Past experience and Future Trends on use of

Compositre Materials for Aircraft Strucuture

Yalew Mekonnen
Defence University college of Engineering
PhD scholar in IIT Kanpur, utter Pradesh India
yalewnati@gmail.com
yalewiitk2017@gmail.com

Abstract aerospace has doubled every five years, and new

Composite materials have emerged as the materials
of choice for increasing the performance and
reducing the weight and cost of military, general
aviation, and transport aircraft and space launch
vehicles. In the competitive environment of aircraft
industries it becomes absolutely necessary to
improve the efficiency, performance of the aircrafts
to reduce the development and operating costs
considerably, in order to capitalize the market. An
important contribution to improve the efficiency
and performance can be achieved by decreasing the
aircraft weight through considerable usage of
composite materials in primary aircraft structures.
Major advancements have been made in the ability
to design, fabricate, and analyze large complex
aerospace structures. The present paper takes a
critical view on aircraft structural development,
design and operation of composite materials on
aircraft structural parts. The span of aerospace
industry increases day-to-day of its use throughout
the world. A complex exercise with many different
disciplines involved in the analysis and design of
different composite materials.
Keywords: Composite material, aerospace
structures.
1. Introduction
Weight is everything when it comes to heavier-
than-air machines, and designers have striven
continuously to improve lift to weight ratios since
man first took to the air.[1] Composite
materials have played a major part in weight
reduction. Since 1987, the use of composites in
composites regularly appear.
Composite materials have been competitive
alternatives to traditional metallic materials for a
while, due to their lower density, higher stiffness,
higher strength, and better fatigue resistance when
compared to steel or aluminum. Such properties
enable composites to be an ultimate candidate for
structural applications in aerospace and automotive
products.
The primary benefits that composite components
can offer are reduced weight and assembly
simplification. The performance advantages
associated with reducing the weight of aircraft
structural elements has been the major impetus for
military aviation composite development. [2]
The primary benefits that composite components
can offer are reduced weight and assembly
simplification. The performance advantages
associated with reducing the weight of aircraft
structural elements has been the major impetus for
military aviation composites development. [2]
The recent efforts by Boeing and Airbus to
incorporate composite into primary load carrying
structures of large commercial transports and to
certify the airworthiness of these structures is
evidence of the significant advancements made in
the understanding and use of these materials in real
world aircraft. [3]
Although commercial carriers have increasingly
been concerned with fuel economy, the potential for
reduced production and maintenance costs has
proven to be a major factor in the push towards
composites. Composites are also being used
increasingly as replacements for metal parts of
aircraft structures.
2. Historical Background
The development of high performance composites
has been a primary research activity of many
different organizations world-wide for more than 5
decades. [4]
Composites were introduced in the 1950s and
1960s, fiber-reinforced plastic, was introduced to
substitute the usage of duralumin in the structure of
aircrafts. Before composites were introduced,
primary structure of aircrafts was made largely of
aluminum alloy. [5]
Duralumin, a type of aluminum alloy, was widely
used in aircrafts primary structure due to its high
strength to weight ratio and good toughness.
Furthermore, good corrosion resistance of
duralumin makes it so suitable to be used under
harsh condition. However, in 1950s, a fully loaded
De Havilland Comet jet airliner crashed due to
metal fatigue. This gave rise to demand of materials
suitable for aircrafts primary structure with high
fatigue resistance. [5]
Then, more and more composites were introduced
to suit certain requirement of properties of aircrafts
structure. Modern fibers, such as carbon-reinforced
fibers, glass-reinforced fibers and boron fibers, are
the stiffest and strongest materials known. [5]
The early use of composite materials in the aircraft
industry dates back to the late 1950s and started
with aircraft like the 707 and later DC-9. Due to
high safety standards, specifically in the
commercial aircraft industry, implementation of
composites occurred gradually over time in three
phases. First, composite materials were used on
tertiary composite components like interior parts,
sidewalls, bag racks, and galleys. [6]
These parts would not cause any harm to the aircraft
flying capabilities if the parts failed in operation. In
the late 1960s, only after use of composites with
interior parts proved successful, were composites
introduced into secondary aircraft structures like
spoilers, rudders, ailerons, and flaps. Carbon
replaced fiberglass in most of these secondary
structures in the 1970s, although fiberglass was
retained for many interior parts and fairings. The
most critical commercial aviation implementation
of composite materials is with primary structures,
like stabilizers, wings and fuselage barrels, and has
occurred gradually over the last two decades. [6]
The design and use of boron and carbon started with
military aircraft and rapidly expanded from use on
flight control surfaces (rudders, flaps) to stabilizers,
wings and fuselage structures as exemplified by the
AV-8B, B-2, F-18, Euro-fighter, and AH-66. [6]
Modern Composites
Composites are well known for their favorable
properties such as high strength to weight ratio,
high stiffness, very high stress level, high fatigue
resistance and good corrosion resistance. Some of
the widely used composites in aircraft structures
will be discussed below.
In common, all composites are made of relatively
weak bonding of lamination of materials. Hence,
core in composite laminate is introduced to increase
the laminate's stiffness by effectively 'thickening' it
with a low-density core material. This can provide a
dramatic increase in stiffness for very little
additional weight, where lightweight implication is
so crucial for aircraft structure. [5]
For example, application of honeycomb core
provides stronger impact resistance to composite
laminates. With its hollow cells, it provides good
energy absorption and sound dampening effect to
the laminates. [5]
3. Why composite materials?
The continuous growth in air traffic has placed an
increasing demand on the aerospace industry to
manufacture aircraft at lower cost, while ensuring
efficiency in operation, friendliness to the
environment and high safety. One of the causes of
cost is weight penalty.[10]
Aircraft suffer a performance penalty for every
pound of weight that they lift. Much of this weight
to be lifted is an unavoidable part of making flight
possible. These unavoidable weights include the
airframe, the engines, a large quantity of fuel, and
the aircraft crew. Any weight over and above these
unavoidable weights can be used to transport
customers and ship goods for customers.
 The study on the design of aircraft structure for
the aim of reduce aver all weight with-out affecting
the required strength, even improvement on the
stiffness of the structure, is the most promising
research in aircraft industry.
Beyond being an enabling technology, development
of the structures of airframes and engines continues
to be a key element in determining the economic
success of aircraft. Structural weight is the single
largest item in the empty weight of an aircraft and
is, therefore, a major factor in the original
acquisition and operating cost and in establishing
operational performance. One pound added to
structural weight requires additional wing area to
lift it (all other flight variables being held constant),
additional thrust to overcome the associated Fig. 1 Application of composite on flight vehicles [4]
incremental drag, and additional fuel to provide the
same range. All these additions result in further
increases in structure. This vicious circle converges, 5. Critical design, Manufacturing and repair
in typical aircraft designs, to gross weight increases issues
from 2 to 10 times the 1-pound empty weight
increase that began the cycle. Manufacturing of composite components are
configuration sensitive and must be performed in
4. Some structural parts conjunction with the structural design effort. The
components of aircraft structure should be designed
Composites are currently used widely in aerospace by considering the cost factor and made as simple
industry. Primary structures, for example fuselage, as possible for manufacturing.
wings, ailerons, flaps, empennage, are made of Our environment is given increased thought and
composites in modern aircrafts, as shown in figure1. attention by today's society. This is true for
For example, composites contributed 50 per cent to composite material manufacture as well.
the weight of Boeing 787 Dream-Liner (see figure As mentioned previously, composites have a lighter
2), whilst almost 100 per cent of the fuselage skin weight and similar strength values as heavier
and wings surface are composites. Figure 3 below materials. When the lighter composite is used in a
illustrates the usage of composites in Boeing 787 as transport application, there is a lower environmental
compared to that in Boeing 777 has increased load compared to the heavier alternatives.
significantly. Composites are also more corrosion-resistant than
metallic based materials, which means that parts
Boeing's 787 Dream-liner will be the first will last longer. These factors combine to make
commercial aircraft in which major structural composites good alternate materials from an
elements are made of composite materials rather environmental perspective.
than aluminum alloys. There will be a shift away One big issue that comes with the increase use of
from archaic fiber-glass composites to more composite materials on aircraft structure is the
advanced carbon laminate and carbon sandwich method of repair during damage. it is crucial to
composites in this aircraft. [7] develop repair methods that restore the original
Secondary structures such as pressure bulkheads, strength of the part without compromising its
floor beams, and landing gear door are also made of structural integrity. [11]
composites. Furthermore, composites are also used
in interior.
 Fig. 2 Usage of various materials in the Boeing 787 Dream-liner [7]
Composite structures are primarily damaged by
lightning strikes, tool drops, service vehicle 6. Mechanical properties of composites
collisions, hail, runway debris, and birds. Other
sources of damage include erosion, abrasion, The major constituents of a fiber reinforced
manufacturing defects, excess heat exposure, and composite material are reinforced fibers, matrix,
fluid infiltration. Therefore, the extent of the coupling agents, coating and fillers. Fibers are the
damage determines whether the component needs to principal load carrying members while the matrix
be repaired or replaced. In most cases, replacing the keeps them in proper location and correct
entire part is not economically feasible; thus, orientation. [8]
repairing it is the only viable solution. Furthermore, Composite laminate has more stiffness in the
since the time constraint is an issue, repairs must be unidirectional orientation (longitudinal direction)
performed as quickly as possible so that the aircraft than the perpendicular direction (Transverse
can be returned to service as soon as possible. direction). [9]
When designing a composite repair, several factors
must be considered to ensure the repairs
effectiveness and structural integrity. These factors
include stiffness, strength, stability, operating
temperature, durability, and aerodynamic
smoothness.

Fig. 3 Laminate layers orientation

The analysis of composite material assumes that the
material is isotropic and follows the hooks law.
 =E (1) Where
Where f andm are Poissons ratios of fiber and matrix
=stress And
E=Youngs Modulus and
=Strain (5)
Typical tests used to measure the mechanical properties The main component of the composite that
of fiber reinforced composites include: determines the strength for carrying the load is the
Shear stiffness fiber reinforcement. The value of volume fraction of
Tensile the fiber will indicate the resistance to failure of the
Flexible Modulus and composite.
Impact The failure strain of the matrix is higher than the
Experimentally as well as numerically analyzed by
different researchers that the matrix will have higher failure strain of the fiber. The stress (1) on the
strain than the fiber. composite will be:
Stress ()
(6)
Figure 4 shows that the composite will fail at the
ultimate strain of fiber (fu). Then the composite
uf tensile strength can be written from equation (6) as:
Fiber (7)
If all fiber failed, then
(8)
1 Composite Stress ()
fu
um Matrix
Eqn (6)
m
Strain () mu

Fig.4 Graph of Stress Vs strain for composite and the

constituents
When the applied load is assumed to act in the
longitudinal direction, the modulus of elasticity (E1) can
be calculated as:
(2) mu Eqn (8)
Where
Ef and Em are modulus of elasticity of fiber and Vmin VCrit
matrix, respectively
Vf and Vm are volume fractions of fiber and matrix
If the applied load is acting in the transverse direction, Fiber volume fraction (Vf)
the modulus of elasticity (E2) along this direction will
be: Fig. 5 relationship between stress and fiber volume
fraction
A minimum fiber volume fraction Vf,min is the
(3)
volume fraction below which the fibers weaken the
The other mechanical properties that are very important
in the process of analysis for design and fabrication of material rather than strengthen it and composite
composites are the Poissons ratio (12) and shear failure is controlled by the matrix. The reinforcing
modulus (G12). action of the fibers is only observed once the fiber
(4)
volume fraction exceeds the critical fiber volume
fraction (Vf > Vf,crit).
Combining equations (6) and (8) will result the
equation for minimum fiber volume fraction.
(9)
The critical volume fraction (Vf,crit) for the
composite system is the amount of fibers necessary
to ensure the composite strength is at least greater
than that of the matrix ( c> m), assuming the
fibers are stronger than the matrix.
(10)
7. The Future of Composites in Aerospace
Industry
With ever increasing fuel costs and environmental
lobbying, commercial flying is under sustained
pressure to improve performance, and weight
reduction is a key factor in the equation. [1]
Beyond the day-to-day operating costs, the aircraft
maintenance programs can be simplified by
component count reduction and corrosion reduction.
The competitive nature of the aircraft construction
business ensures that any opportunity to reduce
operating costs is explored and exploited wherever
possible.[1]
Competition exists in the military too, with
continuous pressure to increase payload and range,
flight performance characteristics and
'survivability', not only of airplanes but of missiles,
too.
Composite technology continues to advance, and
the advent of new types such as basalt and carbon
nanotube forms is certain to accelerate and extend
composite usage.
New materials can be defined as materials which
have yet to be applied in an as-designed
application in aviation. Some of these materials,
particularly metal matrix composites (MMC) and
ceramic matrix composites (CMC) have seen some
in-flight testing and are approaching military use
but have yet to gain wide ranging acceptance.
Conclusion
Composites are currently used as a better material
used in aircraft primary structures, substituting
aluminum alloy that had been used for decades. Due
to composites superiority in corrosion resistance,
fatigue resistance, and weight saving, it is expected
that incoming models of aircrafts will use
composites extensively. Application of composites
in modern aircrafts once again proves that
composites are more reliable than metal alloys in
airworthiness. However, further development of
composites should be done to overcome weaknesses
found currently to further improve the safety of
aircrafts.
Composite technologies have matured over the past
50 years to the point where high performance
composites are being used to enhance the
performance of nearly every new flight vehicle.
Primary load carrying structures on both military
and commercial aircraft have proven to be
environmentally durable and to perform well in real
world service environments.
Composites have been and will continue to
be a primary focus for use on structures and
materials research for aerospace vehicles
Major barriers have been overcome for
application of composites on all classes of
flight vehicles
Composites are the materials of choice for
reducing weight and cost of aerospace
vehicles
The emergence of hybrid structures with
built in sensors and actuators will pose
additional challenges for analyses and
prediction of residual life
Future grand challenges such as design by
analyses will require significant
improvements in understanding of damage
initiation and propagation in complex
structural elements.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank the Management of
Defence University College of Engineering, the
organizers of this conference for the opportunity
given to me having a contribution on this issue.
I would like also to thank my family, specially my
wife Sisay A, for her support in every aspect.
 References
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[3] NASA Composite Materials Development: Lessons 2006.
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