Dynamics

POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS
Dr. SUKUMAR MISHRA

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,DELHI
Any physical system has two states
Steady State: Phasors are used to represent the
system and a load flow analysis can be performed
to determine the state of the system. The
transient d/dt terms are assumed to be zero and
thus only algebraic terms are present.
Dynamic State: In this state, various parameters of
the system change continuously within a small
interval of time. The transient terms are no longer
zero and thus differential variables exist along
with algebraic variables. A load flow analysis
cannot be performed as load flow doesnt
consider parameters behind the terminal bus.
Basic elements of a power system
Concept of Grid
It is generally known as the infinite bus, meaning
it can absorb or supply infinite amounts of power.
In a transmission system, real power is related to
frequency and reactive power to voltage. With an
infinite grid, irrespective of the amount of real
and reactive power drawn or injected, no change
occurs in frequency and voltage.
Realistically, no bus is infinite in the system. A
close approximation can be obtained by reducing
multiple generators around a common point
using a Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Requirements of a Properly Designed
and Operated Power System
Must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for
active and reactive power.
"spinning reserve of active and reactive power should be maintained
and appropriately controlled at all times.
The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with

minimum ecological impact.
The "quality" of power supply must meet certain minimum

standards
(a) constancy of frequency;
(b) constancy of voltage; and
(c) level of reliability.
Subsystems of a power system and associated Controls
Control in a Power System
Primary Control
Occurs due to the inertia of the rotating mass. First to react to a
load change. All generators will react.
Secondary Control
Occurs due to the action of the governor of the generator which
varies the input mechanical power to the turbine. Not all
generators will change their governor settings. Thus non
economic sharing of power can occur.
Tertiary Control
Ensure economic allocation of power among contributing
generators by changing the setpoints of the governor.
Reactive Power Control
In addition to the above real power control mechanisms, the
excitation of the generator is varied to control the reactive
power output of the machine and thus to control the voltage.
Synchronous Machine
Cross Section of a Synchronous Machine
The synchronous machine has the following
parts
Armature: In high rating/capacity machines, this
part is located on the stationary structure (stator)
in order to facilitate the lossless transfer of
electrical energy from/to the winding. In low
rating machines, it can be located on the rotating
structure (rotor) too. A three phase balanced
distributed winding makes up the armature.
Field: This winding is usually located on the rotor,
as its rating is low. A constant dc supply is given to
this winding in order to set up a magnetic field in
the machine. Depending on the speed of the
rotor, dictated by the application, salient pole or
cylindrical rotor structures are used.
MMF Distribution in the Armature
Due to the slotting of the structure on which the
armature coils are placed and due to the
distribution of the armature coils, the mmf in the
air gap is not purely sinusoidal and is stepped in
nature.
By adding more coils, the single step wave can be
made into a near sinusoidal waveform as shown
by the figure below. These harmonics in the mmf
wave can be reduced by either using fractional
pitch windings or by adjusting the pitch and the
distribution factor of the coil.
With being the angle around the periphery of
the stator from the centre of phase a, the phase
mmf equations are:
MMFa Kia cos
2
MMFb Kib cos
3
2
MMFc Kic cos
3
ia , ib, ic are the instantaneous phase currents. The
three mmf waves are stationary and displaced in
space by 120 deg. As the value of the current
changes, the magnitude of the mmf also changes.
With the value of the current as given above, the

mmf expressions are:
Thus the mmf wave is a travelling wave with a
sinusoidal spatial distribution with constant
amplitude and a phase angle which varies with
time.
The speed of rotation of the wave is the same as
the synchronous speed given by s electrical
rad/s. with pf number of poles,
Stator and rotor mmf wave shapes
The magnitude of the stator mmf wave and its relative angular
position with respect to the rotor mmf wave depend on the
synchronous machine load
The electromagnetic torque on the rotor acts in a direction so
as to bring the magnetic fields into alignment.
If the rotor field leads the armature field, the torque acts in
opposition to the rotation with the machine acting as a
generator.
On the other hand, if the rotor field lags the armature field, the
torque acts in the direction of rotation with the machine acting
as a motor.
Need for dq-axis
We see that the magnetic circuits and all rotor windings are
symmetrical with respect to both polar axis and the inter-polar axis.
Therefore, for the purpose of identifying synchronous machine
characteristics, two axes are defined as shown in previous fig.
The direct (d) axis, centered magnetically in the centre of the
north pole.
The quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees ahead of the d-axis.
The position of the rotor relative to the stator is measured by the
angle between the d-axis and the magnetic axis of phase a
winding.
The selection of the q-axis as leading the d-axis is purely arbitrary.
Stator and rotor circuits of a synchronous machine
Stator circuit equations
The voltage equations of the three phases are
The flux linkage in the phase a winding at any instant is given by
Similar expressions apply to flux linkages of windings b and c.

Stator self-inductances
The peak values of the two component waves are
The reason for resolving the mmf into the d- and q-axis components is
that each acts on specific air-gap geometry of defined configuration .
Air-gap fluxes per pole along the two axes are
In the above, Pd and Pq are the permeance coefficients of the d- and

q-axis, respectively
Phase a mmf wave and its components

The total air-gap flux linking phase a is
The self-inductance lgaa of phase a due to air-

gap flux is
The total self-inductance laa is given by adding to the above the
leakage inductance Lal which represents the leakage flux not
crossing the air-gap:
Since the windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a

and are displaced from it by 120O and 240O respectively, we have
In these Equations, the stator self-inductances have a fixed plus
second harmonic terms.
In a well designed machine in which the stator and rotor

windings produce nearly sinusoidally distributed mmf and flux
waves, these higher order harmonic terms are negligible.
Variation of self-inductance of a stator phase
Variation of mutual-inductance between stator windings

Stator mutual inductances
The mutual inductance between any two stator windings also

exhibits a second harmonic variation because of the rotor
shape.
It is always negative, and has the greatest absolute value when
the north and south poles are equidistant from the centres of
the two windings concerned.
The mutual inductance lab can be found by evaluating the air-
gap flux linking phase b when only phase a is excited .
The mutual inductance between phases a and b due to the air-

gap flux is
where Lg0 has the same meaning as in the expression for

self-inductance lgaa
There is a very small amount of mutual flux around the ends of

windings which does not cross the air-gap. With this flux
included, the mutual inductance between phases a and b can be
written as
Similarly,
Mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings
The variation in the mutual inductance is due to the
relative motion between the windings themselves.
When a stator winding is lined up with a rotor winding,
the flux linking the two windings is maximum and the
mutual inductance is maximum.
When the two windings are displaced by 900, no flux
links the two circuits and the mutual inductance is zero.
With a sinusoidal distribution of mmf and flux waves,
Similarly,
and
Rotor circuit equations
The rotor circuit voltage equations are
The rotor circuit flux linkages may be expressed as follows:

DQ Transformation
The constants kd and kq are arbitrary and their values may be

chosen to simplify numerical coefficients in performance equations.
With kd and kq equal to 2/3, for balanced sinusoidal conditions,

the peak values of id and iq are equal to the peak value of the stator
current as shown. For the balanced condition,
DQ Transformation
Substituting it in Equation for id,
For the peak value of id to be equal to 1m, kd should equal 2/3.
Similarly,
Under balanced conditions ia +ib+ic=0 and, therefore, io=0.

The transformation from the abc phase variables to the dq0
variables can be written in the following matrix form
The inverse transformation is given by,
The above transformations also apply to stator flux linkages and voltages.
Stator voltage equations in dq0 components
The angle is the angle between the axis of phase a and the d-
axis.
The term p in the above equations represents the angular

velocity of of the rotor.
The and te terms are referred to as speed voltages.
The terms and terms are referred as transformer

voltages.
Electrical power and torque
The instantaneous three-phase power output of the stator is
Eliminating phase voltages and currents in terms of dq0

components, we have
Under balanced operation, eo=io=0 and the expression for power

is given by
The air-gap torque Te is obtained by dividing the power transferred
across the air-gap by the rotor speed in mechanical radians per
second.
Per Unit Representation
In power system analysis, it is usually convenient to use a per unit
system to normalize system variables.
Compared to the use of physical units the per unit system offers
computational simplicity by eliminating units and expressing system
quantities as dimensionless ratios.
A well-chosen per unit system can minimize computational effort,

simplify evaluation, and facilitate understanding of system characteristics
Per Unit Stator Voltage Equations
Dividing throughout by
Expressed in per unit notation,

Per Unit Stator Voltage Equations
With time in per unit, previous equation may be written as
Similarly,
Per Unit Rotor Voltage Equations
Dividing throughout by
Similarly,
Per Unit Power and Torque
The instantaneous power at the machine terminal is,
Dividing by the base three-phase

The per unit Power is,
Similarly, with the per unit Torque is,

Summary of Per Unit Equations
For the complete set of electrical equations in per
unit, refer to Page 86-88 from [1].
Refer to Example 3.1 on Page 91 from [1].
Steady State Analysis
Due to the dq0 transformation, the alternating
currents, voltages and flux linkages in the
stator get converted to steady direct
quantities.
Constant direct supply is used to excite the
rotor field.
Thus all time derivative terms drop out of the
per unit equations of the machine when
steady state analysis is performed.
The amortisseur currents fall to zero in steady
state.
A phasor representation can thus be used.
The stator phase voltages are
where S is the angular frequency and is the

phase angle of ea with respect to the time origin.
After applying the dq0 transformation, and
representing the RMS value of terminal voltage as
Et, the equation are
where,0 is the angle by which the d axis leads the
axis of phase a at t=0.
Using a phasor notation in the dq plane, one
can represent the terminal voltage and
current with i being the angle by which the q
axis leads the terminal voltage Et phasor and
being the power factor angle.
Using the equations of ed and eq, two new reactances can be defined. These reactances
denote the inductive effects of the armature mmf wave on both d and q axis and are
known as the direct axis synchronous reactance (Xd) and quadrature axis synchronous
reactance (Xq).
In order to specify the position of the axes
relative to the terminal voltage phasor, a new
voltage phasor is E q defined as,
Using the equations of ed and eq, we can

obtain the expression for E q, the voltage
behind Ra+jXa, with the axes as the reference.
The phasor diagram for this representation is

shown in following figure.
Under no load, id=iq=0 and thus ed=0 and
eq=Xadifd. Hence Et = jXadifd. Thus initially, the
angle i =0. As the load increases, the angle
increases and hence i is known as the
internal rotor angle or load angle.
The steady state equivalent circuit is
represented in the figure below with saliency
neglected. The equivalent circuit is derived
from the phasor diagram.
Refer to Page 101-102 from [1] for the

complete procedure to obtain the steady state
values. Also refer to Example 3.2 on page 102.
Transient Analysis
The winding of the machine can be considered
as a simple R-L circuit. The expression for the
short circuit current in a R-L circuit is given as
R
Em
sin t
t
i Ke L

Z
where, Z R L
2 2 2
and tan 1
( L / R) .
The constant K is chosen in such a manner as to
ensure that the constant flux linkage theory is
satisfied. This means that i at t=0- and i at t=0+
should be equal.
Thus the current contains a transient
component that decays to zero and a steady
state component.
In a 3- synchronous machine, the fault
current contains two components:
A fundamental frequency component that decays
initially very rapidly and then relatively slowly to
the steady state value.
A unidirectional component (or a dc offset), which
decays exponentially in several cycles.
The initial rapid decay of the current is due to
the rapid decay of the flux linking the
subtransient circuit (amortisser winding in d
axis) while the slow decay is due to the slow
decay of the flux linking the transient circuits
(field and amortisser winding in q axis).
Field Current response to short circuit
Short Circuit current in the three phases

Elimination of dc offset
This is required because the analysis of the power
system with both varying fundamental frequency
component and varying unidirectional component
will be complex and computationally involving.
This is achieved by eliminating the transformer
voltage terms from the stator voltage equations.
These terms represent the stator transients and

thus prevent the flux from changing
instantaneously.
This produces the dc offset in the current
(constant K in the equation for current).
Due to the elimination of the transformer voltage
terms, the dc offset and its related effects are
eliminated from the dynamic performance of the
machine.
However, this elimination mean that the flux
terms remain constant. The normal mathematical
convention of a derivative equaling zero denoting
a derivative of a constant does not hold good in
this scenario.
The flux linkage does change when a short circuit
occurs and by eliminating the transformer voltage
terms, we are assuming that the flux changes
instantaneously.
Thus with the elimination of the dc offset, the
armature short circuit current is as shown below:
Swing Equation
The accelerating torque of the generator and
the turbine system can be expressed as
d m
J Ta Tm Te
dt
where,
J- combined moment of inertia of turbine and
generator in kg-m2
m- angular velocity of the rotor in mech rad/s
Ta- accelerating torque in N-m
Tm- mechanical torque in N-m
Te- electromagnetic torque in N-m
Denoting the inertia constant H, as the ratio of
the kinetic energy in watt-seconds at rated
speed and the VA base, one can rewrite the
accelerating torque equation.
1 J 02m
H
2 VAbase
2H d m
VAbase Tm Te
2
0m dt
In per unit notation the equation thus becomes

d r
2H Tm Te
dt
Where, r is elec angular velocity and pf is the number

of field poles m r / p f r
r
0m 0 / p f 0
Machine Operational Parameters
The direct axis and quadrature axis reactances
that have been discussed before are known as
the fundamental parameters of the machine.
They completely specify the electrical
characteristics of the machine, however they
cannot be directly determined from the
measured responses of the machine.
Thus there is a need to specify the following
operational parameters:
G(s)- stator to field transfer function
Ld(s)- d axis operational inductance
Lq(s)- q axis operational inductance
Thus the network representation of the system in
incremental form is as shown below with the
equations of this form given below the
representation
d ( s) G( s)e fd ( s) Ld ( s)id ( s)
q ( s) Lq ( s)iq ( s)
The order of the numerator and denominator
polynomials of Ld(s) and Lq(s) are equal to the
number of rotor circuits in the respective axis.
The denominator of G(s) is the same as Ld(s) but
the numerator is different and one order less.
The operational parameters can be obtained with
the help of the equivalent circuits shown below.
The expressions for the operational parameters are

thus given by:
Where,
In order to relate these parameters to the sub-
transient and transient phenomenon in the
machine, four time constants are defined for each
axis as follows:
Td' 0,q 0 - Open circuit transient time constant
Td"0,q 0 - Open circuit sub-transient time constant
Td' ,q - Short circuit transient time constant
Td",q - Short circuit sub-transient time constant
With these new time constants, the equations for
the operational inductances are given as
The relation between the old time constants and
the new ones are:
With these time constants, it is now possible to

derive the expressions for the sub-transient and
transient inductances of the machine.
On substituting the expressions for the time
constants, the expression for the inductances and
the equivalent circuit is:
The typical relation between the time
constants and the reactances is given as
Refer to Table 4.2 and example 4.1 from page

153-159 in [1].
Simplifications in Stability Studies
In the stability analysis of a synchronous
machine, two simplifying assumptions are made:
The transformer voltage terms pd and pq in the
stator voltage equations.
The effect of speed variations
The transformer voltage terms can be neglected
because the network transients decay very
rapidly. Thus to maintain equivalency, the stator
transients are also neglected. This also converts
the stator voltage equations into pure algebraic
equations.
This assumption of neglecting the stator voltage
transients is counter balanced by assuming that
the per unit rotor speed is 1 pu i.e. s-r =0
Refer example 5.1 on Page 175 of refer [1].
Alternative form of Machine Equations
Alternative variables are sometimes used to
express the machine flux variations. These
variables are given on the left.
Thus the summary of the equations in the

new set of variables are shown to the right.
For transient conditions, a phasor representation
can be used as is shown below
The equations are given by
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
Disturbances threatening the stability of a system:

Network failure
Tripping of a generation unit
Erroneous action in the network operation
Relatively small change in the network state, if damping is poor
Energy fluctuation as a result of disturbance:

Between capacitors and inductances
Between rotating masses (most important factor)
Boilers in power plants, combustion chambers or the kinetic energy
of water
EXCITATION SYSTEM AND
REACTIVE CAPABILITY CURVE
EXCITATION SYSTEM REQUIREMENT
The performance requirement of the excitation system are
determined by considerations of the synchronous generator as
well as power system.
GENERATOR CONSIDERATION
The basic requirement is that the excitation system supply and

automatically adjust the field current of the synchronous
generator to maintain the terminal voltage as the output varies
with the continuous capability of generator.
In addition, the excitation system must be able to respond to
transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with the
generator instantaneous and short term capabilities.
POWER SYSTEM CONSIDERATION
From the power system viewpoint, the excitation system
should contribute to effective control of voltage and
enhancement of system stability.
It should be capable of responding rapidly to disturbance so as
to enhance transient stability,
and of modulating the generator field so as to enhance small-
signal stability
FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A
SYNCH. GENERATOR EXCITAION
CONTROL SYSTEM
LIMITERS AND
PROTECTIVE
CIRCUITS
TERMINAL VOLTAGE
TRANSDUCER AND LOAD
COMPENSATION
REF REGULATOR EXCITER GENERATOR

TO POWER
SYSTEM
POWER SYSTEM
STABILIZER
ELEMENTS OF AN EXCITATION SYSTEM
EXCITER: Provides dc power to the synchronous

machines field winding, constituting the power stage
of the excitation system
REGULATOR: Processes and amplifies input control

signals to a level and form appropriate for control of
the exciter.
TERMINAL VOLATGE TRANSDUCER AND LOAD
COMPENSATOR: Senses generator terminal voltage, rectifies and
filters it to dc quantity and compares it with a reference, which
represents the desired terminal voltage. In addition, load
compensator may be provided, if it is desired to hold constant
voltage at some point electrically remote from the generator
terminal.
POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER: Provides an additional input
signal to the regulator to damp power system oscillation.
LIMITERS AND PROTECTIVE CIRCUITS: These include a wide
array of control and protective functions which ensures that
capability limits of exciter and synchronous generator are not
exceeded.
TYPES OF ECITATION SYSTEM
DC excitation system
AC excitation system
Static excitation system
The rating is generally 2kW to 3 kW/MVA
STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM
(a). POTENTIAL SOURCE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
SYSTEM
GENERAL
In this system, the excitation power is supplied through a
transformer from the generator terminal or the station auxiliary
bus and is regulated by a controlled rectifier
LIMITATION
The maximum excitation output voltage is dependent on the
input ac voltage. Hence during system fault conditions causing
depressed generator terminal voltage , the available exciter
voltage is reduced.
POTENTIAL SOURCE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER SYSTEM
(b). COMPOUND SOURCE RECTIFIER
SYSTEM
GENERAL
The power to the excitation system in this case is formed by

utilizing the current as well as the voltage of the main
generator. This may be achieved by means of a power potential
transformer and a saturable current transformer.
Alternatively, the voltage and current sources may be

combined by utilizing a single excitation transformer, referred
to as saturable current potential transformer.
COMPOUND SOURCE RECTIFIER SYSTEM
(c). COMPOUND CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
EXCITATION SYSTEM
GENERAL
This system utilizes controlled rectifiers in the
exciter output circuits and the compounding of
voltage and current derived source within the
generator stator to provide excitation power
COMPOUND CONTROLLED RECTIFIER EXCITATION SYSTEM
In all the cases Field flashing is required. It is
generally carried out via station battery
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE MEASURE
EXCITATION CONTROL SYSTEM IN CLASSICAL FEEDBACK FORM

LARGE SIGNAL PERFORMANCE
MEASURE
Large signal performance measure provide a means
of assessing the excitation system performance for
severe transients such as those encountered in
consideration of transient mid term and large term
stability of power system. Such measures are:
Excitation system ceiling voltage
Excitation system ceiling current
Excitation system voltage time response
High initial-response excitation system
Excitation system nominal response
SMALL SIGNAL PERFORMANCE
MEASURE
Small signal performance measure provide a means
of evaluating the response of the closed-loop
excitation control system to incremental changes in
system conditions. Small signal performance may be
expressed in terms of performance indices
Indices associated with time response
Indices associated with frequency response

TYPICAL TIME REPONSE TO STEP
INPUT
EXCIATTION SYSTEM CONTROL AND
PROTECTIVE CIRCUITS
REACTIVE CAPABILITY LIMITS
The continuous reactive power output capability is

limited by three consideration:
Armature current limit
Field current limit
End region heating limit
(a). ARMATURE CURRENT LIMIT
The armature current results in
an RI power loss and the energy
associated with this loss must be
removed so as to limit the
increase in temperature of the
conductor and its immediate
environment
Per unit complex output is
S=P+Qi=EtIt*
=|Et||It|(cos+isin)
(b). FIELD CURRENT LIMIT
Because of the heat resulting from Rfdifd
power loss, the field current imposes a
second limit on the operation of the
generator.
Constant field current locus may be (a)

developed by steady state equivalent
circuit shown in figure a aside. With
Xd=Xq=Xs, the equvalent circuit gives
relationship between Et and Eq(=Xadifd).
The corresponding phasor diagram is

shown in figure b
(b)
P=EtItcos=(Xad/Xs)Etifdsini
Q=EtItsin=(Xad/Xs)Etifdcosi-(Et /Xs)
The relationship between the active and reactive powers for a given field
current is a circle at (-Et /Xs)on the Q axis and with (Xad/Xs)Etifd as the
radius as shown in figure c
(c)
(c). END REGION HEATING LIMIT
The localized heating in the end region of the armature
imposes a third limit on the operation of a synchronous
machine. This limit affects the capability of the machine in the
under excited condition
SECTION VIEW OF END REGION OF A GENERATOR

END REGION HEATING LIMIT
REACTIVE CAPABILITY
CURVES OF A HYDROGEN-
COOLED GENERATOR AT
RATED VOLTAGE
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Multi Machine Dynamics
Single line diagram
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Disturbances threatening the stability of a
system:
Network failure
Tripping of a generation unit
Erroneous action in the network operation
Relatively small change in the network
state, if damping is poor
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Energy fluctuation as a result of disturbance:
Between capacitors and inductances
Between rotating masses (most important
factor)
Boilers in power plants, combustion
chambers or the kinetic energy of water
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Changes can be seen in
the quantities P, Q, V, I
time constants between 10 ms10 s
period of oscillations between 0.55 s
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The stability of synchronous
machines depends on the state of the
network and the nature of the
disturbance.
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The stability related to synchronous
operation is categorized according to the
nature of the phenomenon usually as
follows:
Steady-state stability
Dynamic stability
Transient stability
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Stability with respect to small changes
(random variation of loading, compensating
device)
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Dynamic stability
After a fault, an individual synchronous machine
may remain in synchronism during the first swing.
After this, strong electromechanical oscillations
occur.
116
Transient stability
Transient stability refers to stability with
respect to large changes.
When the criterion for stability is that the
generator remains in synchronism during the
first swing.
Changes refer to faults that determine the
network dimensioning and operation (busbar
fault; tripping of generation).
117
Swing Equation
During any disturbance the rotor will decelerate or accelerate w.r.t.
synchronously rotating mmf .So a relative motion begins.The equation
describing this relative motion is called Swing Equation.
If pm is the shaft power input to the machine
pe is the electrical power
pa is the accelerating power
Differential eqn. Governing rotor dynamics is
M(d2 e/dt2 ) = Pm-Pe ------ (1)
Measurement of the angular position of the rotor w.r.t. a synchronously
rotating frame of reference is called Torque angle or Power Angle
= e Ws t
From this equation
d2 /dt2=d2 e/dt2 ------ (2)
substituting eqn 2 in 1
M(d2 e/dt2 ) = M(d2 /dt2) = Pm-Pe -----(3)
Equal Area Criterion
This is a simple graphical method to predict the

transient stability of two machine system or a single
machine against infinite bus. This criterion does not
require swing equation or solution of swing equation
to determine the stability condition.
The stability conditions are determined by equating
the areas of segments on power angle diagram.
Swing Equation M(d2 /dt2) = Pm-Pe =Pa

2
By Solving d /dt =
M 0
Pa d = 0
For stability d /dt =0

Pa d = 0
The system is stable if the area under acceleration
0
power (Pa) vs power angle () curves reduce to zero at

some value of .
Accelerating area = Decelerating area
Hence named as Equal area Criterion Stability
Equation gives the relative speed of the machine with
respect to the synchronously revolving reference
frame. For stability, this speed must become zero at
some time after the disturbance. Therefore, we have
for the stability criterion.

o
( Pm Pe)d 0
First swing stability-Equal Area Criterion
A generator connected to an infinite bus through a line. Initially Pm=Pe
jXd jXL
Pm
+ Fixed (Infinite Bus)
Pe
E/ V/0
Stability is governed by the Swing Equation

d2/dt2 = (f/H) (Pm-Pe) Swing Equation
d /dt = -syn
Pe = E V sin () /(X+XL) Power Angle

Equation
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Stable Equilibriumsmall increase in mechanical power
P Pe
B DE Pm1
A Pm
o
At A is = s
At B is > s
At D is < s
At E again is = s
So system is First swing stable!
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Stable Equilibriumsmall increase in mechanical power
P
Pe
C E
D Pm1
A B Pm
o 1
First swing
-syn
Stable
0

1
0
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P
Pe
C E
Pm1
A Pm

o x 2
x
x 1
[Pm1 Pe]d [Pm1 Pe]d 0

0 x
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The stability related to synchronous operation is categorized
according to the nature of the phenomenon usually as follows:
Dynamic stability
Transient stability
Changes can be seen in the quantities P, Q, V, I

time constants between 10 ms10 s
period of oscillations between 0.55 s
The stability of synchronous machines depends on the state of the

network and the nature of the disturbance.
Stability with respect to small changes (random variation of
loading, compensating device)
Dynamic stability
After a fault, an individual synchronous machine may remain in
synchronism during the first swing.
After this, strong electromechanical oscillations occur.
Transient stability
Transient stability refers to stability with respect to large changes.
When the criterion for stability is that the generator remains in
synchronism during the first swing.
Changes refer to faults that determine the network dimensioning
and operation (bus bar fault; tripping of generation).
TRANSIENT STABILITY IS ENHANCED BY USING HIGH SPEED

EXCITATION SYSTEM WITH HIGH CEILING VOLTAGES.
BASIC FUNCTION OF POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER:

Power system stabilizers add damping to electro-mechanical
oscillations.
Essentially, they act through the generators excitation system in

such a way that a component of electrical torque proportional to
speed change, is generated (an addition to the damping torque).
A power system stabilizer is used to add a modulation signal to a

generators AVR reference input.
Types of power system Oscillations:
Local modes of oscillations:
Oscillations associated with the Swinging of units at a generating
Station with respect to rest of the Power system (frequency 0.7 - 2.0
Hz)
Inter-area modes of oscillations :

A group of generators or plants in one area oscillates against a group
of generators at other end of a tieline ( Freq. 0.1 - 0.8 hz.)
Fundamental Concepts of Stability of Dynamic Systems:
State-Space Representation:
The behaviour of dynamic system can be described as
where n is the order of the system and r is the number of inputs.

Can be written as :
where
If the derivatives of the state variables are not explicit functions of
time, the system is said to be Autonomous.
Then,
Where
y : vector of outputs, g : vector of nonlinear functions relating state

and input variables to output variables.
State: The state of a system represents the minimum amount of
information about the system at any instant in time to that is
necessary so that its future behaviour can be determined
reference to the input before to.
Any set of n linearly independent system variables may be used to

describe the state of the system -- State variables;
The system state may be represented in an n-dimensional Euclidean

space -- State space.
The set of points traced by the system state in the state space as the
system moves -- State trajectory.
Linearization:
Let, x0: The initial state vector,
uo: The input vector corresponding to the equilibrium point about
which the small-signal performance is to be investigated
Let us perturb the system from the above state

Linearization:
As the perturbations are assumed to be small, the nonlinear functions
f(x,u) can be expressed in terms of Taylor's series expansion.
Linearization:
Therefore, the linearized forms of Equations

Linearization:
The above partial derivatives are evaluated at the equilibrium point

about which small perturbation is being analyzed.
Linearization:
By taking the Laplace transform of the above equations,
Linearization:
From earlier equations
Hence,
The Laplace transforms of x and y are seen to have two

components, one dependent on the initial conditions and the other on
the inputs.--Laplace transforms of the free and zero-state components
of the state and output vectors.
Linearization:
The poles of x(s) and y(s) are the roots of the equation
The values of s which satisfy the above are known as eigen values
of matrix A, and above equation is referred to as the characteristic
equation of matrix A.
Eigen Properties of the State MatrixEigen values
The eigen values of a matrix are given by the values of the scalar
parameter for which there exist non-trivial solutions (i.e., other than
=0) to the equation
Where,
A is an nxn matrix (real for a physical system such as a power
system) is an nx1 vector.
To find the eigen values,
For a non-trivial solution

Expansion of the determinant gives the characteristic equation.
The n solutions of =1,2,3,4,n are eigen values of A.
Eigen Properties of the State MatrixEigenvectors
For any eigenvalue i, the n-column vector i, which satisfies
Equation is called the right eigenvector of A associated
with the eigenvalue i, . Therefore, we have
Similarly, the n-row vector i which satisfies
is called the left eigenvector associated with the eigen value i .

Eigen Properties of the State MatrixEigen vectors
The left and right eigenvectors corresponding to different eigen
values are orthogonal.
However, in the case of eigenvectors corresponding to the same

eigen value,
Since, as noted above, the eigenvectors are determined only to within

a scalar multiplier, it is common practice to normalize these vectors
so that
Modal Matrices
The following matrices are introduced in order to
conveniently express the properties
The matrices expressed are of order nxn and a

simplification can be applied.
Free Motion of a Dynamic System
From the state equation, we can see that with zero
input, a free motion of the system can be described.
Due to the cross coupling between the state variables

the analysis of this system becomes complex. In order
to simplify this, a new state vector is defined as
With this representation, the coupling between the

state variables is eliminated. Thus the equation for
each state variable is a simple first order differential
equation with a solution as
Thus representing this solution in terms of the
original state variables, we get
Using the definition we can write it as
Where, ci =
The time response of the ith state variable is thus
given as
Thus the free response is a linear combination of n

dynamic modes corresponding to the n eigenvalues
of the state matrix.
The scalar product ci=ix(0) represents the
magnitude of the excitation of the ith mode.
Mode shape and eigenvectors:
Consider,
&
The right eigenvector gives the mode shape, i.e., the relative activity
of the state variables when a particular mode is excited.
Eg: The degree of activity of the state variable xk in the ith mode is
given by the element ki of the right eigenvector i.
Mode shape and eigenvectors:
The magnitudes of the elements of i give the extents of the
activities of the n state variables in the ith mode, and the angles
of the elements give phase displacements of the state variables
with regard to the mode.
Eigenvalue sensitivity
So,
Premultiplying by i , and noting that

ii = 1 and
Eigenvalue sensitivity:
The elements of A / akj are zero, except for the element in the kth
row and jth column which is equal to 1.
Sensitivity of the eigenvalue i to the element akj of the state matrix is

equal to the product of the left eigenvector element ik and the right
eigenvector element ji.
Participation factor
One problem in using right and left eigenvectors individually for
identifying the relationship between the states and the modes is that
the elements of the eigenvectors are dependent on units and scaling
associated with the state variables.
Solution: A matrix called the participation matrix (P), which

combines the right and left eigenvectors as follows as a measure of
the association between the state variables and the modes.
Participation factor
The element pki=kiik is termed the participation factor. It is a
measure of the relative participation of the kth state variable in the ith
mode, and vice versa.
Since ki measures the activity of xk in the ith mode and ik weighs

the contribution of this activity to the mode, the product Pki measures
the net participation.
In view of the eigenvector normalization, the sum of the participation

factors associated with any mode or with any state variable
is equal to 1.
since,
Phillips Heffron Model of SMIB
Also known as the K1-K6 model of the system.
Developed by linearising the system of equations
The generator is represented by the classical model

and all resistances are neglected.
As the rotor of the generator oscillates during a
disturbance, the angle changes.
From the equations of motion, we get
Linearising the above equation and substituting for

the variable T we get
e
Where Ks is the synchronising torque coefficient.

Thus in matrix form, the linearised equations and its
representation in the block diagram form as shown
below:
The characteristic equation, natural frequency and
damping ratio of the system can thus be obtained
as
To incorporate the effect of the field circuit, the
third differential equation of the machine has to
be used. In addition, the network KVL equations
from the terminal of the machine to the infinite
bus have to be solved simultaneously in order to
obtain the expressions for id and iq. These
expressions are then used in the differential
equation to eliminate the algebraic variables.
Section 12.3.2 on page 737 of [1] develops these
equations based on the differential equation for
. On these same lines the equations can be
developed for the differential equation for Eq' .
The mathematical development of these
equations is left as an assignment.
The block diagram representation with the field
circuit dynamics is as shown below:
With reference to Example 12.3 on page 752 of [1],
Thus two new state variables are added to the classical model. It is left as an assignment to
obtain the mathematical equations for the exciter with Eq and Efd
The basic structure of a PSS is shown below and has three blocks: a gain, a washout block
and a phase compensation block
De stabilisation due to application of PSS
this was that the shaft speed measured at the generator end had a high component of the
16 Hz torsional mode
Torsional masses
Typical lumped-mass model of a generating unit driven by a tandem compound
reheat turbine.
The five torsional masses represent the rotors of the generator, two low-
pressure (LP) turbine sections, an intermediate-pressure (IP) turbine section,
and a high-pressure (HP) turbine section.
TORSIONAL INTERACTION WITH POWER SYSTEM
CONTROLS
Torsional oscillations of turbine generators are inherently lightly damped.

While the level of damping can vary to some extent with steam conditions and unit
output, normally it is not affected by the generating unit or network controls.
There have been several instances of torsional mode instability due to interactions
with the generating unit excitation and prime mover controls, and with nearby
HVDC converter controls
The PSS, which used a stabilizing signal based on speed measured at the
generator end of the turbine-generator shaft, was found to excite the lowest
torsional mode. The reason for this can be readily seen from the torsional
characteristics shown in Figure 15.3, which are similar to those of the Lambton
units.
Shaft speed measured at the generator end has a high component of the 16 Hz
torsional mode. The stabilizer transfer function is designed to provide zero
phase shift between the input speed signal and air-gap torque at the system
mode frequency of 1.67 Hz, so as to result in a purely damping torque
component as shown in Figure 15.7(a)
However, the generator characteristics are such that this results in a phase lag of
about 1350 at 16 Hz. As shown in Figure 15.7(b), the effect is to produce a
negative damping torque component and hence instability of the 16 Hz torsional
mode.
Torsional mode instability through excitation control may also be caused by a
terminal voltage limiter which uses feedback of terminal voltage to control
excitation through a very high gain.
This can cause torsional instability, unless some kind of filtering is provided to
attenuate high frequency components of the voltage signal.
PSS based on shaft speed signal (delta-omega): (limitations)
PSS based on shaft speed signal has been used successfully on hydraulic units.
Among the important considerations in the design of equipment for the
measurement of speed deviation is the minimization of noise caused by shaft
run-out and other causes.
For noise frequencies below 5 Hz, the level must be less than 0.02%, since
significant changes in terminal voltage can be produced by low-frequency
changes in the field voltage.
The application of shaft speed-based stabilizers to thermal units requires a
careful consideration of the effects on torsional oscillations.
The stabilizer, while damping the rotor oscillations, can cause instability of the
torsional modes.
While stabilizers based on direct measurement of shaft speed have been used on
many thermal units, this type of stabilizer has several limitations.
The primary disadvantage is the need to use a torsional filter which also
introduces a phase lag at lower frequencies.
A destabilizing effect is developed on the "exciter mode", due to this filter lag,
thus imposing a maximum limit on the allowable stabilizer gain.
Thus stabilizer has to be custom-designed for each type of generating unit

depending on its torsional characteristics.
Delta-P-omega stabilizer
delta-P-omega stabilizer advantages over the delta-omega
stabilizer
Frequency-based stabilizers:
Terminal frequency has been used as the stabilizing signal for several PSS
applications.
In some cases, terminal voltage and current are used to derive the frequency of a
voltage behind a simulated machine reactance so as to approximate the machine
rotor speed.
In these systems, as in the case of speed-based stabilizers, care must be taken to
filter torsional modes when they are used on steam turbine units.
The sensitivity of the frequency signal to rotor oscillations increases as the
external transmission system becomes weaker, tending to offset the reduction in
gain from stabilizer output to electrical torque that results from a weaker
transmission system
The gain of a frequency-based stabilizer may be adjusted to obtain the best
possible performance under weak ac transmission system conditions where the
contribution of the stabilizer is required most.
The frequency signal is more sensitive to modes of oscillation between large
areas than to modes involving only individual units, including those between
units within a power plant.
Thus it is possible to obtain greater damping contributions to interarea modes of
oscillation.
Limitation of Frequency-based stabilizers:
During a rapid transient, the terminal frequency signal will undergo a sudden phase
shift. This results in a spike in the field voltage that is reflected in the generator
output quantities.
The frequency signal often contains power system noise caused by large industrial
loads such as arc furnaces. In many cases this has prevented the use of frequency as
an input signal.
Torsional filtering is required. Hence, a frequency-based stabilizer has the same

basic limitation as the delta-omega stabilizer.
Sub-syncronous Oscillations due to HVDC system
The HVDC rectifier system is adjacent to a generating station having turbo

geerators
The converters employ equidistant firing systems.
Rectifier is in CC and inverter is in constant voltage mode
a supplementary frequency sensitive power controller was employed
Sub-syncronous Oscillations due to HVDC system
Field tests showed that

the supplementary damping control destabilized
the first torsional mode (11.5 Hz) of the 410 MW
generating unit.
normal CC control acting without the
supplementary damping control could cause
instability of the 11.5 Hz torsional mode when
some of the ac lines near the rectifier were
switched out.
Sub-synchronous Oscillations due to
HVDC system
Opening of the ac lines reduced the ac system
strength which resulted in the instability of
the torsional mode.
The torsional oscillations stabilized when the
dc power level was reduced.
Reason for Sub-syncronous Oscillations
due to HVDC system
Torsional mode oscillations cause phase

and amplitude modulation of the
generated alternating voltage waveform
The modulated voltage has frequency
components equal to the fundamental
frequency minus the torsional frequency
due to HVDC system
In case of EPC shift in voltage phase due to a
torsional mode causes a similar shift in the firing
angle.
This firing angle modulation, together with the
alternating voltage magnitude modulation, will
result in corresponding changes in direct voltage,
current, and power.
due to HVDC system
In case of EPC shift in voltage phase due to a
torsional mode causes a similar shift in the firing
angle.
This firing angle modulation, together with the
alternating voltage magnitude modulation, will
result in corresponding changes in direct voltage,
current, and power.
due to HVDC system
The closed-loop current control responds to correct
for these changes.
Resulting in change in the generator power.
If the net phase lag between the variation in shaft
speed at the torsional frequency and the resulting
change in electrical torque of the generator exceeds
90, the torsional oscillations become unstable.
Factor influencing Torsonal Interaction
If UIF <0.1 little interaction

Parallel transmission line reduces the risk. Radial dc
line coming from isolated thermal generating station
are most prone to TI.
Higher nominal firing angle increase the TI. Hence
operating at low voltage dc may increase TI.
Overcoming the problem
A notch filter of 11.5 Hz in the
supplementary control path
The influence of the current or power
control depends on the regulator
bandwidth. Typically, these controls have a
bandwidth in the vicinity of 10 to 20 Hz.
In the case of Square Butte, the problem
due to the current control was solved by
modifying the regulator frequency
response characteristic.
Multimachine Analysis
In developing the model for a system with multiple
generators, the cushion of having the infinite bus
voltage as a constant reference is not available.
In addition, the differential equations for the
synchronous machines have been formulated with
the assumption that the internal voltage lies along
the Q axis only.
In a system with one slack bus, the dq frame of
reference can be decided in such a manner such
that the slack bus voltage lies on the q axis and all
other terminal voltages are obtained with this as a
reference.
However, this results in non zero values for voltage
along the d axis of each synchronous machine as
the internal voltage of the machine is at an angle
with respect to the terminal voltage. This thus calls
for a need to change the axis of reference as one
moves from the network equations to the machine
equations.
The relation between the quantities on the two
frames of reference are as given below for a
machine on the ith bus:
VQ Vq cos i Vd sin i
VD Vq sin i Vd cos i
Thus the transformation matrix for this bus is
cos i sin i

cos i
Tmn
sin i
In order to obtain the value of the angle i the
internal voltage equations of the machine are used
along with the terminal quantities transformed into
the machine frame of reference. This is shown
below:
vdi X q iqi ; vqi Eq' i X d' i idi
0 0 X qi cos i sin i I Di cos i sin i VDi
E ' X '
qi di 0 sin i cos i I Qi sin i cos i VQi
Em xm Tmn I Tmn V
1 1
X qi I Qi VDi
tan i
X qi I Di VQi
The loads at each bus are represented as a constant

admittance as:
PLi jQLi
Yloadi
Vi
The injection at the load bus thus becomes zero as
the admittance becomes a part of the admittance
matrix of the network.
Consolidating all generator buses together and all
load buses together, the system can be written in
matirx form as given below where Y11-Y22 are
elements of the admittance matrix and ig, iL are the
generator and load bus injections while vg and vL
are the generator and load bus voltages.
ig Y11 Y12 vg
i Y Y v
L 21 22 L
As iL=0, since the loads have been converted to

constant admittance, a relation can be obtained
between the generator bus voltages and currents
as:
ig Y11 Y12Y221Y21 vg Yg vg
Separating the currents and voltages into d and q
axis components, the matrices are:
ig1 D Re(Yg11 ) Im(Yg11 ) Re(Yg12 ) Im(Yg12 ) . . . vD1

ig1Q Im(Yg11 ) Re(Yg11 ) Im(Yg12 ) Re(Yg12 ) . . . vQ1
i . v
. . . . . . D2
g 2 D

ig . . . . . . . vQ
2Q
2
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

.

. . . . . . . . 2 nX 2 n .
2 nX 1
2 nX 1
i Ym v
Thus by solving the differential equations in the

machine frame of reference and the algebraic
equations in the network frame of reference, the
dynamic analysis of a multimachine system can be
carried out.
Power System Stabilizer and Transient Stability
Introduction :
The function of a PSS is to add damping to the generator rotor
oscillations.
This is achieved by modulating the generator excitation so as
to develop a component of electrical torque in phase with
rotor speed deviations
Shaft Speed, Integral of Power and Terminal frequency are
among the commonly used input signals to the PSS
Alternative Types of PSS :
(a) Stabilizer based on shaft speed signal (delta-omega) :
Stabilizer based on direct measurement of shaft speed has been used on
many thermal units
Delta-omega stabilizer has many limitations
The primary disadvantage is the need to use a torsional filter. In
attenuating the torsional components of the stabilizing signal the filter
also introduces a phase lag at lower frequencies
The phase lag at lower frequencies has a destabilizing effect on the
exciter mode, thus imposing a maximum limit on the allowable
stabilizer gain
Due to the imposed limits on stabilizer gain, overall effectiveness of the
PSS damping system oscillation also reduces.
In addition the stabilizer has to be custom-designed for each type of
generating unit depending on its torsional characteristics.
The delta-P-omega stabilizer described next was developed to
overcome these limitations.
Delta-P-omega Stabilizer :
The objective is to derive the equivalent speed signal so that it does

not contain torsional mode
Torsional components are inherently attenuated in the integral of signal
The problem is to measure the integral of free of torsional modes
In many applications has been neglected . This is satisfactory except
when changing load on the unit and other system conditions when the
mechanical power changes
Delta-P-omega Stabilizer (Contd.):
Delta-P-omega stabilizer makes use of the above relationship to simulate a

signal proportional to the integral of the mechanical power change by adding
signals proportional to shaft-speed change and integral of electrical power
change.
This signal will contain torsional oscillations unless a filter is used.
Mechanical power changes are relatively slow even for fast valve movement
, the derived integral of mechanical power signal can be conditioned with a
simple low pass filter to remove torsional frequencies.
Frequency Based Stabilizers :
Terminal frequency signals has been used as the stabilizing signal
for several PSS applications
Normally, terminal frequency signal is used directly as the stabilizer
input signal.
In some cases, terminal voltage and current are used to derive the
frequency of a voltage behind a simulated machine reactance so as
to approximate machine rotor speed
In this system, as in the case of speed-based stabilizers , care must
be taken to filter torsional modes when they are used on steam
turbine units.
The sensitivity of the frequency signal to rotor oscillations increases
as the external transmission system becomes weaker, tending to
offset the reduction in gain from stabilizer output to electrical
torque that results from a weak transmission system
Hence the gain of a frequency based stabilizer may be adjusted to
obtain the best possible performance under weak ac transmission
system conditions where the contributions of the stabilizer is
required most
Frequency Based Stabilizers (Contd.):
Digital Stabilizers :
Sub Synchronous Resonance
Introduction :
Frequency of mode of oscillation for a single mass rotor model
is usually in the range of 0.2 to 2 Hz
In reality, a steam turbine rotor has a very complex mechanical
structure consisting of several predominant masses ( such as
rotor of turbine sections, generator rotor, couplings and exciter
rotor) connected by shafts of finite stiffness
So, when this complex multi-mass model has been considered
then under some perturbation, torsional oscillation results
between different sections of the turbine-generator rotor.
Special problem related to torsional oscillation includes the
following,
Turbine Generator Torsional Char.
Shaft System Model :
Shaft System Model (Contd.):
Examples of Torsional Characteristics :
Figure shows natural frequency and
mode shapes of the rotor of a 555 MVA ,
3600 r/min fossil-fuel-fired generation
unit with a static exciter
Damping coefficients are assumed to be
negligible
Since, we are considering rotor with
five masses , there are five modes of
oscillation as shown in the figure.
The relative rotational displacements of
the individual masses for each mode of
oscillation are given by the right
eigenvector of the corresponding Eigen
value.
In the figure, each eigenvector has been
normalized
Examples of Torsional Characteristics (Contd.):
Torsional Interaction with Power System Controls :
Torsional Oscillation of turbine generators are inherently
lightly damped.
Level of damping may vary some extent with steam
conditions and unit output, normally it is not affected by
generator unit or network controls
Torsional mode instability may happen due to interactions
with the generating unit excitation and prime mover control
and with nearby HVDC inverter control .
Interaction with Generator Excitation Controls :
Torsional mode destabilization by excitation control was first
observed in 1969 during application of a power system
stabilizer (PSS) on a 555 MVA, 3600 r/min fossil-fuel-fired unit
at the Lambton generation station at Ontario
The PSS was found to excite the lowest torsional mode
Shaft speed measured at generator end has a high component of
16 Hz torsional mode
The stabilizer transfer function is designed to provide zero
phase shift between the input speed signal and air-gap torque at
the system mode frequency of 1.67 Hz, so as to result in a
purely damping torque component as shown in following figure
However the generator characteristics are such that this results
in a phase lag of about 135o at 16 Hz. As a result a negative
damping torque has been produced .
Interaction with Generator Excitation Controls :
The problem was solved by sensing speed between the two

LP turbine section, close to the node of 16 Hz torsional mode
At the speed pickup location , other torsional modes also have
very low amplitude
In addition an electronic filter, with a notch of 16 Hzand
substantial attenuation at other torsional frequencies , was used
in the stabilizing path
Interaction with nearby DC Converters :
Interaction with nearby DC Converters :
Intraction with nearby DC Converters (Contd.):
Intraction with nearby DC Converters (Contd.):
Sub-Synchronous Resonance :
Sub-Synchronous Resonance (Contd.):
Voltage Stability of Power System
Transmission System Aspects

Voltage stability of power system is
determined by two basis notions
Maximum power that can be delivered to the load
Relationship between load power and network
voltage
If load power crossed maximum deliverable
power limit, mechanism of load power
restoration become unstable
Single Load Infinite Bus System :
Single Load Infinite Bus (Contd.)
Infinite Bus is represented by ideal voltage source E

Transmission line is represented by series resistance R and
reactance X
Line shunt capacitance is neglected
Load can be modeled as
Maximum Deliverable Power :
Current I can be expressed as,
Active power consumed by the load,
Condition for maximum power,

Maximum Deliverable Power
Solving previous equations under the constraint
Maximum Load Power can be delivered,
Load end voltage at maximum power,
For a highly inductive transmission line, resistance R can be

neglected compared to the reactance X
With R tend to zero, optimal load resistance also goes to zero
and Maximum Load Power goes to zero which is unrealistic
Maximum Deliverable Power
Considering transmission line with non-zero resistance highly
capacitive load required for maximum power flow to match
dominant inductive transmission line
Optimal power flow condition has to be calculated for a known

load power factor
Maximum Power under given load power factor
For a known load power factor load impedance can be
expressed as,
Currents and Load active power equations can be modified as,
Condition for maximum power :

Condition for optimal load resistance and reactace under
maximum power flow:
Optimal load resistance for a lossless transmission line (R=0)

can be expressed as,
Maximum Active Power for a lossless transmission line:
Reactive power and receiving end voltage for maximum

active power can be expressed as,
For a lossless transmission line and unity power factor load,

optimal load resistance, maximum active power and receiving
end voltage becomes,
Maximum Power derived from Load Flow equations
Assumptions for Load Flow for Single Load Infinite Bus system:
Transmission line has been considered lossless
Infinite bus has been considered as Ideal Voltage source as phase
reference by setting
Load voltage magnitude and phase angle are denoted by V and
Load Voltage can be expressed as,
Complex power absorbed by the load can be expressed as,-
Eliminating from the expression of real and reactive power
following equation can be derived,-
Condition to have at least one solution is,
simplifying the above equation,
Based on the above expression, we can say that the locus of

maximum power points in the (P, Q) plane is parabola.
All points inside parabola has two load flow solutions
Outside the parabola there is no solution.
Negative P denotes maximum generation and positive P denotes
maximum load under given power factor
Locus is symmetrical with respect to Q axis which means
maximum power that can be injected at the load end is exacly
equal to maximum power that can be absorbed.
From the locus, it can be inferred that any active power can be
consumed provided enough reactive power is injected at the load
bus ( Q < 0 )
For P = 0,
For Q = 0,
Power Voltage Relationships :
From load flow equations following expression can be obtained,
Considering condition holds, the

solutions for V can be given by,
In (P,Q,V) space solution of V gives a two dimensional
surface
Upper part of the surface corresponds to the solution with
plus sign
Lower part corresponds to the solution with minus sign
Projection of the maximum power point curve on the (P,Q)
coincides with parabola
Meridians drawn with solid line in the figure corresponds to
intersections with vertical planes Q = P tan
Projecting these meridians onto the (P,V) plane provides the
curves of load voltage as a function of active power for the
various tan , generally known as the PV Curves or Nose
Curves
Similar to PV curve, by projecting the meridians onto the (Q,V)
plane QV curve can be produced
The following observations can be made regarding the curves,
For a given load power below maximum power, there are two solutions:
one with high voltage and lower current, other with lower voltage and
higher current; High voltage solution closer to the Generator voltage E is
more acceptable.
With more load compensation ( small tan ) maximum power increases
and voltage at which maximum power occurs also increases which is
dangerous in the sense that maximum transfer capacity may be reached
at voltages close to normal operation values.
For over compensated load, there is a portion of the upper PV curve
along which voltage increases with load power because under leading
power factor when load consumes more active power, more reactive
power is produced by the load.
Generator Reactive Power Requirement :
Considering previous study with lossless line generator
reactive power production can be expressed as sum of the
load and the network losses
where the line current I relates to the generator apparent

power Sg through
substituting I and noting that Pg = P in the absence of real

power losses,
or,
Generator Reactive Power Requirement (contd.):
Solving the equation with respect to Qg yields,
So, one can obtain P Qg curve as shown in following figure.

Instability Mechanism :
Power consumed by the load varies with voltage and
frequency
Load has been considered as a function voltage V and an
independent variable z , which corresponds to the amount of
connected equipment z can be stated as load demand.
For a specific z, load can be depicted as a curve in (P,Q,V)

space this curve intersects V(P,Q) surface at one or more
points these are possible operating point for specific load
demand
When we project set of intersection points for all values of
load demand z onto the (P,V) plane the we obtain network PV
characteristics as opposite to load PV characteristics
Instability Mechanism (contd.) :
Considering exponential load model, load can be modeled as,
Each dotted line is the load PV Curve for same value of Po in
the previous diagram
A and B are two operating points characterized by same power
P but different demand z
Consider a small increase in demand z at point A, the higher
demand causes some voltage drop but results in a higher load
power- this is the expected mode of operation of a power
system
At point B, larger load demand is accompanied by a decrease
in both the Voltage and the load power if the load is purely
static operation at point B is possible, not viable due to low
voltage and high current
If some load controller tend to increase load demand to
achieve a specific power consumption, the operating point B
becomes unstable
In case of a large disturbance, value of X and E may vary
drastically which may cause the network PV characteristics
shrink drastically so that the post disturbance network PV
curve does no longer intersect the load characteristics this
may cause Voltage Collapse
Effect of Compensation :
Compensation means injecting reactive power to improve
power system operation i.e.
Keeping voltage close to nominal value
Reduce line current and hence line losses
Contribute to Stability Enhancement
Most often compensation is provided by Capacitors,
counterbalancing the predominantly inductive nature of the
transmission line or load
Compensation may be provided by reactors where reactive
power absorption is of concern
Line Series Compensation :
Series compensation is used basically to decrease the

impedance of transmission lines carrying power over long
distance
Line Series Compensation (Contd.):
The Line net reactance is given by,
Degree of compensation can be defined by,
Degree of compensations are usually in the range of 0.3 0.8
Replacing X by Xnet in shows that Pmax

increases
Voltage under maximum power condition does not change as
Shunt Compensation :
The connection of shunt capacitors is simplest and widely used form

of compensation
Effect of line charging has been considered in the transmission line
model
Shunt Compensation ( Contd.):
Thevenin equivalent seen by the load (i.e. left of the dotted
line in the fig.) can be expressed as,
Maximum deliverable power and the correponding load

voltage ( under power factor cos ) will be,
Both Pmax and VmaxP increase by same percentage when

capacitive compensations are added/network capacitances are
taken into account
Above figure shows a situation where as load power

increases, more shunt compensation has to be added in order
to keep the voltage within the limit (0.95 to 1.05 pu)
Heavy line shows resultant PV curve
As the load grows in areas lacking generations, more shunt
compensation is used to keep voltage in the normal operating
range --- as a result normal operating point progressively
approaches maximum deliverable power and under stressed
condition due to some disturbance system may become
unstable.
In systems with large capacitive effect shunt reactors has to

be connected under lightly loaded condition to avoid
overvoltage
Static Var Compensator :
SVC is a voltage controlled shunt compensation device
In transmission system, SVC connected to a MV bus varies
the equivalent shunt susceptance quickly so as to maintain
voltage at HV and EHV bus constant
SVCs are fast acting devices, acting typically over several
cycles
The following are the main two techniques used to obtain a
variable susceptance
In Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) a variable number of shunt
capacitor units connected to the system by thyristors used as switches.
In Thyristor Controlled Reactors (TCR) the firing angle of the
thyristors connected in series with the reactors is adjusted to vary the
equivalent reactance
In steady state condition the reactive power produced by the
SVC is given by,
where VMV is the MV bus voltage and B is the variable
susceptance which varies as follows,
where K is the SVC gain, Vo is the voltage reference and Bmin ,

Bmax corresponds to extreme thyristor conduction condition
Impedance of step-up transformer has been neglected for

simplicity in the QV curve shown considering effect of SVC
The flat portion of the QV curve corresponds to equations
-flat portion is very close to a straight line with a small

droop due to higher value of K (25-100)
The parabolic part corresponds to B at one of the limits
Static Var Compensator (Contd.):
Consider a shunt compensated system with adjustable capacitor

replaced by a variable SVC
With continuously acting TCR the characteristics becomes the
solid line as shown in previous figure
Considering initially system operates at point A on the dashed
PV curve number 1, and the load power has been increased
from PA to PC
In the absence of SVC action the new operating point would be
B however this causes a voltage drop that the SVC will
counteract by increasing its susceptance
The resulting network char. Due to SVC action is the dashed
PV curve no. 2 and the new operating point is C
All points like A, C fall on slightest slope line, which
corresponds to Voltage control by SVC
VQ Curves :
VQ Curve expresses the relationship between the reactive
support QC at a given bus and the voltage at that bus
Consider a fictitious generator with zero active power and
recording the reactive power QC produced as the terminal
voltage V is being varied.
In a 2-bus example as shown in following figure, the load
flow equations can be written as,
VQ curve is the characteristics of both the network and the

load here load has been considered as constant power load
for simplicity
VQ Curves (contd.) :
For each value of V, has been calculated using the real

power equation of the load flow,
Now, the reactive power QC has been computed using

following equations,
In the VQ Curve ( shown in previous diagram) Curve 1 refers

to the system operating far below the maximum power
The two intersecting point with V axis corresponds to no
compensation --- higher voltage solution (point O) is the
normal operating point
Q1 and Q2 value shown in the figure are reactive power
margin with respect to loss of an operating point
Curve 3 corresponds to a situation where system cant

operate without reactive power injection
The shown margin Q3 is negative and provides a measure of
the Mvar distance to system operability
The case of introducing a shunt capacitor is shown in the
following diagram
The parabola QC = BV2 corresponds to the minimal
compensation needed to restore an operating point (point O)
The parabola corresponds to the compensation
needed to get the desired voltage Vd
References
[1]. Prabha Kundur, Power System Stability and
Control, TMH, 1994.
[2]. Thierry van Cutsem and Costas Vournas,
Voltage Stability of Electric Power Systems,
Springer, 1998.

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POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Dr. SUKUMAR MISHRA

The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with

The "quality" of power supply must meet certain minimum

With the value of the current as given above, the

The flux linkage in the phase a winding at any instant is given by

Similar expressions apply to flux linkages of windings b and c.

The peak values of the two component waves are

In the above, Pd and Pq are the permeance coefficients of the d- and

Phase a mmf wave and its components

The self-inductance lgaa of phase a due to air-

Since the windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a

In a well designed machine in which the stator and rotor

Variation of mutual-inductance between stator windings

The mutual inductance between any two stator windings also

The mutual inductance between phases a and b due to the air-

where Lg0 has the same meaning as in the expression for

There is a very small amount of mutual flux around the ends of

The rotor circuit flux linkages may be expressed as follows:

The constants kd and kq are arbitrary and their values may be

With kd and kq equal to 2/3, for balanced sinusoidal conditions,

For the peak value of id to be equal to 1m, kd should equal 2/3.

Under balanced conditions ia +ib+ic=0 and, therefore, io=0.

The inverse transformation is given by,

The term p in the above equations represents the angular

The and te terms are referred to as speed voltages.

The terms and terms are referred as transformer

Eliminating phase voltages and currents in terms of dq0

Under balanced operation, eo=io=0 and the expression for power

A well-chosen per unit system can minimize computational effort,

Expressed in per unit notation,

With time in per unit, previous equation may be written as

The instantaneous power at the machine terminal is,

Dividing by the base three-phase

Similarly, with the per unit Torque is,

where S is the angular frequency and is the

Using the equations of ed and eq, we can

The phasor diagram for this representation is

Refer to Page 101-102 from [1] for the

Short Circuit current in the three phases

These terms represent the stator transients and

In per unit notation the equation thus becomes

Where, r is elec angular velocity and pf is the number

The expressions for the operational parameters are

With these time constants, it is now possible to

Refer to Table 4.2 and example 4.1 from page

Thus the summary of the equations in the

Disturbances threatening the stability of a system:

Energy fluctuation as a result of disturbance:

The basic requirement is that the excitation system supply and

REF REGULATOR EXCITER GENERATOR

EXCITER: Provides dc power to the synchronous

REGULATOR: Processes and amplifies input control

The power to the excitation system in this case is formed by

Alternatively, the voltage and current sources may be

EXCITATION CONTROL SYSTEM IN CLASSICAL FEEDBACK FORM

Indices associated with time response

Indices associated with frequency response

The continuous reactive power output capability is

Constant field current locus may be (a)

The corresponding phasor diagram is

SECTION VIEW OF END REGION OF A GENERATOR

This is a simple graphical method to predict the

For stability d /dt =0