Carbon Capture and Storage - Wikipedia

4/25/2017 CarboncaptureandstorageWikipedia
Carboncaptureandstorage
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Carboncaptureandstorage(CCS)(orcarbon
captureandsequestration)istheprocessof
capturingwastecarbondioxide(CO2)fromlarge
pointsources,suchasfossilfuelpowerplants,
transportingittoastoragesite,anddepositingit
whereitwillnotentertheatmosphere,normallyan
undergroundgeologicalformation.Theaimisto
preventthereleaseoflargequantitiesofCO2into
theatmosphere(fromfossilfueluseinpower
generationandotherindustries).Itisapotential
meansofmitigatingthecontributionoffossilfuel
emissionstoglobalwarming[1]andocean
acidification.[2]AlthoughCO2hasbeeninjected
intogeologicalformationsforseveraldecadesfor
variouspurposes,includingenhancedoilrecovery, Schematicshowingbothterrestrialandgeological
thelongtermstorageofCO2isarelativelynew sequestrationofcarbondioxideemissionsfromacoalfired
concept.Thefirstcommercialexamplewasthe plant
WeyburnMidaleCarbonDioxideProjectin
2000.[3]OtherexamplesincludeSaskPower'sBoundaryDamandMississippiPower'sKemperProject.'CCS'
canalsobeusedtodescribethescrubbingofCO2fromambientairasaclimateengineeringtechnique.
AnintegratedpilotscaleCCSpowerplantwastobeginoperatinginSeptember2008intheeasternGerman
powerplantSchwarzePumperunbyutilityVattenfall,totestthetechnologicalfeasibilityandeconomic
efficiency.CCSappliedtoamodernconventionalpowerplantcouldreduceCO2emissionstotheatmosphere
byapproximately8090%comparedtoaplantwithoutCCS.[4]TheIPCCestimatesthattheeconomicpotential
ofCCScouldbebetween10%and55%ofthetotalcarbonmitigationeffortuntilyear2100.[4]
Carbondioxidecanbecapturedoutofairorfossilfuelpowerplantfluegasusingadsorption(orcarbon
scrubbing),membranegasseparation,oradsorptiontechnologies.Aminesaretheleadingcarbonscrubbing
technology.CapturingandcompressingCO2mayincreasetheenergyneedsofacoalfiredCCSplantby25
40%.[4]Theseandothersystemcostsareestimatedtoincreasethecostperwattenergyproducedby2191%
forfossilfuelpowerplants.[4]Applyingthetechnologytoexistingplantswouldbemoreexpensive,especially
iftheyarefarfromasequestrationsite.A2005industryreportsuggeststhatwithsuccessfulresearch,
developmentanddeployment(RD&D),sequesteredcoalbasedelectricitygenerationin2025maycostless
thanunsequesteredcoalbasedelectricitygenerationtoday.[5]
StorageoftheCO2isenvisagedeitherindeepgeologicalformations,orintheformofmineralcarbonates.
Deepoceanstorageisnotcurrentlyconsideredfeasibleduetotheassociatedeffectofoceanacidification.[6]
Geologicalformationsarecurrentlyconsideredthemostpromisingsequestrationsites.TheNationalEnergy
TechnologyLaboratory(NETL)reportedthatNorthAmericahasenoughstoragecapacityformorethan900
yearsworthofcarbondioxideatcurrentproductionrates.[7]Ageneralproblemisthatlongtermpredictions
aboutsubmarineorundergroundstoragesecurityareverydifficultanduncertain,andthereisstilltheriskthat
CO2mightleakintotheatmosphere.[8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage 1/27
Contents
1 Capture
1.1 CO2separationtechnologies
2 Transport
3 Sequestration
3.1 Geologicalstorage
3.1.1 Enhancedoilrecovery
3.2 Oceanstorage
3.3 Mineralstorage
3.4 Energyrequirements
4 Leakage
5 Monitoringgeologicalsequestrationsites
5.1 Subsurfacemonitoring
5.2 Seismicmonitoring
5.3 Surfacemonitoring
5.4 InSARmonitoring
6 Carbondioxiderecyclingcarboncaptureandutilization(CCU)
6.1 Singlestepmethods:methanol
6.2 Singlestepmethods:hydrocarbons
6.3 Twostepmethods
7 ExampleCCSprojects
7.1 Industrialscaleprojects
7.1.1 InSalahCO2InjectionAlgeria
7.1.2 SleipnerCO2InjectionNorway
7.1.3 SnhvitCO2InjectionNorway
7.1.4 GreatPlainsSynfuelPlantandWeyburnMidaleProjectCanada
7.1.5 ShuteCreekGasProcessingFacilityUS
7.1.6 EnidFertilizerUS
7.1.7 ValVerdeNaturalGasPlantsUS
7.1.8 CenturyPlantUS
7.1.9 DukeEnergyEastBendStationUS
7.2 Canada
7.2.1 Alberta
7.2.2 BritishColumbia
7.2.3 Saskatchewan
7.2.4 Pilotprojects
7.3 Netherlands
7.4 Norway
7.5 Poland
7.6 UnitedStates
7.6.1 SECARB
7.6.2 KemperProject
7.6.3 TexasCleanEnergyProject
7.6.4 BigBrownSteamElectricStation
7.7 UnitedKingdom
7.8 China
7.9 Germany
7.10 Australia
8 LimitationsofCCSforpowerstations
9 Cost
9.1 CarboncaptureandstorageandtheKyotoProtocol
10 Environmentaleffects
11 Seealso
12 References
13 Furtherreading
14 Externallinks
Capture
CapturingCO2ismosteffectiveatpointsources,suchaslargefossilfuelorbiomassenergyfacilities,
industrieswithmajorCO2emissions,naturalgasprocessing,syntheticfuelplantsandfossilfuelbased
hydrogenproductionplants.ExtractingCO2fromairisalsopossible,butnotverypracticalbecausetheCO2is
notconcentrated.[9]
Organismsthatproduceethanolbyfermentationgeneratecool,essentiallypureCO2thatcanbepumped
underground.[10]FermentationproducesslightlylessCO2thanethanolbyweight.
FluegasfromthecombustionofcoalinoxygenhasalargeconcentrationofCO2,about1015%CO2whereas
naturalgaspowerplantfluegasisabout510%CO2.[11]Therefore,itismoreenergyandcostefficientto
captureCO2fromcoalfiredpowerplants.ImpuritiesinCO2streams,likesulfursandwater,couldhavea
significanteffectontheirphasebehaviourandcouldposeasignificantthreatofincreasedcorrosionofpipeline
andwellmaterials.[10]IninstanceswhereCO2impuritiesexist,especiallywithaircapture,ascrubbing
separationprocesswouldbeneededtoinitiallycleanthefluegas.[12]AccordingtotheWallulaEnergy
ResourceCenterinWashingtonstate,bygasifyingcoal,itispossibletocaptureapproximately65%ofcarbon
dioxideembeddedinitandsequesteritinasolidform.[13]
Broadly,threedifferentconfigurationsoftechnologiesforcaptureexist:postcombustion,precombustion,and
oxyfuelcombustion:
Inpostcombustioncapture,theCO2isremovedaftercombustionofthefossilfuelthisisthescheme
thatwouldbeappliedtofossilfuelburningpowerplants.Here,carbondioxideiscapturedfromflue
gasesatpowerstationsorotherlargepointsources.Thetechnologyiswellunderstoodandiscurrently
usedinotherindustrialapplications,althoughnotatthesamescaleasmightberequiredinacommercial
scalepowerstation.Postcombustioncaptureismostpopularinresearchbecauseexistingfossilfuel
powerplantscanberetrofittedtoincludeCCStechnologyinthisconfiguration.[14]
Thetechnologyforprecombustioniswidelyappliedinfertilizer,chemical,gaseousfuel(H2,CH4),and
powerproduction.[15]Inthesecases,thefossilfuelispartiallyoxidized,forinstanceinagasifier.The
resultingsyngas(COandH2)isshiftedintoCO2andH2.TheresultingCO2canbecapturedfroma
relativelypureexhauststream.TheH2cannowbeusedasfuelthecarbondioxideisremovedbefore
combustiontakesplace.Thereareseveraladvantagesanddisadvantageswhencomparedtoconventional
postcombustioncarbondioxidecapture.[16][17]TheCO2isremovedaftercombustionoffossilfuels,but
beforethefluegasisexpandedtoatmosphericpressure.Thisschemeisappliedtonewfossilfuel
burningpowerplants,ortoexistingplantswhererepoweringisanoption.Thecapturebeforeexpansion,
i.e.frompressurizedgas,isstandardinalmostallindustrialCO2captureprocesses,atthesamescaleas
willberequiredforutilitypowerplants.[18][19]
Inoxyfuelcombustion[20]thefuelisburnedinoxygeninsteadofair.Tolimittheresultingflame
temperaturestolevelscommonduringconventionalcombustion,cooledfluegasisrecirculatedand
injectedintothecombustionchamber.Thefluegasconsistsofmainlycarbondioxideandwatervapour,
thelatterofwhichiscondensedthroughcooling.Theresultisanalmostpurecarbondioxidestreamthat
canbetransportedtothesequestrationsiteandstored.Powerplantprocessesbasedonoxyfuel
combustionaresometimesreferredtoas"zeroemission"cycles,becausetheCO2storedisnotafraction
removedfromthefluegasstream(asinthecasesofpreandpostcombustioncapture)butthefluegas
streamitself.AcertainfractionoftheCO2generatedduringcombustionwillinevitablyendupinthe
condensedwater.Towarrantthelabel"zeroemission"thewaterwouldthushavetobetreatedor
disposedofappropriately.Thetechniqueispromising,buttheinitialairseparationstepdemandsalotof
energy.
CO2separationtechnologies
Carbondioxidecanbeseparatedoutofairorfluegaswithabsorption,adsorption,ormembranegasseparation
technologies.Absorption,orcarbonscrubbing,withaminesiscurrentlythedominantcapturetechnology.
Membraneandadsorptiontechnologiesarestillinthedevelopmentalresearchstages,initiatingprimarypilot
plantsinthenearfuture.MetalOrganicFrameworks(MOFs)areanovelclassofmaterialsthatofferpromise
forcarboncaptureusingadsorptiontechnologies.
CarbondioxideadsorbstoaMOFthroughphysisorptionorchemisorptionbasedontheporosityandselectivity
oftheMOFleavingbehindaGreenhousegaspoorgasstreamthatismoreenvironmentallyfriendly.The
carbondioxideisthenstrippedofftheMOFusingtemperatureswingadsorption(TSA)orpressureswing
adsorption(PSA)sotheMOFcanbereused.Adsorbentsandabsorbentsrequireregenerationstepswherethe
CO2isremovedfromthesorbentorsolutionthatcollecteditoutofthefluegasinorderforthesorbentor
solutiontobereused.Monoethanolamine(MEA)solutions,theleadingamineforcapturingCO2,haveaheat
capacitybetween34J/gKsincetheyaremostlywater.[21][22]Higherheatcapacitiesaddtotheenergypenalty
inthesolventregenerationstep.Thus,tooptimizeaMOFforcarboncapture,lowheatcapacitiesandheatsof
adsorptionaredesired.Additionally,highworkingcapacityandhighselectivityaredesirableinordertocapture
asmuchCO2aspossiblefromthefluegas.However,thereisanenergytradeoffwithselectivityandenergy
expenditure.[23]AstheamountofCO2capturedincreases,theenergy,andthereforecost,requiredtoregenerate
increases.AlargedrawbackofusingMOFsforCCSisthelimitationsimposedbytheirchemicalandthermal
stability.[24]CurrentresearchislookingtooptimizeMOFpropertiesforCCS,butithasprovendifficulttofind
theseoptimizationsthatalsoresultinastableMOF.Metalreservoirsarealsoalimitingfactortothepotential
successofMOFs.[25]
CaptureisattributedtoabouttwothirdsofthetotalcostofCCS,makingitlimitthewidescaledeploymentof
CCStechnologies.TooptimizeaCO2captureprocesswouldsignificantlyincreasethefeasibilityofCCSsince
thetransportandstoragestepsofCCSarerathermaturetechnologies.[11]
Analternatemethodunderdevelopmentischemicalloopingcombustion(CLC).Chemicalloopingusesametal
oxideasasolidoxygencarrier.Metaloxideparticlesreactwithasolid,liquidorgaseousfuelinafluidizedbed
combustor,producingsolidmetalparticlesandamixtureofcarbondioxideandwatervapor.Thewatervaporis
condensed,leavingpurecarbondioxide,whichcanthenbesequestered.Thesolidmetalparticlesarecirculated
toanotherfluidizedbedwheretheyreactwithair,producingheatandregeneratingmetaloxideparticlesthat
arerecirculatedtothefluidizedbedcombustor.Avariantofchemicalloopingiscalciumlooping,whichuses
thealternatingcarbonationandthencalcinationofacalciumoxidebasedcarrierasameansofcapturing
CO2.[26]
AfewengineeringproposalshavebeenmadeforthemoredifficulttaskofremovingCO2fromtheatmosphere
aformofclimateengineeringbutworkinthisareaisstillinitsinfancy.Capturecostsareestimatedtobe
higherthanfrompointsources,butmaybefeasiblefordealingwithemissionsfromdiffusesourcessuchas
automobilesandaircraft.[27]Thetheoreticallyrequiredenergyforaircaptureisonlyslightlymorethanfor
capturefrompointsources.Theadditionalcostscomefromthedevicesthatusethenaturalairflow.Global
ResearchTechnologiesdemonstratedapreprototypeofaircapturetechnologyin2007.[28]
Transport
Aftercapture,theCO2wouldhavetobetransportedtosuitablestoragesites.Thiswouldmostlikelybedone
bypipeline,whichisgenerallythecheapestformoftransport.In2008,therewereapproximately5,800kmof
CO2pipelinesintheUnitedStates,usedtotransportCO2tooilproductionfieldswhereitistheninjectedinto
olderfieldstoextractoil.TheinjectionofCO2toproduceoilisgenerallycalledEnhancedOilRecoveryor
EOR.Inaddition,thereareseveralpilotprogramsinvariousstagestotestthelongtermstorageofCO2innon
oilproducinggeologicformations.
AccordingtotheCongressionalResearchService,"Thereareimportantunansweredquestionsaboutpipeline
networkrequirements,economicregulation,utilitycostrecovery,regulatoryclassificationofCO2itself,and
pipelinesafety.Furthermore,becauseCO2pipelinesforenhancedoilrecoveryarealreadyinusetoday,policy
decisionsaffectingCO2pipelinestakeonanurgencythatisunrecognizedbymany.Federalclassificationof
CO2asbothacommodity(bytheBureauofLandManagement)andasapollutant(bytheEnvironmental
ProtectionAgency)couldpotentiallycreateanimmediateconflictwhichmayneedtobeaddressednotonlyfor
thesakeoffutureCCSimplementation,butalsotoensureconsistencyoffutureCCSwithCO2pipeline
operationstoday."[29][30]
Shipscouldalsobeutilizedfortransportwherepipelinesarenotfeasible.Thesemethodsarecurrentlyusedfor
transportingCO2forotherapplications.
Sequestration
VariousformshavebeenconceivedforpermanentstorageofCO2.Theseformsincludegaseousstoragein
variousdeepgeologicalformations(includingsalineformationsandexhaustedgasfields),andsolidstorageby
reactionofCO2withmetaloxidestoproducestablecarbonates.
Geologicalstorage
Alsoknownasgeosequestration,thismethodinvolvesinjectingcarbondioxide,generallyinsupercritical
form,directlyintoundergroundgeologicalformations.Oilfields,gasfields,salineformations,unmineablecoal
seams,andsalinefilledbasaltformationshavebeensuggestedasstoragesites.Variousphysical(e.g.,highly
impermeablecaprock)andgeochemicaltrappingmechanismswouldpreventtheCO2fromescapingtothe
surface.[31]
CO2issometimesinjectedintodecliningoilfieldstoincreaseoilrecovery.Approximately30to50million
metrictonnesofCO2areinjectedannuallyintheUnitedStatesintodecliningoilfields.[32]Thisoptionis
attractivebecausethegeologyofhydrocarbonreservoirsisgenerallywellunderstoodandstoragecostsmaybe
partlyoffsetbythesaleofadditionaloilthatisrecovered.[33]Disadvantagesofoldoilfieldsaretheir
geographicdistributionandtheirlimitedcapacity,aswellasthefactthatsubsequentburningoftheadditional
oilrecoveredwilloffsetmuchorallofthereductioninCO2emissions.[34]
UnmineablecoalseamscanbeusedtostoreCO2becausetheCO2moleculesattachtothesurfaceofcoal.The
technicalfeasibility,however,dependsonthepermeabilityofthecoalbed.Intheprocessofabsorptionthecoal
releasespreviouslyabsorbedmethane,andthemethanecanberecovered(enhancedcoalbedmethane
recovery).ThesaleofthemethanecanbeusedtooffsetaportionofthecostoftheCO2storage.Burningthe
resultantmethane,however,wouldnegatesomeofthebenefitofsequesteringtheoriginalCO2.
Salineformationscontainhighlymineralizedbrines,andhavesofarbeenconsideredofnobenefittohumans.
Salineaquifershavebeenusedforstorageofchemicalwasteinafewcases.Themainadvantageofsaline
aquifersistheirlargepotentialstoragevolumeandtheircommonoccurrence.Themajordisadvantageofsaline
aquifersisthatrelativelylittleisknownaboutthem,especiallycomparedtooilfields.Tokeepthecostof
storageacceptable,thegeophysicalexplorationmaybelimited,resultinginlargeruncertaintyabouttheaquifer
structure.Unlikestorageinoilfieldsorcoalbeds,nosideproductwilloffsetthestoragecost.LeakageofCO2
backintotheatmospheremaybeaprobleminsalineaquiferstorage.Currentresearchshows,however,that
trappingmechanismssuchasstructuraltrapping,residualtrapping,solubilitytrappingandmineraltrapping
couldimmobilizetheCO2undergroundandreducetheriskofleakage.[31]
Enhancedoilrecovery
Enhancedoilrecovery(EOR)isagenerictermfortechniquesusedtoincreasetheamountofcrudeoilthatcan
beextractedfromanoilfield.InCarbonCapture&SequestrationEnhancedOilRecovery(CCSEOR),carbon
dioxideisinjectedintoanoilfieldtorecoveroilthatisoftenneverrecoveredusingmoretraditionalmethods.
CrudeoildevelopmentandproductioninU.S.oilreservoirscanincludeuptothreedistinctphases:primary,
secondary,andtertiary(orenhanced)recovery.[35]Duringprimaryrecoveryonlyabout10percentofa
reservoir'soriginaloilinplaceistypicallyproduced.Secondaryrecoverytechniquesextendafield'sproductive
lifegenerallybyinjectingwaterorgastodisplaceoilanddriveittoaproductionwellbore,resultinginthe
recoveryof20to40percentoftheoriginaloilinplace.However,withmuchoftheeasytoproduceoilalready
recoveredfromU.S.oilfields,producershaveattemptedseveraltertiary,orenhancedoilrecovery(EOR),
techniquesthatofferprospectsforultimatelyproducing30to60percent,ormore,ofthereservoir'soriginaloil
inplace.[36]
AnexampleofaprojectthatwilluseCCSEORistheKemperProjectinMississippi.DuetotheKemper
Project'scloseproximitytooilfields,thecarbondioxidebyproductfromproducingelectricitywillbe
transportedtotheneighboringoilfieldsforEOR.[37]
Oceanstorage
Inthepast,itwassuggestedthatCO2couldbestoredintheoceans,butthiswouldonlyexacerbateocean
acidificationandhasbeenmadeillegalunderspecificregulations.Oceanstorageisnolongerconsidered
feasible.[6]
Mineralstorage
Inthisprocess,CO2isexothermicallyreactedwithavailablemetaloxides,whichinturnproducesstable
carbonates(e.g.calcite,magnesite).Thisprocessoccursnaturallyovermanyyearsandisresponsiblefora
greatamountofsurfacelimestone.TheideaofusingolivinehasbeenpromotedbythegeochemistProf.
Schuiling.[38]Thereactionratecanbemadefaster,forexample,withacatalyst[39]orbyreactingathigher
temperaturesand/orpressures,orbypretreatmentoftheminerals,althoughthismethodcanrequireadditional
energy.TheIPCCestimatesthatapowerplantequippedwithCCSusingmineralstoragewillneed60180%
moreenergythanapowerplantwithoutCCS.[4]
Theeconomicsofmineralcarbonationatscalearenowbeingtestedinaworldfirstpilotplantprojectbasedin
Newcastle,Australia.NewtechniquesformineralactivationandreactionhavebeendevelopedtheGreenMag
GroupandtheUniversityofNewcastleandfundedbytheNewSouthWalesandAustralianGovernmentstobe
operationalby2013.[40]
In2009itwasreportedthatscientistshadmapped6,000squaremiles(16,000km2)ofrockformationsinthe
U.S.thatcouldbeusedtostore500years'worthofU.S.carbondioxideemissions.[41]Astudyonmineral
sequestrationintheUSstates:
CarbonsequestrationbyreactingnaturallyoccurringMgandCacontainingmineralswithCO2to
formcarbonateshasmanyuniqueadvantages.Mostnotabl[e]isthefactthatcarbonateshavea
lowerenergystatethanCO2,whichiswhymineralcarbonationisthermodynamicallyfavorable
andoccursnaturally(e.g.,theweatheringofrockovergeologictimeperiods).Secondly,theraw
materialssuchasmagnesiumbasedmineralsareabundant.Finally,theproducedcarbonatesare
unarguablystableandthusrereleaseofCO2intotheatmosphereisnotanissue.However,
conventionalcarbonationpathwaysareslowunderambienttemperaturesandpressures.The
significantchallengebeingaddressedbythiseffortistoidentifyanindustriallyand
environmentallyviablecarbonationroutethatwillallowmineralsequestrationtobeimplemented
withacceptableeconomics.[42]
ThefollowingtablelistsprincipalmetaloxidesofEarth'sCrust.Theoretically,upto22%ofthismineralmass
isabletoformcarbonates.
EarthenOxide PercentofCrust Carbonate Enthalpychange(kJ/mol)

SiO2 59.71
Al2O3 15.41
CaO 4.90 CaCO3 179
MgO 4.36 MgCO3 118
Na2O 3.55 Na2CO3 322
FeO 3.52 FeCO3 85
K2O 2.80 K2CO3 393.5
Fe2O3 2.63 FeCO3 112
21.76 AllCarbonates
Ultramaficminetailingsareareadilyavailablesourceoffinegrainedmetaloxidesthatcanactasartificial
carbonsinkstoreducenetgreenhousegasemissionsintheminingindustry.[43]AcceleratingpassiveCO2
sequestrationviamineralcarbonationmaybeachievedthroughmicrobialprocessesthatenhancemineral
dissolutionandcarbonateprecipitation.[44][45][46]
Energyrequirements
Theenergyrequirementsofsequestrationprocessesmaybesignificant.Inonepaper,sequestrationconsumed
25percentoftheplant'srated600megawattoutputcapacity.[47]
AfteraddingCO2captureandcompression,thecapacityofthecoalfiredpowerplantisreducedto457
MW.
Leakage
AmajorconcernwithCCSiswhetherleakageofstoredCO2will
compromiseCCSasaclimatechangemitigationoption.Forwell
selected,designedandmanagedgeologicalstoragesites,IPCC
estimatesthatrisksarecomparabletothoseassociatedwithcurrent
hydrocarbonactivity.[48]However,thisfindingiscontestedduetoalack
LakeNyosasitappearedfewerthan
ofexperienceinsuchlongtermstorage.[49][50]CO2couldbetrappedfor twoweeksaftertheeruptionAugust
millionsofyears,andalthoughsomeleakageoccursupwardsthrough 29,1986.
thesoil,wellselectedstoragesitesarelikelytoretainover99%ofthe
injectedCO2over1000years.[51]Leakagethroughtheinjectionpipeis
agreaterrisk.[52]
Althoughtheinjectionpipeisusuallyprotectedwithnonreturnvalvestopreventreleaseonapoweroutage,
thereisstillariskthatthepipeitselfcouldtearandleakduetothepressure.TheBerkelenRodenrijsincident
inDecember2008wasanexample,whereamodestreleaseofCO2fromapipelineunderabridgeresultedin
thedeathsofsomeducksshelteringthere.[53]Inordertomeasureaccidentalcarbonreleasesmoreaccurately
anddecreasetheriskoffatalitiesthroughthistypeofleakage,theimplementationofCO2alertmetersaround
theprojectperimeterhasbeenproposed.Malfunctionofacarbondioxideindustrialfiresuppressionsystemina
largewarehousereleasedCO2and14citizenscollapsedonthenearbypublicroad.AreleaseofCO2fromasalt
minekilledapersonatdistanceof300meters.[54]
In1986alargeleakageofnaturallysequesteredCO2rosefromLakeNyosinCameroonandasphyxiated1,700
people.Whilethecarbonhadbeensequesterednaturally,somepointtotheeventasevidenceforthepotentially
catastrophiceffectsofsequesteringcarbonartificially.[55]TheLakeNyosdisasterresultedfromavolcanic
event,whichverysuddenlyreleasedasmuchasacubickilometreofCO2gasfromapoolofnaturally
occurringCO2underthelakeinadeepnarrowvalley.ThelocationofthispoolofCO2isnotaplacewhere
mancaninjectorstoreCO2,andthispoolwasnotknownaboutnormonitoreduntilaftertheoccurrenceofthe
naturaldisaster.
Foroceanstorage,theretentionofCO2woulddependonthedepth.TheIPCCestimates3085%ofthe
sequesteredcarbondioxidewouldberetainedafter500yearsfordepths10003000m.Mineralstorageisnot
regardedashavinganyrisksofleakage.TheIPCCrecommendsthatlimitsbesettotheamountofleakagethat
cantakeplace.Thismightruleoutdeepoceanstorageasanoption.
Attheconditionsofthedeeperoceans,(about400baror40MPa,280K)waterCO2(l)mixingisverylow
(wherecarbonateformation/acidificationistheratelimitingstep),buttheformationofwaterCO2hydrates,a
kindofsolidwatercagethatsurroundstheCO2,isfavorable.
TofurtherinvestigatethesafetyofCO2sequestration,Norway'sSleipnergasfieldcanbestudied,asitisthe
oldestplantthatstoresCO2onanindustrialscale.Accordingtoanenvironmentalassessmentofthegasfield
whichwasconductedaftertenyearsofoperation,theauthoraffirmedthatgeosequestrationofCO2wasthe
mostdefiniteformofpermanentgeologicalstorageofCO2:
Availablegeologicalinformationshowsabsenceofmajortectoniceventsafterthedepositionofthe
Utsiraformation[salinereservoir].Thisimpliesthatthegeologicalenvironmentistectonically
stableandasitesuitableforcarbondioxidestorage.Thesolubilitytrapping[is]themost
permanentandsecureformofgeologicalstorage.[56]
InMarch2009StatoilHydroissuedastudyshowingtheslowspreadofCO2intheformationaftermorethan10
yearsoperation.[57]
PhaseIoftheWeyburnMidaleCarbonDioxideProjectinWeyburn,Saskatchewan,Canadahasdetermined
thatthelikelihoodofstoredCO2releaseislessthanonepercentin5,000years.[58]AJanuary2011report,
however,claimedevidenceofleakageinlandabovethatproject.[59]Thisreportwasstronglyrefutedbythe
IEAGHGWeyburnMidaleCO2MonitoringandStorageProject,whichissuedaneightpageanalysisofthe
study,claimingthatitshowednoevidenceofleakagefromthereservoir.[60]
Theliabilityofpotentialleak(s)isoneofthelargestbarrierstolargescaleCCS.Toassessandreducesuch
liability,theleakageofstoredgasses,particularlycarbondioxide,intotheatmospheremaybedetectedvia
atmosphericgasmonitoring,andcanbequantifieddirectlyviatheeddycovarianceflux
measurements,[61][62][63]
Monitoringgeologicalsequestrationsites
Inordertodetectcarbondioxideleaksandtheeffectivenessofgeologicalsequestrationsites,different
monitoringtechniquescanbeemployedtoverifythatthesequesteredcarbonstaystrappedbelowthesurfacein
theintendedreservoir.Leakageduetoinjectionatimproperlocationsorconditionscouldresultincarbon
dioxidebeingreleasedbackintotheatmosphere.Itisimportanttobeabletodetectleakswithenoughwarning
toputastoptoit,andtobeabletoquantifytheamountofcarbonthathasleakedforpurposessuchascapand
tradepolicies,evaluationofenvironmentalimpactofleakedcarbon,aswellasaccountingforthetotallossand
costoftheprocess.Toquantifytheamountofcarbondioxidereleased,shouldaleakoccur,ortocloselywatch
storedCO2,thereareseveralmonitoringmethodsthatcanbedoneatboththesurfaceandsubsurfacelevels.[64]
Subsurfacemonitoring
Insubsurfacemonitoring,therearedirectandindirectmethodstodeterminetheamountofCO2inthereservoir.
Adirectmethodwouldbedrillingdeepenoughtocollectafluidsample.Thisdrillingcanbedifficultand
expensiveduetothephysicalpropertiesoftherock.Italsoonlyprovidesdataataspecificlocation.Indirect
methodswouldbetosendsoundorelectromagneticwavesdowntothereservoirwhereitisthenreflectedback
uptobeinterpreted.Thisapproachisalsoexpensivebutitprovidesdataoveramuchlargerregionitdoes
howeverlackprecision.Bothdirectandindirectmonitoringcanbedoneintermittentlyorcontinuously.[64]
Seismicmonitoring
Seismicmonitoringisatypeofindirectsubsurfacemonitoring.Itisdonebycreatingvibrationalwaveseither
atthesurfaceusingavibroseistruck,orinsideawellusingspinningeccentricmass.Thesevibrationalwaves
thenpropagatethroughthegeologicallayersandreflectbackcreatingpatternsthatarereadandinterpretedby
seismometers.[65]ItcanidentifymigrationpathwaysoftheCO2plume.[66]Twoexamplesofmonitoring
geologicalsequestrationsitesusingseismicmonitoringaretheSleipnersequestrationprojectandtheFrioCO2
Injectiontest.AlthoughthismethodcanconfirmthepresenceofCO2inagivenregion,itcannotdeterminethe
specificsoftheenvironmentorconcentrationofCO2.
Surfacemonitoring
EddycovarianceisasurfacemonitoringtechniquethatmeasuresthefluxofCO2fromtheground'ssurface.It
involvesmeasuringCO2concentrationsaswellasverticalwindvelocitiesusingananemometer.[67]This
providesameasureofthetotalverticalfluxofCO2.Eddycovariancetowerscouldpotentiallydetectleaks,
however,thenaturalcarboncycle,suchasphotosynthesisandtherespirationofplants,wouldhavetobe
accountedforandabaselineCO2cyclewouldhavetobedevelopedforthelocationofmonitoring.Anexample
ofEddycovariancetechniquesusedtomonitorcarbonsequestrationsitesistheShallowReleasetest(http://esc
holarship.org/uc/item/397007sh).Anothersimilarapproachisutilizingaccumulationchambers.These
chambersaresealedtothegroundwithaninletandoutletflowstreamconnectedtoagasanalyzer.[64]Thisalso
measurestheverticalfluxofCO2.Thedisadvantageofaccumulationchambersisitsinabilitytomonitoralarge
regionwhichisnecessaryindetectingCO2leaksovertheentiresequestrationsite.
InSARmonitoring
InSARmonitoringisanothertypeofsurfacemonitoring.Itinvolvesasatellitesendingsignalsdowntothe
Earth'ssurfacewhereitisreflectedbacktothesatellite'sreceiver.Fromthis,thesatelliteisabletomeasurethe
distancetothatpoint.[68]InCCS,theinjectionofCO2indeepsublayersofgeologicalsitescreateshigh
pressures.Thesehighpressured,fluidfilledlayersaffectthoseaboveandbelowitresultinginachangeofthe
surfacelandscape.InareasofstoredCO2,theground'ssurfaceoftenrisesduetothehighpressuresoriginating
inthedeepsubsurfacelayers.ThesechangesinelevationoftheEarth'ssurfacecorrespondstoachangeinthe
distancefromtheinSARsatellitewhichisthendetectableandmeasurable.[68]
Carbondioxiderecyclingcarboncaptureandutilization(CCU)
RecyclingCO2mayofferaresponsetotheglobalchallengeofsignificantlyreducinggreenhousegasemissions
frommajorstationary(industrial)emittersintheneartomediumterm,butisusuallyconsideredadifferent
technologicalcategoryfromCCS.[69]Technologiesunderdevelopment,suchasBioCCSAlgalSynthesis,[70]
utilisespresmokestackCO2(suchasfromacoalfiredpowerstation)asausefulfeedstockinputtothe
productionofoilrichalgaeinsolarmembranestoproduceoilforplasticsandtransportfuel(includingaviation
fuel),andnutritiousstockfeedforfarmanimalproduction.[70]TheCO2andothercapturedgreenhousegases
areinjectedintothemembranescontainingwastewaterandselectstrainsofalgaecausing,togetherwith
sunlightorUVlight,anoilrichbiomassthatdoublesinmassevery24hours.
TheBioCCSAlgalSynthesisprocessisbasedonearthsciencephotosynthesis:thetechnologyisentirely
retrofittableandcollocatedwiththeemitter,andthecapitaloutlaysmayofferareturnuponinvestmentdueto
thehighvaluecommoditiesproduced(oilforplastics,fuelandfeed).
BioCCSAlgalSynthesistestfacilitieswerebeingtrialedatAustralia'sthreelargestcoalfiredpowerstations
(Tarong,QueenslandEraring,NSWLoyYang,Victoria)usingpipedpreemissionsmokestackCO2(andother
greenhousegases)asfeedstocktogrowoilrichalgalbiomassinenclosedmembranesfortheproductionof
plastics,transportfuelandnutritiousanimalfeed.
AnotherpotentiallyusefulwayofdealingwithindustrialsourcesofCO2istoconvertitintohydrocarbons
whereitcanbestoredorreusedasfuelortomakeplastics.Thereareanumberofprojectsinvestigatingthis
possibility.[71]
Carbondioxidescrubbingvariantsexistbasedonpotassiumcarbonatewhichcanbeusedtocreateliquidfuels,
thoughthisprocessrequiresagreatdealofenergyinput.[72]Althoughthecreationoffuelfromatmospheric
CO2isnotaclimateengineeringtechnique,nordoesitactuallyfunctionasgreenhousegasremediation
(becausecarbondioxidewillberereleasedwhenthefuelisburned)itneverthelessispotentiallyusefulinthe
creationofalowcarboneconomy.
Otherusesaretheproductionofstablecarbonatesfromsilicates(e.g.olivineproducesMagnesiumcarbonate.
ThisprocessisstillintheR&Dphase.)[73]
Singlestepmethods:methanol
Aprovenprocesstoproduceahydrocarbonistomakemethanol.MethanoliseasilysynthesizedfromCO2and
H2.Basedonthisfacttheideaofamethanoleconomywasborn.
Singlestepmethods:hydrocarbons
AtthedepartmentofIndustrialChemistryandEngineeringofMaterialsattheUniversityofMessina,Italy,
thereisaprojecttodevelopasystemwhichworkslikeafuelcellinreverse,wherebyacatalystisusedthat
enablessunlighttosplitwaterintohydrogenionsandoxygengas.Theionscrossamembranewheretheyreact
withtheCO2tocreatehydrocarbons.[74]
Twostepmethods
IfCO2isheatedto2400C,itsplitsintocarbonmonoxide(CO)andoxygen.TheFischerTropschprocesscan
thenbeusedtoconverttheCOintohydrocarbons.Therequiredtemperaturecanbeachievedbyusinga
chambercontainingamirrortofocussunlightonthegas.Rivalteamsaredevelopingsuchchambers,atSolarec
andatSandiaNationalLaboratories,bothbasedinNewMexico.[75]AccordingtoSandiathesechamberscould
provideenoughfueltopower100%ofdomesticvehiclesusing5800km2unlikebiofuelsthiswouldnottake
fertilelandawayfromcropsbutwouldbelandthatisnotbeingusedforanythingelse.JamesMay,theBritish
TVpresenter,visitedademonstrationplantinaprogrammeinhisBigIdeasseries.
ExampleCCSprojects
Industrialscaleprojects
AsofSeptember2012,theGlobalCCSInstituteidentified75largescaleintegratedprojectsinits2012Global
StatusofCCSreport[76]whichisanetincreaseofoneprojectsinceits2011GlobalStatusofCCSreport.16of
theseprojectsareinoperationorinconstructioncapturingaround36milliontonnesofCO2perannum.[76][77]
FormoreinformationseeIntegratedCCSProjects[78]ontheGlobalCCSInstitute'swebsite.Forinformationon
EUprojectsseeZeroEmissionsPlatform[79]website.TheeightlargescaleintegratedCCSprojectscurrentlyin
operationare:
InSalahCO2InjectionAlgeria
InSalahisafullyoperationalonshoregasfieldwithCO2injection.CO2isseparatedfromproducedgasand
reinjectedintheproducinghydrocarbonreservoirzones.Since2004,about1Mt/aofCO2hasbeencaptured
duringnaturalgasextractionandinjectedintotheKrechbageologicformationatadepthof1,800m.The
Krechbaformationisexpectedtostore17MtCO2overthelifeoftheproject.
Injectionsuspendedin2011duetoconcernsabouttheintegrityoftheseal.[80]
SleipnerCO2InjectionNorway
Sleipner[57]isafullyoperationaloffshoregasfieldwithCO2injectioninitiatedin1996.CO2isseparatedfrom
producedgasandreinjectedintheUtsirasalineaquifer(8001000mbelowoceanfloor)abovethe
hydrocarbonreservoirzones.ThisaquiferextendsmuchfurthernorthfromtheSleipnerfacilityatitssouthern
extreme.Thelargesizeofthereservoiraccountsforwhy600billiontonnesofCO2areexpectedtobestored,
longaftertheSleipnernaturalgasprojecthasended.
SnhvitCO2InjectionNorway
SnhvitisafullyoperationaloffshoregasfieldwithCO2injection.TheLNGplantislocatedonshore.CO2is
necessarilyseparatedtoproduceliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)andthenCO2isinjectedinasalineaquiferbelow
thehydrocarbonreservoirzonesoffshoreatarateof700,000t/aintotheTubensandstoneformation2,600m
undertheseabedforstorage.ThisformationwasclosedApril2011,andinjectionstartedintheStformation
whereproducedgasistaken.ProducedCO2isincreasing,thereforeseparationcapacitymaylimitproduction
beforeend2015whenanewformationwillbedrilledforCO2injectiononly.(TekniskUkebladnr.30,2013,
tu.no)
GreatPlainsSynfuelPlantandWeyburnMidaleProjectCanada
WeyburnMidaleisacoalgasificationoperationthatproducessyntheticnaturalgasandvariouspetrochemicals
fromcoal.Thisprojectcapturesabout2.8Mt/aofCO2fromitscoalgasificationplantlocatedinNorthDakota,
US,transportedbypipeline320kmacrosstheCanadaUSborderandinjectsitintodepletingoilfieldsin
Saskatchewanwhereitisusedforenhancedoilrecovery(EOR).
ShuteCreekGasProcessingFacilityUS
Around7milliontonnesperannumofcarbondioxidearerecoveredfromExxonMobil'sShuteCreekgas
processingplantinWyoming,andtransportedbypipelinetovariousoilfieldsforenhancedoilrecovery.This
projecthasbeenoperationalsince1986.
EnidFertilizerUS
TheEnidFertilizerplantsends675,000tonnesofCO2tobeusedforEOR.Thepipelineandwellsareoperated
separatelybyAnadarkoPetroleum.
ValVerdeNaturalGasPlantsUS
CO2fromMitchell,GrayRanch,Puckett,andTurrellgasprocessingplantsistransportedviatheValVerdeand
CRCpipelinesforEOR(incl.SharonRidgeEORfield).
CenturyPlantUS
OccidentalPetroleum,alongwithSandridgeEnergy,isoperatingaWestTexashydrocarbongasprocessing
plantandrelatedpipelineinfrastructurethatprovidesCO2foruseinEOR.WithatotalCO2capturecapacityof
8.5Mt/aexpectedin2012,theCenturyplantwouldbethelargestsingleindustrialsourceCO2capturefacility
inNorthAmerica.
DukeEnergyEastBendStationUS
ResearchersattheCenterforAppliedEnergyResearchoftheUniversityofKentuckyarecurrentlydeveloping
thealgaemediatedconversionofcoalfiredpowerplantfluegastodropinhydrocarbonfuels.Throughtheir
work,theseresearchershaveproventhatthecarbondioxidewithinfluegasfromcoalfiredpowerplantscanbe
capturedusingalgae,whichcanbesubsequentlyharvestedandutilized,e.g.asafeedstockfortheproduction
ofdropinhydrocarbonfuels.[81][82]
Canada
Thefederalgovernmentinthe2008and2009budgetshasinvestedapproximately$1.4billioninCarbon
CaptureandStoragedevelopment.[83]
Alberta
Albertahascommitted$170millionin2013/2014andatotalof$1.3billionover15yearstofundtwo
largescaleCCSprojectsthatwillhelpreduceCO2emissionsfromtarsandsrefining.[84]In2010agrant
agreementwassignedwiththeAlbertaCarbonTrunkLine.[85]ThesecondistheQuestProject.[86]TheQuest
projectusesamineabsorptiontocaptureCO2fromtheScotfordSteamMethaneReformerunits.
Approximately1.2MtonneCO2peryeariscapturedandtransportedthrough64kmofonshorepipelineintoa
salineaquiferintheCambrianBasalSands.[87]
BritishColumbia
SpectraEnergy'sFortNelsonProjectisproposedbutstillneedstosecurefunding.[88]Thetotalprojectcostis
estimatedtobeUS$12.5Million.ThesourceofCO2willbefromtheFortNelsonNaturalGasProcessing
Plantandwillbetransported15kmviaanonshorepipelinetomiddleDevoniancarbonaterockthatisbetween
6500and7000feetdeep.Theprocesswillcapture2.2MegatonneCO2peryearusinganamineprocessinits
precombustioncapture.InjectionsandMVAOperationshavealreadyoccurred(2014)andisprojectedto
startupin2018.[89]
Saskatchewan
Ledbytheprovince'sfullserviceutility,SaskPower,oneoftheworld'sfirstandlargestfullproductioncarbon
capturefacilitiesisoperatingatBoundaryDamPowerStation.Withaninitialinvestmentof$1.5to$1.6
billion,[90]SaskPowerwillbegeneratingarevenuebysellingaportionofthecapturedCO2backintothe
markettobeusedforenhancedoilrecovery.TheprojectstartedinMay2011andbecameoperationalin
October2014.[91]Thepostcombustionfullfluegascaptureprocesswillcapture1milliontonnesofCO2a
year.[88]
Pilotprojects
TheAlbertaSalineAquiferProject(ASAP),HuskyUpgraderandEthanolPlantpilot,HeartlandAreaRedwater
Project(HARP),WabamunAreaSequestrationProject(WASP),andAquistore.[92]
AnotherCanadianinitiativeistheIntegratedCO2Network(ICO2N),agroupofindustryparticipantsproviding
aframeworkforcarboncaptureandstoragedevelopmentinCanada.[93]OtherCanadianorganizationsrelated
toCCSincludeCCS101,CarbonManagementCanada,IPACCO2,andtheCanadianCleanPower
Coalition.[94]
Netherlands
IntheNetherlands,a68megawattoxyfuelplant("ZeroEmissionPowerPlant")wasbeingplannedtobe
operationalin2009.[95]Thisprojectwaslatercanceled.
ROAD(RotterdamCaptureandStorageDemonstrationproject)isajointprojectbyE.ONBeneluxand
ElectrabelNederland/GDFSUEZGroup.Everyyear,startingin2015ROADwillcapturearound1.1million
tonnesofCO2atthenewpowerplantontheMaasvlakte.Thiswillbestoredindepletedgasreservoirsunder
theNorthSea.[96]
DevelopedintheNetherlands,anelectrocatalysisbyacoppercomplexhelpsreducecarbondioxidetooxalic
acid.[97]
Norway
InNorway,theCO2TechnologyCentre(TCM)atMongstadbeganconstructionin2009,andcompletedin
2012.Itincludestwocapturetechnologyplants(oneadvancedamineandonechilledammonia),bothcapturing
fluegasfromtwosources.Thisincludesagasfiredpowerplantandrefinerycrackerfluegas(similartocoal
firedpowerplantfluegas).
Inadditiontothis,theMongstadsitewasalsoplannedtohaveafullscaleCCSdemonstrationplant.The
projectwasdelayedto2014,2018,andthenindefinitely.[98]TheprojectcostrosetoUSD985million.[99]Then
inOctober2011,AkerSolutions'wroteoffitsinvestmentinAkerCleanCarbon,declaringthecarbon
sequestrationmarkettobe"dead".[100]
On1October2013NorwayaskedGassnovanottosignanycontractsforCarboncaptureandstorageoutside
Mongstad.[101]
Poland
InBelchatw,Poland,[102]alignitefiredenergyplantofmorethan858MWisplannedtobeinoperationin
2013.[103][104]
UnitedStates
InNovember2008,theDOEawardeda$66.9millioneightyeargranttoaresearchpartnershipheadedby
MontanaStateUniversitytodemonstratethatundergroundgeologicformations"canstorehugevolumesof
carbondioxideeconomically,safelyandpermanently".ResearchersundertheBigSkyRegionalCarbon
SequestrationProjectplantoinjectuptoonemilliontonnesofCO2intosandstonebeneathsouthwestern
Wyoming.[105]
IntheUnitedStates,fourdifferentsyntheticfuelprojectsaremovingforward,whichhavepubliclyannounced
planstoincorporatecarboncaptureandstorage:
1.AmericanCleanCoalFuels,intheirIllinoisCleanFuels(ICF)project,isdevelopinga30,000barrel
(4,800m3)perdaybiomassandcoaltoliquidsprojectinOakland,Illinois,whichwillmarkettheCO2
createdattheplantforenhancedoilrecoveryapplications.Bycombiningsequestrationandbiomass
feedstocks,theICFprojectwillachievedramaticreductionsinthelifecyclecarbonfootprintofthefuels
theyproduce.Ifsufficientbiomassisused,theplantshouldhavethecapabilitytogolifecyclecarbon
negative,meaningthateffectively,foreachgallonoftheirfuelthatisused,carbonispulledoutoftheair,
andputintotheground.[106]
2.BaardEnergy,intheirOhioRiverCleanFuelsproject,isdevelopinga53,000bbl/d(8,400m3/d)coal
andbiomasstoliquidsproject,whichhasannouncedplanstomarkettheplant'sCO2forenhancedoil
recovery.[107]
3.Rentechisdevelopinga29,600barrel(4,710m3)perdaycoalandbiomasstoliquidsplantinNatchez,
Mississippi,whichwillmarkettheplant'sCO2forenhancedoilrecovery.Thefirstphaseoftheprojectis
expectedin2011.[108]
4.DKRWisdevelopinga15,00020,000barrel(2,4003,200m3)perdaycoaltoliquidsplantinMedicine
Bow,Wyoming,whichwillmarketitsplant'sCO2forenhancedoilrecovery.Theprojectisexpectedto
beginoperationin2013.[109]
InOctober2009,theU.S.DepartmentofEnergyawardedgrantstotwelveIndustrialCarbonCaptureand
Storage(ICCS)projectstoconductaPhase1feasibilitystudy.[110]TheDOEplanstoselect3to4ofthose
projectstoproceedintoPhase2,designandconstruction,withoperationalstartuptooccurby2015.Battelle
MemorialInstitute,PacificNorthwestDivision,Boise,Inc.,andFluorCorporationarestudyingaCCSsystem
forcaptureandstorageofCO2emissionsassociatedwiththepulpandpaperproductionindustry.Thesiteof
thestudyistheBoiseWhitePaperL.L.C.papermilllocatednearthetownshipofWallulainSoutheastern
WashingtonState.Theplantgeneratesapproximately1.2MMTofCO2annuallyfromasetofthreerecovery
boilersthataremainlyfiredwithblackliquor,arecycledbyproductformedduringthepulpingofwoodfor
papermaking.FluorCorporationwilldesignacustomizedversionoftheirEconaminePluscarboncapture
technology.TheFluorsystemalsowillbedesignedtoremoveresidualquantitiesofremnantairpollutantsfrom
stackgasesaspartoftheCO2captureprocess.BattelleisleadingpreparationofanEnvironmentalInformation
Volume(EIV)fortheentireproject,includinggeologicstorageofthecapturedCO2indeepfloodbasalt
formationsthatexistinthegreaterregion.TheEIVwilldescribethenecessarysitecharacterizationwork,
sequestrationsysteminfrastructure,andmonitoringprogramtosupportpermanentsequestrationoftheCO2
capturedattheplant.
Inadditiontoindividualcarboncaptureandsequestrationprojects,thereareanumberofU.S.programs
designedtoresearch,develop,anddeployCCStechnologiesonabroadscale.TheseincludetheNational
EnergyTechnologyLaboratory's(NETL)CarbonSequestrationProgram,regionalcarbonsequestration
partnershipsandtheCarbonSequestrationLeadershipForum(CSLF).[111][112]
SECARB
InOctober2007,theBureauofEconomicGeologyattheUniversityofTexasatAustinreceiveda10year,$38
millionsubcontracttoconductthefirstintensivelymonitoredlongtermprojectintheUnitedStatesstudying
thefeasibilityofinjectingalargevolumeofCO2forundergroundstorage.[113]Theprojectisaresearch
programoftheSoutheastRegionalCarbonSequestrationPartnership(SECARB),fundedbytheNational
EnergyTechnologyLaboratoryoftheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE).
TheSECARBpartnershipwilldemonstrateCO2injectionrateandstoragecapacityintheTuscaloosa
WoodbinegeologicsystemthatstretchesfromTexastoFlorida.Theregionhasthepotentialtostoremorethan
200billiontonsofCO2frommajorpointsourcesintheregion,equaltoabout33yearsofoverallU.S.
emissionsatpresentrates.Beginninginfall2007,theprojectwillinjectCO2attherateofonemilliontonsper
year,forupto1.5years,intobrineupto10,000feet(3,000m)belowthelandsurfaceneartheCranfieldoil
field,whichlaysabout15miles(24km)eastofNatchez,Mississippi.Experimentalequipmentwillmeasure
theabilityofthesubsurfacetoacceptandretainCO2.
KemperProject
TheKemperProject,isanelectricalgeneratingstationcurrentlyunderconstructioninKemperCounty,
Mississippi.MississippiPower,asubsidiaryofSouthernCompany,beganconstructionoftheplantin
2010.[114]TheprojectiscentraltoPresidentObama'sClimatePlan.[115]Onceoperational,theKemperProject
willbeafirstofitskindelectricityplanttoemploygasificationandcarboncapturetechnologiesatthis
scale.[116]
However,therehavebeenprojectmanagementproblems.[115]Thepowerplantconstructionhasbeendelayed
andisscheduledtoopeninthethirdquarterof2016,morethantwoyearsbehindschedule,atacostof$6.6
billionthreetimesoriginalcostestimate.[117][118]AccordingtoaSierraClubanalysis,Kemperisthemost
expensivepowerplanteverbuiltforthewattsofelectricityitwillgenerate.[119]
TexasCleanEnergyProject
TheTexasCleanEnergyProject(TCEP)isa"NowGen"IntegratedGasificationCombinedCycle(IGCC)
facilitythatwillincorporatecarboncapture,utilizationandstorage(CCUS)technologyinafirstofitskind
commercialcleancoalpowerplant.Thisprojectisexpectedtobeoperationalin2018.ItwillbethefirstUS
basedpowerplanttocombinebothIGCCandcapture90%ofitsemissions.[120]
BigBrownSteamElectricStation
ExamplesofcarbonsequestrationatanexistingUScoalplantcanbefoundatutilitycompanyLuminant'spilot
versionatitsBigBrownSteamElectricStationinFairfield,Texas.Thissystemisconvertingcarbonfrom
smokestacksintobakingsoda.SkyonicplanstocircumventstorageproblemsofliquidCO2bystoringbaking
sodainmines,landfills,tobesoldasindustrialorfoodgradebakingsoda,[121]GreenFuelTechnologiesis
pilotingandimplementingalgaebasedcarboncapture,circumventingstorageissuesbythenconvertingalgae
intofuelorfeed,[122]thoughthismayleadtorereleaseofthecarbon.
UnitedKingdom
ThegovernmentoftheUnitedKingdomlaunchedafirsttenderprocessforaCCSdemonstrationprojectin
2007.Theprojectweretousepostcombustiontechnologyoncoalfiredpowergenerationat300
400megawattsorequivalent.Theprojectaimedtobeoperationalby2014.[123][124]TheGovernment
announcedinJune2008thatfourcompanieshadprequalifiedforthecompetition:BPAlternativeEnergy
InternationalLimited,EONUKPlc,PeelPowerLimitedandScottishPowerGenerationLimited.[125]BP
subsequentlywithdrewfromthecompetition,claimingitcouldnotfindapowergeneratorpartner,andRWE
npowersoughtajudicialreviewoftheprocessafteritdidnotqualify.[126]ThisfirstCCStenderwascancelled
inlate2011whengovernmentcouldnotreachagreementwiththeScottishPower/Shell/NationalGrid
consortiumontermsandcost,fortheprojectbasedonretrofittingtheexistingLongannetcoalfiredpower
stationinScotland.
Asecondtenderprocesswaslaunchedbygovernmentin2012aspartofDECC'sCCSCommercialisation
Programmeandtwobidders,namelytheShellPeterheadgasfiredpowerstationCCSprojectandtheWhite
RoseCCSprojectbaseduponanewoxyfuelcoalfiredunitatDraxpowerstationwereselectedin2013to
proceedtoafundedfrontendengineeringanddesignphase.ThissecondtenderwascancelledinNovember
2015followingagovernmentspendingreviewatthetimeoftheChancellor'sAutumnStatement.[127]
DoosanBabcockhasmodifiedtheirCleanCombustionTestFacility(CCTF)inRenfrew,Scotlandtocreatethe
largestOxyfueltestfacilitycurrentlyintheworld.Oxyfuelfiringonpulverizedcoalwithrecycledfluegas
demonstratestheoperationofafullscale40MWburnerforuseincoalfiredboilers.Sponsorsoftheproject
includetheUKDepartmentforBusinessEnterpriseandRegulatoryReform(BERR,)aswellasagroupof
industrialsponsorsanduniversitypartnerscomprisingScottishandSouthernEnergy(PrimeSponsor),E.ON
UKPLC,DraxPowerLimited,ScottishPower,EDFEnergy,DongEnergyGeneration,AirProductsPlc
(Sponsors),andImperialCollegeandUniversityofNottingham(UniversityPartners).[128]
In2009UKfirm2CoEnergywasawardedplanningpermissionfora5bnpowerstationandcarboncapture
andstorageprojectatHatfield,nearDoncasterand164mofEUfunding.TechnologycompanySamsung
agreedtotakea15%stakeintheproject.[129]Itisplannedtoconstructa60km(37mi)pipelinefrom
Stainforth,nearHatfieldinSouthYorkshiretoBarmstonintheEastRidingofYorkshire.CO2wouldthenbe
storedinnaturalporousrockbeneaththeNorthSea.NationalGridbelievestheprojecthasthepotentialto
reduceCO2emissionsfrompowerstationsacrossYorkshireandtheHumberbyupto90%andboththe
proposedWhiteRoseCCSprojectatDraxPowerStationinNorthYorkshireandtheproposedDonValley
PowerProjectatHatfieldcouldbenefitfromthescheme.[130][131][132]
IntheNortheastofEngland,TheNortheastofEnglandProcessIndustryCluster(NEPIC)ofcommodity
chemicalmanufacturersareamongstthelargestsinglepointproducersofcarbondioxideintheUnited
KingdomandtheyhavecreatedwithinNEPICtheProcessIndustryCarbonCaptureandStorageInitiative[133]
(PICCSI)tostudythepossibilityofacarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)solutionbeingprovidedforthe
chemicalandsteelmanufacturingindustryonTeesside,aswellasforanycarbonbasedenergyproduction.This
CCStechnologyoptionisbeingconsideredasaresultofclimatechangeregulationsandthecarbontaxation
thatcouldbecomeaprohibitivecostforsuchenergyintensiveindustries.
TheCrownEstateisresponsibleforstoragerightsontheUKcontinentalshelfandithasfacilitatedworkon
offshorecarbondioxidestoragetechnicalandcommercialissues.[134]
China
InBeijing,asof2009,onemajorpowerplantiscapturingandresellingasmallfractionofitsCO2
emissions.[135]
Germany
TheGermanindustrialareaofSchwarzePumpe,about4kilometres(2.5mi)southofthecityofSpremberg,is
hometotheworld'sfirstdemonstrationCCScoalplant,theSchwarzePumpepowerstation.[136]Theminipilot
plantisrunbyanAlstombuiltoxyfuelboilerandisalsoequippedwithafluegascleaningfacilitytoremove
flyashandsulphurdioxide.TheSwedishcompanyVattenfallABinvestedsome70millioninthetwoyear
project,whichbeganoperationSeptember9,2008.Thepowerplant,whichisratedat30megawatts,isapilot
projecttoserveasaprototypeforfuturefullscalepowerplants.[137][138]240tonnesadayofCO2arebeing
trucked350kilometers(220mi)whereitwillbeinjectedintoanemptygasfield.Germany'sBUNDgroup
calledita"figleaf".Foreachtonneofcoalburned,3.6tonnesofcarbondioxideisproduced.[139]TheCCS
programatSchwarzePumpeendedin2014duetoinviablecostsandenergyuse.[140]
GermanutilityRWEoperatesapilotscaleCO2scrubberatthelignitefiredNiederauempowerstationbuiltin
cooperationwithBASF(supplierofdetergent)andLindeengineering.[141]
InJnschwalde,Germany,[142]aplanisintheworksforanOxyfuelboiler,ratedat650thermalMW(around
250electricMW),whichisabout20timesmorethanVattenfall's30MWpilotplantunderconstruction,and
comparestotoday'slargestOxyfueltestrigsof0.5MW.Postcombustioncapturetechnologywillalsobe
demonstratedatJnschwalde.[143]
Australia
TheFederalResourcesandEnergyMinisterMartinFergusonopenedthefirstgeosequestrationprojectinthe
southernhemisphereinApril2008.ThedemonstrationplantisnearNirrandaSouthinSouthWesternVictoria.
(35.31S149.14E)TheplantisownedbytheCooperativeResearchCentreforGreenhouseGasTechnologies
(CO2CRC).CO2CRCisanonprofitresearchcollaborationsupportedbygovernmentandindustry.Theproject
hasstoredandmonitoredover65,000tonnesofcarbondioxiderichgaswhichwasextractedfromanaturalgas
reservoirviaawell,compressedandpiped2.25kmtoanewwell.Therethegashasbeeninjectedintoa
depletednaturalgasreservoirapproximatelytwokilometersbelowthesurface.[144][145]Theprojecthasmoved
toasecondstageandisinvestigatingcarbondioxidetrappinginasalineaquifer1500metersbelowthesurface.
TheOtwayProjectisaresearchanddemonstrationproject,focusedoncomprehensivemonitoringand
verification.[146]
ThisplantdoesnotproposetocaptureCO2fromcoalfiredpowergeneration,thoughtwoCO2CRC
demonstrationprojectsataVictorianpowerstationandresearchgasifieraredemonstratingsolvent,membrane,
andadsorbentcapturetechnologiesfromcoalcombustion.[147]Currently,onlysmallscaleprojectsarestoring
CO2strippedfromtheproductsofcombustionofcoalburntforelectricitygenerationatcoalfiredpower
stations.[148]WorkcurrentlybeingcarriedoutbytheGreenMagGroupandtheUniversityofNewcastleand
fundedbytheNewSouthWalesandAustralianGovernmentsandindustryintendstohaveaworkingmineral
carbonationpilotplantinoperationby2013.[40]
ViewthefulllistofZeroEmissionProjectsforfossilfuelpowerplantinEurope.[149]
LimitationsofCCSforpowerstations
CriticssaylargescaleCCSdeploymentisunprovenanddecadesawayfrombeingcommercialized.Theysay
thatitisriskyandexpensiveandthatabetteroptionisrenewableenergy.Someenvironmentalgroupspointout
thatCCStechnologyleavesbehinddangerouswastematerialthathastobestored,justlikenuclearpower
stations.[150]
AnotherlimitationofCCSisitsenergypenalty.Thetechnologyisexpectedtousebetween10and40percent
oftheenergyproducedbyapowerstation.[151]WidescaleadoptionofCCSmayeraseefficiencygainsincoal
powerplantsofthelast50years,andincreaseresourceconsumptionbyonethird.Eventakingthefuelpenalty
intoaccount,however,overalllevelsofCO2abatementwouldremainhighatapproximately8090%,
comparedtoaplantwithoutCCS.[152]ItispossibleforCCS,whencombinedwithbiomass,toresultinnet
negativeemissions.[153]Though,allofthecurrently(asofFeb2011)operationalBECCS(Bioenergywith
carboncaptureandstorage)plantsoperateonpointemissionsotherthanpowerstations,suchasbiofuel
refineries.[154]
TheuseofCCScanreduceCO2emissionsfromthestacksofcoalpowerplantsby8590%ormore,butithas
noeffectonCO2emissionsduetotheminingandtransportofcoal.Itwillactually"increasesuchemissions
andofairpollutantsperunitofnetdeliveredpowerandwillincreaseallecological,landuse,airpollution,and
waterpollutionimpactsfromcoalmining,transport,andprocessing,becausetheCCSsystemrequires25%
moreenergy,thus25%morecoalcombustion,thandoesasystemwithoutCCS".[155]
Anotherconcernregardsthepermanenceofstorageschemes.OpponentstoCCSclaimthatsafeandpermanent
storageofCO2cannotbeguaranteedandthatevenverylowleakageratescouldundermineanyclimate
mitigationeffect.[151]In1986alargeleakageofnaturallysequesteredCO2rosefromLakeNyosinCameroon
andasphyxiated1,700people.Whilethecarbonhadbeensequesterednaturally,somepointtotheeventas
evidenceforthepotentiallycatastrophiceffectsofsequesteringcarbonartificially.[55][150]
Ononehand,GreenpeaceclaimsthatCCScouldleadtoadoublingofcoalplantcosts.[151]Itisalsoclaimedby
opponentstoCCSthatmoneyspentonCCSwilldivertinvestmentsawayfromothersolutionstoclimate
change.Ontheotherhand,CCSispointedoutaseconomicallyattractiveincomparisontootherformsoflow
carbonelectricitygenerationandseenbytheIPCCandothersasacriticalcomponentformeetingmitigation
targetssuchas450ppmand350ppm.[156][157][158]
Cost
AlthoughtheprocessesinvolvedinCCShavebeendemonstratedinotherindustrialapplications,no
commercialscaleprojectswhichintegratetheseprocessesexistthecoststhereforearesomewhatuncertain.
SomerecentcredibleestimatesindicatethatthecostofcapturingandstoringcarbondioxideisUS$60per
ton,[159]correspondingtoanincreaseinelectricitypricesofaboutUS6cperkWh(basedontypicalcoalfired
powerplantemissionsof0.97kg(2.13lb)CO2perkWh).ThiswoulddoublethetypicalUSindustrial
electricityprice(nowataround6cperkWh)andincreasethetypicalretailresidentialelectricitypricebyabout
50%(assuming100%ofpowerisfromcoal,whichmaynotnecessarilybethecase,asthisvariesfromstateto
state).Similar(approximate)priceincreaseswouldlikelybeexpectedincoaldependentcountriessuchas
Australia,becausethecapturetechnologyandchemistry,aswellasthetransportandinjectioncostsfromsuch
powerplantswouldnot,inanoverallsense,varysignificantlyfromcountrytocountry.
ThereasonsthatCCSisexpectedtocausesuchpowerpriceincreasesareseveral.Firstly,theincreasedenergy
requirementsofcapturingandcompressingCO2significantlyraisestheoperatingcostsofCCSequipped
powerplants.Inaddition,thereareaddedinvestmentandcapitalcosts.Theprocesswouldincreasethefuel
requirementofaplantwithCCSbyabout25%foracoalfiredplant,andabout15%foragasfiredplant.[4]
Thecostofthisextrafuel,aswellasstorageandothersystemcosts,areestimatedtoincreasethecostsof
energyfromapowerplantwithCCSby3060%,dependingonthespecificcircumstances.Precommercial
CCSdemonstrationprojectsarelikelytobemoreexpensivethanmatureCCStechnologythetotaladditional
costsofanearlylargescaleCCSdemonstrationprojectareestimatedtobe0.51.1billionperprojectoverthe
projectlifetime.Otherapplicationsarepossible.Inthebeliefthatuseofsequesteredcarboncouldbeharnessed
tooffsetthecostofcaptureandstorage,WalkerArchitectspublishedthefirstCO2gasCAESapplication,
proposingtheuseofsequesteredCO2forEnergyStorageonOctober24,2008.Todatethefeasibilityofsuch
potentialoffsetstothecosthavenotbeenexamined.[160]
AnestimateofcostsofenergywithandwithoutCCS(2002US$perkWh)[4]
Naturalgascombined Pulverized Integratedgasification
cycle coal combinedcycle
Withoutcapture(referenceplant) 0.030.05 0.040.05 0.040.06
Withcaptureandgeological
0.040.08 0.060.10 0.060.09
storage
(Costofcaptureandgeological
0.010.03 0.020.05 0.020.03
storage)
WithcaptureandEnhancedoil
0.040.07 0.050.08 0.040.08
recovery
Allcostsrefertocostsforenergyfromnewlybuilt,largescaleplants.Naturalgascombinedcyclecostsare
basedonnaturalgaspricesofUS$2.804.40perGJ(LHVbased).EnergycostsforPCandIGCCarebased
onbituminouscoalcostsofUS$1.001.50perGJLHV.Notethatthecostsareverydependentonfuelprices
(whichchangecontinuously),inadditiontootherfactorssuchascapitalcosts.AlsonotethatforEOR,the
savingsaregreaterforhigheroilprices.Currentgasandoilpricesaresubstantiallyhigherthanthefigures
usedhere.AllfiguresinthetablearefromTable8.3ain[IPCC,2005].[4]
ThecostofCCSdependsonthecostofcaptureandstorage,whichvariesaccordingtothemethodused.
GeologicalstorageinsalineformationsordepletedoilorgasfieldstypicallycostUS$0.508.00pertonneof
CO2injected,plusanadditionalUS$0.100.30formonitoringcosts.Whenstorageiscombinedwithenhanced
oilrecoverytoextractextraoilfromanoilfield,however,thestoragecouldyieldnetbenefitsofUS$1016per
tonneofCO2injected(basedon2003oilprices).Thiswouldlikelynegatesomeoftheeffectofthecarbon
capturewhentheoilwasburntasfuel.Eventakingthisintoaccount,asthetableaboveshows,thebenefitsdo
notoutweightheextracostsofcapture.
CostofelectricitygeneratedbydifferentsourcesincludingthoseincorporatingCCStechnologiescanbefound
incostofelectricitybysource.IfCO2capturewaspartofafuelcyclethentheCO2wouldhavevaluerather
thanbeacost.TheproposedSolarFuelormethanecycleproposedbytheFraunhoferSocietyamongstothersis
anexample.This"solarfuel"[161]cycleusestheexcesselectricalrenewableenergytocreatehydrogenvia
electrolysisofwater.[162][163]ThehydrogenisthencombinedwithCO2tocreatesyntheticnaturalgasSNGand
storedinthegasnetwork.SeethelatestCostReportontheCostofCO2CaptureproducedbytheZero
EmissionsPlatform(http://www.zeroemissionsplatform.eu/library/publication/166zepcostreportcapture.htm
l)
GovernmentsaroundtheworldhaveprovidedarangeofdifferenttypesoffundingsupporttoCCS
demonstrationprojects,includingtaxcredits,allocationsandgrants.Thefundingisassociatedwithbotha
desiretoaccelerateinnovationactivitiesforCCSasalowcarbontechnologyandtheneedforeconomic
stimulusactivities.Asof2011,approximatelyUS$23.5bnhasbeenmadeavailabletosupportlargescaleCCS
demonstrationprojectsaroundtheworld.[164]
CarboncaptureandstorageandtheKyotoProtocol
OnewaytofinancefutureCCSprojectscouldbethroughtheCleanDevelopmentMechanismoftheKyoto
Protocol.AtCOP16in2010,TheSubsidiaryBodyforScientificandTechnologicalAdvice,atitsthirtythird
session,issuedadraftdocumentrecommendingtheinclusionofCarbondioxidecaptureandstoragein
geologicalformationsinCleanDevelopmentMechanismprojectactivities.[165]AtCOP17inDurban,afinal
agreementwasreachedenablingCCSprojectstoreceivesupportthroughtheCleanDevelopment
Mechanism.[166]
Environmentaleffects
ThetheoreticalmeritofCCSsystemsisthereductionofCO2emissionsbyupto90%,dependingonplanttype.
Generally,environmentaleffectsfromuseofCCSariseduringpowerproduction,CO2capture,transport,and
storage.Issuesrelatingtostoragearediscussedinthosesections.
AdditionalenergyisrequiredforCO2capture,andthismeansthatsubstantiallymorefuelhastobeusedto
producethesameamountofpower,dependingontheplanttype.Fornewsupercriticalpulverizedcoal(PC)
plantsusingcurrenttechnology,theextraenergyrequirementsrangefrom24to40%,whilefornaturalgas
combinedcycle(NGCC)plantstherangeis1122%andforcoalbasedgasificationcombinedcycle(IGCC)
systemsitis1425%[IPCC,2005].[167]Obviously,fueluseandenvironmentalproblemsarisingfrommining
andextractionofcoalorgasincreaseaccordingly.Plantsequippedwithfluegasdesulfurization(FGD)systems
forsulfurdioxidecontrolrequireproportionallygreateramountsoflimestone,andsystemsequippedwith
selectivecatalyticreductionsystemsfornitrogenoxidesproducedduringcombustionrequireproportionally
greateramountsofammonia.
IPCChasprovidedestimatesofairemissionsfromvariousCCSplantdesigns(seetablebelow).WhileCO2is
drasticallyreducedthoughnevercompletelycaptured,emissionsofairpollutantsincreasesignificantly,
generallyduetotheenergypenaltyofcapture.Hence,theuseofCCSentailsareductioninairquality.Type
andamountofairpollutantsstilldependsontechnology.CO2iscapturedwithalkalinesolventscatchingthe
acidicCO2atlowtemperaturesintheabsorberandreleasingCO2athighertemperaturesinadesorber.Chilled
AmmoniaCCSPlantshaveinevitableammoniaemissionstoair."FunctionalizedAmmonia"emitless
ammonia,butaminesmayformsecondaryaminesandthesewillemitvolatilenitrosamines[168]byaside
reactionwithnitrogendioxide,whichispresentinanyfluegasevenafterDeNOx.Nevertheless,thereare
advancedaminesintestingwithlittletonovaporpressuretoavoidtheseamineandconsecutivenitrosamine
emissions.Nevertheless,allthecaptureplantsamineshaveincommon,thatpractically100%ofremaining
sulfurdioxidefromtheplantiswashedoutofthefluegas,thesameappliestodust/ash.
EmissionstoairfromplantswithCCS(kg/MWh)
Naturalgascombinedcycle Pulverizedcoal Integratedgasificationcombinedcycle
CO2 0.43(89%) 1.07(87%) 0.97(88%)
NOX 0.11(+22%) 0.77(+31%) 0.1(+11%)
SOX 0.001(99.7%) 0.33(+17.9%)
Ammonia 0.002(before:0) 0.23(+2200%)
BasedonTable3.5in[IPCC,2005].Betweenbracketstheincreaseordecreasecomparedtoasimilarplant
withoutCCS.
Seealso
Bioenergywithcarboncaptureandstorage
Biosequestration
Carboncaptureandstorage(timeline)
Carboncyclerebalancing
Carbonsequestration
Carbonsink
Cleancoal
Comparisonsoflifecyclegreenhousegasemissions
Eddycovariance
Exhaustgas
Fluegasdesulfurization
Fluegasemissionsfromfossilfuelcombustion
Fluegasstack
IntegratedGasificationCombinedCycle
Landfillgas
Limniceruption
Lowcarboneconomy
NortheastofEnglandProcessIndustryCluster
Solidsorbentsforcarboncapture
References
1."IPCCSpecialReportCarbonDioxideCaptureandStorageSummaryforPolicymakers"(PDF).Intergovernmental
PanelonClimateChange.Retrieved20111005.
2."IntroductiontoCarbonCaptureandStorageCarbonstorageandoceanacidificationactivity".Commonwealth
ScientificandIndustrialResearchOrganisation(CSIRO)andtheGlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved20130703.
3.Buryingtheproblem.(http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/JF08/indepth/weyburn.asp),Canadian
GeographicMagazine
4.[IPCC,2005]IPCCspecialreportonCarbonDioxideCaptureandStorage.PreparedbyworkinggroupIIIofthe
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Metz,B.,O.Davidson,H.C.deConinck,M.Loos,andL.A.Meyer
(eds.).CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomandNewYork,NY,USA,442pp.Availableinfull
atwww.ipcc.ch(http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/specialreports/srccs/srccs_wholereport.pdf)(PDF22.8MB)
5.CoalUtilizationResearchCouncil(CURC)TechnologyRoadmap(http://www.coal.org/roadmap/index.asp),2005
6.ScientificFactsonCO2CaptureandStorage(http://www.greenfacts.org/en/co2capturestorage/),2012
7.NETL2007CarbonSequestrationAtlas(http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/refshelf/atlas/index.html),
2007
8.Phelps,JBlackford,JHolt,JPolton,J(2015),"ModellingLargeScaleCO2LeakagesintheNorthSea",
InternationalJournalofGreenhouseGasControl,doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2014.10.013
9."CapturingCarbonDioxideFromAir"(PDF).Retrieved20110329.
10."NewsfortheBusinessofEnergy".EnergyCurrent.Retrieved20100402.
11.McDonald,ThomasM.Mason,JaradA.Kong,Xueqianetal."CooperativeinsertionofCO2indiamineappended
metalorganicframeworks".Nature.519:303308.doi:10.1038/nature14327.
12."Goodplantdesignandoperationforonshorecarboncaptureinstallationsandonshorepipelines5Carbondioxide
plantdesign".EnergyInstitute.Retrieved20120313.
13."WallulaEnergyResourceCenter".Wallulaenergy.com.20070614.Retrieved20100402.
14.Sumida,KenjiRogow,DavidL.Mason,JaradA.McDonald,ThomasM.Bloch,EricD.Herm,ZoeyR.Bae,
TaeHyunLong,JeffreyR.(2012)."CarbonDioxideCaptureinMetalOrganicFrameworks".ChemicalReviews.
112(2):724781.doi:10.1021/cr2003272.
15."GasificationBody"(PDF).Retrieved20100402.
16.integratedgasificationcombinedcycleforcarboncapturestorage(http://www.clavertonenergy.com/integratedgasific
ationcombinedcycleforcarboncapturestorage.html)ClavertonEnergyGroupconference24thOctoberBath.
17.EnergyFuturesLaboratoryandtheGranthamInstituteforClimateChange(http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/carboncapture
andstorage)
18.Bryngelsson,MrtenWestermark,Mats(2005).FeasibilitystudyofCO2removalfrompressurizedfluegasina
fullyfiredcombinedcycle:theSargasproject.Proceedingsofthe18thInternationalConferenceonEfficiency,Cost,
Optimization,SimulationandEnvironmentalImpactofEnergySystems.pp.70310.
19.Bryngelsson,MrtenWestermark,Mats(2009)."CO2capturepilottestatapressurizedcoalfiredCHPplant".
EnergyProcedia.1:140310.doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2009.01.184.
20.Sweet,William(2008)."Winner:CleanCoalRestoringCoal'sSheen".IEEESpectrum.45:5760.
doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2008.4428318.
21.Herm,ZoeyR.Swisher,JosephA.Smit,BerendKrishna,RajamaniLong,JeffreyR.(2011)."MetalOrganic
FrameworksasAdsorbentsforHydrogenPurificationandPrecombustionCarbonDioxideCapture".Journalofthe
AmericanChemicalSociety.133(15):56645667.doi:10.1021/ja111411q.
22.Kulkarni,AmbarishR.Sholl,DavidS.(2012)."AnalysisofEquilibriumBasedTSAProcessesforDirectCapture
ofCO2fromAir".Industrial&EngineeringChemistryResearch.51(25):86318645.doi:10.1021/ie300691c.
23.Millward,AndrewR.Yaghi,OmarM.(2005)."MetalOrganicFrameworkswithExceptionallyHighCapacityfor
StorageofCarbonDioxideatRoomTemperature".JournaloftheAmericanChemicalSociety.127(51):17998
17999.doi:10.1021/ja0570032.PMID16366539.
24.Plasynski,SeanLangWillis,Richard(2007)."CarbonDioxideSeparationwithNovelMicroporousMetalOrganic
Frameworks".NationalEnergyTechnologyLab.112(2):724781.doi:10.1021/cr2003272.
25.Smit,BerendReimer,JeffreyR.Oldenburg,CurtisM.Bourg,IanC.(2014).IntroductiontoCarbonCaptureand
Sequestration.ImperialCollegePress.ISBN9781783263271.
26."TheGlobalStatusofCCS:2011Capture".TheGlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved20120326.
27.Stolaroff,JoshuahK.(August17,2006).CapturingCO2fromambientair:afeasibilityassessment(PDF)(PhD
thesis).
28."FirstSuccessfulDemonstrationofCarbonDioxideAirCaptureTechnologyAchievedbyColumbiaUniversity
ScientistandPrivateCompany".Earth.columbia.edu.Retrieved20100414.
29.Parfomak,PaulW.Folger,Peter."CRSReportforCongress:CarbonDioxide(CO2)PipelinesforCarbon
Sequestration:EmergingPolicyIssues",UpdatedJanuary17,2008(OrderCodeRL33971)"(PDF).
Assets.opencrs.com.
30.Vann,AdamParfomak,PaulW."CRSReportforCongress:RegulationofCarbonDioxide(CO2)Sequestration
Pipelines:JurisdictionalIssues",UpdatedApril15,2008(OrderCodeRL34307)"(PDF).Ncseonline.org.(reviewing
federaljurisdictionalissuesrelatedtoCO2pipelinesandreviewingagencyjurisdictionaldeterminationsunderthe
InterstateCommerceActandtheNaturalGasAct)
31."GoodplantdesignandoperationforonshorecarboncaptureinstallationsandonshorepipelinesStorage".Energy
Institute.Retrieved20121211.
32."IPCC"SpecialReportonCarbonCaptureandStorage,pp.181and203(Chapter5,"UndergroundGeological
Storage")"(PDF).Retrieved20100414.
33."GoodplantdesignandoperationforonshorecarboncaptureinstallationsandonshorepipelinesCarbondioxide
storage".EnergyInstitute.Retrieved20120410.
34."CarbonCaptureandGeologicalStorageEuropeanCommission".Ec.europa.eu.Retrieved20131006.
35."ThreePhasesOfOilRecovery".chinaoilfieldtech.com.ChinaOilfieldTechnology.
36."EnhancedOilRecovery".energy.gov.USDOE.
37."CarbonCapturesPerfectStorm".KemperProject.
38.Schuiling,Olaf."OlafSchuilingproposesolivinerockgrinding".Retrieved20111223.
39.Bhaduri,GauravA.iller,Lidija(17January2013)."Nickelnanoparticlescatalysereversiblehydrationofcarbon
dioxideformineralizationcarboncaptureandstorage".CatalysisScience&Technology.RoyalSocietyofChemistry.
3(5):12341239.doi:10.1039/C3CY20791A.Retrieved13February2015.(subscriptionrequired(help)).
40."GreenMagNewcastleMineralCarbonationPilotPlant".www.dpi.nsw.gov.au.20100606.Retrieved20100606.
41.RocksFoundThatCouldStoreGreenhouseGas(http://www.livescience.com/environment/090309co2rockmap.htm
l),LiveScience,March9,2009
42.Goldberg,Chen,O'Connor,Walters,andZiock(1998)."CO2MineralSequestrationStudiesinUS"(PDF).National
EnergyTechnologyLaboratory.RetrievedJune7,2007.
43.Wilson,SiobhanA.Dipple,GregoryM.Power,IanM.Thom,JamesM.Anderson,RobertG.Raudsepp,Mati
Gabites,JanetE.Southam,Gordon(2009)."CarbonDioxideFixationwithinMineWastesofUltramaficHostedOre
Deposits:ExamplesfromtheClintonCreekandCassiarChrysotileDeposits,Canada".EconomicGeology.104:95
112.doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.104.1.95.
44.Power,IanM.Dipple,GregoryM.Southam,Gordon(2010)."BioleachingofUltramaficTailingsby
Acidithiobacillusspp.ForCO2Sequestration".EnvironmentalScience&Technology.44:45662.
doi:10.1021/es900986n.
45.Power,IanMWilson,SiobhanAThom,JamesMDipple,GregoryMSoutham,Gordon(2007)."Biologically
inducedmineralizationofdypingitebycyanobacteriafromanalkalinewetlandnearAtlin,BritishColumbia,Canada".
GeochemicalTransactions.8:13.doi:10.1186/14674866813.PMC2213640 .PMID18053262.
46.Power,IanM.Wilson,SiobhanA.Small,DarcyP.Dipple,GregoryM.Wan,WankeiSoutham,Gordon(2011).
"MicrobiallyMediatedMineralCarbonation:RolesofPhototrophyandHeterotrophy".EnvironmentalScience&
Technology.45(20):90618.doi:10.1021/es201648g.
47.Spath,PamelaL.Mann,MargaretK.(2002)."TheNetEnergyandGlobalWarmingPotentialofBiomassPower
ComparedtoCoalFiredElectricitywithCO2SequestrationALifeCycleApproach"(PDF).BioenergyConference.
Omnipress.Retrieved8May2012.
48."IPCCSpecialReport:CarbonDioxideCaptureandStorageTechnicalSummary"(PDF).IntergovernmentalPanelon
ClimateChange.Retrieved20111005.
49."Comparisonofcarboncaptureandstoragewithrenewableenergytechnologiesregardingstructural,economic,and
ecologicalaspectsinGermany"(PDF).March2013.
50."UniversityofSydney:GlobalwarmingeffectofleakagefromCO2storage"(PDF).March2013.
51."GlobalStatusofBECCSProjects2010StorageSecurity".Retrieved20120405.
52.Natuurwetenschap&TechniekApril2009CCSleakagerisks(http://plein66.nl/documents/1024/artikel_CO2opslag.
pdf)
53."EendensterftedoorlekinCO2leiding(DuckdeathsfromleakingCO2pipeline)".March2013.(inDutch)
54.Hedlund,FrankHuess(2012)."TheextremecarbondioxideoutburstattheMenzengrabenpotashmine7July1953".
SafetyScience.50(3):53753.doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2011.10.004.
55.Pentland,William(6October2008)."TheCarbonConundrum".Forbes.
56.Wagner,Leonard(2007)."CarbonCaptureandStorage"(PDF).Moraassociates.com.Archivedfromtheoriginal
(PDF)onMarch21,2012.
57."Norway:StatoilHydro'sSleipnercarboncaptureandstorageprojectproceedingsuccessfully".Energypedia.8March
2009.Retrieved19December2009.
58.AllanCasey,CarbonCemetery,CanadianGeographicMagazine,Jan/Feb2008,p.61
59.Lafleur,Paul(August27,2010)."GeochemicalSoilGasSurvey,ASiteInvestigationofSW30513W2M,Weyburn
Field,Saskatchewan".Retrieved20110112..PDFfilelinkedtofrompressrelease(http://www.ecojustice.ca/mediac
entre/pressreleases/sask.familydemandsanswersoncarboncaptureandstoragerisks)of20110111.
60.IEAGHGWeyburnMidaleCO2MonitoringandStorageProjectResponsetothePetroFindGehchemLtd.Study
(PDF),PetroleumTechnologyResearchCentre,20110119,archivedfromtheoriginal (PDF)on20160322
61.USDOE,2012.BestPracticesforMonitoring,VerificationandAccountingofCO2StoredinDeepGeologic
Formations2012Update.
62.Holloway,S.,A.Karimjee,M.Akai,R.Pipatti,andK.Rypdal,20062011.CarbonDioxideTransport,Injection
andGeologicalStorage,inEgglestonH.S.,BuendiaL.,MiwaK.,NgaraT.,andTanabeK.(Eds.),IPCCGuidelines
forNationalGreenhouseGasInventories,IPCCNationalGreenhouseGasInventoriesProgramme,WMO/UNEP
63.Miles,N.,K.Davis,andJ.Wyngaard,2005.DetectingLeaksfromBelowgroundCO2ReservoirsUsingEddy
CovarianceinS.Benson(Ed.)CarbonDioxideCaptureforStorageinDeepGeologicFormations,Elsevier,Vol.2:
10311043
64.Smit,BerendReimer,JefferyA.Oldenburg,CurtisM.Bourg,IanC.IntroductiontoCarbonCaptureand
Sequestration(TheBerkeleyLecturesonEnergyVol.1ed.).ImperialCollegePress.
65.Biondi,BiondodeRidder,SjoerdChang,Jason(2013)."ContinuouspassiveseismicmonitoringofCO2geologic
sequestrationprojects"(PDF).Retrieved6May2016.
66."ReviewofOffshoreMonitoringforCCSProjects".IEAGHG.IEAGreenhouseGasR&DProgramme.Retrieved
6May2016.
67.Madsen,RodXu,LiukangClaassen,BrentMcDermitt,Dayle(February2009)."SurfaceMonitoringMethodfor
CarbonCaptureandStorageProjects".EnergyProcedia.1(1):21612168.doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2009.01.281.
Retrieved7May2016.
68."InSARSatellitebasedtechniquecapturesoveralldeformation"picture" ".USGSScienceforaChangingWorld.US
GeologicalSurvey.Retrieved6May2016.
69."Mineralcarbonationandindustrialusesofcarbondioxide"(PDF).Retrieved20111223.
70."AcceleratingtheuptakeofCCS:IndustrialuseofcapturedcarbondioxideAppendixE:CO2foruseinalgae
cultivation".GlobalCCSInstituteandParsonsBrinckerhoff.Retrieved20121211.
71.NewScientistNo2645,1March2008.
72.Chang,Kenneth(20080219)."ScientistsWouldTurnGreenhouseGasIntoGasoline".TheNewYorkTimes.
Retrieved20100403.
73."CarbonCaptureandUtilizationUsingCO2tomanufacturefuel,chemicals,andmaterials".Retrieved20111223.
74.DavidBiello:ChemicalProcessMakesFuelfromCarbonDioxide(http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=
chemicalprocessmakesfu)ScientificAmericanSeptember16,2006
75."ResearchersBuildMachineThatTurnsCO2IntoFuel|InhabitatSustainableDesignInnovation,EcoArchitecture,
GreenBuilding".Inhabitat.Retrieved20131006.
76."TheGlobalStatusofCCS:2012Projects".TheGlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved20121017.
77."TheGlobalStatusofCCS:2011|GlobalCarbonCaptureandStorageInstitute".Cdn.globalccsinstitute.com.2011
1004.Retrieved20131006.
78."Largescale".Globalccsinstitute.com.Retrieved20131006.
79."zeroemissionsplatform.eu".zeroemissionsplatform.eu.Retrieved20131006.
80.https://sequestration.mit.edu/tools/projects/in_salah.html
81."CatalyticdeoxygenationoftriglyceridesandfattyacidstohydrocarbonsoverNiAllayereddoublehydroxide".
ResearchGate.Retrieved20150608.
82."AlgaeCO2CapturePart1:HowitWorks|reveal.uky.edu".reveal.uky.edu.Retrieved20150608.
83."CarbonCaptureandStorageinCanada".Deloitte.
84."AlbertaEnergy:CarbonCaptureandStorage".Energy.alberta.ca.Retrieved20100402.
85."EnhanceEnergyInc.|EnhancedOilRecovery,CarbonCaptureandStorage".Enhanceenergy.com.Retrieved
20100402.
86."QuestprojectCanada".Shell.ca.20091008.Retrieved20100402.
87."AlbertaDepartmentofEnergy:QuestCarbonCaptureandStorageProjectAnnualSummaryReport,2014"(PDF).
Retrieved20160728.
88."CanadianCCSProjects".ICO2N.Retrieved20110301.
89.October2015|website=GlobalCCSInstitute(https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/projects/spectraenergysfortnelson
ccsproject%7Cdate=20)
90."BoundaryDamCarbonCaptureProjectCapitalCost".Wikipedia.
91."SaskPowerlaunchesworld'sfirstcommercialCCSprocess".SaskPower.2October2014.Retrieved10October
2014.
92."DemonstratingCarbonCaptureandStorageinCanada"(PDF).NRCan.2010.Retrieved20110301.
93."Canada'sintegratedcarbondioxide(CO2)captureandstorageinitiative".ICO2N.Retrieved20110301.
94."CanadianCCSOrganizations".ICO2N.Retrieved20110301.
95."DemonstrationprojectTheNetherlands:ZeroEmissionPowerPlant"(PDF).Retrieved20100414.
96."CCSProjectOverview".Zeroemissionsplatform.eu.Retrieved20131006.
97.Bouwman,ElisabethAngamuthu,RajaByers,PhilipLutz,MartinSpek,AnthonyL.(July15,2010).
"ElectrocatalyticCO2ConversiontoOxalatebyaCopperComplex".Science.327(5393):313315.
doi:10.1126/science.1177981.PMID20075248.Retrieved26September2014.
98.WebmasterGassnova."TCMhomepage".Tcmda.com.Retrieved20100414.
99.MarianneStigset(20111106)."NorwayBoostsMongstadCarbonStorageSiteCostto$985Million".Bloomberg.
100."Akersaysmaypullplugoncarboncaptureproject".ReutersUK.20111104.
101.TordLienskrinleggerCO2utredningene(http://e24.no/energi/tordlienskrinleggerco2utredningene/22612508)
102."CCSprojectgrantedfundingundertheEuropeanEnergyProgrammeforRecovery(EEPR)".Ccsnetwork.eu.
Retrieved20100713.
103."Keyfacts:Belchatw".Microsites.ccsnetwork.eu.Retrieved20131006.
104."CCSProjectOverview".Zeroemissionsplatform.eu.20100222.Retrieved20131006.
105."SUreceives$66.9millioncarbonsequestration"(http://www.bozemandailychronicle.com/articles/2008/11/18/news/4
0grant.txt),BozemanDailyChronicle,20081118.Retrievedon20081811.
106."AmericanCleanCoalFuels".Cleancoalfuels.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20100409.Retrieved20100402.
107."BaardEnergyHomeAnEnergyDevelopmentCompany".Baardenergy.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2009
0225.Retrieved20100402.
108."NatchezProject".Rentechinc.com.Retrieved20100414.
109.DKRWEnergy."MedicineBowDKRWEnergy".Dkrwadvancedfuels.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011
0710.Retrieved20100402.
110."DOEFossilEnergy:IndustrialCCSprojectsfromRecoveryAct".Fossil.energy.gov.Retrieved20100402.
111.NETLCarbonSequestration(http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/index.html)NETLWebsite.
Retrievedon20082111.
112."CarbonSequestrationLeadershipForum".Cslforum.org.Retrieved20100402.
113."BureauofEconomicGeologyReceives$38MillionforFirstLargeScaleU.S.TestStoringCarbonDioxide
Underground".Jsg.utexas.edu.20071024.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20100611.Retrieved20100414.
114."PublicServiceCommissiontoconsiderMississippiPowerKemperrateincreaseonTuesday".gulflive.com.4
March2013.
115.IanUrbina.Pilesofdirtysecretsbehindmodel"cleancoal"project(https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/ke
mpercoalmississippi.html?_r=0),NewYorkTimes,July5,2016.
116.Goldenberg,Suzanne(12March2014)."CanKemperbecomethefirstUSpowerplanttouse'cleancoal'?".The
Guardian.Retrieved14July2014.
117.Amy,Jeff(December17,2015)."KemperPlantMayGetMoreMoneyFromCongress".ClarionLedger.
118."SouthernCo.'sKemperPowerPlantCostsRiseYetAgain".AtlantaBusinessChronicle.April4,2016.
119.Drajem,Mark(April14,2014)."Coal'sBestHopeRisingWithCostliestU.S.PowerPlant".BloombergBusiness.
120."TexasCleanEnergyProject".www.texascleanenergyproject.com.Retrieved20160728.
121."TheSkymineProcess".Skyonic.com.Retrieved20100414.
122.[1](http://www.greenfuelonline.com/index.html)Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20080116170736/http://www.
greenfuelonline.com/index.html)January16,2008,attheWaybackMachine.
123."MicrosoftWordInformationMemorandum151107final.DOC"(PDF).Retrieved20100402.
124."TheEuropeanArchive|UKGovernmentWebArchive".Berr.gov.uk.Retrieved20100402.
125."FormerGovtdept:DepartmentforBusinessEnterpriseandRegulatoryReform".Nds.coi.gov.uk.20080630.
Retrieved20100414.
126."BPquitscarboncapturecompetition".Rsc.org.Retrieved20100402.
127.Carrington,Damian(25November2015)."UKcancelspioneering1bncarboncaptureandstoragecompetition".the
Guardian.Retrieved20151126.
128."7.4MOxycoal2projectgivengoahead:NewsfromDoosanBabcockEnergyLtd".Pandct.com.Retrieved
20100402.
129."Samsungbacks5bnHatfieldcarboncaptureproject".bbc.co.uk.Retrieved20120619.
130."NewpublicexhibitionsforYorkshirecarbondioxidepipe".bbc.co.uk.Retrieved20120619.
131."LocalresidentstohavetheirsayonCCSproject".nationalgrid.com.Retrieved20120619.
132."WelcometothewebsitefortheNationalGridYorkshireandHumbercarboncapture,transportationandstorage
(CCS)project.".NationalGrid.Retrieved20120619.
133."piccsi.co.uk".piccsi.co.uk.Retrieved20131006.
134."Carboncaptureandstorage".thecrownestate.co.uk.Retrieved20160304.
135.HeardonMorningEdition(20090410)."ChinaPutsFizzInBidToReduceCarbonEmissions".Npr.org.Retrieved
20100414.
136."CCSProjectOverview".Zeroemissionsplatform.eu.Retrieved20131006.
137."Germanyleads'cleancoal'pilot".BBCNews.20080903.
138."Accessallareas:SchwarzePumpe".BBCNews.20080903.
139.'Emissionsfree'powerplantpilotfiresupinGermany(https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080909/bs_afp/germanywarm
ingemissions)
140.http://www.thelocal.se/20140507/vattenfallabandonsresearchonco2storage
141."BASF,RWEPowerandLindearedevelopingnewprocessesforCO2captureincoalfiredpowerplants".Press
Release.Basf.com.20070928.Retrieved20100414.
142."CCSprojectgrantedfundingundertheEuropeanEnergyProgrammeforRecovery(EEPR)".Ccsnetwork.eu/.2010
0428.Retrieved20100713.
143."Keyfacts:Jnschwalde".Microsites.ccsnetwork.eu.Retrieved20131006.
144.http://news.sbs.com.au/worldnewsaustralia//first_carbon_storage_plant_launched_544064
145."Seekingcleancoalscience'onlyoption' ".News.theage.com.au.20080402.Retrieved20100414.
146."CO2CRCOtwayProjectoverview".Co2crc.com.au.20100218.Retrieved20100414.
147."DemonstratingCCS".Co2crc.com.au.20100506.Retrieved20100531.
148."Australia'slargestcarboncaptureprojectgetsunderway".energyefficiencynews.com.20091027.Retrieved
20100531.
149."EUProjects".Zeroemissionsplatform.eu.Retrieved20131006.
150.SimonRobinson(22January2012)."CuttingCarbon:ShouldWeCaptureandStoreIt?".TIME.
151.Rochon,Emilyetal.FalseHope:Whycarboncaptureandstoragewon'tsavetheclimate(http://www.greenpeace.org/
international/press/reports/falsehope)Greenpeace,May2008,p.5.
152.http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/specialreports/srccs/srccs_wholereport.pdf
153.Rhodes,J.S.Keith,D.W.(2008)."Biomasswithcapture:Negativeemissionswithinsocialandenvironmental
constraints:Aneditorialcomment".ClimaticChange.87(34):321328.doi:10.1007/s1058400793874.
154.Karlsson."GlobalStatusofBECCSProjects2010"(PDF).GlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved6May2012.
155.Jacobson,MarkZ.Delucchi,MarkA.(2010)."ProvidingallGlobalEnergywithWind,Water,andSolarPower,
PartI:Technologies,EnergyResources,QuantitiesandAreasofInfrastructure,andMaterials"(PDF).EnergyPolicy.
p.4.
156."20244DTIEnergyReview_AW"(PDF).Retrieved20100414.
157."APOLICYSTRATEGYFORCARBONCAPTUREANDSTORAGE"(PDF).InternationalEnergyAgency.
Retrieved6May2012.
158.Meyer,Leo."CCSintheIPCCFourthAssessmentReport"(PDF).Retrieved6May2012.
159.Science,27February2009,Vol323,p.1158,"StimulusGivesDOEBillionsforCarbonCaptureProject"
160."CCSAssessingtheEconomics"(PDF).Mckinsey.com.2008.
161."SolarFuel".SolarFuel.Retrieved20131006.
162."Bioenergyandrenewablepowermethaneinintegrated100%renewableenergysystem"(PDF).Retrieved20131006.
163."scnariongaWatt2011(France)".Negawatt.org.Retrieved20131006.
164."GlobalStatusofCCSReport:2011".GlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved20111214.
165.SBSTAPresentsGlobalCarbondioxideCaptureandStorageDataatCOP16(http://abclive.in/news/environment/clea
nengergy/490sbstaglobalcarbondioxidecaptureandstoragedatacop16.html)Archived(https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20110728190701/http://abclive.in/news/environment/cleanengergy/490sbstaglobalcarbondioxidecaptureandst
oragedatacop16.html)July28,2011,attheWaybackMachine.
166.Bonner,Mark."CCSenterstheCDMatCMP7".GlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved7May2012.
167."IPCCSpecialReport:CarbonCaptureandStorageTechnicalSummary.IPCC.p.27"(PDF).Retrieved20131006.
168.http://www.ekopolitan.com/news/ccsnorwayaminesnitrosaminesandnitraminesreleasedcarboncaptureproce
Bibliography
EnvironmentalChallengesandGreenhouseGasControlforFossilFuelUtilizationinthe21stCentury.Editedby
M.MercedesMarotoValeretal.,KluwerAcademic/PlenumPublishers,NewYork,2002:"SequestrationofCarbon
DioxidebyOceanFertilization",p.122.ByM.Markels,Jr.andR.T.Barber.
NobelIntent:CarbonDioxideLakesintheDeepOcean,September19,2006@11:08ampostedbyJohnTimmer(h
ttp://arstechnica.com/journals/science.ars/2006/9/19/5341)
Solomon,Semere.(July2006).CarbonDioxideStorage:GeologicalSecurityandEnvironmentalIssuesCaseStudy
ontheSleipnerGasFieldinNorway.TheBellonaFoundation.RetrievedNovember7,2006(http://bellona.no/filearch
ive/fil_Paper_Solomon__CO2_Storage.pdf)
ICO2NTheVision(http://www.ico2n.com/docs/tech/ICON%20Vision.pdf)
Stephens,JennieC.(2006)."Growinginterestincarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)forclimatechangemitigation.
Sustainability".Science,Practice,&Policy.2(2):413.
TheillusionofcleancoalClimatechange,Mar5th2009,TheEconomistprintedition(http://www.economist.com/o
pinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13235041)
(http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13226661)TheEconomist(2009)TroubleinstoreCarbon
captureandstorage,Mar5th2009,TheEconomistprintedition
Bullis,K.(2009,October).Capturingcarbondioxidethroughcementproduction.TechnologyReview,112(5)(http://
www.technologyreview.com/TR35/Profile.aspx?TRID=804)
Biello,D.(2008,August7).CementfromCO2:aconcretecureforglobalwarming?.ScientificAmerican(http://ww
w.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=cementfromcarbondioxide)
Furtherreading
Hester,RonaldERoyM.Harrison(2009).Carboncapture:sequestrationandstorage(Issuesinenvironmental
scienceandtechnology,29.ed.).RoyalSocietyofChemistry.ISBN9781847559173
Shackley,SimonClairGough(2006).Carboncaptureanditsstorage:anintegratedassessment.Ashgate.
ISBN0754644995
Wilson,ElizabethJDavidGerard(2007).Carboncaptureandsequestration:integratingtechnology,monitoring
andregulation.BlackwellPublishing.ISBN9780813802077
Metz,Bert(2005).IPCCspecialreportoncarbondioxidecaptureandstorage.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimate
Change.WorkingGroupIII(CambridgeUniversityPress).ISBN052186643X
Wilcox,Jennifer(2012).CarbonCapture.Springer.ISBN9781461422143
Smit,BerendJeffreyAReimerCurtisMOldenburgIanCBourg(2014).IntroductiontoCarbon
CaptureandSequestration.,ImperialCollegePress,ISBN9781783263271
GAMansoori,NEnayati,LBAgyarko(2016),Energy:Sources,Utilization,Legislation,Sustainability,
IllinoisasModelState(http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9699),WorldSci.Pub.
Co.,ISBN9789814704007
Externallinks
DOEFossilEnergy(http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/seque
stration/index.html)DepartmentofEnergyprogramsincarbon WikimediaCommonshas
dioxidecaptureandstorage. mediarelatedtoCarbon
AlgaebasedCCS,CO2CapturewithAlgae(http://www.powerpla captureandstorage.
ntccs.com/ccs/cap/fut/alg/alg.html)
2007NETLCarbonSequestrationAtlas(http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/refshelf/atlas/
index.html)
ScientificFactsonCO2CaptureandStorage(http://www.greenfacts.org/en/co2capturestorage/index.ht
m),apeerreviewedsummaryoftheIPCCSpecialReportonCCS.
CarbonCapture:ATechnologyAssessment(http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41325.pdf)Congressional
ResearchService
CarbonSequestrationNews(http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/carboncapture/carbonsequestration.html)Recent
newsarticlesonCO2captureandstorage.
"BuryingClimateChange:EffortsBegintoSequesterCarbonDioxidefromPowerPlants"(http://www.s
cientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=buryingclimatechange),WestVirginiahoststheworld'sfirst
powerplanttoinjectsomeofitsCO2emissionsundergroundforpermanentstorage,ScientificAmerican,
September22,2009.
MitigateyourCarbonemissionsbyplantingtrees(http://www.energy.eu/)GreenEUInitiative
NationalAssessmentofGeologicCarbonDioxideStorageResources:Results(http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/
gpo46659)UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey
AGuideToCarbonCaptureAndStorage:Cancarboncaptureandstoragesavetheclimatefromthe
consequencesoffossilfuelburning?(http://www.scientificamerican.com/report.cfm?id=carboncaptures
torageccs)
PowerplantccsPowerPlantCarbonCapture,Storage,CO2Sequestration(http://www.powerplantccs.co
m)
PavingtheLegalPathforCarbonSequestrationfromCoal(http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?19+Du
ke+Envtl.+L.+&+Pol%27y+F.+211+pdf)2009journalarticleonCCSlegalquestions.
[2](http://sequestration.mit.edu/)MITCarbonCaptureandSequestration
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_capture_and_storage&oldid=776161363"
Categories: Carbondioxide Carbonsequestration Gastechnologies
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon19April2017,at09:55.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregistered
trademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

Carbon Capture and Storage - Wikipedia

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Carbon Capture and Storage - Wikipedia

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

4/25/2017 CarboncaptureandstorageWikipedia

EarthenOxide PercentofCrust Carbonate Enthalpychange(kJ/mol)

Categories: Carbondioxide Carbonsequestration Gastechnologies

Potrebbero piacerti anche