminant at a given
location related to atmospheric stability?
Unstable conditions give higher dispersion coefficients which will result in lower
concentrations since the dispersion coefficients are in the denominator.
Stable conditions give lower dispersion coefficients which will result in higher
concentrations since the dispersion coefficients are in the denominator of the passive
relationship

How are passive atmospheric dispersion coefficients related to atmospheric stability? For
increased atmospheric stability, do dispersion coefficients increase or decrease?
<c> =1/, as stability increases, <c> increases, dispersion coefficients increase.
o F- most stable
o A-least stable

Explain the effect of meander on the concentration of a plume at a given downwind distance.
Atmospheric variability in wind direction cause real plumes to change direction or meander.
A fixed location may even be inside a plume at some times and outside at others.
Plume meander influences horizontal extent of a plume much more than the vertical extent
(for ground level plumes)

Explain the effect of meander on the concentration of a puff release rate at a given downwind
distance.
Meander has no effect on the concentration of a puff

What is the difference between plume and puff release?

Plume: characteristic plume formed by a continuous release of material. Dissipates
downwind by mixing with fresh air.
Plume indicates a release that is continuous or for a long duration whereas a puff indicates
an instantaneous or brief release
Plumes can appear to be puffs if the travel/dispersion time is much greater than the source
time
Puff: moves downwind and dissipates by mixing with fresh air. Puff formed by near
instantaneous release of material.

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Example: the distinction between the two models is shown in graphically in figure 5-1 and 5-
2.
o For the plume model a typical example is the continuous release of gases from a
smokestack. A steady-state plume is formed downwind from the smokestack.
o For the puff model a typical example is the sudden release of a fixed amount of
material because of the rupture of a storage vessel. A large vapor cloud is formed
that move away from the rupture point.

What is the difference between a continuous and instantaneous release?

Instantaneous has a much lower source time
Assumed 20 seconds for puff (instantaneous) and assumed 10 minutes for plume
(continuous)

Fire triangle

The essential elements for combustion are fuel, an oxidizer, and an ignition source. (page
246)
Fire or burning is the rapid exothermic oxidation of an ignited of an ignited fuel. The fuel can
be in the solid, liquid, or vapor form, but vapor and liquid fuels are generally easier to ignite.
The combustion always occurs in the vapor phase; liquids are volatized and solids are
decomposed into vapor before combustion.
o Fuels:
Liquids: gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane
Solids: plastics, wood dust, fibers, metal particles,
Gases: acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
o Oxidizers:
Gases: oxygen, fluorine, chlorine
Liquids: hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, per chloric acid
Solids: metal peroxides, ammonium nitrite
o Ignition Source
Sparks, flames, static electricity, heat

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Auto ignition temperature

The temperature at which a flammable mixture will combust and propagate without an
external ignition source.

Ignition
Ignition of a flammable mixture may be caused by a flammable mixture coming in contact
with a source of ignition with sufficient energy or the gas reaching a temperature high
enough to cause the gas to auto ignite.

Decomposition fire
Separation of a chemical compound into simpler compounds. It is sometimes defined as the
exact opposite of a chemical synthesis. Chemical decomposition is often an undesired
chemical reaction.
Provides its own oxygen.

Auto ignition explosion

A fixed temperature above which adequate energy is available in the environment to provide
an ignition source.

Flash point
(FP)- the flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it gives off enough vapor
to form an ignitable mixture with air. At the flash point the vapor will burn but only briefly;
in adequate vapor is produced to maintain combustion. The flash point generally increases
with increasing pressure. There are several different experimental methods used to
determine flash points. Each method provides a somewhat different values. The two most
commonly used methods are open cup and closed cup, depending on the physical
configuration of the experimental equipment. The open cup flash point is a few degrees
higher than the closed cup flash point.
The lowest temperature at which sufficient vapor forms so that a fuel/air mixture is
flammable.

Flammability limits
Vapor-air mixtures will ignite and burn only over a well-specified range of compositions. The
mixture will not burn when the composition is lower than the lower flammability limit
(LFL); the mixture is too lean for combustion. The mixture is also not combustible when the
composition is too rich, that is, when it is above the upper flammability limit (UFL). A
mixture is flammable only when the composition is between the LFL and the UFL. Commonly
used units are volume percent fuels (percentage of fuel plus air).
UFL: Upper Flammability Limit
LFL: Lower Flammability Limit
o The boundaries (in vol%) concentration of a fuel/air mixture that make the mixture
flammable. The concentration must lie within the boundaries.

Mechanical explosion
An explosion resulting from the sudden failure of vessel containing high-pressure
nonreactive gas.

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Deflagration
An explosion in which the reaction front moves at a speed less than the speed of sound in the
unreacted medium.

Detonation
An explosion in which the reaction front moves at a speed greater than the speed of sound in
the unreacted medium.

BLEVE
Boiling-liquid expanding-vapor expansion: a BLEVE occurs if a vessel that contains a liquid
at a temperature above its atmospheric pressure boiling point ruptures. The subsequent
BLEVE is the explosive vaporization of a large fraction of the vessel contents, possibly
followed by combustion or explosion of the vaporized cloud if it is combustible. This type of
explosion occurs when an external fire heats the contents of tank of volatile material. As the
tank contents heat, the vapor pressure of the liquid within the tank increases and the tanks
structural integrity is reduced because of the heating. If the tank ruptures, the hot liquid
volatilizes explosively.
An explosion caused by heating a tank (usually external fire) to a point where the tank
integrity is compromised. The liquid inside the tank vaporizes explosively and tears
the tank apart.

(Explosion) overpressure
The pressure above ambient on an object in deflagration or detonation.

LOC
Limiting Oxygen Concentration: The least amount of oxygen that is required (as a
concentration) to make a fuel/air mixture flammable. Below this value, fuel/air
mixtures are not flammable.

MIE
Minimum ignition energy: page 270: its the minimum energy input required to initiate
combustion.
All flammable materials have MIEs which are determined by the chemical or mixture, the
concentration, pressure, and temperature.
o Decreases with an increase in pressure (inversely proportional).
o Increasing nitrogen concentration increases the MIE.

Auto-oxidation
Is the process of slow oxidation with accompanying evolution of heat, sometimes leading to
auto ignition if the energy is not removed from the system. Liquids with relatively low
volatility are particularly susceptible to auto ignition because they self-cool as a result of
evaporation.
A process of slow oxidation that can lead to rapid oxidation (combustion).
Many fires are initiated as a result of auto-oxidation, referred to as spontaneous combustion.
Some examples of auto-oxidation with a potential for spontaneous combustion include oils
on a rag in a warm storage area, insulation on a steam pipe saturated with certain polymers,
and filter aid saturated with certain polymers.

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Siphon purging
Process starts by filling the vessel with liquid-water or any liquid compatible with the
product. The purge gas is subsequently added to the vapor space of the vessel as the liquid is
drained from the vessel. The volume of the purge gas is equal to the volume of the vessel,
and the rate of purging process is equivalent to the volumetric rate of liquid discharge.

Bonding
The voltage difference between two conductive materials is reduced to zero by bonding the
two materials, that is, by bonding one end of a conducting wire to one of the materials and
bonding the other end to the second material.

Grounding
When comparing sets of bonded materials, the set may have different voltages. The voltage
difference between the sets is reduced to zero by bonding each set to the ground, that is, by
grounding.
o Bonding and grounding reduce the voltage of an entire system to ground level or zero voltage.

Short answer:

What are the three most common ignition sources of major fires according to the texts Table?
Electrical (wiring of motors)
Smoking
Friction (bearing or broken parts)

Explain how a deflagration and a detonation are related along with their differences.
Detonation and deflagration both deal with a reaction front that moves through an
unreacted medium.
Differ: in the rate at which this happens.
o Deflagration: speed less than speed of sound. An explosion in which the reaction
front moves slower than the speed of sound in an unreacted medium. It lasts many
milliseconds at typical pressures from 1-2 atm.
o Detonation: speed greater than the speed of sound. An explosion in which the
reaction front moves faster than the speed of sound at pressures above 10 atm.
Duration is less than 1 millisecond.

Explain the important aspects of the various purging techniques including vacuum, pressure,
vacuum/pressure, and sweep-through.
Vacuum Purging versus Pressure Purging
o Vacuum purging takes much longer than pressure purging because of the pressure
difference in the two types, but pressure purging takes much more N2 than vacuum
purging.
Pressure Purging versus Sweep through Purging
o Sweep through purging can be used on all vessels because the pressure is kept at
atmospheric conditions while pressure purging may not always be able to be used.
On the other hand pressure purging can lower the O2 concentration to a lower
amount compared to the sweep through purging process.
Vacuum
o Draw a vacuum on the vessel until the desired vacuum is reached.
o Relieve the vacuum with an inert gas.

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o Repeat until desired oxidant concentration is reached.

Pressure
o Adding inert gas under pressure.
o Vent back to atmospheric pressure.
o Repeat until desired oxidant concentration is reached.
Vacuum/Pressure
o Combination of the two techniques.
Sweep through purging
o Adding purge gas into a vessel at one opening and withdraws the mixed gas from
the vessel to the atmosphere (or scrubber) from another opening.
Use when vessel is not rated for pressure or vacuum.
Purge gas is added and withdrawn at atmospheric pressure.

Explain the difference between bonding and grounding.

Bonding is when you connect two objects together to share a voltage potential.
Grounding is when you connect an object to a grounded object, zero voltage potential.

Which will generate higher static voltages and energies given all other factors are unchanged:
laminar or turbulent flow?
Turbulent: WHY??????

What is relaxation time in the context of static electricity? What categories of materials have
long relaxation times? Why is that important?
Relaxation: adding an enlarged section of pipe just before entering of a tank to reduce the
electrostatic charge accumulated by the flowing stream.
Water, isopropanol, ethanol, and methanol (Water and alcohols)
Commonly used.

What are the four fire classifications used on fire extinguishers?

Class A: for ordinary combustible materials (solids) such as paper, wood, cardboard, and
most plastics.
Class B: flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, grease and oil.
Class C: electrical equipment, such as appliances, wiring, circuit breakers and outlets.
Class D: fires that involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, potassium, and
sodium.

For the pressures above ambient, how do the LFL and UFL typically change with pressure?
LFL: almost no affect except at very low pressure (<50 mmHg absolute)
UFL: increases significantly as the pressure is increased, broadening the flammability range.
Pressure has little effect on the LFL except at very low pressure (<50 mm Hg Absolute). The
UFL increases significantly as the pressure is increased broadening the flammability range.

For the pressures below ambient, how do the LFL and UFL typically change with pressure?
Pressure has little effect on the LFL except at very low pressure (<50 mm Hg Absolute). The
UFL decreases significantly as the pressure is decreased shrinking the flammability range.

For temperatures above ambient, how do the LFL and UFL typically change with
temperatures?
Increase with temperature.

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Are aerosols of flammable materials generally more flammable or less flammable than the
liquid of the same material?
More flammable.

How does a decomposition fire differ from a typical fire? Name three materials discussed in
class that can be involved in a decomposition fire?
A decomposition fire is caused by a decomposition reaction and does not require oxygen.
With sufficient heat, certain chemicals already contain an oxidizer in their structure. Some
examples of these are: ethylene oxide, acetylene, and propylene oxide.

Set pressure
The pressure at which the relief device begins to activate. Is this right?

MAWP (Maximum allowable working pressure)

The maximum gauge pressure permissible at the top of a vessel for a designated
temperature. This is sometimes called the design pressure. As the operating temperature
increases, the MAWP decreases because the vessel metal loses its strength at higher
temperature. Likewise, as the operating temperature decreases, the MAWP decreases
because of metal embrittlement at lower temperatures. Vessel failure typically occurs at 4 or
5 times the MAWP, although vessel deformation may occur at as low as twice the MAWP.

Operating pressure
The gauge pressure during normal service, usually 10% below the MAWP.

Accumulation
The pressure increase over the MAWP of a vessel during the relief process. It is expressed as
a percentage of the MAWP.

Overpressure
The pressure increase in the vessel over the set pressure during the relieving process.
Overpressure is equivalent to the accumulation when the set pressure is at the MAWP. It is
expressed as a percentage of the set pressure.

Back Pressure
The pressure at the outlet of the relief device during the relief process resulting from
pressure in the discharge system.

Blowdown
The pressure difference between the relief set pressure and the relief reseating pressure. It
is expressed as a percentage of the set pressure.

Maximum allowable accumulated pressure (MAAP)

The sum of the MAWP and the allowable accumulation. I think there's more than this.

Which government agency maintains CAMEO Chemicals? What does CAMEO Chemicals do?

What is the difference between a tempered and non-tempered system when considering
pressure relief systems?

What distinguishes a hybrid or gassy system when considering pressure relief systems?

What are the main considerations which would typically indicate a rupture disk should be
used as opposed to spring-operated valve only?
The pressure rise is too rapid for a pressure relief valve

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The process is too toxic

The process fluid is too corrosive
The process fluid is likely to foul or freeze-up
The fluid in the discharge is too corrosive

What distinction is made between relief valve and a safety valve?

Relief valve: is primarily for liquid service. The relief valve (liquid only) begins to open at the
set pressure. This valve reaches full capacity when the pressure reaches 25% overpressure.
The valve closes as the pressure returns to the set pressure.
Safety valve: is for gas service. Safety valves pop when the pressure exceeds the set pressure.
This is accomplished by using a discharge nozzle that directs high-velocity material toward
the valve seat. After blowdown of the excess pressure, the valve reseats at approximately 4%
below the set pressure; the valve has a 4% blowdown.

Name five guidelines, which are used to identify the need for a relief device?
All vessels needs reliefs, including reactors, storage tanks, towers, and drums.
Blocked-in sections of cool liquid-filled lines that are exposed to heat (such as the sun) or
refrigeration need reliefs.
Positive displacement pumps, compressors, and turbines need reliefs on the discharge side.
Storage vessels need pressure and vacuum reliefs to protect against pumping in or out of a
blocked-in vessel or against the generation of a vacuum by condensation.
Vessel steam jackets are often rated for low-pressure steam. Reliefs are installed in jackets to
prevent excessive steam pressures due to operator error or regulator failure.

Explain why a pressure gauge is often put between a relief disk and a relief valve where the
relief disk is exposed to process conditions.
When rupture disks are used before spring-loaded relief, a pressure gauge is installed
between the two devices. This telltale gauge is an indicator that shows when the disc
ruptures. The failure can be the result of a pressure excursion or of a pinhole caused by
corrosion. In either case the telltale gauge indicates that the disc needs to be replaced

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a conventional spring-operated valve
compared to a balanced bellows relief valve?
Spring-operated (conventional):
Advantages Disadvantages
Vary reliable, used in many services. Relief pressure affected by backpressure.
Reseats at pressures 4% below set pressure. Can chatter with high backpressures.

Spring-operated (balanced bellows):

Advantages Disadvantages
Relief pressure not affected by backpressure. Bellows may fatigue/rupture.
Handles higher buildup backpressures. Flow is function of backpressure.
Protects spring from corrosion. May release flammables/toxics to atmosphere.

Give a brief overview of what is involved in a HAZOP study.

A full HAZOP study requires a committee composed of a cross section of experienced
professionals. One individual must be a trained HAZOP leader and serves as the
committee chair, one individual must record results. The meeting committee meets on a
regular basis for a few hours each time.
The procedure starts with a detailed flow sheet that is divided in process units. Next
step is to choose a node to study and describe the design intent. Then a process
parameter is picked and a guide word applied to the process parameter to suggest

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possible deviations. If the deviation is applicable, determine possible cause and note any
protective systems, evaluate consequences of the deviation, recommend action, record
all information. Repeat for all guide words, process parameters, all study nodes for the
given section and then proceed to the next section on flow sheet.

In the Dow F&EI, name three of the most important areas which act to prevent loss in the area
of process control (excluding explosion control on dusts).
Operating Instruction/Procedures
Reactive chemical review
Other process Hazards analysis

According to the DOW F&EI, name the two important factors that determine the efficacy of
drainage measures to prevent loss for processes involving flammable materials.
Special systems
sprinkler systems

Explain what is meant by bathtub failure rate?

Many components exhibit a typical bathtub failure rate. The failure rate is highest when
component is new (infant mortality) and when it is old (old age). Between these two
periods, the failure rate is reasonably constant.

What is MTBF? How is MTBF related to the failure rate?

Mean time between failures. MTBF is inversely proportional to the failure rate
(MTBF=1/), valid for constant failure rate only.

For process components in series, how is the probability of failure (or reliability) for the
overall process related to the probability of failure (or reliability) of each component?
The reliability of the overall system is the product of the reliability of the individual
components of the system: = =1

For process components in parallel, how is the probability of failure (or reliability) for the
overall process related to the probability of failure (or reliability) of each component?
The probability of failure for the overall process is the product of the individual
components of the system: = =1

Explain and give an example of the difference between revealed and unrevealed failures
Failures that are immediately obvious are called revealed failures. Unrevealed failures
can go undetected for a long time. Ex. A flat tire on a car is immediately obvious to the
driver. However, the spare tire in the trunk might also be flat without the driver being
aware of the problem until the spare is needed.

What is a common mode failure? Give an example of when a common mode failure could be
encountered in a chemical processing facility?
Common mode failure is a single event that affects a number of pieces of hardware
simultaneously. Consider several control loops in a series. The loss of electrical power
can cause all the control loops to fail at the same time.

What is LOPA? What is PDF as related to LOPA? What is typically assumed to be true for each
LOPA layer?
Layer of protection analysis- is a semi-quantitative tool for analyzing and assessing risk.
It is assumed that each LOPA layer is an independent layer of protection. Probability of
failure on demand (PFD)

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