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A-1
General Definitions and Concepts
A-2
Mass, Weight, and Gravity
A-3
Mass
A-4
Weight
Weight - The force exerted on an object by gravitational
acceleration. Weight is the product of gravitational
acceleration and mass: W = mg
- In the metric system, force is measured in Newtons. One
Newton is the force required to accelerate one kilogram of
mass at one m/s2.
- Metric weights are usually expressed in terms of kilogram
force, where one kilogram force is the weight of a one
kilogram mass at one standard g. Therefore, one
kilogram force equals 9.80665 Newtons.
- In the English system, weight is measured in pounds.
One pound is the force required to accelerate one slug of
mass at one ft/s2. One slug at one standard g has a
weight of 32.17405 pounds.
A-5
Weight
Conversions:
kilogram (force) * 2.2046226 = pounds
pounds * .45359237 = kilogram (force)
A-6
Gravitational Force
Gravitational Force The force of mutual attraction which
results from the proximity of two bodies to each other. This
force varies directly with the mass of each body and with the
square of their distance from each other.
Mass M2
Mass M1
center center
of mass
F of mass
M2
Acceleration of mass M1 toward M2: a = G 2
d
A-8
Gravitational Acceleration
b = 20,855,636 ft
z
a4 + b4 tan2()
rE =
rE a2 + b2 tan2()
= latitude
Equator
a = 20,925,780 ft
South Pole
A-9
Gravitational Acceleration
On Earth - Gravitational acceleration, g, for a stationary
object over a rotating earth, is modeled by the following
equations:
- Variation with latitude at sea level (Lamberts Equation):
g,SL = go [ 1 - 2.6373 x 10-3 Cos (2) + 5.9 x 10-6 Cos2 (2) ]
Where: = Latitude
z = Altitude (feet)
E = Rotation rate of the earth (7.29212 x 105 rad/sec)
f i o n
t o a t
Rotation rate of the e n l e r ty
earth = E o n cce avi
p l a gr
m a
Cofug sing
t ri po
(rE + z) cos n p
ce o
Centrifugal acceleration
z (due to earths rotation)
d ue y
c el vit
Ac gra
rE to
Equator
A-11
Gross Weight Correction for Latitude/Altitude
go
factor = m g,Z * factor = m go
g,Z
A-12
Gross Weight Correction for Latitude/Altitude
Latitude/Altitude Correction Table
Deg/Feet 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
90 0.99736 0.99746 0.99756 0.99765 0.99775 0.99784 0.99794 0.99803
85 0.99740 0.99750 0.99760 0.99769 0.99779 0.99788 0.99798 0.99807
80 0.99752 0.99762 0.99771 0.99781 0.99791 0.99800 0.99810 0.99819
75 0.99772 0.99781 0.99791 0.99800 0.99810 0.99820 0.99829 0.99839
70 0.99798 0.99808 0.99817 0.99827 0.99836 0.99846 0.99855 0.99865
65 0.99831 0.99840 0.99850 0.99859 0.99869 0.99878 0.99888 0.99898
60 0.99868 0.99878 0.99887 0.99897 0.99906 0.99916 0.99926 0.99935
55 0.99910 0.99919 0.99929 0.99939 0.99948 0.99958 0.99967 0.99977
50 0.99954 0.99964 0.99973 0.99983 0.99993 1.00002 1.00012 1.00021
45 1.00000 1.00010 1.00019 1.00029 1.00038 1.00048 1.00058 1.00067
40 1.00046 1.00055 1.00065 1.00075 1.00084 1.00094 1.00103 1.00113
35 1.00090 1.00100 1.00109 1.00119 1.00129 1.00138 1.00148 1.00157
30 1.00132 1.00142 1.00151 1.00161 1.00170 1.00180 1.00190 1.00199
25 1.00170 1.00179 1.00189 1.00198 1.00208 1.00218 1.00227 1.00237
20 1.00202 1.00212 1.00221 1.00231 1.00241 1.00250 1.00260 1.00269
15 1.00228 1.00238 1.00248 1.00257 1.00267 1.00277 1.00286 1.00296
10 1.00248 1.00258 1.00267 1.00277 1.00286 1.00296 1.00306 1.00315
5 1.00260 1.00269 1.00279 1.00289 1.00298 1.00308 1.00318 1.00327
0 1.00264 1.00273 1.00283 1.00293 1.00302 1.00312 1.00322 1.00331
A-14
Center of Mass/Gravity
Applies to
simple objects
A-15
Calculation of Force
d F
Force = F
A-16
Calculation of Force
d3
F F3
d F
M
Clockwise moment about the intersection point between
the board and the wall due to force F:
Moment = F * d
A-18
Calculation of Moment
d3
M F3
L/2
L
A-20
Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Balanced, uniform beam with unequal weights set asymmetrically
about balance point.
100 lb
50 lb
beam wt = 20 lb
??
L
total weight * balance location = (F1 * d1) + (F2 * d2) + (F3 * d3) +.
total weight * balance location = total moment
balance location = total moment total weight
A-22
Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
100 lb
Chosen 50 lb
Reference
Datum beam wt = 20 lb
2
5 .9
D
5.9
8
Weight is
Positive (Moment about reference datum
Down = wt x dist. from datum)
weight 1 = 50 moment 1 = 50 x 2 = 100
weight 2 = 20 moment 2 = 20 x 5 = 100
Upward force provided weight 3 = 100 moment 3 = 100 x 8 = 800
by the support Total weight = 170 Total moment = 1000 To be in balance,
moment provided by
support must be
Total weight x balance location = total moment equal, but opposite,
170 x D = 1000 to this moment
D = 1000 / 170
Balance pt for this system D = 5.9 or .9 to the right of the beam midpoint A-23
Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Datum
Choice of 100 lb
50 lb Chosen
Reference
Datum beam wt = 20 lb Reference
location does Datum
not matter! 1
.9 3.1
D
The balance 4
point will be 7 Weight is
determined (Moment about reference datum Positive
to be in the = wt x dist. from datum) Down
same
weight 1 = 50 moment 1 = 50 x 7 = 350
location. weight 2 = 20 moment 2 = 20 x 4 = 80
Upward force provided weight 3 = 100 moment 3 = 100 x 1 = 100
by the support Total weight = 170 Total moment = 530 To be in balance,
moment provided by
support must be
Total weight x balance location = total moment equal, but opposite,
170 x D = 530 to this moment
D = 530 / 170
Balance pt for this system D = 3.1 or .9 to the right of the beam midpoint A-24
Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
Datum
Choice of 100 lb
50 lb
Reference
Datum beam wt = 20 lb
location does
not matter!
3 .9
The balance D
3.9
point will be 6
determined Weight is
Positive (Moment about reference datum
to be in the = wt x dist. from datum)
Down
same
weight 1 = 50 moment 1 = 50 x 0 = 0
location. weight 2 = 20 moment 2 = 20 x 3 = 60
Upward force provided weight 3 = 100 moment 3 = 100 x 6 = 600
And where
by the support To be in balance,
Total weight = 170 Total moment = 660
we pick the moment provided by
datum can support must be
be helpful. Total weight x balance location = total moment equal, but opposite,
170 x D = 660 to this moment
D = 660 / 170
Balance pt for this system D = 3.9 or .9 to the right of the beam midpoint A-25
Calculating Moments and
Determining CG Location
So how can we apply this knowledge to airplanes? The
method will be the same as we have just learned:
Sum up the individual weights to get the total weight
Calculate the moments (about the datum) for each item
Sum up the individual moments to get the total moment
Divide the total moment by the total weight to get the CG
(Distance from selected
The format can be as follows: reference datum)
A-28
Definition of M.A.C.
A-29
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
A-31
Mean Aerodynamic Chord and Balance Arms
airplane
datum
In weight and balance work,
the significance of m.a.c. is
just as a means of lemac =
expressing location. xxx.x inches
balance
We express center of gravity arm
in terms of % m.a.c.
m.a.c. 0%
m.a.c. =
100% xxx.x inches
BA of airplane c.g.
Datum for B.A.
lemac
lemac m.a.c.
Airplane Model (in.) (in.)
A-34
Shear Loads and Bending Loads
A-35
Shear Loads and Bending Loads
To keep any segment of a beam in equilibrium when an
external force is applied to it, there must be forces
internal to the beam itself which are equal and opposite
to the applied load.
Load
d
Section A
These internal forces can be categorized as shear
forces and bending forces.
To visualize these different forces, let us take a sectional
cut through the beam, and lets look at the forces
involved at that section. A-36
Shear Loads and Bending Loads
Load
Section A
X ft
Reaction
Moment
Reaction Load
A-37
Shear Loads and Bending Loads
Section A
Section A
Load Load
Tension
Compression
Section A
Section C
Section B
Section A 90 lb
5 ft
Section C
90 lb 450 ft-lb
15 ft
90 lb
1350
ft-lb Section B
90 lb 90 lb
10 ft
900 ft-lb
90 lb
A-39
90 lb
Example
Loading #1 15 ft
We can plot these two forces versus the distance from the
wall to see the complete effect along the beam.
Shear 90
Force
(lb)
0
1350
Bending
Moment
(ft-lb)
0
Distance from Wall A-40
30 lb 30 lb 30 lb
Example 5 ft
Loading #2 10 ft
15 ft
0
Distance from Wall A-41
Shear Loads and Bending Loads
A-42
Shear and Bending: Body Loads
A-43
Shear and Bending: Body Loads
Tension Tension
Compression Compression
BODY AIR
LOAD BODY AIRLOAD
TAIL LOAD
A-44
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads
A-45
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads
Compression Compression
Tension Tension
ENGINE ENGINE
FUEL FUEL
WING WING
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
AIRL S
OAD
I RL OAD
S A
A-46
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads
ENGINE ENGINE
FUEL FUEL
WING WING
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
AIRL S
OAD OAD
S AIRL
2.5g
AIRL L OADS
OAD
S AIR
2.5g
A-47
Shear and Bending: Wing Loads
A-48
Exercise 2
A-49
End of
General Definitions and Concepts
A-50