Department of Mathematical Sciences

PART 1: Basic Concepts

Study guide 1 for

MAT2615

Calculus
in Higher Dimensions

Compiled by
M Frick

Assisted by
CA Bohlman
G Davie
J Singleton
K J Swanepoel

Revised by
J Singleton

University of South Africa

Pretoria
 2013 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

Page-layout
by the Department

MAT2615/1/2014

70111421
 iii MAT2615/1

Contents
Page

Unit 1 Mathematical Preliminaries 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sets 1
1.3 Relations and Functions 4
1.4 Implications 9
1.5 Symbols 12
1.6 Greek Alphabet 13

Unit 2 Concepts and Operations in n dimensional Euclidean Space 15

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Geometric Representation of R1 , R2 and R3 15
2.3 Addition and Scalar Multiplication in Rn 20
2.4 The Dot Product in Rn 24
2.5 The Norm in Rn 26
2.6 Distance in Rn 29
2.7 Unit Vectors 30
2.8 The Standard Basis Vectors in Rn 31
2.9 The Angle Between Two Vectors 33
2.10 The Cross Product in R3 35
2.11 Lines in Rn 40
2.12 Planes in Rn 44
2.13 Subsets of Rn 48

Unit 3 Functions 55

3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Visualizing Functions 57
3.3 The Composition of an Rn R p Function and an R p Rm Function 73
Answers and hints to exercises 75
Index 86
 iv

.
Unit 1

Mathematical Preliminaries

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit contains a brief summary of concepts, definitions, notation, and results that you are
assumed to be familiar with.

1.2 SETS

We assume that you are familiar with the following sets of numbers.
R, the set of real numbers.
Z, the set of integers.
Q, the set of rational numbers.
We shall use the above notation throughout.

To indicate that x is an element of a set S, i.e. that S contains x, we write

x 2 S:

To denote that x is not an element of S, we write

= S:
x2

A set S is usually specified in one of two ways. One way is by listing its elements. We do this listing
by writing the elements that belong to the set between curly brackets. For example, if A is the set elements
consisting only of the four elements 2; 4; 6 and 8 we write

A D f2; 4; 6; 8g :

If a set has infinitely many elements, we cannot list them all, but sometimes it is clear what set we
have in mind if we list only a few of its elements. For example, if we write

B D f2; 4; 6; 8; : : :g ;

it is clear that we mean that B is the set of all positive even numbers.

1
 2

The other way of specifying a set involves set-builder notation. If S is the set of all elements in
set-builder some universal set U that have property P; then we write
notation
S D fx 2 U j x has property Pg :

For example, instead of writing B D f2; 4; 6; 8; : : :g we can write

B D fx 2 Z j x > 0 and x is eveng:

equality Two sets A and B are said to be equal, written A D B, if they have precisely the same elements.
of sets The order in which the elements are listed is not important, for example fa; b; cg is precisely the
same set as fb; a; cg :

subset A is a subset of B, written A B, if every element of A is an element of B.

Clearly, A D B if and only if A B and B A:

proper If A B but A 6D B, we write A B and we say A is a proper subset of B.

subset
An important proper subset of R is the set of positive real numbers, which we denote by RC :
Thus
RC D fx 2 R j x > 0g :

Similarly, we denote the set of positive integers by ZC .

It is also convenient to consider a set with no elements. Such a set is called the empty set, and is
empty set usually denoted by ;. The empty set is a subset of every set.

We now define three operations involving sets, namely [, \ and :

Definitions 1.2.1 Let A and B be two subsets of a universal set U:

1. The union of A and B; denoted by A [ B is the set consisting of all elements that belong to
A or to B, i.e.
A [ B D fx 2 U j x 2 A or x 2 Bg :

2. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A \ B is the set consisting of all elements that
belong to both A and B, i.e.

A \ B D fx 2 U j x 2 A and x 2 Bg :

3. The complement of A relative to B, written B A, consists of all elements in B which are

not in A; i.e.
B = Ag:
A D fx 2 B j x 2
 3 MAT2615/1

Examples 1.2.2

1. Let A D f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g and B D f0; 2; 4; 6g: Then

A [ B D f0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g and A \ B D f2; 4g ;

A B D f1; 3; 5g and B A D f0; 6g :

2. Let A D fx 2 R j x 1g and B D fx 2 R j x 4g : Then

A [ B D R and A \ B D fx 2 R j 1 x 4g :

3. Let P.x/ and Q.x/ be statements depending on x. Then

fx j P.x/g [ fx j Q.x/g D fx j P.x/ or Q.x/g

and
fx j P.x/g \ fx j Q.x/g D fx j P.x/ and Q.x/g:

A construction which is basic in the study of functions of several variables is that of a product of
sets.

Definition 1.2.3 The product A B of the two sets A and B (in that order) consists of all ordered product
pairs .a; b/ where a 2 A, b 2 B; i.e.

A B D f.a; b/ja 2 A; b 2 Bg:

Examples 1.2.4

1. If A D f0; 1g, then A A D f.0; 0/ ; .0; 1/ ; .1; 0/ ; .1; 1/g.

2. R R is the set of all ordered pairs .x; y/ of real numbers x and y: It is also denoted by R2 .

3. The idea of a product of sets can be extended to more than two factors, for example R R R,
denoted by R3 , consists of all ordered triples .x; y; z/ of real numbers.

Exercises 1.2.5

1. Let S be the set of all integers between 2 and 2 (not including 2 and 2). Describe the
sets S and S S; by

(a) listing the elements

(b) using set-builder notation.

2. Let A D fx 2 R j 1 x 1g, B D fx 2 R j 0 x 2g ; C D RC . Describe the sets

A [ B; A [ C; A \ B; A \ C; A B; B C and A B:
 4

1.3 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

relation Definition 1.3.1 Given sets A and B, a relation R between A and B is a subset of A B. If
.a; b/ 2 R; we write a Rb and we say a is related to b.

Example 1.3.2

Consider those points .x; y/ in the plane R2 which are related by the condition that

x 2 C y 2 D 4:
p
We note that some values of x are related to more than one value of y; e.g. 1 is related to 3
p p 2 p 2
as well as to 3; since .1/2 C 3 D 4 and .1/2 C 3 D 4. A relation where such a
situation does not occur, is called a function.

function
Definition 1.3.3 A function f : A ! B is a relation between two sets A and B with the property
that, for every a 2 A there exists one and only one element b 2 B such that .a; b/ 2 f:
If .a; b/ 2 f we write f .a/ D b and we say b is the image of a under f , or f maps a to b:

Examples 1.3.4

1. The relation R D .x; y/j x 2 C y 2 D 4; x 2 [ 2; 2]; y 2 [ 2; 2] is not a function since,

p p
as we have seen in Example 1.3.2, 1; 3 2 R and .1; 3/ 2 R:

2. The relation .x; y/j x 2 R; y 2 R; y D x 2 is a function, which we can write as

f : R ! R; f .x/ D x 2 :

domain Given a function f : A ! B, the set A is called the domain of f: The set of all b 2 B for which
there exists an a 2 A such that f .a/ D b is called the image (or the range) of f and is denoted
image by f .A/ : Thus
f .A/ D fb 2 B j f .a/ D b for some a 2 Ag :

We shall often define a function by means of a formula only (without specifying the domain). The
domain of the function is then assumed to consist of all elements for which the formula makes
sense. We denote the domain of f by D f .
 5 MAT2615/1

Example 1.3.5

Let f be the function defined by

1
f .x/ D :
x
1
Since x
exists for every real number x except for x D 0, the domain of f is the set

Df D R f0g:

Two functions f and g are said to be equal if D f D Dg and f .x/ D g .x/ for every x 2 D f :

Suppose f and g are functions such that Dg D f and g .x/ D f .x/ for every x 2 Dg : Then we restriction
say g is a restriction of f and f is an extension of g: extension

If g is a restriction of f and Dg D A, we say g is f restricted to A and we write

g D f jA:

Consider a function f : A ! B: If the image of A under f is B, then we say that f maps A onto
B. Let us define this concept precisely.

Definition 1.3.6 A function f : A ! B is said to map A onto B if for each b 2 B there is at least onto
one a 2 A such that f .a/ D b; in other words, the equation f .x/ D b has at least one solution.

Remark 1.3.7

A function always maps its domain onto its image.

Given a function f : A ! B, it is often important to be able to determine an a such that f .a/ D b,

for a prescribed b, and to ascertain whether there is only one such value of a. If f maps A onto
B, we know there is at least one such a in A. If there is at most one such a, we say that f is
one-to-one.

Definition 1.3.8 A function f : A ! B is called one-to-one if f .x/ D f .y/ implies that x D y. one-to-one
 6

Examples 1.3.9

1. Consider the function

f : R ! R; f .x/ D sin x:

The function f maps R into R, but it does not map R onto R since there is, for example ,
no real number x such that sin x D 2:
The image of f is the interval [ 1; 1]. Thus f maps R onto [ 1; 1].
Furthermore, f is not one-to-one, because for each b 2 [ 1; 1] the equation sin x D b has
infinitely many solutions in R:

2. Consider the function

g:[ ; ] ! [ 1; 1]; g .x/ D sin x:

2 2
The function g is a restriction of the function f given in the previous example. It maps the
interval [ 2 ; 2 ] onto the interval [ 1; 1]: Moreover, g is one-to-one, because if
b 2 [1; 1]; the equation sin x D b has one and only one solution in the interval [ 2 ; 2 ];
(namely x D sin 1 b).

It is often useful to compose two functions f and g by first applying g and then applying f to the
output of g.

f g Definition 1.3.10 The composition of two functions f and g (in that order) is the function f g
defined by
. f g/ .x/ D f .g.x//:

The domain of f g consists of all x in the domain of g for which . f g/ .x/ is meaningful.

Remarks 1.3.11

1. If g maps the set A onto the set B and f maps B onto the set C, then f g maps A onto C.
The diagram below illustrates this situation.

g f
A B C

f g

2. For f .g.x// to be defined, g.x/ has to be defined, so x has to be in the domain of g:

Furthermore, f .g.x// has to be defined, so g.x/ has to be in the domain of f:
 7 MAT2615/1

3. The function g f is usually not the same as the function f g:

Example 1.3.12

Consider the functions f and g given by

p
f .x/ D x and g.x/ D x 2 :

Now
p
.f g/ .x/ D f .g.x// D f x 2 D x 2 D jxj

and
p p 2
.g f / .x/ D g. f .x// D g x D x D x:

Since g.x/ is defined for all x 2 R and f .x 2 / is defined for all x 2 R; the domain of f g is R:
Since f .x/ is defined only for x 0 and g. f .x// is defined for every real number x 0, the
domain of g f is fx 2 R j x 0g :

With each set A we associate a special function, called the identity map on A. This is the function
that maps every element of A to itself.

Definition 1.3.13 The identity map on a set A is the function I A : A ! A defined by identity map

I A .a/ D a for every a 2 A:

The notion of an identity map now allows us to define inverses of certain functions.

Definition 1.3.14 A function f : A ! B has an inverse g : B ! A if

inverse func-
g f D I A and f g D IB : tion

Thus the functions f : A ! B and g : B ! A are inverses of one another if

.g f / .a/ D a for all a 2 A and . f g/ .b/ D b for all b 2 B:

 8

Not all functions have inverses. We remind you of the following theorem that you encountered in
first level Calculus.

Theorem 1.3.15 A function f : A ! B has an inverse g : B ! A if and only if f is one-to-one

and maps A onto B.

Remark 1.3.16

If a function f is given by a formula only (without A or B being specified as above) we assume the
domain to consist of all x for which f .x/ exists. In that case we call f invertible if it is one-to-one
(since it maps its domain onto its image).

Example 1.3.17

Consider the function f defined by

f .x/ D sin x:

The domain of f is R and its image is the closed interval [ 1; 1]. We know that f is not one-to-
one (see Example 1.3.9) and hence f is not invertible. However, if A is the interval ; , then
2 2
the restriction f j A is an invertible function.

Exercises 1.3.18

1. Let R D f .x; y/j x 2 R; y 2 R, x yg : R is a relation from R to R. Is it a function?

2. Let S D f .x; y/j x 2 R; y 2 R and x D 2yg. S is a relation from R to R. Is it a function?

If so, express it in the form y D f .x/, for an appropriate f .

3. Let f be the function defined by

p
f .x/ D 1 x 2:

(a) Write down the domain of f and the image of f .

(b) Is f one-to-one?

4. Let f and g be the functions defined by

p
f .x/ D ln x and g.x/ D x:

(a) Determine f g and g f.

(b) Write down the domains of f , g; f g and g f:
 9 MAT2615/1

5. Consider the function f defined by

f .x/ D x 2 :

(a) Show that f is not invertible.

(b) Define a restriction of f that is invertible.

1.4 IMPLICATIONS

Suppose P and Q are two statements. If the statement if P is true, then Q is true holds true,
then the relation between P and Q is that of an implication and we write

P ) Q:

This can be read in any of the following ways:

P implies Q:
If P; then Q:
P only if Q.
P is a sufficient condition for Q:
Q is a necessary condition for P:

P is called the antecedent (or hypothesis) of this implication and Q the consequence. The con-
verse implication is formed by interchanging the antecedent and the consequence. Thus the
converse of
P)Q

is converse
Q ) P.

Remark 1.4.1 If the implication P ) Q is true, the converse implication, Q ) P; need

not be true.

Example 1.4.2

Consider a function f : R ! R: Let P be the statement

f is differentiable

and let Q be the statement

f is continuous.

We know that every differentiable function is continuous, but not every continuous function is
differentiable. Thus in this case
P ) Q but Q ; P:
 10

If P and Q are two statements such that the implication P ) Q as well as the implication
Q ) P are true, then we say P and Q are equivalent and we write

P,Q.

This can be read in each of the following ways:

P if and only if Q:
P implies and is implied by Q:
P is necessary and sufficient for Q:

Example 1.4.3

By Pythagoras Theorem, the following holds for any triangle ABC:

BO D 90 , .AB/2 C .BC/2 = .AC/2 :

For any statement P we can also consider its negation, which we write as

not P:

negation If P is true, then its negation is false and if P is false, then its negation is true.

Example 1.4.4

Consider the statement

Every function is differentiable.

The negation of this statement is

Not every function is differentiable.

We know that some functions are differentiable and some are not, so in this case not P is true and
hence P is false.

Let U be some universal set and let P be the statement

f .x/ has property A for all x 2 U:

Then not P is the statement

There exists an x 2 U such that f .x/ does not have property A:

In order to prove that P is true, we need to consider an arbitrary x 2 U and prove that f .x/ has
property A. Considering specific values of x is not sufficient. Even if we can prove that there are
hundreds of specific values of x for which f .x/ has property A, we still cannot conclude that this
is the case for all values of x.
In order to prove that P is false, it is sufficient to present an example of one specific x 2 U for
counter- which f .x/ does not have property A. Such an example is called a counter-example to P.
example
 11 MAT2615/1

Example 1.4.5

Consider the function f defined by

f .x/ D x 2 1:

Let P be the statement

f .x/ 0 for all x 2 R:

Since 0 2 R and f .0/ < 0; we have a counterexample to P and hence P is false.

The contrapositive of the implication

P)Q

is the implication
not Q ) not P.

(Note that P has moved from left to right.)

Any implication P ) Q is equivalent to the contrapositive implication, i.e. law of con-

traposition
.P ) Q/ , .not Q ) not P/:

This is known as the law of contraposition.

Remark 1.4.6

Take care not to confuse the converse of an implication with the contrapositive implication. Note
especially that the contrapositive of a theorem is true while the converse of a theorem is not
necessarily true.

Example 1.4.7

Consider a function f : R ! R. In first level Calculus you encountered the following theorem:

If f is differentiable, then f is continuous.

The contrapositive of this theorem is

If f is not continuous, then f is not differentiable,

which is true.
However, as shown in Example 1.4.2, the converse of this theorem is not true.
 12

Exercises 1.4.8

1. Let P be the statement

x is a real number

and Q the statement

x is an integer

Write the following implications in words.

P ) Q, Q ) P, not P ) not Q

State for each implication whether it is true or false.

2. Write down the negation of each of the following statements:

(a) x D 0 and y D 0:
(b) x D 0 or y D 0:
(c) f .x/ < g .x/ ; for all x 2 R:
(d) All the students have passed the exam.
(e) All flowers are the same colour.

1.5 SYMBOLS

A list of some symbols and their meanings is given below.

2 is an element of
=
2 is not an element of
is contained in (or is a subset of)
* is not contained in (or is not a subset of)
is strictly contained in (or is a proper subset of)
8 for all
9 there exists
Df domain of f
) implies
, if and only if
 13 MAT2615/1

1.6 GREEK ALPHABET

Capital letter Small letter Name

A alpha
B beta
0 gamma
1 delta
E " epsilon
Z zeta
H eta
2 theta
I iota
K kappa
3 lambda
M mu
N nu
4 xi
O o omicron
5 pi
P rho
6 sigma
T tau
Y upsilon
8 phi
X chi
9 psi
! omega
14
Unit 2

Concepts and Operations in

n-dimensional Euclidean Space

2.1 INTRODUCTION

For every natural number n we define n-dimensional space as the set Rn of all ordered n-tuples
x1 x2 xn where xi R for i 1 2 n.

One-dimensional space R1 corresponds with the set of real numbers R. For n 2 we usually
denote the ordered n-tuple x1 x2 xn by x, the ordered n-tuple a1 a2 an by a, and so
on. If x x1 x2 xn , we say that xi is the ith coordinate of x In the case of R2 and R3 we
often write x y instead of x1 x2 , and x y z instead of x1 x2 x3 , and we say that x y and
z are, respectively, the x-, y- and z-coordinates of x y z

Some text books use boldface x instead of x.

In this unit we provide Rn with the necessary structure to enable us to do Calculus in Rn For
example, we need to define addition and multiplication in Rn and also a concept of distance in Rn
These concepts will have their usual geometric meaning in R1 R2 and R3

2.2 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF R1 R2 AND R3

You are already familiar with the fact that the set R1 R of real numbers can be represented R
geometrically as a straight line.

Two-dimensional space R2 may be represented geometrically as a plane. It is customary to con-

sider two mutually perpendicular copies of R, called the X-axis and the Y-axis Their point of
intersection is called the origin and is denoted by O. The ordered pair x y R2 is then rep- R2
resented by the point in the plane with coordinates x and y. Accordingly, the origin is the point
0 0.
 16

y (x , y)

O x X

Fig. 2.1 The point x y in R2

R3 Three-dimensional space R3 may be represented in a similar way, by considering three mutually

perpendicular axes, called the X-axis, the Y-axis and Z-axis, which are oriented according to the
right hand rule:
If the fingers of the right hand, pointing in the direction of the positive X-axis, are
curled toward the positive Y-axis, then the thumb points in the direction of the
positive Z-axis.
right hand
rule
Z

X
Fig. 2.2 The X-, Y- and Z-axes (in that order) form a right-handed triple

The ordered triple x y z is then represented by the point in R3 with coordinates x y and z. In
this case the origin O is the point 0 0 0
By convention the Z-axis points upwards, the Y-axis to the right and the X-axis in the direction of
the observer. These three axes determine three mutually perpendicular coordinate planes. In the
XY-plane z 0, in the YZ-plane x 0 and in the XZ-plane y 0
 17 MAT2615/1

YZ

Z
X
Y
XY

Fig. 2.3 The three coordinate planes in R3

Let us explain, by means of an example, how to plot a given point in R3 . To plot the point 2 2 3
we first move two units from the origin along the positive X-axis. That brings us to the point
2 0 0 From there we move two units to the right, parallel to the Y-axis. That brings us to the
point 2 2 0, from where we move 3 units upwards, parallel to the Z-axis, which then brings us
to the point 2 2 3 (The point 2 2 3 lies vertically above the point 2 2 0, at a height of 3
units above the XY-plane.)

Since the X-axis points towards the viewer, units on the X-axis appear shorter than on the Y- and
Z-axis. This phenomenon is called foreshortening. Remember to take this into account when
drawing sketches in R3

Z
3

(2, 2, 3)
2

O
1 1 2 Y
2 (2, 2, 0)

X
Fig. 2.4 The point 2 2 3 in R3
 18

For every point x in Rn (with n 2 or 3), there is a corresponding directed line segment, with
initial point the origin O and endpoint x. We use the notation x x1 x2 xn to denote the
point with coordinates x1 x2 xn as well as the directed line segment from the origin to this
point.
We refer to the elements of Rn , for n 2 as points or vectors, and we often refer to real numbers
(i.e. elements of R1 as scalars. (In geometry, as well as in physics, a vector is regarded as a
quantity which possesses magnitude as well as direction, while a scalar possesses magnitude
only.)

z
(x,y,z)

0
y Y
x

X
Fig. 2.5(a) The point x y z in R3

z
)
y,z
(x,

0
y Y
x

X
Fig. 2.5(b) The directed line segment x y z in R3
 19 MAT2615/1

You will notice that the two interpretations of elements of Rn do not lead to confusion and that
there are many advantages in freely switching from one point of view to the other. It will be clear
from the context whether the n-tuple under consideration is to be viewed as a point or a directed
line segment. For example, if we speak of the distance between a1 an and b1 bn , then
we visualize this as the distance between the points with coordinates a1 an and b1 bn .
Subsets of Rn are also visualized as sets of points in Rn . However, if we speak of the length or
direction of the vector a1 an then we regard it as a directed line segment.

When we represent a vector in R2 or R3 as a directed line segment we usually place it with its initial
point at the origin. This is called the standard position. However, it is sometimes convenient
to represent a vector by a directed line segment with its initial point at a point other than the
origin. Directed line segments obtained from each other by parallel translation are regarded as
representing the same vector.

Fig. 2.6 Line segments with the same length and direction represent the same vector

Since we are humans living in a 3-dimensional world, it is difficult for us to visualize Rn for n 4
However, these cases are also important. The case n 4, for example, often occurs in Physics,
where 3 coordinates are used to indicate the position of a point (particle or body) and a fourth
coordinate denotes time.

Exercises 2.2.1

1. Plot the points 3 0 0, 0 1 0 0 0 2, and 3 1 2 in R3

2. Sketch the vectors 3 1 2, 2 1 4, 2 3 1, 2 1 0, 0 1 2 and 1 0 2 in R3 in

standard position.
 20

2.3 ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION IN Rn

Before we can define operations on vectors in Rn we need to specify when two vectors in Rn are
regarded as being equal.

Equality Definition 2.3.1 Let a a1 a2 an Rn and b b1 b2 bn Rn Then

a b if and only if ai bi for i 1 n

Next we define addition of elements of Rn , (called vector addition) and multiplication of ele-
ments of Rn by real numbers (called scalar multiplication).

Definition 2.3.2 Let a a1 a2 an Rn b b1 b2 bn Rn and t R

vector (i) The sum a b of the vectors a and b is defined by

addition
a b a1 b1 , a2 b2 an bn Rn

scalar multi- (ii) The product ta of the scalar t with the vector a is defined by
plication
ta ta1 ta2 tan Rn

Examples 2.3.3

1. 1 2 1 4 3 0 1 4 2 3 1 0 5 5 1

2. 21 2 1 3 2 4 2 6

3. 21 2 32 1 4 1

Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication in Rn

V.1 Addition is commutative, i.e. for all a b Rn

a b b a

V.2 Addition is associative, i.e. for all a b c Rn

a b c a b c
 21 MAT2615/1

V.3 There exists a zero element 0 Rn with the property that for all a Rn

a 0 a 0 a

V.4 For every a Rn there exists an element a Rn such that

a a 0 a a

We call a the additive inverse of a

V.5 For all s t R and all a b Rn it is true that:

(a) s ta sa ta

(b) t a b ta tb

(c) sta sta

(d) 1a a

(e) 0a 0

All the identities above can be proved directly from the definition of vector addition and scalar
multiplication in Rn We prove only one of these and leave the others for you to prove.
Proof of (V.3): Let 0 0 0 0 Rn and consider any a a1 a2 an Rn . Then we
have

0 a 0 0 0 a1 a2 an
0 a1 0 a2 0 an (by the definition of vector addition)
a1 a2 an
a

Similarly, a 0 a, and this completes the proof.

Rn together with the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication form a vector space.
In general, any nonempty set of objects that can be added and that can be multiplied by a real vector space
number such that V.1-V.5 are satisfied is called a vector space. General vector spaces are treated
in the Linear Algebra module MAT2611.
In R2 and R3 the algebraic definition of vector addition (Definition 2.3.2(i)) corresponds with the
familiar parallelogram rule: If the vectors a and b are represented as adjacent sides of a parallel- parallelogram
ogram as illustrated in Fig.2.7, the vector a b corresponds to the diagonal, with the directions of rule
a b and a b as indicated in the sketch.
 22

b b
a+

a
Fig. 2.7 Vector addition visualized by means of a parallelogram

If the vector b is translated so that its initial point is placed at the endpoint of a then vector addi-
triangle rule tion may be viewed in terms of a triangle, as shown below.

b b
a+

a
Fig. 2.8 Vector addition visualized by means of a triangle

Remark 2.3.4

Since b a is the vector that one adds to a to get b it follows that b a is the vector with the
same length and direction as the directed line segment with initial point a and endpoint b
b-

b
a

a
Fig. 2.9 Vector subtraction

In R2 and R3 the algebraic definition of scalar multiplication (Definition 2.3.2(ii)) agrees with
the geometric interpretation of the multiplication of a vector by a real number. If a is a non-zero
vector in R2 or in R3 , and t is any non-zero real number, then ta and a are parallel (i.e. they have
either the same or opposite directions) and the length of the line segment representing the vector
ta is t times the length of the line segment representing a (Parallel vectors are sometimes called
collinear vectors, because they lie on the same line when represented in standard position).
 23 MAT2615/1

2a

a
O
X
a

Fig. 2.10 Scalar multiplication

This leads to the following algebraic definition of parallel vectors in Rn , for arbitrary n

Definition 2.3.5 Two non-zero vectors a and b in Rn are parallel to one another if there exists a parallel vec-
real number t 0 such that b ta. tors

Remark 2.3.6

If a is a non-zero vector in Rn , we say that the vectors a and ta have the same direction if t 0,
and opposite directions if t 0.

Exercises 2.3.7

1. Determine a b, 3a and 23a b if

(a) a 2 1 and b 1 1
(b) a 2 1 5 and b 1 1 0

2. Determine the vector x y z if 1 2 3 3x y z 5 4 3

3. Let a 2 1 and b 1 3 Sketch the vectors a b a b and a b in R2

4. Let a 2 3 4 Sketch the vectors a 2a and a in R3

5. Are the vectors 2 1 and 1 2 parallel to one another?

6. Are the vectors 2 1 3 and 4 2 6 parallel to one another? Do they have the same
direction?
 24

2.4 THE DOT PRODUCT IN Rn

We now introduce another operation, called the dot product, by means of which two vectors in
Rn may be multiplied so that their product is a real number. The dot product will be used to
introduce the concept of the length or norm of a vector in Rn , which in turn will be used to define
the distance between two points.

Definition 2.4.1 Let a a1 a2 an Rn and b b1 b2 bn Rn The dot product of

dot product a and b is the real number

n
ab ai bi a1 b1 a2 b2 an bn
i 1

Remark 2.4.2

Note that a b is a real number (i.e. a scalar). For this reason the dot product is also called the
scalar product (which is obviously not the same as scalar multiplication, defined in Definition
2.3.2).

Examples 2.4.3

1. 2 1 4 3 2 4 1 3 11

2. 1 4 3 2 4 1 2 3 4 4 6 6 0

Properties of the dot product

For all a b c Rn and all t R the following hold:

D.1 a a 0

D.2 a a 0 a 0

D.3 a b b a

D.4 a b c a b a c

D.5 ta b a tb t a b

Note that as a result of (D.3) and (D.4) we also have

D.4* a b c a c b c
 25 MAT2615/1

We prove (D.2) as an example and leave the proofs of the other properties as an exercise.

Proof of (D.2): The proof consists of two parts. We first prove a a 0 a 0 and then we
prove a 0 a a 0.
The first part is proved by means of a contrapositive proof :
Let a a1 an 0. Then ai 0 for some i 1 n and then ai2 0 (from the properties
of real numbers). But

a a a12 ai2 an2

ai2
0

We have thus proved that

a 0 a a 0

Therefore, by the contrapositive law

a a 0 a 0

The proof of the second part is simple:

a 0 a 0 0 0 a a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The dot product has a variety of important applications. For example, it provides an easy way of
testing whether two vectors are perpendicular to one another (see Section 2.9). It is also used to
find equations of planes in space (see Section 2.12). You will encounter the dot product in various
formulae in later sections and in other units.

Exercises 2.4.4

1. Determine a b if

(a) a 2 1 and b 1 1
(b) a 2 3 1 and b 4 3 7

2. We write a 2 for a a Prove that

a b2 a 2 2a b b2

for all a b Rn

3. Let a 2 1 Find a vector b such that a b 4 and a vector c such that a c 0

 26

2.5 THE NORM IN Rn

We now use the dot product to define a concept of length in Rn

norm Definition 2.5.1 If a a1 a2 an Rn the norm (or length) of a is the real number
(length)
n

a a a ai2 a12 a22 an2
i1

Remarks 2.5.2

1. In R1 the norm corresponds to the absolute value, since

a a 2 a for every a R

2. In R2 or R3 the norm corresponds to the geometric concept of length. If a is a vector in R2

or R3 , then a equals the length of the vector a, which is the same as the distance between
the point a and the origin, calculated according to the theorem of Pythagoras, as shown in
Fig. 2.11.

3. If n 4, the norm of a vector in Rn does not have an immediate geometric meaning, but is
meaningful from an algebraic point of view.

y (x,y)
)
,y
(x

O x X

Fig. 2.11 x y x 2 y2

Example 2.5.3 The length of the vector 1 3 5 equals

1 3 5 12 32 52 35
 27 MAT2615/1

Properties of the norm in Rn

For all a b Rn and t R the following hold:

N.1 a 0

N.2 a 0 if and only if a 0

N.3 ta t a

N.4 a b a b. (The Triangle Inequality)

The proofs of N.1, N.2 and N.3 follow directly from Definition 2.5.1 and the properties of the dot
product (D.1-D.5) and are left for you to do.
N.4 (the Triangle Inequality) is a very important property of the norm. You will often need to use
this inequality. In R2 and in R3 the Triangle Inequality agrees geometrically with the fact that the
sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the length of the other side.

+ b||
|| a ||b||

||a||

Fig. 2.12 a b a b

In order to prove the Triangle Inequality algebraically in Rn , we need the following theorem
concerning the dot product.

Theorem 2.5.4 Let a and b be vectors in Rn Then Cauchy-

Schwarz
a b a b
Inequality

Proof.
Let r b b and s a b (Recall that the dot product of two vectors is a real number; therefore
r and s are real numbers.) Now,

ra sb ra sb r 2 a a 2rsa b s 2 b b
b b2 a a 2b ba b2 a b2 b b

b b b ba a a b2
 28

But, by the property D.1 of the dot product,

ra sb ra sb 0

and hence

b b b ba a a b2 0
Now b b 0 (again by D.1). If b b 0, then dividing both sides of the inequality above by b b
yields
b ba a a b2 0
Thus
a b2 a ab b
Taking square roots on both sides yields

a b a a b b

i.e. a b a b

If b b 0 then b 0 (by D.2); hence a b 0 so in this case a b a b Thus, in
either case

a b a b

Remark 2.5.5

The inequality in Theorem 2.5.4 is called the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality. It is sometimes called
the Cauchy-Bunyakovskii-Schwarz Inequality, since it was independently discovered, for special
cases, by the French mathematician Cauchy, the Russian mathematician Bunyakovskii and the
German mathematician Schwarz.

We now prove N.4 as a corollary of Theorem 2.5.4.

Proof of the Triangle Inequality.
Triangle In- We consider the square of the left-hand side:
equality
a b2 a b a b
2 2
a 2a b b
2 2
a 2 a b b by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality

a b2

Taking square roots on both sides yields

a b a b

The norm defined in Definition 2.5.1 is known as the Euclidean norm, and Rn together with the
Euclidean Euclidean norm is called n-dimensional Euclidean space. (One can define other operations in Rn
n-space satisfying V.1-V.5 and different norms satisfying N.1-N.4 to obtain other normed vector spaces,
but in this module we shall only consider Euclidean vector spaces.)
 29 MAT2615/1

2.6 DISTANCE IN Rn

Limits play a very important role in Calculus. Limits of functions of one variable are defined in
terms of distances between points on the real line. In order to extend the concept of a limit to
multivariable functions, we need a concept of distance in Rn
In R2 and in R3 the geometric distance between points a and b equals the length of the vector
b a (read Remark 2.3.4 and study Fig. 2.9). Motivated by this we define the distance between
two points in Rn as follows.

Definition 2.6.1 The distance between two points a and b in Rn is defined as the non-negative
real number distance
da b b a

Examples 2.6.2

1. The distance between the points 2 0 4 0 and 2 3 0 3 in R4 equals

4 3 4 3 16 9 16 9

50

5 2

2. Let a a1 a2 a3 and b b1 b2 b3 Then

da b b1 a1 2 b2 a2 2 b3 a3 2

Exercises 2.6.3

1. Determine a and b and da b in the following cases:

(a) a 2 1 and b 1 1
(b) a 2 3 1 and b 4 3 7

2. Let x y R2 and a b R2 and let be a positive real number. Prove the following.

(a) x y a b x a and y b

(b) x a 2
and y b 2
x y a b
a
3. Let a 3 1 2 R3 . Calculate the length of the vector .
a
 30

2.7 UNIT VECTORS

unit vector Definition 2.7.1 A vector a Rn is a unit vector if a 1

Example 2.7.2 Determine the unit vector in R3 in the direction of the vector a 3 0 4

Solution. Every vector in the same direction as a is of the form ta, where t is a positive real
number (Read Remark 2.3.6). The length of a is

a 32 02 42 5

Thus the unit vector in the direction of a is the vector 15 a, i.e. the vector 35 0 45 . (Verify that
35 0 45 1

Remarks 2.7.3

1. If a is any non-zero vector in Rn , the unit vector in the direction of a is the vector
a
.
a

2. Some text books denote the unit vector in the direction of a by a

It follows from Definition 2.3.5 and Remark 2.3.6 that aa has the same direction as a We leave
it to you to prove that aa is a unit vector and that it is the only unit vector in the direction of a.

Exercises 2.7.4

1. Find the unit vector in R2 in the direction of 2 1

2. Find two unit vectors in R3 that are parallel to 2 1 3

3. Let a a1 an Rn

(a) Prove that the norm of the vector aa equals 1.

(b) If t R prove that ta 1 if and only if t a1 .
 31 MAT2615/1

2.8 THE STANDARD BASIS VECTORS IN Rn

We now introduce special unit vectors in Rn .

Definition 2.8.1 The standard basis vectors in Rn are the unit vectors

e1 1 0 0 0 e2 0 1 0 0 en 0 0 0 1

Any vector in Rn can be written as a combination of the unit vectors above. For example, if
x1 x2 xn Rn we can write

x1 x2 xn x1 0 0 0 0 x2 0 0 0 0 0 xn
x1 1 0 0 0 x2 0 1 0 0 xn 0 0 0 1

Thus
x1 x2 xn x1 e1 x2 e2 xn en .

Example 2.8.2 The 4-dimensional vector 2 1 0 5 can be written in terms of the standard
basis vectors e1 e2 e3 , e4 as

2 1 0 5 2e1 e2 5e4

It is customary to denote the standard basis vectors in R3 by i, j and k, rather than e1 , e2 and e3 .
Thus
i 1 0 0 j 0 1 0 k 0 0 1

Note that i, j and k are the unit vectors in the direction of the X-, Y- and Z-axes respectively.

(0,0,1) k
j
(1,0,0) i (0,1,0) Y

X
Fig. 2.13 The standard basis vectors in R3
 32

In R2 the standard basis vectors are the two vectors 1 0 and 0 1 When working in R2 we
usually write i 1 0 and j 0 1

The vector x y z R3 can thus be written as

x y z xi y j zk

and the vector x y R2 can be written as

x y xi y j

Remarks 2.8.3

1. The i, j, k notation for vectors is often used in applications of mathematics, while the
component notation x y z is usually used in pure mathematics. In this study guide we
will use mainly the component notation, but we will use the i, j, k notation when it is
convenient to do so. Make sure that you are familiar with both notations.

2. Some text books use the notation k instead of i, j, k

Exercises 2.8.4

1. Calculate i j, i k and j k Comment on your answers.

2. If a a1 a2 a3 R3 calculate a i, a j and a k Comment on your answers.

3. Let a 2 4 3. Write a in i j k - notation.

4. Let a 2 1 Write a in i j -notation.

5. Write the following vectors in component notation:

(a) The vector i -2 j in R2

(b) The vector i -2 j in R3
(c) The vector 2e1 3e2 4e4 in R4
 33 MAT2615/1

2.9 THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

Let a a1 a2 and b b1 b2 be two non-zero vectors in R2 , and the angle between a and b
such that 0

(b 1,b 2)
(a1,a 2) ||a - b||
|
||a|

||
||b

O X

Fig 2.14

By applying the cosine rule (which you learnt at school) to Fig. 2.14, we obtain

a b2 a2 b2 2ab cos

i.e.
a1 b1 2 a2 b2 2 a12 a22 b12 b22 2ab cos

From this we have

a1 b1 a2 b2 ab cos

i.e.
a b ab cos

It can be proved that the formula above also holds when a and b are vectors in R3 . Motivated
by this formula we now give an algebraic definition for the angle between two vectors in Rn , for
arbitrary n

Definition 2.9.1 If a and b are two non-zero vectors in Rn , the angle between a and b is defined
as angle
ab
cos1 between
ab
vectors
 34

It follows from the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality that

ab

ab 1

ab
for all non-zero vectors a and b in Rn . We are therefore assured that cos1 is defined for
ab
all non-zero vectors a and b in Rn .
In Definition 2.9.1, 2 if and only if a b 0. This leads to the following definition.

perpendicular Definition 2.9.2 Two non-zero vectors a and b in Rn are said to be perpendicular to one another
vectors (or orthogonal) if a b 0

Exercises 2.9.3

1. Find the angle between the vectors a and b if

(a) a 2 1 3; b 4 2 6
(b) a 1 0 0 1; b 1 1 1 1
(c) a 3 4; b 8 6

2. Use Definition 2.9.2 to determine whether a and b are perpendicular to one another when

(a) a 0 0 3 b 2 1 0
(b) a 1 2 3 4, b 4 2 3 1
(c) a i b k in R3
(d) a 2i, b 3 j in R2

3. Find a vector in R2 that is perpendicular to the vector 1 2

4. Find the unit vectors in R2 that are perpendicular to 1 2

5. Find two non-parallel vectors in R3 that are both perpendicular to the vector 1 2 3

6. Find a vector in R3 that is perpendicular to the vector 1 2 3 as well as to the vector

1 3 4
 35 MAT2615/1

2.10 THE CROSS PRODUCT

If a is a non-zero vector in R2 then all vectors that are perpendicular to a are parallel to one
another and there are only two directions that are perpendicular to a.

Fig. 2.15(a) The two directions perpendicular to the vector a in R2

If a is a non-zero vector in R3 , there are infinitely many directions perpendicular to a.

Fig. 2.15(b) There are infinitely many directions perpendicular to the vector a in R3

If a and b are two non-zero vectors in R3 that are not parallel to one another, then there are only
two directions that are perpendicular to both a and b The vectors a and b determine a plane in
R3 , as shown in Fig. 2.16, and the two directions perpendicular to this plane are perpendicular to
both a and b
 36

Fig. 2.16 The two directions perpendicular to both a and b in R3

Now let a a1 a2 a3 and b b1 b2 b3 be two non-zero non-parallel vectors and suppose

x x y z is a vector perpendicular to both a and b Then we know that

a x 0 and b x 0

i.e.
a1 x a2 y a3 z 0

and
b1 x b2 y b3 z 0

Thus in order to find a vector perpendicular to both a and b we need to solve the system of
equations above. This system consists of two equations with 3 unknowns (x, y and z. We know
that such a system has infinitely many solutions. One solution is

x y z a2 b3 a3 b2 a3 b1 a1 b3 a1 b2 a2 b1 ,

since
a1 a2 b3 a3 b2 a2 a3 b1 a1 b3 a3 a1 b2 a2 b1 0

and
b1 a2 b3 a3 b2 b2 a3 b1 a1 b3 b3 a1 b2 a2 b1 0

Motivated by this observation we define another type of product in R3 , called the cross product.

Definition 2.10.1 Let a a1 a2 a3 R3 and b b1 b2 b3 R3 The cross product a b

cross is defined as
product a b a2 b3 a3 b2 a3 b1 a1 b3 a1 b2 a2 b1
 37 MAT2615/1

Remarks 2.10.2

1. We read a b as a cross b

2. The cross product of two vectors is a vector (unlike the dot product, which is a scalar).

3. If a and b are two non-zero non-parallel vectors in R3 then the vector ab is perpendicular
to both a and b Thus a non-zero vector c is perpendicular to both a and b if and only if c
is a non-zero scalar multiple of a b

An easy way to remember the formula for the cross product is that a b is the expansion of the
determinant determinant
i j k
form

a1 a2 a3 of cross

b1 b2 b3
product
according to the first row. (Note that this is not a normal determinant because the entries in the
first row are vectors.)

Example 2.10.3 If a 4 1 3 and b 2 3 1 then

i j k


a b 4 1 3

2 3 1

1 3 4 3 4 1

i j k
3 1 2 1 2 3

8i 10 j 14k
8 10 14

Properties of the cross product

For all a b c in R3 and t R we have:

C.1 a a 0

C.2 a b b a (the cross product is anticommutative).

C.3 t a b ta b a tb

C.4 a b c a b a c

C.5 a b c a c b c

You may prove the above properties algebraically by using Definition 2.10.1.
 38

It follows from C.2 that the vectors a b and b a have opposite directions. These are, of course,
the two directions that are perpendicular to the plane determined by a and b. The direction of
a b is such that a b and a b (in that order) form a right-handed triple. Try a few cases (e.g.
i j k to verify this.

axb
b

bxa a

Fig. 2.17 Both a b and b a are perpendicular to both a and b

In order to determine the length of ab, we note that, if is the angle between a and b, 0
then it follows from Definitions 2.5.1, 2.10.1 and 2.9.1 that

a b2 a2 b3 a3 b2 2 a3 b1 a1 b3 2 a1 b2 a2 b1 2
a12 a22 a32 b12 b22 b32 a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 2
a2 b2 a b2
a2 b2 ab cos 2
a2 b2 1 cos2
a2 b2 sin2

Thus
a b ab sin

But ab sin equals the area of the parallelogram shown below. (This follows from the sine
rule for the area of a triangle, taught at high school.)

b
||a|| ||b|| sina x b||

a
Fig. 2.18 The area of the parallelogram determined by a and b
 39 MAT2615/1

Remarks 2.10.4

The geometric meaning of the cross product is as follows.

1. If a b 0, then a b is perpendicular to both a and b. The direction of a b is such that

a, b and a b (in that order) form n right-handed triple, and the length of a b equals the
area of the parallelogram determined by a and b.

2. If a b 0, then either a 0 or b 0 or a and b are non-zero vectors that are parallel to

one another.

In R3 the XY-plane consists of all points of the form x y 0, where x y R2 It is therefore

natural to define the cross product of vectors in R2 as follows:

Definition 2.10.5 Let a a1 a2 and b b1 b2 be vectors in R2 . The cross product a b is

defined as cross
a b a1 a2 0 b1 b2 0 0 0 a1 b2 a2 b1 product
in R2

Remarks 2.10.6

1. Using the determinant notation, we can write

i j k


a1 a2 b1 b2 a1 a2 0

b1 b2 0

a1 a2

k
b1 b2

2. If a and b are vectors in R2 , their cross product a b can be pictured as a vector perpendic-

ular to the XY-plane and a b equals the area of the parallelogram determined by a and
b.

Exercises 2.10.7

1. Let a 1 2 3 and b 2 0 4

(a) Determine the vectors a b and b a using the determinant procedure.

(b) Determine the angle between a and b by using
(i) the cross product.
(ii) the dot product.
 40

2. Determine 1 1 2 3.

3. Determine i i, j j and k k

4. Prove that i j k, j k i and k i j

2.11 LINES IN Rn

In the next two sections we define a number of concepts in Rn based on certain geometric concepts
in R2 and R3 . These definitions are all of an algebraic nature, so that they are meaningful for any
n. Obviously the concepts have no immediate geometric meaning if n 3

By a line in the plane R2 or in three-dimensional space R3 we mean an unbounded straight

line. A line is uniquely determined by a point on it and a vector parallel to it. Roughly speaking,
the point determines its position and the vector its direction. (Given any point p and any vector ,
there are infinitely many lines that pass through the point p and there are infinitely many lines that
are parallel to the vector , but there is only one line that passes through p and is parallel to )

Now suppose L is a line in R2 , p a point on L and a vector parallel to L. Let x be any other
point on L. Then the vector x p is parallel to L (see Remark 2.3.4) and is therefore a scalar
multiple of (see Definition 2.3.5), i.e. there is a real number t R such that

x p t

i.e.
x p t

Conversely, for any t R the point x p t lies on the line L. (This follows from the parallel-
ogram rule for addition). Hence L consists of all points of the form x p t t R

Y x

p
x-
p
tv

O X
L

Fig. 2.19 The line with parametric equation x p t t R

 41 MAT2615/1

This is all still valid when L is a line in R3 instead of in R2 . Motivated by this observation we now
give an algebraic definition of a line in Rn , for arbitrary n

Definition 2.11.1 The line in Rn that contains the point p and is parallel to the vector v is the set line in
of points Rn
L x Rn x p t t R

Remarks 2.11.2

1. The equation x p t t R is called a parametric equation of the line through p

parallel to

2. A parametric equation of a given line is not unique. Other parametric equations for the
same line can be found by using any other point on the line instead of p, or using any other
non-zero vector parallel to L instead of (i.e. using any scalar multiple of .)

Example 2.11.3

A parametric equation of the line in R3 that contains the point 1 2 1 and is parallel to the
vector 1 2 3 is
x y z 1 2 1 t 1 2 3 t R

Every value of t corresponds to a point on this line; for example t 1 corresponds to the point
1 2 1 1 2 3 0 4 2 Therefore, in view of Remark 2.11.2(2), another parametric
equation of the same line is

x y z 0 4 2 t 1 2 3 t R

Cartesian and parametric equations of lines in R2

Suppose L is a line in R2 with parametric equation

x y p q t t R

Then x y L if and only if there is a real number t such that

x y p t q t

i.e.
x p t and y q t
 42

Eliminating t from these two equations, we can obtain a Cartesian equation for L i.e. an equa-
tion of the form ax by c where a b and c are constant real numbers.
Conversely, suppose the equation of a line in R2 is given in the Cartesian form ax by c. If
a 0, we can put y t Then x ac ab t and then x y ac ab t t so the equation can be
written in parametric form as
c b
x y 0 t 1 t R
a a
If b 0 we can put x t and then we obtain the equation

c a
x y 0 t 1 t R
b b

Examples 2.11.4

1. Find a Cartesian equation for the line L with parametric equation

x y 2 1 t 1 5 t R

Solution. x y L if and only if there is a real number t such that

x 2 t and y 1 5t

Multiplying the first equation by 5 and then adding the second equation to it, we obtain

5x y 11

which is a Cartesian equation for L.

2. Find a parametric equation of the line 2x y 4

Solution. Put x t Then y 4 2t. Thus a parametric equation for this line is

x y t 4 2t ; t R

i.e.
x y 0 4 t 1 2 t R

Remark 2.11.5

The procedure followed in Example 2.11.4(1) can only be carried out for lines in R2 . A Cartesian
equation in 3 variables (i.e. an equation of the form ax by cz d defines a plane in R3 and
not a line (as you will see in the next section).
 43 MAT2615/1

Symmetric equations of lines

Suppose L is the line in R3 with parametric equation

x y z p q r t u t R

If u and are all non-zero, we can write

xp yq z r
t t and t
u
This gives
xp yq z r

u
These are called the symmetric equations for L. (Note that these equations are free of the para-
meter t
Lines in Rn can be defined by means of symmetric equations, for any n 2

Example 2.11.6

Find a parametric equation of the line with symmetric equation

x y z
.
1 2 3
Solution. Setting the ratios equal to t, we obtain

x t y 2t z 3t

Thus a parametric equation for this line is

x y z t 1 2 3 t R

Exercises 2.11.7

1. Find a parametric equation for the line in R2 that is parallel to the vector 1 1 and contains
the point 1 2 Sketch the line.

2. Find a parametric equation for the line in R3 that contains the points 0 1 2 and 2 0 1.
Sketch the line.

3. Draw the lines in R2 with equations

x y 0 1 t 1 2; t R

and
x y 1 3 t 2 4; t R

respectively. What do you notice about these two lines?

4. Find Cartesian equations for the lines in R2 with the following parametric equations:
 44

(a) x y 1 2 t 3 4 t R
(b) x y 2 3 t 1 0 t R

5. Find parametric equations for the lines in R2 with the following Cartesian equations:

(a) 2x 3y 5

(b) y x
(c) x 2

6. Find symmetric equations for the lines with parametric equations

(a) x y 0 1 t 2 1 t R
(b) x1 x2 x3 x4 1 2 3 0 t 0 1 2 4 t R

7. Find a parametric equation for the line with symmetric equations

x 2 y2 z
.
3 2 3

2.12 PLANES IN Rn

By a plane in R3 we mean an unbounded flat surface. Geometrically, a non-zero vector is

parallel to a plane V in R3 if it is parallel to some line in the plane. A non-zero vector is
perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane. A plane is uniquely
determined by a point on the plane and a vector perpendicular to the plane. Any vector
normal of perpendicular to a given plane is called a normal of the plane.
a plane
Suppose V is a plane in R3 , p is a point on V and n is a vector perpendicular to V . Let x be any
other point on V . Then the vector x p is parallel to V (since it is parallel to the line through the
points x and p) and hence x p is perpendicular to n (see Fig. 2.20). Therefore

x p n 0

Conversely, if x is any point in R3 such that x p n 0, then the vector x p is perpendicular

to the vector n and therefore parallel to the plane V . Since p lies on V , it follows that x must also
lie on V .

Thus the plane V consists of all points in R3 that satisfy the equation x pn 0 This equation
can also be written as
x n p n
 45 MAT2615/1

n
x
-p
x
p

Y
X
Fig. 2.20 The plane with equation x p n 0

Motivated by the above we give the following algebraic definition of a plane in Rn for arbitrary
n

Definition 2.12.1 If p, n Rn with n 0, then the plane in Rn that contains the point p and is
perpendicular to the vector n is the set of points plane in
Rn
V x Rn x n p n

Remarks 2.12.2

1. In R2 a plane reduces to a line, and the equation x n p n defines the line that contains
the point p and is perpendicular to the vector n In order to find an equation of a line in R2
we may use Definition 2.11.1 or Definition 2.12.1. If we have a vector parallel to the line,
it is convenient to use Definition 2.11.1, and if we have a vector perpendicular to the line,
it is convenient to use Definition 2.12.1. In R2 a line can be represented by a parametric
equation or by a Cartesian equation.

2. In R3 a plane has its usual geometric meaning. Lines and planes in R3 are two different
concepts. Definition 2.12.1 yields a Cartesian equation of a plane, i.e. an equation of the
form ax by cz d A line in R3 can be represented by a parametric equation or by
symmetric equations but not by a Cartesian equation.

3. For n 4 a plane in Rn has no immediate geometric meaning and is sometimes called a

hyperplane. Definition 2.12.1 yields a Cartesian equation of a hyperplane, i.e. an equation
of the form a1 x1 a2 x2 an xn c.
 46

Examples 2.12.3

1. The equation of the line in R2 that contains the point (4 3 and is perpendicular to the
vector 5 2 is
x y 5 2 4 3 5 2

i.e.
5x 2y 26

Note the relationship between the coefficients in the Cartesian equation and the coor-
dinates of the normal.

2. The equation of the plane in R3 that contains the point 2 1 1 and is perpendicular to the
vector 1 1 3 is

x y z 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 3

i.e.
x y 3z 4

3. The equation of the hyperplane in R4 that contains the point 0 0 5 0 and is perpendicular
to the vector 3 1 1 2 is

x1 x2 x3 x4 3 1 1 2 0 0 5 0 3 1 1 2

i.e.
3x1 x2 x3 2x4 5

Remarks 2.12.4

1. To determine an equation of a plane we may use any point in the plane and any normal of
the plane.

2. If n a1 a2 an is a normal of a plane V in Rn , then the equation of V is of the form

a1 x1 a2 x2 an xn c

where c is a constant. Thus the coordinates of n appear as coefficients in the equation.

(Verify this in the examples above.)
Conversely, if V is a plane in Rn with equation a1 x1 a2 x2 an xn c, then the vector
a1 a2 an is a normal of V
 47 MAT2615/1

Example 2.12.5

If V is the plane in R3 with equation 3x 2y 4z 5, then the vector 3 2 4) is a normal of

V.

Exercises 2.12.6

1. Determine a Cartesian equation of the line in R2 that contains the point 5 3 and is
parallel to the vector 5 1

2. Determine a Cartesian equation of the line that contains the point 5 3 and is perpendic-
ular to the vector 1 1

3. Determine a Cartesian equation of the plane in R3 that contains the point 4 2 1 and is
perpendicular to the vector 1 1 3

4. Determine an equation for the line in R3 that contains the point 1 2 1 and is parallel to
the vector 3 1 2

5. Find a Cartesian equation for the plane through the points a 2 1 1, b 3 1 1 and
c 4 1 1

6. Let L be the line with equation

x y z 1 0 0 t 0 1 1 t R

and let V be the plane with equation

y z 4

Determine the point of intersection of L and V

7. Let L be the line in R3 that contains the point 1 3 2 and is parallel to the vector 1 2 2.
Let V be the plane that contains the point 1 1 2 and is perpendicular to the vector
1 2 2. Find the point of intersection of the line L and the plane V

8. Determine whether the lines 3x 5y 1 and 2x y 2 intersect and whether they are
perpendicular to one another.
 48

2.13 SUBSETS OF Rn

The domain of a function of one variable can usually be described in terms of intervals on the real
line. We now remind you of the types of intervals that appear in R

1. Bounded intervals

(a) The open interval a b x x R and a x b

(b) The closed interval [a b] x x R and a x b
intervals in (c) The intervals
R [a b x x R and a x b and a b] x x R and a x b
(These two intervals are neither open nor closed.)

2. Unbounded intervals

(a) The open intervals a x x R, x a and a x x R, x a

(b) The closed intervals a] x x R, x a and [a x x R, x a
(c) The interval x x R R (This interval is open as well as closed.)

Remarks 2.13.1

1. The open interval a b consists of all the points in the closed interval [a b] except a and
b

boundary 2. The points a and b are called the boundary points (or endpoints) of the bounded intervals
points in (1) above. The unbounded interval has no boundary points, while the intervals
in 2(a) and (b) have only one boundary point each (namely a).

interior 3. All points in an interval that are not boundary points of the interval are called interior
points points of the interval and the set of interior points of an interval is called the interior of the
interval. Thus the set a b is the interior of each of the bounded intervals above.

4. Boundary points of an interval are not necessarily elements of the interval. E.g. a and b are
both boundary points of the interval [a b but a is an element of this interval, while b is
not.

5. Do not confuse the point a b R2 with the interval a b on the real line. It is customary
to use the same notation for these two different concepts. It will usually be clear from the
context which of the two concepts are being dealt with.
 49 MAT2615/1

b (a,b)

a X 0 a b

Fig. 2.21 (a) The point a b in R2 (b) The interval a b in R

As a generalization of an open interval in R, we now define an open n-ball in Rn

Definition 2.13.2 Let p be any point in Rn and r be any positive real number. The open n-ball
with centre p and radius r is the set open n-ball

B n p r x Rn x p r

Remarks 2.13.3

1. Recall that x p dx p is the distance between x and p. The open n-ball B n p r

thus consists of all points in Rn whose distance from p is less than r

2. If p R the open 1-ball B 1 p r is exactly the open interval p r, p r on the real

line.

3. If p R2 the open 2-ball B 2 p r is the interior of the circle in R2 with centre p and
radius r. (Points on the circumference of the circle are excluded.)

4. If p R3 the open 3-ball B 3 p r is the interior of the sphere with centre p and radius
r. (Points on the surface of the sphere are excluded.)

5. Although an open n-ball has no immediate geometric meaning for n 3 it is nevertheless

a useful concept. You will notice that open n-balls play an important role in several defini-
tions in this section.
 50

p-r p p+r X

Fig. 2.22 (a) An open 1-ball in R (b) An open 2-ball in R2

(c) An open 3-ball in R3

Using the concept of an open ball we now define interior points and boundary points of arbitrary
sets in Rn

Definition 2.13.4 Consider a set S in Rn

interior 1. A point p S is an interior point of S if there is a positive real number r such that
B n p r S. The set of all interior points of S is called the interior of S and is denoted by
IS

boundary 2. A point p Rn is a boundary point of S if every open ball B n p r contains a point of S

as well as a point in Rn S. The set of all boundary points of S is called the boundary of S
and is denoted by BS
 51 MAT2615/1

Examples 2.13.5

1. Let S be the closed interval [0 2] on the real line. Then every point in S, except for the
points 0 and 2 are interior points of S and the points 0 and 2 are boundary points of S.
Thus I S is the open interval 0 2 and B S is the set 0 2

2. Let

S x y R2 x 2 y 2 2

Then the boundary of S consists of all the points on the circle x 2 y 2 2 and the interior
of S consists of all the points inside this circle, i.e.

I S x y R2 x 2 y 2 2 and B S x y R2 x 2 y 2 2

Y Y Y

2 2 2

2 X 2 X 2 X

(a) S (b) IS (c) BS

Fig. 2.23

The open interval a b in R does not contain its boundary points, so every point in a b is an
interior point of a b This leads to the following definition of an open set in Rn

Definition 2.13.6 A subset S of Rn is an open set in Rn if every point in S is an interior point of open set
S

Remark 2.13.7

In R2 this definition can be interpreted as follows: If p is any point in an open set S then we
can draw a disc with p at its centre that will lie completely inside S. Thus we can move a small
distance from p in any direction and still remain inside S. Another way of stating this is to say that
p can be approached from within the set S from any direction.
 52

p r
S

Fig. 2.24 An open set

The closed interval [a b] in R contains both its boundary points. Closed sets in Rn are defined
analogously.

Definition 2.13.8 A subset S of Rn is a closed set in Rn if S contains all its boundary points.

b
You are familiar with the integral a f x d x, i.e. the integral of the function f over the closed in-

terval [a b] In Part 3 of this guide you will encounter integrals f x y A and f x y z d V ,
R D
where R and D are closed subsets of R2 and R3 , respectively. We shall also consider more general
subsets of Rn , called regions in Rn .

Definition 2.13.9 A subset S of Rn is a region in Rn if S consists of a non-empty open set together

with a subset of its boundary.

Example 2.13.10

Let
S x y R2 1 x 2 y 2 4

Then the interior of S consists of all points between the circle x 2 y 2 1 and the circle x 2 y 2
4, and the boundary of S consists of all points on those two circles, i.e.

IS x y R2 1 x 2 y 2 4

and
BS x y R2 x 2 y 2 1 x y R2 x 2 y 2 4
 53 MAT2615/1

1 2 X

Fig. 2.25 The set x y R2 1 x 2 y 2 4

The set S is not open, since not all its points are interior points. S is also not closed, since it does
not contain all its boundary points. However, S is a region, since it consists of the open set I S
together with part of its boundary.

We shall also need the concept of a bounded set in Rn

Definition 2.13.11 A subset S of Rn is bounded if there exists a real number b 0 such that

x b for all x S. If S is not bounded we say that S is unbounded.

b X

Fig. 2.26 A bounded region

 54

Examples 2.13.12

1. The set x y R2 x 2 y 2 1 is a bounded region in R2

2. The set x y z R3 x 1, y 2 z 2 is a bounded region in R3

3. The set x y R2 x 1, y 1 is an unbounded region in R2

Remark 2.13.13

You may have found the definitions in this section difficult to grasp immediately. When you
encounter these concepts in later units, you should revise this section again. We shall, for example,
study derivatives of functions defined on open sets and we shall study double integrals and triple
integrals over bounded regions in R2 and R3 respectively, so it is essential to have a good intuitive
understanding of these concepts.

Exercises 2.13.14

In each of (i)-(viii) sketch the set S and then answer the following questions:

1. (a) Is S open?
(b) Is S closed?
(c) Is S a region?
(d) Is S bounded?
(i) S 1 R
(ii) S [0 R
(iii) S x y x 2 y 2 1 R2
(iv) S x y x 2 y 2 1 R2
(v) S x y z x 2 y 2 z 2 1 R3
(vi) S x y 1 x 2 y 1 R2
(vii) S 1 2 3 R
(viii) S x y x 1 y 1
Unit 3

Functions

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A function f : A B where A Rn and B Rm , is said to be an Rn Rm function. Thus an

Rn Rm function has its domain in Rn and its image in Rm It maps n-tuples to m-tuples, each
n-tuple x1 xn in its domain being mapped to an m-tuple y1 ym in Rm
An Rn Rm function f is often specified by giving a formula of the form

f x1 xn y1 ym

It is then assumed that the domain of the function consists of all points in Rn for which the formula
is meaningful. The domain of f will be denoted by D f
The main purpose of this module is to generalize concepts in the differential and integral calculus
for R R functions to equivalent concepts for Rn Rm functions.
We shall concentrate on the following four cases.

I Real-valued functions of one variable (R R functions)

Such functions are dealt with in first year mathematics.

Example 3.1.1

The function f given by

f x 1 x2

is an R R function whose domain is the closed interval [1 1] on the real line.

55
 56

II Real-valued functions of several variables Rn R functions, n 2)

We usually denote Rn R functions by means of ordinary lower case or capital letters, for example
f , g, M, N , etc.

Example 3.1.2

The function f defined by

f x y z lnx 2 yz

is an R3 R function with domain

D f x y z R3 x 0 and yz 0

III Vector-valued functions of one variable (R Rm functions, m 2)

R Rm functions (m 2 are usually denoted by underlined lower case letters, for example r
etc. to emphasize that the images are vectors. The independent variable is usually denoted by t
since it often represents time.
If r is the R Rm function defined by

rt x1 xm

then each of x1 xm depends on t so we can write

r t x1 t xm t

and regard each of x1 xm as an R R function. These functions are called the component
functions (or simply the components) of r When we want to study certain aspects of an R Rm
function, it is often sufficient (and usually more convenient) to study the component functions.
This observation will be expanded further when we study limits and derivatives of R Rm func-
tions.

Example 3.1.3

The function r defined by

rt cos t sin t t [0 2]

is an R R2 function with domain

Dr [0 2]

The component functions of r are the functions x and y defined by

xt cos t yt sin t t [0 2]
 57 MAT2615/1

IV Vector fields (Rn Rn functions, n 2)

We usually denote vector fields by means of underlined capital letters, for example F, G etc. An
Rn Rn function F is called an n-dimensional vector field, and we can write

F F1 Fn

where each of the component functions F1 Fn is an Rn R function.

If n 2 we usually denote the component functions by M and N instead of by F1 and F2 If
n 3 the component functions are usually denoted by M, N and P

Example 3.1.4

The function F given by

x y
Fx y ,
y1 x 2
is a 2-dimensional vector field with domain

D F x y R2 x 2 and y 1

and the component functions of F are the R2 R functions M and N defined by

x y
Mx y , N x y
y1 x 2

3.2 VISUALIZING FUNCTIONS

A sketch of a function can be a useful visual aid. Certain functions can be visualized by drawing
their graphs, but sometimes it is more convenient to sketch only the image of a function. Let us
first give precise algebraic definitions for these two concepts,

Definition 3.2.1 (a) The image of an Rn Rm function F is the set

y1 ym Rm y1 ym Fx1 xn for some point x1 xn D F

(b) The graph of an Rn Rm function F is the set

x1 xn y1 ym Rnm y1 ym Fx1 xn for some x1 xn F .

Remarks 3.2.2

1. The image of an Rn Rm function consists of all points in Rm that are images of points in
the domain of f Since the image of an Rn Rm function is m-dimensional, we can sketch
it if m 3 regardless of the value of n.
 58

2. The graph of an Rn Rm function can be thought of as the set of points in Rnm obtained by
plotting each point x1 xn in the domain of f against its image f x1 xn Since
the graph of an Rn Rm function is n m-dimensional, we can sketch it if n m 3
Thus we can sketch graphs of R R functions, R2 R functions and R R2 functions.

Graphs of R R functions

If f is an R R function defined on an interval in R then its graph is the curve in R2 consisting

of all points x y where y f x We usually refer to it as the curve y f x (meaning the
curve with equation y f x We assume that you have had a fair amount of experience with
sketching such graphs.

Examples 3.2.3

1. If f is the R R function defined by f x 2x 1 then the graph of f is the line

y 2x 1

2. If g is the R R function defined by gx 4 x 2 then the graph of g is the semicircle

y 4 x 2

Y Y
f(x) = 2x + 1
2
g(x) = 4 - x
1

X 2 X

Fig. 3.1 Graphs of R R functions are curves in R2

Remark 3.2.4

Not all curves in R2 are graphs of functions of x. For example, the circle x 2 y 2 1 is not the
graph of a function, since on this circle some values of x correspond to two different values of y

(The equation can be written as y 1 x 2 However, the upper half of the circle is the graph

of the function f defined by f x 1 x 2 , while the lower half is the graph of the function g

defined by gx 1 x 2
 59 MAT2615/1

y= 1-x2

1 X
y = ! 1 - x2

Fig. 3.2 The circle x 2 y 2 1

Graphs of R2 R functions

If f is an R2 R function defined on a region in R2 , then its graph is the surface in R3 consisting

of all points x y z where z f x y Thus the graph of f can be regarded as the surface with
equation z f x y, and we usually refer to it as the surface z f x y.

f(a,b)
(a,b,f(a,b))

Graph of f

b Y
a D

X
Fig. 3.3 Graphs of R2 R functions are surfaces in R3
 60

It is usually not easy to draw a precise sketch of the graph of an R2 R function. In the first
place, we have to represent a 3-dimensional picture on a flat (2-dimensional) page. Secondly, the
graph of a function is often an unbounded surface, in which case it is impossible to sketch the
whole graph. However, we can usually get a fairly good idea of the whole graph by sketching a
representative portion of it, i.e. a portion that displays the most important features, such as the
intersections with the coordinate axes and the coordinate planes, its general shape and symmetry
aspects.

To get an idea of the shape of the graph it usually helps to sketch a few contours.

Definition 3.2.5 If f is an R2 R function and c a constant, then the contour C c of f at level

c is the curve in R2 with equation f x y c, i.e.

C c x y f x y c

Remarks 3.2.6

1. The graph of an R2 R function lies in R3 while its contours lie in R2 Thus contours
afford us a two-dimensional way of representing a three-dimensional surface.

2. In order to sketch the graph of an R2 R function in R3 it often helps to draw some contours
in the XY-plane and then to raise or lower them to their corresponding levels, in other words
to draw the contour at level c on the plane z c (See Fig. 3.5, for example.)

Examples 3.2.7

1. Let f be the R2 R function defined by

f x y x 2 y 2

The graph of f is the surface z x 2 y 2 in R3 Putting y 0, we note that it intersects the

XZ-plane where z x 2 and putting x 0, we note that it intersects the YZ-plane where
z y2
 61 MAT2615/1

Z Z
9 9

4 4

1 1

1 2 3 X 1 2 3 Y
Fig. 3.4 Intersection of the surface z x 2 y 2 with the XZ- and YZ-planes

The equation of the contour of f at level c is f x y c i.e. x 2 y 2 c which is a circle

in R2 with radius c Fig. 3.5(a) shows the contours of f at levels 1, 4 and 9 respectively,
and in Fig. 3.5(b) they are lifted to their respective levels. Note that, due to foreshortening,
horizontal circles in R3 look like ellipses.

4
1 2 3 X

1 2 3 Y

(a) X (b)

Fig. 3.5 Contours of the surface z x 2 y 2

It is now clear that the graph of f is the paraboloid obtained by rotating the parabola z y 2
about the Z-axis.
 62

1 2 3 Y

Fig. 3.6 A portion of the paraboloid z x 2 y 2

2. Let f be the R2 R function defined by

f x y x 2 y2

The surface z x 2 y 2 intersects the XZ-plane where z x and the YZ-plane where

z y (since x 2 x and y 2 y).

Z Z

3 3

2 2
z = |x| z = |y|
1 1

1 2 3 X 1 2 3 Y

Fig. 3.7 Intersection of the surface z x 2 y 2 with the XZ- and YZ-planes

The equation of the contour of f at level c is x 2 y 2 c i.e. x 2 y 2 c2 , which is a
circle in R2 with radius c.
 63 MAT2615/1

Y
3

0 1 2 3 X 1 2 3 Y

Fig. 3.8 Contours of the surface z x 2 y2

It is now clear that the graph of f is the cone obtained by rotating the graph of z x about
the Z-axis.

1 2 3 Y

X

Fig. 3.9 A portion of the cone z x 2 y2
 64

3. Let f be the R2 R function defined by

f x y 1 x y

We know from Section 2.12 that the Cartesian equation x y z 1 defines a plane in
R3 This plane intersects the X-axis where x 1, the Y-axis where y 1 and the Z-axis
where z 1 The triangle formed by joining these three points therefore lies on the plane
x y z 1, so we can sketch a representative portion of the plane as shown in Fig. 3.10..

1 Y

X
Fig. 3.10 A portion of the plane x y z 1

4. Let f be the R2 R function defined by

f x y 2 x

The fact that y does not appear on the right hand side of the equality above means that
f x y 2 x, for every y R We can now sketch the line z 2 x in the plane y 0
then we sketch the same line in the plane y 1, then in the plane y 1 etc. This enables
us to sketch a portion of the plane z 2 x, as shown in Fig. 3.11.
 65 MAT2615/1

2
X

Fig. 3.11 A portion of the plane z 2 x in R3

Remark 3.2.8

A surface in R3 is not always the graph of a function of x and y For example, the surface
x 2 y 2 z 2 r 2 (where r is any real number) is a sphere in R3 and for some values of x
and y the point x y corresponds to two values of z, so a sphere is not the graph of a function of
x and y. However, the upper hemisphere is the graph of the function f defined by

f x y r 2 x 2 y 2

and the lower hemisphere is the graph of the function g defined by

gx y r 2 x 2 y 2

Z
r z = r 2 - x2 - y 2

r Y
r

X z = ! r 2 - x2 - y2

Fig. 3.12 The sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 r 2

 66

Contour surfaces of R3 R functions

Since the graph of an R3 R function is in R4 it is difficult to visualize it, but we can get some
idea of it by sketching a 3-dimensional contour map of the graph. Motivated by our definition of
a contour of an R2 R function, we now define a contour of an R3 R function as follows.

Definition 3.2.9 If f is an R3 R function, and c a constant, then the contour C c of f at level

c is the surface in R3 with equation f x y z c, i.e.

C c x y z R3 f x y z c

Example 3.2.10

Let f be the R3 R function defined by

f x y z x 2 y 2 z 2

The contour of f at level c is the surface

x 2 y 2 z 2 c

which is a sphere with radius c.
The contours of f at levels 1 and 4 are illustrated in Fig. 3.13.

Z
x2 + y2 + z 2 = 4

x2 + y2 + z2 = 1

1 2 Y

Fig. 3.13 Contours of f x y z x 2 y 2 z 2

 67 MAT2615/1

Graphs and Images of RR2 functions

Consider the R R2 function r given by

rt xt yt, t I

where I is an interval in R
The image of r is the curve in R2 consisting of all the points xt yt as t moves through the
interval I . We refer to this curve as the curve r.
The graph of r is the curve in R3 that is obtained by plotting every t I against its image
xt yt By representing t on the vertical axis, we obtain the graph of r by plotting the points
xt yt t in R3 i.e. by lifting each point xt yt of the image of r to height t

Example 3.2.11

Consider the R R2 function r given by rt cos t sin t, t [0 If

x cos t and y sin t

then
x 2 y 2 cos2 t sin2 t 1

Therefore, the image of r lies on the circle x 2 y 2 1 As t moves through the interval [0 2],
the point cos t sin t moves round this circle once, and as t moves through the interval [2, 4],
it moves round the circle once more. If this does not seem clear, let t take on certain values, e.g.
0, 2 3
2
2 5
2
3 7
2
4, etc. and plot the corresponding points cos t sin t in R2

The graph of r is the helix that is obtained by plotting the points cos t sin t t in R3 This is
achieved by lifting the image of r as t increases.

Y Z

sin t r(t)
(1,0,6)

(1,0,4
cos t 1 X
(1,0,2)
Y

Fig. 3.14 (a) The image of r (b) The graph of r

 68

Images of R R3 functions

Since the graph of an R R3 function lies in R4 , it is difficult to visualize. However, it is possible

to represent the image of an R R3 function, since it is a curve in R3

Example 3.2.12 Let s be the R R3 function defined by

s t cos t sin t t

Then the image of s is the same curve as the graph of the function r defined by

rt cos t sin t

See Figure 3.14(b).

Parametrization of curves

We have seen that the graph of an R R2 function as well as the image of an R R3 function are
curves in R3 . Likewise, the graph of an R R function as well as the image of an R R2 function
are curves in R2
If a particle moving in R2 is at the point xt yt at instant t, then the path described by the
particle is the image of an R R2 function r given by

rt xt, yt t I

where I is a time interval. The variable t is called a parameter and the equation

x y xt, yt t I

is called a parametric equation or a parametrization of the curve.

Examples 3.2.13

1. Find a parametrization of the curve y 2 2x y R

2
Solution. We can use y as parameter, i.e. we set y t. Then x t2 , so a parametrization
of the given curve is
t2
x y , t t R
2
A more convenient parametrization is obtained by setting t 2y Then x 2t 2 so we
obtain the equation
x y 2t 2 2t t R

Note that this parametrization imposes an orientation on the curve, as indicated in Fig. 3.15(a).
(If, for instance, t moves from 2 to 2 then the point 2t 2 2t moves along the curve from
8 4 to 8 4.)
 69 MAT2615/1

(8,4)

(8,-4)

Fig. 3.15(a) The curve x y 2t 2 2t t R

Another example of a parametrization of the curve y 2 2x is

x y 2t 2 2t t R

This parametrization imposes the opposite orientation on the curve, as shown in Fig. 3.15(b).

(8,4)

(8,-4)

Fig. 3.15(b) The curve x y 2t 2 2t t R

If you need to find a parametrization of a curve with a given orientation, you must make
sure that the orientation imposed by your parametrization agrees with the given orientation.
 70

Example 3.2.14

Find a parametrization for the line segment in R3 with initial point 1 2 1 and endpoint 1 1 0
Solution. The vector 1 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 1 is parallel to the given line segment, so
a parametric equation for the given line segment is

x y z 1 2 1 t 0 3 1 t [0 1]

If t 0 then x y z 1 2 1 and if t 1, then x y z 1 1 0, so the above

parametrization directs the line from 1 2 1 to 1 1 0 as required.

One advantage of describing a curve in R2 by means of a parametric equation is that we can find
a parametric equation for a curve even if some points of the curve have the same x-coordinate but
different y-coordinates (in which case the curve is not the graph of a function and therefore does
not have an equation of the form y f x

Example 3.2.15

The circle x 2 y 2 1 does not have an equation of the form y f x, but it can be described
by means of the parametric equation

x y cos t sin t t [0 2]

Visualizing Vector Fields

Consider a 2-dimensional vector field F defined by

Fx y f 1 x y f 2 x y

The graph of F lies in R4 and is therefore not easy to visualize. The image of F lies in R2 , but
since its domain is also in R2 , we will usually not get a clear picture of F by simply sketching
points f 1 x y f 2 x y of its image. A better way to visualize F is to choose a few points
x y in the domain of F and then draw the vector f 1 x y f 2 x y as a directed line segment
with its starting point at x y In this way we can illustrate the effect of the vector field on given
points in R2

Example 3.2.16

Figure 3.16 visualizes the vector field F defined by

Fx y y x

Note for example that F1 1 1 1 so we draw the vector 1 1 with its initial point at
the point 1 1
 71 MAT2615/1

1 X

Fig. 3.16 Representation of the rotational vector field F x y y x

A vector field of the form Fx y ky kx where k is a constant is called a rotational vector

field.

Three-dimensional vector fields can be similarly represented in R3

Example 3.2.17

A gravitational force field can be described by means of a 3-dimensional vector field F of the
form

kx y z kx ky kz
Fx y z
x y z2 x 2 y2 z2 x 2 y2 z2 x 2 y2 z2
where k is a positive constant. Note that the vector Fx y z, when drawn with its initial point
at the point x y z, points toward the origin, and that the norm of Fx y z is inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance from the point x y z to the origin.

Fig. 3.17 A gravitational force field

 72

Exercises 3.2.18

1. Sketch the graph of the R2 R function f defined by

(a) f x y 3 x 2 y 2
(b) f x y 4 2x 2 2y 2

(c) f x y 2x 2 2y 2

(d) f x y 3 x 2 y 2

(e) f x y 3 x 2 y 2
(f) f x y 3 x 2
(g) f x y 3 x y
(h) f x y 3 x
(i) f x y 3

2. Sketch the following surfaces in R3

(a) z 2 x 2 y 2
(b) x 2 y 2 z 2 4
(c) x 2 y 2 4
(d) x 2 y 2 z 12 1
(e) x y 1
(f) y 2
(g) x 2

3. Sketch the contours of f at levels 1, 2, and 3 if

(a) f x y z x y z

(b) f x y z x 2 y 2 z 2

4. Sketch the image of the R R2 function r defined by

(a) rt 2 cos t 2 sin t t R

(b) rt 3 sin t 3 cos t t [ ]
(c) rt a cos t , b sin t, where a and b are constants.
(d) rt t 2t 1 t [0 2]

5. Sketch the image of the R R3 function r defined by rt 1 2t 1 t 1

t [1 1]

6. Find parametric equations for each of the following directed curves.

(a) The line segment in R3 with starting point 0 3 2) and endpoint 6 2 2

 73 MAT2615/1

(b) The semi-circle in R2 that passes through the points 2 0, 0 2 and 2 0 in that
order.
(c) The quarter circle in R2 with starting point 1 0 and endpoint 0 1 and the origin
as centre.

7. Represent the following vector fields in R2

(a) Fx y x y
(b) Fx y y 1

3.3 THE COMPOSITION OF AN Rn R p FUNCTION AND AN R p Rm FUNCTION

Observe that if g is an Rn R p function and f is an Rq Rm function, then f g can only be

defined if p q (i.e. if the image of g and the domain of f are both in R p

Definition 3.3.1 If g is an Rn R p function and f is an R p Rm function, then f g is the

Rn Rm function defined by
f gx f gx
The domain of f g consists of all points in the domain of g for which f gx is defined.

Example 3.3.2

If r is the R R3 function defined by

r t ln t t t

and f is the R3 R function defined by

f x y z x yz

then f r is the R R function defined by

f rt f rt
f ln t t t

t 2 ln t

Now t 2 ln t is defined only if t 2 ln t 0; i.e. only if t 1 hence

D f r t R t 1

(Note that rt is defined for all t 0 but f rt is only defined for t 1

 74

Exercises 3.3.3

1. Determine the function r f and its domain, where r and f are the functions defined in
Example 3.3.2.

2. Determine the function g F and its domain, where

Fx y z x yz x yz ; g r t rt
 75 MAT2615/1

Answers and hints to exercises

1.2.5

1. (a) S 1 0 1
SS 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
(b) S x Z 2 x 2
S S x y Z Z 2 x 2 2 y 2

2. A B x R 1 x 2 A C x R x 1
A B x R 0 x 1 A C x R 0 x 1
A B x R 1 x 0 B C 0

A B x y R2 1 x 1 and 0 y 2

1.3.18

x
1. No. E.g. 1 3 R and 1 2 R 2. Yes. f x 2
for all x R.

3. (a) [1 1], [0 1]. (b) No, since e.g. f 1 f 1

4. (a) f g x ln x g f x ln x (b) D f R Dg x R x 0,
D f g R , Dg f x R x 1

5. (a) f is not one-to-one, since e.g. f 1 f 1 (b) f R

1.4.8

1. If x is a real number, then x is an integer (i.e. every real number is an integer). FALSE.
If x is an integer, then x is a real number (i.e. every integer is a real number). TRUE.
If x is not a real number, then x is not an integer. TRUE.

2. (a) x 0 or y 0 (b) x 0 and y 0 (c) f x g x for at least one x R.

(d) At least one student has failed the exam. (e) There are flowers of at least two different
colours.
 76

2.2.1

1.

Z
3

(0,1,0)

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 Y
-1
(3,0,0)
-2 (0,0,-2)
X

(3,1,-2)

2.
(-2,1,4)

Z
3

1 -2
(2,-3,1)

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 Y
2
Z
-1
3 3

X -2
2 (0,1,2)
(1,0,2)
1
(3,1,-2)

-3 -2 -1 1 1 2 3 Y
2
(2,1,0)
3

2.3.7

1. (a) 1 0 6 3 14 8.

(b) 1 0 5 6 3 15 14 8 30.
4
2. 3
23 0
 77 MAT2615/1

3.
Y
4 a+b

3 b

1 a

1 2 3 X
-1

-2 a-b

4.
Z
8

2a = (4,6,8)

Z
4 4

a = (2,3,4)
a = (2,3,4)

-2
3 6 Y 3
-3 Y
2 2

4
X
X -a = (-2,-3,-4)

-4

5. No.

6. Parallel, opposite directions.

2.4.4

1. (a) 3 (b) 8

2. Hint: Use D.4 to determine a b a b

3. b 1 2 c 1 2. (Many other possibilities.)

 78

2.6.3

1. (a) 5 2 13 (b) 14 74 2 26

2. (a) Hint: x a x a2

(b) Hint: x y a b x a2 y b2
2
and x a 2 x a2 4

3. 1.

2.7.4

2 1
1.
5 5

2 1 3 2 1 3
2. and
14 14 14 14 14 14

a a a a2 an2
1 n
3. (a) 12 2
a a a a a


a12 an2 a

a a

(b) Hint: ta t a

2.8.4

1. i j i k j k 0 (The X-, Y- and Z-axes are mutually perpendicular.)

2. a i a1 a j a2 a k a3 . (a i a j and a k give, respectively, the x-, y- and

z-components of a.

3. a 2i 4 j 3k

4. a 2i j.

5. (a) 1 2 (b) 1 2 0 (c) 2 3 0 4

2.9.3

1. (a) 0 (b) (c)
4 2
2. (a) Perpendicular. (b) Not perpendicular.
(c) Perpendicular. (d) Perpendicular.

3. 2 1 (and any non-zero multiple of it).

 79 MAT2615/1

2 1 2 1
4. and
5 5 5 5

5. 2 1 0, 1 2 1. (Many others.)

6. 1 1 1 (and any non-zero multiple of it).

2.10.7

1. (a) 8 2 4 8 2 4

1 3 7
(b) (i) sin (ii) cos 1

10 10

1 7 1 3
(Note that cos sin .)
10 10

2. 0 0 1

3. i j j j k k 0 0 0

i j k


4. i j 1 0 0 k

0 1 0

2.11.7

1. x y 1 2 t 1 1 t R 2. x y z 0 1 2 t 2 1 1 t R

Y
(1) (2)
3
3

2 (1,2)
2 (0,1,2)
(-1,1) 1
1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 X (2,0,1)
1 1 2 3 Y
-1
2
3
-2
X
-3
 80

3.

Y
3 (1,3)

1 (0,1)

1 2 3 X

They are the same line.

4. (a) 4x 3y 2 0 (b) y 3

5. (a) x y 4 1 t 3 2 t R (b) x y t 1 1 t R
(c) x y 2 0 t 0 1 t R
x y1
6. (a) (b) Does not have a symmetric equation.
2 1
7. x y z 2 2 0 t 3 2 3 t R

2.12.6

1. x 5y 10

2. x y 8

3. x y 3z 1

4. x y z 1 2 1 t 3 1 2 t R

5. 2x y 2z 7

6. 1 2 2

7. 1 3 2

8. Intersect, since not parallel. Not perpendicular.

 81 MAT2615/1

2.13.14

(i) (ii)

0 1 0

(iii) (iv)
Y Y

1 X 1 X

(v) (vi)
Z Y

1
1 Y
X
1 2 X

(vii) (viii)
Y
0 1 2 3 1

-1 1 X

open closed region bounded

i x x

ii x x

iii x

iv x

v x

vi x x

vii x x x

viii x x x
 82

3.2.18

1.

(a) (b)
Z
8
Z
3

4
3
Y

X
-1 1 Y

(c) (d)

4
Z
2
3

-2 -1 1 2 Y 3 Y
3
X X

(e) (f)
Z
3

3
Y Y
3
X 3
X
(h)
(g) Z

Z
3 3

3 Y Y
3
X (i) 3
Z
X

Y
X
 83 MAT2615/1

2.
(a) (b)
Z Z

Y 2 Y
X
X

(c) (d)
Z
Z

2 Y 1 Y
X

(e) (f)

Z Z

1
Y 2 Y
1
X
X
(g)
Z

Y
2

3.
(b)
(a)
Z
Z
C(3) C(3)
C(2) C(2)
C(1) C(1)
1 2 3
1 2 3
Y Y

X
X
 84

4.
(a) (b)

Y Y

t=0

2 X 3 X

t=0

(c) (d)

Y Y
3

a X 2 X
-1

5.
Y

-1 3 X
(1,3,0)

(1,-1,-2)

6. (a) x y z 0 3 2 t 6 1 0 t [01]
(b) x y 2 cos t 2 sin t t [0 ]
(c) x y sin t cos t t [ 2 ]

7.
(a)
Y Y

X X
 85 MAT2615/1

3.3.3

1. r f x y z ln x yz x yz x yz

Dr f x y z R3 x yz 0

2. g F x y z x 2 y 2 z 2
DgF x y z x 0 y 0 or z 0
 86

Index of Definitions
angle between vectors, 33
antecedent, 9
boundary points, 48, 50
boundary, 50
bounded interval, 47
bounded set, 53
Cartesian equation of a line, 42
Cartesian equation of a plane, 45
closed set, 52
component functions, 56
composition of functions, 6, 73
complement of a set, 2
consequence, 9
contrapositive, 11
contour 60, 68
converse, 9
counter-example, 10
cross product in R2 29
cross product in R3 36
graph of a function, 57
identity map, 7
image of a function, 4, 57
interior points, 48, 50
intersection of sets, 2
intervals in R 48
inverse function, 7
invertible function, 8
law of contraposition, 11
line, 40, 41
negation, 10
norm of a vector, 26
normal of a plane, 44
one-to-one function, 5
open interval, 48
open n-ball, 49
open set, 51

distance between points, 29 parallel vectors, 23

domain of a function, 4 parallelogram rule, 21
dot product, 24 parameter, 68
parametric equation, 41, 68
Euclidean norm, 28 parametrization, 68
Euclidean space, 28 perpendicular vectors, 34
empty set, 2 plane, 44, 45
equality of sets, 2 product of sets, 3
equality of vectors, 20
extension of a function, 5 range of a function, 4
right hand rule, 16
foreshortening, 17 relation, 4
function, 14 restriction of a function 5
 87 MAT2615/1

region, 52

scalar multiplication, 20
scalar product, 24
set-builder notation, 2
standard basis vectors, 31
standard position, 19
subset, 2
symmetric equation of a line, 43

triangle inequality, 27

unbounded interval, 48
unbounded set, 53
union of sets, 2
unit vector, 30

vector addition, 20
vector field, 57
vector space, 21
vector subtraction, 22