EASY NOTES TAKLEED

WITH SOLUTION

Introduction to Topology
Pure and Applied
By Collin Adams
Willams College
Rebert Farzosa
University of Maine

EFFORED BY
MUHAMMAD TAHIR AZIZ TAKLEED (BHAKKAR)
GOVT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD

Fb: www.fb.com/tahiraziztakleed Phone: +92 301 78 10 067

E-mail: tahiraziz92@gmail.com +92 333 88 39 067
tahiraziz1042@gmail.com +92 343 69 74 245
Web: tahiraziz92.blogspot.com +92 313 69 74 245

TAKLEED
PAKISTAN ZINDABAD
 2

Chapter # 1

Topological spaces
Definition:
A topology on a set X is a collection of subsets of X having the following properties
(T1) and X are open in
(T2) The union of any collection of T opens in
(T3) The intersection of elements of any finite sub collection of T opens in
A set X for which a topology has been specified is called topological space. Thus a collection of
subset of a set X is a topology on X if it includes empty set, X, finite intersection and arbitrary
union of sets in collection
Example 1.1

Let X be three point set {a,b,c} we consider four different collections s.t
={{a},{a,b},{a,b,c}=X}

a C. b c
.
a b c
={{a},{b},{a,b},{b,c},{a,b,c}=X}
={{a},{c},{a,c},{b,c},{a,b,c}=X}
={{a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,b,c}=X}
Check which is Topology
SOL: we check all axioms of topology

(T1) , X T1
(T3) Intersection of sets in collection
T1
(T2) Union of sets in collection
T1
T1 Is topology
Similarly T2 ,T3 &T4 are topologies

Example 1.2:
Let X be nonempty set and define T= , . Show that
SOL:
We check all axioms of topology
(T1) , X T
(T2) X T
(T3) X T
T is topology

Definition: T = , X is minimal topology which is defined on X. If we remove either set, we have

no topology. T = , X is called Trivial Topology on X

Example 1.3

Let X be a nonempty set and be collection of all subset of X. Show that is a topology

SOL:
 3

By definition it is clear that all condition of topology will be satisfied so T is a topology

This kind of topology is called discrete topology. This is the largest topology define on X
Definition: On real line . Define a topology open sets are the empty and every set in with finite
complement.
OR
Tfc = {, All sub set of which has finite number of element in complement}
Tfc = {, -{finite set}}
03
Example: A= -{1, 2, 3} B= -{a, b, c} C= -{0}
c c
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {a, b, c} C C = {0}
Example 1.4
Prove that an open set in finite complement topology on
SOL:
For prove we check all axioms of topology
T1 , X Tfc
- = Tfc & -= Tfc
T2 Arbitrary Union of element
Let {U}iI be collection arbitrary union of element of Tfc OR {U}iI Tfc
There are two cases
Either U{U}iI = (ii) or U{U}iI
(i) U{U}iI = Tfc
(ii) Let U U{U}iI ; U
U has finite complement
U U
U c U c Rmarks
I U Is finite AB
U{U}iI Tfc
T3 Intersection of element of Tfc belong to Tfc Then
Let {u1 ,u2 ,,un } be finite collection of element of Tfc
There are two cases
n=1 U = (ii) n=1 U
n
(i) =1 U = Tfc if any U is empty

(ii) Suppose U are nonempty

u1 = -F1 ,.. ,un= -Fn
where F1 ,.,Fn are finite sets
n=1 u = ( F1 ) -F2 ( -Fn )
=F1 c F2 c . Fn c
=(n=1 F )c =
Taking complement on both side
n
( U )c = U=1 F viz finite
where F1 Fn are finite sets and union of finite set is a finite set
n=1 U Tfc
Defination:1.2 Finer and Coarser
Let T1 and T2 be two topologies define on non empty set X
1 2
Coarse OR Weaker Finer OR Stronger
If member of 1 is also member of 2 OR 1 2
If 1 2 then 2 strictly finer and 1 strictly coarser
Example
 4

Let X={1,2]
T1 ={,{1},{1,2}}
T2 ={,{1},{2},{1,2}=X}
T1 is coarser and T2 is finer
Definition: 1.3
Let X be top-sp and x and U is an open set containing x, U said to be neighborhood of x
X

U .

.
Theorem:1.4
Let X be a Top-sp and let A be a subset of X. then A is open in X for each xA. There is a
nieghbourhood Uof x s.t xUA

X
Proof:
Consider A is open .
Let xA A U

xAA

xUA A=U
Hence proved
Conversely we proved that A is open. We are given that
Where U is a neighborhood
By union lemma .
A=U
A is the union of open sets
A is open proved.
Exercises for section 1.1
1.1 Describe all of topologies on X={a,b}
Sol:
Given X= {a,b}
P(x) = {, {a}, {b}, X}
All topology on X are
T1 = {, X} T1 is trivial Top
T2 ={ ,X,{a},{b},{a,b}} T2 is discrete Top
T3 = , X, a , a, b
T4 ={ ,X,{b},{a,b}}
1.2 One of the three point set X={a,b,c},the trivial topology has two open sets
and discrete topology has eight open sets .For each n=3,,7 either find a
topology on X consisting of n open sets or prove that no such topology exist
SOL.
Let X= {a,b,c}
A topology on X always contain and X (By T1 and T2), and since X these are two distinct
subsets that must be in T. If A is any third subset of X (A and A X) then T= {, A, X} can
easily be seen to form a topology on X. There are six such subsets A in X= {a,b,c},this lead to six
different topologies on X with precisely three element . The possibilities for A are
 5

{a},{b],{c},{a,b},{a,c} and {b,c}

The power set P(x) of X={a,b,c} has eight elements .These are ,X and the six set listed above .A
collection T of seven subsets is obtained by removing one of these from P(x). If removed set is or X
then T will not satisfy the T1 axiom. So removed set must be one of the six set listed above. If the
removed set is a singleton then the T3 axiom will fail. If the removed set is a doubleton then T2 axiom
will fail .this show that no matter which subset is removed to from T, T will not be topology. From
this we conclude that there is no topology on this set X which has precisely seven elements
1.3 Prove that a topology T on X is the discrete topology {x} T for all xX
SOL:
Let T on X is discrete top.
Since T has all subset of X
{x}T for all xX
{x} is also subset of X
Conversely:
Suppose that {x}T for all xX
each sub set of X belong to T
Let x,y T {x},{y} T
{x}{y}={x,y} T
Now { } be arbitrary collection of elements of X then { } T
T is discrete
1.4 (a) Give an example of a space where the discrete is same as finite
complement topology
(b) Make and prove a conjugate indicating for what class of sets the
discrete and finite complement topology coincide
SOL:
Let X be a topological space
X={a,b,c}
P(x)={,X, {a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c}}
Discrete Top
1 = {,X, {a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c}}
Finite complement top
2 = {, ,{b,c}, {a,c},{a,b},{c},{b},{a}}

If X is a finite set then discrete top is same as finite complement top. Let X be a finite set.
Then the discrete Top is just power set of X. Since X is finite, any nonempty subset of X has
a finite complement that is the finite complement Top on X is same as discrete Top on X

1.5 Find three Top on the five-point set X={a,b,c,d,e} s.t that 1st is finer then
2nd and 2nd finer then 3rd ,without using either the trivial or the discrete top.
Find a top on X that is not complement to each of 1st three that you found
SOL:
1 = , , , , , ,
2 = { , , , , , , ,
3 = , ,
T={ , b , X
T1 is finer then T2 , T2 is finer then T3 . All are not compareable to T
1.6 Define a Top on (by listed the open sets with it that contain the open set
(0,2) and (1,3) and that contain as few set as possible
 6

SOL:
T={, ,(0,2),(1,3),(0,3),(1,2)}
We check all axioms of topology
(T1) , T
(T2) arbitrary union of elements belong to T
(0,2)(1,3)=(0,3) T
(0,2)(0,3)=(0,3) T
(1,2)(1,3)=(1,3) T
(T3) Finite collection of elements of T belong to T
(0,2)(1,3)=(1,2) T
(0,2)(0,3)=(1,2) T
(1,2)(1,3)=(1,2) T

1.7 0 1 2 3
Let X be a set and assume pX.show that collection T, consisting of ,X
and all subsets of X containing p is a topology on X.This Top is called
Particular point topology on X and denoted by
SOL:
Top define as
PPXP = , X, A X p A
We verify all axioms of topology
(T1) ,X
(T2) arbitrary union
let {} and let U= {}
There are two cases
If each { } is empty then U=
U
If any is nonempty then p
U
(T3) finite collection
Let { }=1 and let V==1 { }
There are two cases
If any { } is empty then V=
V
If non of { } is nonempty then p { }
V

1.8
Let X be a set and assume pX.show that collection T, consisting of ,X
and all subsets of X exclude p is a topology on X.This Top is called Exclude
point topology on X and denoted by
SOL:
Top define as
= , ,
We verify all axioms of topology
(T1) ,X
(T2) arbitrary union
let {} and let U= {}
There are two cases
If each { } is empty then U=
U
If any is nonempty then p
 7

U
(T3) finite collection
Let { }=1 and let V==1 { }
There are two cases
If each { } is empty then V= ;p{ }
V
If non { } of is nonempty then p{ }
V
1.9 Let T consist of , and all interval (, p) for p .Prove that T is a
Top on
SOL:
We check all axioms of top
(T1) , T
(T2) arbitrary union
Let { , pi }iI be collection of intervals in
Then i , pi = , pk where pk =max {pi }
, pk in and Open
, pk T
(T3) finite intersection
Let open interval , p1 , , p2 , , , pn where p1 , p2 ,,pn R
Then ni=1 , pi ,= , pl ,where pk =min{p1 , p2 ,,pn }
Then , pl is in and open
, pl T
1.2: Basis for a Topology
Let X be a non empty set and be a collection of subsets of X. We say is basis (for a top) if
following statements holds
(B1) for each x in X. there is a B in s.t xB
(B2) if 1 & 2 and x 1 2 , 3 in s.t x 3 1 2
X
1 2
3

We call the sets in basis element paraphrasing the two conditions for a basis we have
Every point in X is contain in a basis element
Every point in the intersection of two basis element is contained in a basis element contained in
the intersection
Example 1.5
Show that = a,b |a< b} be basis for topology
SOL:
We check axioms of basis
(B1) Every point of contained in an open interval
r ( 1, + 2) for all r
(B2) intersection
Let 1 = 1 , 1 , 2 = 2 , 2 3 = 3 , 3
There are three cases
1 2
 8
Example1.8 show that
= a,b |a< b}
Is top in
SOL:
As we know st define as
st ={,all open interval
1 2 2 1
And their union} 1 , 1 2 , 2 = 2 , 2
We check all axioms of top 1 2
(T1) , st
(T2) Arbitrary Union
Let {Ui } then {Ui } iI st
Union of open inerval ia open interval 2 1 1 2
(T3) finite intersection 1 , 1 2 , 2 = 1 , 1
of each case result is an open interval
as in (B2) 1 2
ni=1 {Ui } st

2 1 2 1
1 , 1 2 , 2 = (1 , 2 )
Example 1.7 Example 1.6
Show that
={{x}|x X} Show ={{x}|x X} be basis for a topology
generate discrete
SOL:
topology
We check all axioms of basis
SOL:
We check all axioms (B1) every xB where B
of top (B2) let 1 ={x},2 = where1 , 2 are disjoint
(T1) , Td 1 2 = 3
(T2) arbitrary union is basis
let {x}, y Lemma 1.7: let be a basis. Assume that , ,,
{x} y ={x,y} Td and that
(T3) finite
x= . such that
intersection
{x} y = x = .
Proof:
Disrete top define as We prove ths by induction method .Lets just check for two subsets B1 , B2
Td = {, X, all subset By (B2) B3 s.t x B3 B1 B2
of X, and their We assume that claim is true for n-1 & prove for n
union} Suppose B1 , B2 ,, Bn s.t xni=1 Bi . x n1
i=1 Bi
n1
By (B2) B s.t x B i=1 Bi
Now xB Bn
By (B2) ) B s.t x B B Bn
B n1 n
i=1 Bi it follow that x B i=1 Bi
Thus ,if result hold for n-1 ,then hold for n
Theorem:1.4
The topology T generated by a basis is a topology
Proof:
We check all axioms of topology
(T1) ,XT
I,e every element in X contained in some basis element. so union of these basis is X
(T2) Arbitrary union
Let {U }I T and let U= {U }I
There are two cases
If all U are empty then U= T
If U are nonempty then union of U equal to X
 9

V= =XT
(T3) finite intersection
Let {Ui }ni=1 T and let V=ni=1 Ui we show tht V T
There are two cases
If one of {Ui } is empty then V= T
Let {Ui } is the union of basis element. we show that V is the union of basis element
Lets check for two U1 and U2 for each xU1 U2 there are
x B1 U1 and x B2 U2 , this is because U1 ,U2 T and x U1 ,x U2
Now by (B2) B3 s. t x B3 B1 B2
Now we found B3 s.t xB3 Ux Bi Ui for each i
by lemma 1.7 xni=1 Bi then Bx s.t x Bx ni=1 Bi
now by union lemma V=xV Bx
V is the union of basis element thus finite intersection of Tin T
Example 1.9
See exercise 1.10
Definition:
Let = [a,b |a<b}.the collection is a basis for a topology on . Then top generated by
this basis is called lower limit topology
Similarly = { a,b] |a<b}.the collection is basis for a topology on top generated by this
basis is called upper limit topology
Example 1.10
See exercise 1.14
Definition:
Let X=Z , nZ {n} ,if n is odd
B(n)= {n-1,n,n+1};if n is even
Is the basis for a topology? The resulting topology is called digital line topology
Example at book
Theorem 1.9
let X be a set and be a basis for a topology on X. then U is open in topology
generated by for each xU there a basis element s.t x U
X
Proof: .
Let U is open set in top generated by basis and xU
.
As U= and there is at least one basis element in union that contain x
x U
Conversely:
Now suppose that UX is s.t for each xU there a basis element s.t x U
By union lemma U= U
U is a union of basis elements. thus U is open set in topology by
Basis for
For x=(1 ,2 )and y=(1 ,2 ) are two point in ,we introduce Euclidean distance formula
d(x , y)= (1 1 )2 + (2 2 )2
Open ball: for each x in >0, define
B(x, )={p 2 |d(x ,p)< }
The set B(x, ) is called the open ball of radius centred at x
Theorem 1.10
 10

The collection ={ B(x, )|{x , > 0} is basis for a topology on

Proof:
We check axioms of basis
(B1)since for each x 2 contain in basis element
B(x, 1)={1 2 |d(x ,1)< 1}
(B2) intersection of two elements
Let x B(p, 1 ) B(p, 2 )
By lemma 1.11 there exist1 , 2 >0 s.t B(p, 1 ) B(p, 1 ) and B(p, 2 ) B(p, 2 )
Let =min{1 , 2 }
Then B(x, ) B(p, 1 ) B(p, 2 ) B(p, 1 ) B(p, 2 )
is basis for a topology on 2

Theorem 1.11
Let y be in and assume r>0. Then for every x B y ,r there exist an >0
such that B(x , B y , r .
Suppose that x B y , r
Then d(x ,y)<O
Choose s,t 0<< r-d(x ,y)
Now claim that let zB(x ,)
y r d(y , z)<d(y ,x)+d(x, z)
d y , z <d y ,x +
x d y , z <d y ,x)+ r-d(x ,y)
d y , z <r
z B(x ,) zB(y,r)
B x, B y ,r
B(y, r)

Exercises for section 1.2

1.10 Show that B= [a, b |a<b} is basis for a top on

SOL:
We check axioms of basis
(B1)
Since every point on real line contained in a interval and therefore contain in a interval B
rB then r [, + 1)
(B2)
If two interval in B intersect then a point in intersect of two interval in B that contain in the
intersection
[ [ ) ) [ [ ) ) [ [ ) )
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1

1.11 Determine which of following collecting of subsets of are basis

= n ,n+2 |n}
(B1) let r 1 and 1 1
r 1 =(r-1,r+1)
(B2) 1 , 2 and x 1 2
then 3 1 s.t x 3 1 2
( ( ) )
0 n 2 n+2
Which not hold
 11

e.g let 1 = 0 ,2 , 2 = (1 ,3) where 1 , 2 1

1 2 = (1 , 2) 1
= [a ,b] |a<b}
Let 1 = [1 ,2], 2 =[2 ,3] where 1 , 2 2
Z 1 2
since carnality of basis element is finite {z} is finite .so a finite set cannot an infinite set
2 is not basis
= [a ,b] |ab}
(B1) Is satisfied because every element of C2 belong to any B
(B2) Let B1 = [1 ,2], B2 =[2 ,3] where B1 , B2 C2
B1 B2 = [ 2] C3
[2] B3 B1 B2
the intersection of two closed interval is either closed interval or s singleton
(B2) will satisfy in every case
={(-x ,x |x }
(B1) let r(-r-1 , r+1)
rB as B 4
(B1) Is satisfied because every element of 4 belong to any B
Let 1 = 1 ,1 , 2 = (2 , 2) where 1 , 2 4
1 2 = 1 , 1 3 1 2 where 3 5
3 1 2
(B2) is satisfy because the intersection of nested intervals is a nested interval of small length
={(a ,b) b+1 |a<b}
(B1) Is satisfied because every element of C5 belong to any B
(B2) let 1 = 1 ,2 {3} , 2 = (2 ,3){4} where 1 , 2 5
1 2 = 3 = 1 ,2 3 3 1 2 where 3 5
(B2) is satisfy because a , b b + 1 is closed in . Intersection of two closed interval is a
closed or singleton
3 1 2
1.12 Determine which of following are open in . in each case prove your
l is lower limit topology
arrestion
and define as S0L:
l = {, open interval & A=[4 , 5)
their union, set of form A is open in because [a,b) is open in
[a, b and their union} A
B={3}
B is not open in
B
C=(1 ,2)
C is not open in
C
D=(7 ,8)
D is open in
D
1.13 Consider the following six topologies define on ; Trivial top, Discrete
top, Complement Top, Standard Top, Lower limit Top and Upper limit
Top. Show how they compare to each other (finer, strongly finer, coarser,
strictly coarser, non comparable) and justify your answer
COMPARSION:
 12

Trivial top contained in finite complement top, standard top, lower limit top, upper limit top and
discrete top
Finite complement top is also contain in standard top, standard top, lower limit top, upper limit top
and discrete top
&
And
Non
Comparable
1.14 Let B be collection of subsets of used in definition of digital line topology
in example 1.10.Show that B is basis for a topology on
SOL:
let = , n {n} ,if n is odd
B(n)= {n-1,n,n+1};if n is even
Is the basis for a topology .The resulting topology is called digital line topology
Now we show that the collection ={B(n)|n } is basis for topology on
We check all axioms of basis
(B1)
(B1) Is satisfied because every element of belong to any B
Let x then x Bx ={x} if x is odd
And x Bx ={x-1 , x , x+1} if x is even
(B2) intersection
There are three possibilities
If m an n are odd
Bm = m , Bn = n
Bn Bm = B Bn Bm where B
(ii)If m and n are even then two possibilities
m, n consuctive even integer n<m
let m=n+2
Bm = n 1, n + 2 , n + 3 , Bn = n 1 , n, n + 1
Bn Bm ={n+1} Bn+1 Bn Bm
m, n are consecutive integer n even m odd n<m (m<n do your self)
Bm = Bn+1 = n + 1 , Bn = n 1 , n, n + 1
Bn Bm ={n+1} Bn+1 = Bm Bn Bm
Since (B2) satisfy so ={B(n)|n } is basis for topology on
1.15 An arithmetic progression in is a set
, = , , , , + , + ,
, and b0. Prove that the collection of arithmetic progression
= {, | a , b and b } topology on . the resulting
Top is called arithmetic progression top on
SOL:
Examples We check axioms of basis
Let a=0 , b=1 (B1)
0,1 ={ , -2 , -1, 0 , 1 , 2 ,} Clearly every element of belong to any A
2,3 ={ , -4 , -1, 0 , 2 , 5 ,} let z
z 1 =1 ,1
(B2)
Let , ,1 =1 , , ,2 = 2 where 1 , 2 A
Then z , 1 , 2 = 1 2
So z 3 1 2 where 3 =, (1 2 )
1.16 Prove theorem 1.12
 13

On the plane . Let ={(a,b)(c,d) |a<b}

Show that basis for a top on
We check axioms of basis
(B1)
[x ,y]B where B
[x , y](x-1,x+1)(y-1 ,y+1) where [x , y] for an order pair and and( x-
1,x+1) and (y-1 ,y+1) are interval
(B2)
Let a<x<b then x(a , b) , c<y<d then y(c , d)
Then there are , , , s.t a< <x< <b
, , ,
And
c< < < <

(c, y), ,
Let 1 = , , 2 = ( , )( , )
Now [x, y] ( , ) ( , )(a ,b)(c ,d)
[x, y] ( , ) ( , ) 1 2
[x, y] 3 1 2
(B2) satisfy so is basis
Show that T, generated by B is standard top on
By ( , )( , )(a ,b)x(c ,d)
--------------------- (i)
If < < < < < < < <

Then ( , )(x, ) and ( , )(y, )

Now [x, y](a, b)(c, d) ( , ) ( , )
--------------------- (ii)
By (i) and (ii)
=
1.17

1.18 Show that the collection {(-, ) for the

topology in exercise 1.9
SOL:
We check axioms of basis
(B1)
Let r
Then r , =B
(B1) satisfied
(B2)
Let 1 = , 1 2 = , 2
Then 1 2 = , 1 1 < 2
, 1 1 1 2
(B2) satisfied so given collection are basis
1.19 Show that the collection {{a} b, c |a,b,c } of vertical interval in
the plane is basis for a topology on , we call this topology the vertical
topology
 14

SOL:
(B1) c ------------------ y+1
Let (x, y){{x}(y-1,y+1)}=B y ------------------ (x, y)
every pair in 2 belong to any B b ------------------- y-1
(B2) x
Let B1 = x y1 1, y1 + 1 and (a)
B1 = x y2 1, y2 + 1 if y1 < y2
B1 B2 B1 = x y1 1, y1 + 1
(B1 and B2 satisfied these are basis
(b)
(b) Compare vertical topology with standard topology on
SOL:
From fig b 2 where circles represents 2 and lines represents

Closed Set
A subset of a topological space X is closed if the set X-A is open
OR
If complement of a subset of topological space is open. The subset said to be closed
Example 1.13
Show that the interval (0, 1) open in standard Top on
[a, b] closed in standard topology on
{c} is closed in standard Top on
SOL:
A=(0, 1)
c
A =(-, 0] [1, ) ] [
Ac is closed A is open 0 1
B=[a, b]
B c =(-, a) (b, ) [ ]
B c is open B is closed a b
C={c}
C c =(-, c) (c, ) .
C c is open C is closed c
1.15 Definition
2
(i) Closed ball: For each x and > 0 define closed ball of radius centred at x to be set
(x, )= {y 2 |d(x, y) }
(ii) closed Rectangular: If [a, b] and [c, d]are closed bounded interval in . Then the product
[a, b][c, d]2 is called closed rectangular
Theorem 1.16

Closed balls and closed rectangular are closed sets in standard top on
Proof:
As we know that closed balls in of centered x and radius to be set
(x, )= {y 2 |d(x, y) }
Where (x, y) is distance between x and y
To show that it is closed in 2 .we prove that 2 (x, ) is open
Let a (x, ) ,where d(x, a)>
 15

i,e d(x, a)>+ where >0 ------- (i)

so = d(x, a)- -----------------(ii)
Clearly is +ve number
We claim that B(a, ) 2 (x, )
Let b (x, ) ,then d(a,)< x

by triangular inequality
d(x, a) d(x, b) +d(a, b) a
d(x, b) d(x, a) d(a, b)
d(x, b)> d(x, a) by (i)
d(x, b)> by (ii)
b 2 (x, )
Thus B(a, ) 2 (x, ). This show that a 2 (x, ) is enclosed by an open ball contain in
2 , 2 , is open
(x, ) is closed
Hence proved closed ball are closed set in standard top on 2
Rectangular Part
As we know closed rectangle define as
A=[a, b][c, d]2
To show A is closed set in standard Top
We prove that 2 A is open
2
We know that A can be expressed as union of four open half planes
{(x, y):x<a} , {(x, y):x>b} , {(x, y):y<c} & {(x, y):y>d}
Since each half plane is open set and union of open sets is open set
2 A is open set
A is closed set

Example 1.16
Let set X= {a, b, c, d,} have topology
T={, X, {b}, {a, b}, {c, d}, {b, c, d}}
Explained which subsets are open or closed
SOL:
A= {b}
={a, c, d} which is closed in T
A={b} is open
B= {a}
={b, c, d} which is open in T
B is closed
C= {a, b}
={c, d} which is both closed and open in T
D= {b, c}
={a, d} which is not closed nor open in T
Theorem 1.17
Let X be a topological space following statements about collection of closed
sets in X hold
(i) , and X is closed set
(ii) The intersection of of any collection of closed set is a closed set
(iii) The union of finite many closed sets is a closed set
Proof:
 16

We check and X are closed

As c =X where X is open in top space X is closed
& X c = where is open in top space is closed
As we know in top space subsets are open as closed
Let CX , where C is closed
Now we prove that Ci is closed
By De-Morgin Law
( Ci )c is open
( Ci )c = Ci viz open in X
Ci is closed
Let yi be finite closed set in X
We prove that yi is closed
By De-Morgin Law
( yi )c is open
( yi )c = Ci viz open in X
yi is closed
Example
Topology on generated by basis of sets {(n, n+1) |n }.show that
sets are open
SOL:
Hence each set consist of single point .thus single point sets are open
1.18 Definition Housdroff space
A topological space X is Housdroff if for every point of distint point x and y, There neighborhood U
and V of x and y respectively s.t UV=
i.e Distinct point have distinct neighborhood
Example 1.17
The real line with standard topology is Housdroff
SOL:
Let two distinct points a, b with distinct neighborhood (open interval)
+ +
U= (a-1, 2 ) and V= ( 2 , + 1)
Then U =

Example 1.18
Show that Discrete Top is Housdroff
SOL:
As for each point
there is a neighborhood
Let x, y are distinct points and having neighborhood U={x} ,V={y}
Then U =

Theorem 1.18
If X is Housdroff space, Then every single point subset of X is closed
Proof:
To show {x} is closed .we must show that X-{x} is open
This set will be given by any point y in the set
We can find neighborhood V of y s.t V X-{x} since y X-{x} ; x
 17

Let U and V be distinct open sets. Contain the two set

But UX-{x} and V is neighborhood of y
Hence the set is open so {x} is closed

Exercises for section 1.3

1.25 Prove that in a topological space X if U is open and C is closed then U-C is
open and C-U is closed
SOL:
(i) C is closed X-C is open
Now U-C=U (X-C)
The intersection of two open sets is an open set U- C is open
(ii) U is open X-U is closed
Now C-U=C(X-U)
The intersection of two closed set is closed set
C-X is closed

1.26 Prove that closed ball is closed set in standard topology on

Proved in Theorem 1.6

1.27 The infinite comb C is the subset of plane illustrated in fig 1.17 and defines
as

C={(x, 0)|0 ] {( , y) = , , ,

Prove that C is not closed in standard top on
Prove that C is closed in the vertical
interval topology on ( . )
1 1 1
SOL: 08 4 2
fig 1.17

To show C is not closed in standard topology we prove that C c = 2 C is not open

As {(0, y); 0y1} is limiting line but not belong to C
C is not closed
OR
to prove C c = C is open then an open disk for every
xC c = C and also in their union and intersection
But in infinite comb open disks cannot exist C c = 2 C is not open in R2
C is not cloed in the standard topology on R2
To show C is closed in vertical interval topology we prove that C c = 2 C is open
As The collection {{a}(b, c) 2 }of vertical interval in plane is basis for topology on 2
For arbitrary a, b, c similarly this topology are vertical line c ----------
So we can draw such lines in infinite c b ---------
these are open in C c = 2 C a
C is closed in vertical interval topology
1.28 Which sets are closed in finite complement topology on X
SOL:
 18

All infinite intervals are closed in and the finite set whose complement is infinite are
open in
1.29 Which sets are closed set in exclude point topology on a set X
SOL:
Those subset of X which are contain point p (pX) are closed in EP
1.30 Which sets are closed set in particular point topology on a set X
SOL:
Those subset of X which are do not contain point p (pX) are closed in PP
Or those subsets of X which are open in EP are closed in PP
1.31 Shows that a single point {n} is closed in digital line top n is even

SOL:
Suppose {n} is closed and prove that n is even
Let A={n}
As given {n} is closed
= {, , 2, 1} n+1, n+2, ,}
n-1 and n+ 1 both are odd
n is even
Conversely
Let n is even then prove that {n} is closed
As A= {n}
= {, , 2, 1} n+1, n+2, ,} viz open (infinite union of open set is
open)
For any number which is even when we take its complement, it will be open in T
Every single point {n} is closed in digital line top n is even
1.32 Prove that intervals of form [a, b) are closed in lower limit topology
on

SOL:
As we know that [a, b) is open in l because basis for l
Now we prove that it is also closed in l
Let A=[a, b)
c
Then A = {, a) [b, ) which is union of open interval
Ac = (, a) [b, ) is open
A is closed
1.33 Proved in theorem 1.17
On the five point set {a, b, c, d, e} consist two topologies
1.34
(a)One is that Housdroff (other than discrete top)
(b) One is Housdroff (other than trivial top)
SOL:
(a) We cannot find any topology that is Housdroff (other than
discrete top)

(b) T={, X, {a}} etc is Housdroff (other than trivial top)

1.35 Show that in lower limit topology is housdroff
SOL:
 19

Lower limit topology define as

l ={, open interval and their union &the interval of form [a, b) and their union}
As for each point
there is a neighborhood
Let x, y are distinct points and having neighborhood U=[x y),V=[y,z)
Then U V =
Housdroff
1.36 Show that in the finite complement topology is not housdroff
SOL:
Let a finite set A={x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn }
Now by the definition of finite complement topology Tfc
Ac = -x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn } Tfc
Let r1 r2
Then r1 O1 {x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn } & r2 O2 {y1 , , xn } where O1 and O2 are
neighborhood of r1 and r2 respectively
Clearly O1 O2 space is not Housdroff
1.37 Prove that the arithmetic progression topology on is Housdroff
(see Ex 1.15)
SOL:
Arithmetic progression define as
, = , 2 , , , + , + 2 ,
Let x , y where xy
Let x 1 ,1 , y 2 ,2
We prove that a 1 ,1 2 ,2 =
Now we let x is even and y is odd
Then x 1 ,1 = , 2, ,0, ,2,
y 2 ,2 ={,y-2, y, y+2,}
then 1 ,1 2 ,2 =
END END END
Muhammad Tahir Aziz Takleed (Bhakkar)

BSc BZU Multan, MSc (Math) GCUF

FB: www.fb.com/tahiraziztakleed

Email:tahiraziz92@gmail.com

tahiraziz1042@gmail.com

Ph: +92 301 7810067

+92 343 46974245

+92 313 6974245

+92 333 8839067

 20

Chapter # 2

Interior, Closure and Boundary

2.1 Definition:

Interior and Closure of Sets:

Let A be a subset of a topological space X, a point xA is said to be an interior point of A if x is in
some open set contained in A OR
The union of all open sets contained in A and denoted by A or Int(A)
It is the largest open subset of A
And let X be a subset of topological space X. A point x is said to be an closure point of A if
there exist an open set U containing X such that U . In other words, an interior point of is
said to be a closure of A OR
The intersection of closed superset of A
It is the smallest closed set containing A denoted by or Cl(A)
From the above definitions we get a sandwich relation Int (A) A Cl(A)
Theorem 2.1
Let X be a topological space and A and B be subsets of X and
OR
(i) If U is open set in X and UA, then U Int A . (iii) If A B then Int(A) Int(B)
Let A B then by definition of interior
(ii) If C is closed set in X and A C ,Then Cl(A)A. of A
(iii) If A B then Int(A) Int(B) Int(A) A and Int(B) B
(iv) If A B then Cl(A) Cl(B) Int(A) A B Int(A)B
(v) A is open iff A=Int(A) Int(A) Int B
(vi) A is closed iff A=Cl(A) Int(B) is the largest open subset of B.

Proof:

(i) Suppose U is an open set in X and UA

Since Int (A) = U (by def of Interior)
UInt A
(ii) Suppose C is an closed set in X and AC
Since Cl(A)= C (by def of closure) Cl(A)A
(iii) Let x A then an open set U containing x s.t UA,
Since AB UB this show that x also contain in interior point of B i.e
x B A B
(iv) Let A B ---- (i) then by definition of closure of A
A Cl A -----(ii) and B Cl B -----(iii) by previous theorem
By (i) and (iii) AB Cl B
A Cl B
Then Cl(A) Cl B A Cl A -----(ii)
(v) Suppose A is open by definition of interior of A
Int(A) A --------(i)
Also we can write AA
Then AInt A ----------------(ii)
 21

By i and ii Int A =A
Conversely suppose Int(A)=A
As Int (A) is unoin of open subsets of A so Int(A) is open then A is open
(vi) Suppose A is closed by definition of closure of A
A Cl A --------(i)
Also we can write AA
Then Cl A A ----------------(ii)
By (i) and ii Cl A =A
Conversly suppose Cl(A)=A
A is closed because closure is always closed
Example 2.1
Let A=[0, 1)is a subset of in standard topology. Then find Int(A)
and Cl(A)
SOL:
Int(A)=(0,1) and Cl(A)=[0, 1]
Example 2.2
Let A=[0, 1)is a subset of in finite complement topology. Then
find Int(A) and Cl(A)
SOL:
A=[0,1)
Int(A)= becauese no open sets contain in A
Cl(A)= =(-, 0)[1,)
A is infinite the only infinite closed set in this topology is
Example 2.3
Let A=[0, 1)is a subset of in lower limit topology. Then find
Int(A) and Cl(A)
SOL:
Int(A)=[0,1) because A is open in this topology
Cl(A)=A because =(-, 0)[1,) is open in this topology therefore A closed in this
top
Example 2.5
Show that the Int()= and Cl(A)= in standard topology on
SOL:
We show that Int()= we suppose contrary that Int()
And suppose that U in a non empty open set contain in . Let xU then there is an open interval s.t
x (a,b)U but in every pair of real number there is an irrational number. Thus every
interval contains element of - . Therefore U this is contradiction
Int()=
As Int()= we get in closure
Cl()=
Definition 2.3:
A subset A of a topological space X is called dense if Cl(A)=X
(see example 2.4 and 2.5)
Example 2.6
 22

In finite complement topology on every infinite set is dence

why?
SOL:
In this topology closed set are either finite or itself
Therefore is only closed set containing in infinite set. Thus ,if A is an infinite
subset of R then Cl(A)= A is dense in
Theorem 2.4
Let X be a topological space, A be a subset of x. and y be an element
of X. Then y Int(A) iff there exist an open set U s.t yUA
Proof:
As given AX , yX
We suppose that there exist open set U s.t yUA
Thus U is open and contained in A
It follow that U Int(A) if yU
yInt(A)
Conversely
Let y Int(A) and Int(A) =U
U is open set s.t y U A
Theorem 2.5
Let X be a topological space, A be a subset of x. and y be an element
of X. Then y Cl A iff every open set containing y intersects A
Proof:
Let X be a topological space, AX and y X then we show that every open set that
containing y intersect A

As we know that Cl(A)=

y
Then
Conversely suppose we show that y Cl(A)
y A
( ) y A
Cl(A) Cl(A)=
Theorem 2.6
Let X be a topological space and A and B be subsets of X , the following
statements holds
(i) Int(X-A) = X-Cl(A)
(ii) Cl(X-A) = X-Int(A)
(iii) Int(A) Int(B) Int(AB), and in general does not hold
(iv) Int(A) Int(B) Int(AB) is closed X- is
Proof: open and
(i) Let {x : I} be a collection of closed super set of A ( X- ) = (X )
then Cl(A)=I x
R.H.S = X-Cl(A)=X- I x = I x c =I x c =I (X x )
 23

=Int(X-A)=L.H.S

(ii) Let {x : I} be a collection of open subset of A then Int(A)=I x is open X-

R.H.S = X-Int(A)=X- I x = I x c =I x c =I (X x ) is closed and
=Cl(X-A)=L.H.S ( X- )(X )

(iii) As A A B and B A B so Int(A)Int(AB) and Int(B)Int(AB)

Int(AB)Int(A) Int(B)-------------------------(1)
Now we prove that Int(AB)Int(A) Int(B)
By counter example
Let A=[0, 1] ,B=[1, 2] and A B = [0, 2] then Int(A)=(0, 1),Int(B)=(1, 2), Int(A)Int(B)=(0, 2)-{1},
Int(AB)= (0, 2) or A=Q, Int(A)= and B= , , = and Int(A) Int(B)=then AB= and
Int(AB) =
Int(A) Int(B) Int(AB)
(iv) As A B A and B so Int(AB) Int(A) and Int(AB) Int(B)
Int(AB)Int(A) Int(B)-------------------------(1)
Let y Int(A) Int(B)
y Int(A) and y Int(B)
As we know
Int(A)A and Int(B)B
y A and y B y A B
y Int(AB)
Int(A) Int(B )Int(A B)-------------------------(2)
By 1 and 2 Int(A) Int(B) = Int(AB)
Example 2.8 :
Let A of irrational numbers with standard topology. Show that A is dense
Proof:
As A= - be set of irrational numbers
Cl A =Cl - )
= -Int(A)
= -= Int )=
A is dense
Exercises for section 2.1
2.1 Determine Int(A) and Cl(A) in each case
(a) A=(0, 1]in lower limit topology on
SOL:
Int(A)=(0, 1) Cl(A)=[0, 1]
(b) A={a} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, X, {a}, {a, b}}
SOL: Closed set in topology are {X, , {b,c},{c}
Int(A)={a} The smallest closed set contain {a} is X so
Cl(A)=X Cl(A) is X
(c) A={a, c} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, X, {a}, {a, b}}
SOL: Closed set in topology are {X, , {b,c},{c}
Int(A)= The smallest closed set contain {a, c} is X
Cl(A)=X so Cl(A) is X
(d) A={b} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, X, {a}, {a, b}}
SOL:
Int(A)={ } Closed set in topology are {X, , {b,c},{c}
Cl(A)=X The smallest closed set contain {b} is {b,
c} so Cl(A) is {b, c}
 24

(e) A=(-1,1) {}in standard topology on

SOL:
Int(A)=(-1, 1)
Cl(A)=[-1,1]{2}

(f) A=(-1,1) {}in lower limit topolgy on

SOL:
Int(A)=(-1, 1)
Cl(A)=[-1,1]{2}
(g) A= {(0, x) |x } in the standard topology
SOL: Standard top on 2 define as
Int(A)={ } T={, 2 , all open disks and their union.
Cl(A)=A All set are closed and open so Cl(A) is A
(h) A={(, ) | } in with the topology generated by
the basis in Ex.1.19
SOL:
Int(A)=
Cl(A)=A
(i) A={( , ) | } in with the topology generated by
the basis in Ex.1.19
SOL:
Int(A)=A
Cl(A)=A

2.2 Let X be a topological space and A and B be subsets of X

(a) If C is a closed set in X and AX then Cl(A)C
(b) if AB then Cl(A)Cl(B)
(c) A is closed if and only if A=Cl(A).
SOL:
solved in theorem 2.2
2.3 For m<n , let , = {m, m+1, ,n}.Determine
Int(, ) (, ) in digital line topology. Discussion of cases with
SOL: example
m=2 , n=6
There are four cases
l2,6 = {2, 4, 5, 6}
(i) If m and n are odd then
Int(l2,6 )={3, 4, 5}
Int(A)={m, m+1, ...,n}
Cl(l2,6 )={2, 3,4,5,6}
Cl(A)={m-1,m, m+1,,n}
m=2, n=5
(ii) m is odd and n is even then l2,5 ={2,3,4.5}
Int(A)={m, m+1, ...,n-1} Int(l2,5 )={3,4,5}
Cl(A)={m-1,m, m+1,,n} Cl(l2,5 ) ={2,3,45,6}
(iii) if m is even and n is odd then m=1 ,n=5
Int(A)={m+1,m+2, ...,n} l1,5 = 1,2,3,4,5
Cl(A)={,m, m+1,,n+1} Int(l1,5 )=1,2,3,4,5}
(iv) m and n are even then CL(l1,5 )={0,1,2,3,4,5}
Int(A)={m+1, ...,n-1} m=1,n=6
Cl(A)={m, m+1,,n} l1,6 = 1,2,3,4,5,6
In(l1,6 ) ={1,2,3,4,5}
Cl(l1,5 ) = {0,1,2,3,4,5.6]
 25

2.4 Consider the particular point topology PP on a set X.Determine

Int(A) and Cl(A) for sets A containing p and for sets A non-containing p
SOL:
If we first consider A contains p then
Int(A)=A
Cl(A)=X
If consider A not contains p then
Int(A)=
CL(A)=A
2.5 Consider the excluded point topology EP on a set X.Determine
Int(A) and Cl(A) for sets A containing p and for sets A non-
containing p
SOL:

If we first consider A contains p then

Int(A)=
Cl(A)=A
If consider A not contains p then
Int(A)=
CL(A)=X
2.6 Prove that Cl()= in standard topology on
SOL:
Let A=
Cl(A)=Cl(R- )
Cl(A)=R-Int( )
CL(A)= -
CL(A)=

2.7 Let B={ |a , n +}.Show that B is dense in

SOL:
Given The subgroup of are two types

B={2 |a , n +} (i) Cyclic
1 2 3 (ii) Dense
B={0, , , , , } a and n are varing
2 22 23 2
Cl(B) is the smallest closed set that consist B.It is clearly B is not cyclic
Cl A is dense
Cl B =
2.8 (a) Show that the set of odd integer is dense in the digital line
topology on . Is same true for the set of even integers?
(b) Which subsets of are dense in the discrete topology on
SOL:
We show that Cl( )=
CL( )= --------------(i)
Let x .Then either x is even or odd
if x is odd then by definition
x is the limit point of if every open set containing x other then
 26

Now {x} = {x} x

If x is even then
{x-1, x, x+1} thus intersection will be other then x x
So ={0, +2, +4, }
So by (i) we get
CL( ) ={0, +1, +2, +3, +4, }
Cl( )=
Hence the set of odd integer is dense in digital line topology on
For even numbers
Let ={0, +2, +4, }
As we know Cl(E) = ------------(ii)
Let x then x is either even or odd
If x is odd then
{x} E= x
If x is even then
{x-1, x, x-2} E x x is even and is for odd
=
So Cl(E)
Hence the set of even is not dense in digital line topology
2.9 (b)
In discrete both odd and even are both dense
In with standard topology, prove that Cl( (a, b)(c, d) )=
[a, b][c, d] and Int( [a, b][c, d] )=(a, b)(c, d).
SOL:
In 2 We prove that Cl( (a, b)(c, d) )=[a, b][c, d]
Cl( (a, b)(c, d) ) is the smallest open set that contain (a, b)(c, d)
So Cl( (a, b)(c, d) )=[a, b][c, d]
Now we prove that Int( [a, b][c, d] )=(a, b)(c, d)
In Int( [a, b][c, d] ) is largest closed set that contain [a, b][c, d]
So Int( [a, b][c, d] )=(a, b)(c, d)
Closure
Interior

a b a b

2.10 Prove theorem 2.5

1 SOL:
Already proved
2.11 Prove theorem 2.6, part (ii) and (iv)
SOL:
Already proved
2.12 In each case, determine whether the relation in blank is , , or =
in case where equality does not hold, provide an example indicating
so.
(a) Cl(A) Cl(B)____Cl(A B).
(b) Cl(A) Cl(B)____Cl(A B).
SOL:
We know that A Cl(A) and B Cl(B)
A BA and A BB
 27

Then Cl(A B) (A) and Cl(A B Cl B

Cl(A) Cl B Cl A B).
Counter Example
Let A={a} and B={b} in X=[a, b, c} with topology T={, X, {a}, {b},{a, b}}
Then Cl(A)={a, c}
Cl(B)={b, c}
Cl(A B)=
Cl(A) Cl(B)=
(b)
ACl A and BCl B
A A B and B A B)
Cl A Cl A B and Cl B Cl A B)
C(A) (B Cl A B)
Counter Example
A=(-1, 0) ans B=(1, 2)
Cl(A)=[-1, 0] and Cl(B)=[1, 2]
Cl(A)Cl(B)=[-1,0][1, 2]
AB=(-1,0) (1,2)
Cl(AB)=[-1, 2]
Cl A (B Cl A B)

2.2 LIMITING POINTS

Let (X, T) be a topological space and AX be a sub set of X. A point xX is said to be limit point of
A if every open set containing x intersect with A-{x}
i.e U A-{x}
Set of all limits points of A is denoted by
Note
Closure of a set A must contain its limits points

={xX:Every open subset of X intersect with A-{x}
i.e U A-{x}
Example
Let X={a, b, c, d}
T={, , , , {, }}
= ,
Find the derived set of A
SOL:
take aX
Step 1: A-{a}={d}
Step 2 : choose their open subset of X , which contain a
XA-{a}=X{d}={d}
UA-{a}={a}{d}=
so a A
Now take bX
Choose a open set of X which contain b
XA-{b}={a, d}
b
Take c X
Step 1: A-{c}={a, d}
Step 2: Choose a open set of X which contain c
XA-{c}=X{a, d}={a, d}
 28

UA-{c}={c}{a, d}=
so c
take d X
step 1: A-{d}={a}
step 2: Choose a open set of X which contain d
XA-{d}=X{a}={a}
so d
={a, d}

Example 2.9

Let A={ |n +} subset of with standard topology. Show that

L(A)=0
Solve in book try to understand
Example 2.10
Let A=(0, 1] subset of with standard topology. What are the limits points
of A
SOL:
A=(0,1]
Let y<x<0 x (y, 0)
Then (y, 0) (0, 1]=
x<0 is not limiting point
let y<x<1 x (y, 1)
Then (y, 1) (0, 1]=
y>1 is not limiting point
Let {0-1 , 0+2 } A other then 0
Let {1-1 , 1+2 } A other then 1
So limit points of A is [0, 1]
=[0, 1]
Example 2.11
Let Q subset of with standard topology. Show that L()=
SOL:
let x
there is a open set U containing x such that x (a, b)
(a, b)-x (infinitely many points other then x)
x is limit point
every point of R is limit point of
L )=

Theorem 2.8
Let A be a subset of a topological space X. and let be the set of
limiting point of A. Then Cl(A)=A
Proof:
Let x Cl(A) = { xX : every open subset U containing X intersect with A : U A }
If x A , x A
Cl A A
 29

If x A A-{x}=A
UA
UA{}
x
x
Cl A A ------------------(1)
Conversely
Let x
If x Cl(A)
x
Cl A
If x A and x
By the definition of limiting point
UA-{x}
UA
x Cl(A)
Cl A ----------------(2)
By (1) And (2) We have
Cl(A)=A
Corollary 2.9:
A subset A of a topological space is closed it contains all of its
limiting points i.e A
Proof:
Suppose A is closed by the theorem A is closed A=Cl A
And by theorem if A= Cl(A) A =A
A
Exercises for section 2.2

2.13 Determine the limiting points of A in each case.

(a) A=(0, 1] in lower limit topology on
SOL:
We know that x said to be limit point of A if
N(x) {A-{x} } then x
Now
N(0) {A-{0} } 0 and
N(1) {A-{1} } 1
=[0, 1]
A={a} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, , , , }
SOL:
N(a)={ {a}, {a, b}, X}
N(b)={ {a, b},X}
N(c)={X}
Now N(a) {A-{a} } = 0
N(b) {A-{b} } b
 30

N(c) {A-{c} } 0
=[b, c]
A={a, c} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, , , , }
SOL:
N(a)={ {a}, {a, b}, X}
N(b)={ {a, b},X}
N(c)={X}
Now N(a) {A-{a} } = 0
N(b) {A-{b} } b
N(c) {A-{c} } 0
=[b, c]
A={b} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, , , , }
SOL:
N(a)={ {a}, {a, b},{a, c}, X}
N(b)={ {a, b},X}
N(c)={X}
Now N(a) {A-{a} } = 0
N(b) {A-{b} } = b
N(c) {A-{c} } 0
=[c]
A=(-1, 1) {} in standard topology on
SOL:
Now N(-1) {A-{-1} } -1
N(1) {A-{1} } 1
N(2) {A-{2} }= 2
=[-1, 1]
A=(-1, 1) {} in lower limit topology on
SOL:
Now N(-1) {A-{-1} } -1
N(1) {A-{1} } 1
N(2) {A-{2} }= 2
=[-1, 1]
A={(, ) | } in with the standard topology
SOL:
A={(, 0) 2 | }. We know that open sets in 2 are open disks. On putting
different values x we get horizontal line i.e real line
Hence limit point of A whole real line i.e
=-A or =A
A={(, ) | } in with the topology generated by
the basis in Ex.1.19
SOL:
A={(0, ) 2 | }. We know that open sets in 2 are open disks. On putting
different values x we get vertical line i.e real line
 31

Hence limit point of A whole real line i.e

=-A or =A
A={( , ) | } in with the topology generated by
the basis in Ex.1.19
SOL:
A={(, 0) 2 | }. We know that open sets in 2 are open disks. On putting
different values x we get horizontal line i.e real line
Hence limit point of A whole real line i.e
=-A or =A
2.14 For each n +.let ={n, n+1, n+2, . . . }, and consider the
collection = |n +}.
a Show that is basis for topology on +
SOL:
We check axioms of basis
(B1)
x + s.t x
(B2)
Let ,
If m<n then =
If m>n then x =
All axioms of basis satisfied so is basis fot topology on +
(b) Show that the topology on X generated by is not Hausdroff

SOL:
Let x, y are distinct points and having neighborhood U={x} ,V={y}.we cannot find open set whose
intersection is empty
Then U
Not Housdroff
2.15 Determine the set of limit points [0, 1] in finite complement topology on

SOL:
A=[0, 1]
[ ]
- 0 1 +
=
2.16 Determine limit points of the Single-point {n} in digital line topology.
SOL:
By the definition of digital line topology
B(n)={n} if n is odd and B(n)={n-1, n, n+1} if n is even
2.17 In exercise 2.8 dicussed
(a) Let = [a, b a, b and a<b}. Show that is basis for a
topology on . The resulting topology is called rational lower limit topology
and denoted by
SOL:
We check axioms of basis
 32

(B1)
Since every point on real line contained in a interval and therefore contain in a interval B
xB
(B2)
If two interval in B intersect then a point in intersect of two interval in B that contain in the
intersection

[ [ ) ) [ [ ) ) [ [ ) )
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1
(b) Determine the closure of A =(0, ) and B=( ,3) in

SOL:
Cl(A) =[0, 2) and Cl(B)= [ 2,3) in
&
Cl(A) =[0, 2] and Cl(B)= [ 2,3] in

2.18 Determine the set of limit point of A ={ + | m, n +} in the

standard topology on
SOL:
We fixed m and very n i.e
if m=1. n=1,2,3,4,5,6,
Then A={ 2, 3/2,1/3, }
If m=2, n=1,2,3,4,..
Then A={ 3/2, 1, 5/6,..}
Hence conquest limit point 0 and 2 and all element b/w the x Q
={xQ :0 2}
2.19 Show that if ( ) is a sequence in having infinite range, then ( )
converges to every point in with finite complement topology on
SOL:
Let x and U be an open neighborhood of x .U contains all but finally many points
of and thus all but finally many points of . Since x and U are general ,
converges to every points in .
2.20 Prove theorem 2.11: Let A be a subset of in the standard
topology. If x is a limit point of A , then there is a sequence of point
in A that converges to x.
SOL:
Apply definition of limit points

2.21 Determine the set of limit point of the set

S={(x, sin( ) ) |0<x1}


as a subset of in the standard topology. (The closure of S in
plane is known as the topologists sine curve
SOL:
1
(x, sin( ) ) put the value of x 0, 1] we get the value which lie in interval (-1, 1)
 33

limit point of S are -1 and 1and every point lie between them
=[-1, 1]

The Boundary of a Set

Definition 2.13
Let A be a subset of a topological space X. The boundary of A, denoted by and define as set
=Cl(A)-Int(A) or =X-(Int(A) Cl(A) )
Example 2.14
Let A=[-1, 1] in standard topology on . Find boundary
SOL:
Cl(A)=[-1,1] [ ] Cl(A)
-1 1
Int(A)=(-1,1) ] ( ) Int(A)
=Cl(A)-Int(A) -1 1
=[-1, 1]-(-1,1)
={-1, 1}
| |

Example 2.15
Concept
mjj
A Cl(A) Int(A)

Theorem 2.14
Let A be a subset of a topological space X and let x be a point in X. Then
x every neighborhood of x intersect both A and X-A
Proof:
Let x
x Cl A and x Int A =Cl(A)-Int(A)
When x Cl A for every neighborhood of x intersect A
When x Int A for every neighborhood of x is not subset of A then intersect X-A
every neighborhood of x intersect A and X-A
Conversely
Suppose every neighborhood of x intersect A and X-A
x Cl(A) and x Cl(X-A)
As we know Cl(A)=X-Int A x Int A
Thus x Cl A and x Int A
x Cl(A)-Int(A)
x

Theorem 2.15
 34

Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then the following statements

about boundary of A hold
(i) is closed
(ii) = Cl(A)
(iii) Int(A)=
(iv) Int(A)=Cl(A)
(v) A A is closed
(vi) A= A is open
(vii) A= A is both open and closed
Proof:
is closed
As we know that =Cl(A)-Int(A)
=Closed set open set
The remaining set is closed set which is
So is closed
(ii) = Cl(A)
we know that Cl(A) is a close that contain A
and Cl(X-A) is closed contain X-A
(ii) Cl(X-A) Cl(A) = A (i) If A is open then Cl(X-A)=X-Int(A)
=X-(Int(A) Cl(A) ) Cl(A)=Int(A)
=X-(Int(A) U Int(X-A) ) Then belong to X
= (Int A U Int X A )c Cl(X-A) Cl(A) =(X-Int(A)) (Int(A- )
c
= Int A ( (Int X A )c =X-(Int(A) U Int(X-A) )
by De Morgin Law =
= (X-Int(A) ) (X-Int(X-A) ) = A
= Cl(A) Cl(X-A (ii) If A is closed then
Cl(A)=A=Int(A)
Cl(A)=(X-A)
Cl(X-A) Cl(A) = [(X-A) ] [Int(A) ]
=
= A
So
Cl(X-A) Cl(A) = A
(iii) A Int(A)= Int(A)=
Suppose on contrary A Int(A) , and let x We know that =Cl(A)-Int(A)
Int(A) A,then x Int(A) , so there exist an Let x x Cl A but x Int A
open set U containing x such that x Int A A
UA As x is an arbitrary point of A
U Int(A)= Now let x () then X Cl(A)
x A Cl(A)=A=Int(A)
This is contradiction. Hence A Int(A)=
But =Cl(A)-Int(A)
So x
As x is an arbitrary point of Int(A)
A Int(A)=
Int(A)=Cl(A)
Let x A Int(A)
(iv) Cl(A) = A Int(A) x A or x Int(A)
R.H.S As =Cl(A)-Int(A) and Int A Cl A
=A Int(A) x Cl(A)
= Cl(A) Cl(X-A) A
=( A Cl(A) ) ( A Cl X A )
= Cl(A) X
= Cl(A) = L.H.S
 35

So A Int(A) Cl A --------------(1)
Now we prove that Cl A A Int(A)
Let y Cl(A)
We know that =Cl(A)-Int(A)
If y Int A then y A
y A Int(A)
If y Int A then y A
y A Int(A)
Cl A A Int(A) -------------(2)
From (1) AND (2)
A Int(A)=Cl(A)

Let AA
Let x then x Cl A but x Int A
as x A
xA
x Cl(A)
So A is closed
Conversely
Let A is closed
Then by definition
Cl(A)=A
A A =A AB AUB=B
A A
= A is open
If a is open then A=Int(A)
As we know that A Int(A)=
A A=
Conversely
Let A A=
Let x A then x A
x Int(A)
As x is an arbitrary point of A
So x A also x Int(A)
Which show that A = Int(A)
A is open
(vii) = A is both open and closed
If A is open then X-A is closed so that X-A=Cl(X-A), if A closed then Cl(A)=A therefore by (ii)
Cl(X-A) Cl(A) = A = A X-A =
Conversely
Let A =
By (iv of this theorem)
A Int(A)=Cl(A)
As A =
Int(A)=Cl(A)
Int A =Cl A
As we know Int A A Cl A
Int A = A =Cl A
This show that A is both open and close

Example 2.16
Show that =
 36

SOL:
by the Example 2.5 Int = and Cl =
so = Cl - Int
=- =

Example 2.17
Consider the vertical A={0}[-1, 1]as subset of with standard
topology.Find A
SOL:
Int(A)= and Cl(A)=A
so = Cl(A)- Int(A)
=A
Example 2.18
Let A = [-1, 1] in with discrete topology. Find A
SOL:
Int(A)=[-1, 1] and Cl(A)=[-1, 1]
so = Cl(A)- Int(A)
=
Example 2.19
Let A = [-1, 1] in with lower limit topology. Find A
SOL:
Int(A)=[-1, 1] and Cl(A)=[-1, 0)
so = Cl(A)- Int(A)
= {-1}
NOTED: Interior and closure depend upon the topology on the set X containing A

2.24 Exercises for section 2.3

Determine A in each case
(a) A=(0,1] in the lower limit on
Int(A)=(0,1)
Cl(A)=A
= Cl(A)- Int(A)
=(0,1]-(0,1)
(b) A={a} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, X, {a}, {a, b}}
SOL:
Closed set in topology are {X, , {b,c},{c} Int(A)={a}
The smallest closed set contain {a} is X so Cl(A)=X
Cl(A) is X = Cl(A)- Int(A)
=X-{a}
={b,c}
(c) A={a, c} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, X, {a}, {a, b}
SOL:
Closed set in topology are {X, , {b,c},{c} Int(A)={a}
The smallest closed set contain {a, c} is X Cl(A)=X
so Cl(A) is X
 37

= Cl(A)- Int(A)
=X-{a}
={b,c}
(d) A={b} in X={a, b, c} with topology {, X, {a}, {a, b}}
SOL:
Int(A)={ } Closed set in topology are {X, , {b,c},{c}
Cl(A)=X The smallest closed set contain {b} is {b,
= Cl(A)- Int(A) c} so Cl(A) is {b, c}
=X-{ }
=X
(e) A=(-1,1) {}in standard topology on
SOL:
Int(A)=(-1, 1)
Cl(A)=[-1,1]{2}
= Cl(A)- Int(A)
=[-1,1]{2} - (-1, 1)
={-1, 1,2}
(f) A=(-1,1) {}in lower limit topolgy on
SOL:
Int(A)=(-1, 1)
Cl(A)=[-1,1]{2}
= Cl(A)- Int(A)
=[-1,1]{2} - (-1, 1)
={-1, 1,2}
(g) A= {(0, x) |x } in the standard topology
SOL: 2
Int(A)={ } Standard top on define as
Cl(A)=A T={, 2 , all open disks and their union.
= Cl(A)- Int(A) All set are closed and open so Cl(A) is A
=A-{ }
=A
(h) A={(, ) | } in with the topology generated
by the basis in Ex.1.19
SOL: 2
Int(A)= Standard top on define as
Cl(A)=A T={, 2 , all open disks and their union.
= Cl(A)- Int(A) =A All set are closed and open so Cl(A) is A
(i) A={( , ) | } in with the topology
generated by the basis in Ex.1.19
SOL:
Int(A)=A
Cl(A=A
= Cl(A)- Int(A) =
(a) For m<n , let , = {m, m+1, ,n}.Determine
2.25
(, ) in digital line topology.
SOL:
There are four cases
(i) If m and n are odd then
 38

Discussion of cases with

example Int(A)={m, m+1, ...,n}
m=2 , n=6 Cl(A)={m-1,m, m+1,,n}
l2,6 = {2, 4, 5, 6} = Cl(A)- Int(A)
Int(l2,6 )={3, 4, 5} ={m-1,m, m+1,,n}-{m, m+1, ...,n}
Cl(l2,6 )={2, 3,4,5,6} ={m-1}
m=2, n=5 (ii) m is odd and n is even then
l2,5 ={2,3,4.5} Int(A)={m, m+1, ...,n-1}
Int(l2,5 )={3,4,5} Cl(A)= {m-1,m, m+1,,n}
Cl(l2,5 ) ={2,3,45,6} = Cl(A)- Int(A)
m=1 ,n=5 ={m-1,m, m+1,,n} - {m, m+1, ...,n-1}
l1,5 = 1,2,3,4,5 = {m-1}
Int(l1,5 )=1,2,3,4,5} (iii) if m is even and n is odd then
CL(l1,5 )={0,1,2,3,4,5} Int(A)={m+1,m+2, ...,n}
m=1,n=6
Cl(A)={m, m+1,,n+1}
l1,6 = 1,2,3,4,5,6
= Cl(A)- Int(A)
In(l1,6 ) ={1,2,3,4,5} = {m, m+1,,n+1} - {m+1,m+2, ...,n}
Cl(l1,5 ) = {0,1,2,3,4,5.6] = {m,n+1}
(iv) m and n are even then
Int(A)={m+1, ...,n-1}
Cl(A)={m, m+1,,n}
= Cl(A)- Int(A)
= {m, m+1,,n} - {m,+1,m+2, ...,n-1}
= {m}
(b) Determine limit points of the Single-point {n} in digital line topology
SOL:
Solved in exercise 2.8
2.26 Determine the boundary of each following subset of in the standard
topology
(a) A={( , ) | }
SOL:
Int(A)=
Cl(A)=A
= Cl(A)- Int(A)
=A
(b) B={( , ) | > 0, }
SOL:
Int(B)={ ( , ) 2 | > 0, > 0} {( , ) 2 | > 0, < 0}
Cl(A)= {( , ) 2 | . }
B=Cl(B)-Int(B)
B={( , ) 2 | . } { ( , ) 2 | > 0, > 0} {( , ) 2 | > 0, < 0}

y-axsis

x-axsis
 39

(c) C={( /, ) | +}
SOL:
Int(C)={ }
1
Cl(C) ={[ , 0] 2 | + }

= Cl(C) Int(C)
1
={[ , 0] 2 | + }{ }
1
={[ , 0] 2 | +}

=Cl(C)
(d) D={( , ) | < }
SOL:
Int(D) ={( , ) 2 |0 < 2 2 < 1}
Cl(D) ={( , ) | }
D={( , ) | }{( , ) 2 |0 < 2 2 < 1}
i.e equation of hyperbola
 40

2.27 Determine [, ] in with finite complement topology. Justify your

result
SOL:
let A=[0,1]
Int(A)=
Cl(A)=
= Cl(A) Int(A)
=
=
2.28 Prove Theorem 2.15
Proved already