STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING SERVICE LIFE
endurance limit and other environmental factors such as corrosion
OF RAILS UNDER HEAVY AXLE LOADS
ANIRUDH JAIN*, PARMESHWAR FUNKWAL**
SYNOPSIS
Indian Railways have started operation of 22.82 tonne axle load on
selected routes since May 2005. Operation of 25 tonne axle load is also likely to
take off in near future. Use of 90UTS or higher grade rails is essential to bear
these higher axle loads. It is imperative to review the criteria prescribed for
renewal of these higher UTS rails in view of experience gained and rail
maintenance regime prevailing over IR. The factors affecting service life of rails
especially fatigue have been studied and recommendations have been given
regarding strategies to extract maximum service life from these rails and
rationalization of rail renewal criteria.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Indian Railway have recently introduced operation of 22.82t axle load
on certain identified iron ore routes. Besides this, IR is also
contemplating operation of 25t axle load in near future. Keeping above
in view it is considered appropriate to examine the factors affecting
the service life of the rail especially 90UTS rails de novo taking in
account increased axle load.
1.2 Rails in track may call for replacement on account of various reasons.
These are:
1.2.1 Wear: Rail undergoes vertical and lateral wear due to action of traffic.
The progressive wear in rails can lead to a stage at which the safe
operation of traffic becomes difficult e.g. grazing of fish plate by
wheel flange due to excessive vertical wear and increased possibility/
incidences of wheel flange mounting the rails due to excessive lateral
wear. The limiting vertical and/or lateral wear in the rail as also the
limiting percentage loss in the sectional area have been specified in
Indian Railway Permanent Way Manual (IRPWM) [4] on account of
above. When the actual wear crosses any of these limits the rail
needs to be replaced. The life of rails get governed by wear criteria
* Executive Director, Track, RDSO, Lucknow;
Volume - II ** Director, Track, RDSO, Lucknow
when principal stresses in the rail remain within yield strength and
remain under control.
1.2.2 Fatigue: The rail in track is subjected to various stresses namely
thermal stress, residual stress and stresses on account of action of
rolling stock. When the resultant stress in the rail exceeds the
endurance limit and/or yield strength it gives rise to initiation and
progression of fatigue defects in the rail. The damage accumulates
progressively and either the rails are replaced based on the ultrasonic
examination results or finally when it breaks. The most common
type of fatigue defect encountered in rails is Rolling Contact Fatigue
(RCF) which is a result of excessive contact shear stresses in the
rail head. Provision for prioritization in renewal of rails when the
number of withdrawals exceeds the limits set on account of above
reasons has therefore been kept in IRPWM [4].
1.2.3 Corrosion: The rails in track are also subjected to corrosion on
account of falling of excreta and toilet waste as well as environmental
factors such as vicinity to coast etc. The corrosion of rail especially
in the bottom flange area significantly affects the service life of rails
as exhibited through failures originating from the corrosion zone.
Therefore provision for replacement of rails when corrosion exceeds
1.5mm has been laid down in IRPWM [4].
1.3 Determination of rail life based on above mentioned criteria is covered
briefly in the following paragraphs.
2.0 DETERMINATION OF LIFE OF RAILS BASED ON WEAR
2.1 The GMT based criteria specified in IRPWM Para 302(1)(d) [4] for 72
UTS rails based on wear was existing since long time.
2.2 For specifying the GMT based criteria for 90UTS rails, RDSO carried
out studies on rate of wear with respect to traffic density. It was noticed
that GMT required for same level of vertical wear in 90 UTS rails was
1.57 times more than that for 72 UTS rails. This formed the basis for
GMT based criteria for 90 UTS rails. The life specified from wear
consideration in IRPWM [4] is as under:
Gauge Rail Section Total GMT Carried Total GMT carried
for 72 UTS rails for 90 UTS Rails
BG 60Kg 550 800
52 Kg 350 525
90R 250 375
Volume - II 228
3.0 DETERMINATION OF FATIGUE LIFE OF RAILS
3.1 The main consideration behind adoption of 90UTS rails on Indian
Railway was its better wear resistance as compared to 72UTS rails.
However, it has been noted that premature renewal of 90UTS rails on
account of increased failures/withdrawal of rails due to defect detection
in ultrasonic testing is significant [10,11,12,14]. This has necessitated
a fresh look on the reasons governing service life of 90UTS rails.
3.2 For the design of a component, which undergoes fluctuating stresses,
fatigue criterion becomes important. The important parameters
governing the fatigue life of rails are endurance limit and yield strength
of the rail.
3.3 The concept of endurance limit of a material can be explained by S-N
diagram[7]. The S-N diagram contains the fatigue strength (S) on the
Y-axis and the Number of cycles to failure (N) on the X-axis on a log-
log scale. A typical S-N diagram for steels contains a knee in the
graph and failure will not occur, no matter how large is the number of
cycles. The strength corresponding to this knee is called the
endurance limit (Se).
3.4 In order to avoid failure of rail the stresses are required to be kept
within the endurance limit as well as yield strength.
3.5 In order to determine the endurance limit for a given material it is
essential to conduct a testing program on the material. For most
ferrous materials, endurance limit, Se seems to follow the following
relation[7].
Se = k Sut (Se = Endurance limit; Sut = Ultimate tensile strength)
Where k varies between 0.4 and 0.6 for steels with Sut < 1400 Mpa.
Volume - II 229
These values are however for laboratory specimen which are carefully
prepared and tested under controlled conditions. For actual
components the endurance limit needs to be suitable modified using
following relation[6,7]:
Se = ka kb kc kd ke Se
Where Se is the endurance limit of the mechanical element and Se is
that for the laboratory specimen, and the various ks are the surface
factor, the size factor, the load factor, temperature factor and the
miscellaneous effects factor.
3.6 The values of endurance limits for Indian Rails are not available.
Therefore, a value of 0.4 Sut has been assumed for the present analysis.
3.7 Flexural Fatigue
3.7.1 In order to determine the safe limits of dynamic stresses, normally
a Smiths Diagram or Modified Goodman Diagram is drawn [3,16].
In this the mean stress is plotted on the X-axis and the other stress
components can be plotted on the Y-axis. Typically, the endurance
limit and fatigue strength is plotted on the Y-axis. Lines are
constructed to Se above and below the origin. The yield strength is
also plotted because yielding will be the criterion if yield stress is
exceeded. The operating zone of the stresses should lie between
the dark lines. In this figure a is the alternating stress, and m is the
mean operating stress.
A modified Goodman diagram
Volume - II 230
3.7.2 For 90UTS rails in use on IR, UTS has been statistically determined and standard deviation at this location in 52 kg and 60 kg rails is
to be as 93.1Kg/mm2 with SD of 1.55 Kg/mm2. This gives UTS of shown below:
91.55 Kg/mm2 in most critical case for rails being currently used.
3.7.3 The yield stress at 0.2% proof strain has been observed to be 52% Rail Mean Value Standard (Mean ( Mean
Section of Res. Stress Deviation (SD) +SD) + 2SD)
of UTS. This gives a value of 47.6 Kg/mm2 for yield strength.
in Kg/mm2
However, for the rail produced earlier, the average UTS was taken as
90Kg/mm2 only giving yield strength of 46.8Kg/mm2. 52 Kg 16.96 3.29 20.25 23.54
60 Kg 18.60 2.83 21.43 24.26
3.7.4 In order to draw this diagram it is necessary to assess the static
and dynamic component of the stress. The static component
3.7.7 The peak value of thermal stress encountered in Zone IV is 11.88
comprises of residual stresses which are present in the rail due to
kg/mm2 which is encountered for a brief duration of a few days in a
the manufacturing process and thermal stresses while the dynamic
year. In order to evaluate the effect of this component on the fatigue
component comes from the imposed wheel loads.
life of rail a marginally lower value of thermal stress, which is likely
3.7.5 The typical critical combination of nature of stresses (i.e. tensile/ to be encountered for significant period of a year, should be chosen.
compressive) mentioned above is depicted below: In the present exercise this value is chosen as 10kg/mm2.
3.7.8 The values of maximum tensile stress at rail foot center and edges
Compression zone of rail flange due to moving load can be assessed using theory of
beams on elastic foundation as brought out in RDSO's Technical
Paper No 323 [17] and Technical Monograph No 12 [2]. These
values have been summarized below for typical traffic conditions
arising out of the operation of 22.82t and 25t axle loads using updated
Neutral Axis track modulus values [13] for concrete sleepers :

Traffic Condition Rail Section, Tensile stress in Kg/mm2 at

Sleeper type,
Tension zone Rail foot Rail flange
Sleeper Density
1 2 3 center edges

BOXN@22.82t axle 52Kg/90UTS, 13.28 22.97

Stress Nature of stress load at 60Kmph speed PRC, 1540/km
due to At point 1 At point 2 At point 3
BOXN@22.82t axle 60Kg/90UTS 10.68 17.69
Thermal Tensile Tensile Tensile load at 60Kmph speed PRC, 1540/km
Residual Compressive Tensile Compressive BOXN@25t axle load at 60Kg/90UTS 13.07
Dynamic Tensile Tensile Tensile 100Kmph speed PRC, 1660/km 20.01

BOXN@25t axle load at 60Kg/90UTS 11.26

3.7.6 The statistically analysed position of residual stresses measured 60Kmph speed PRC, 1660/km 17.78
[15] between Aug 99 and Dec 05 in new rails of 52kg and 60 kg
BOXN@25t axle load at 52Kg/90UTS,
sections manufactured at Bhilai Steel Plant indicate that bottom 60Kmph speed PRC, 1540/km 14.48 25.03
center of the rail is most critical. The values of mean residual stress
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3.7.9 Combining all above stresses, it can be seen that rail foot centre is
the most critical location from point of view of tensile stresses. With
above data, Smiths diagram have been drawn taking UTS as 91.55
Kg/mm2, endurance limit as 37.2 Kg/mm2 and yield strength as
46.8 Kg/mm2.
3.7.12 RDSO undertook limited trials to determine fatigue strength of 60Kg/
3.7.11 It can be seen from above that for 60kg 90UTS and 52kg 90UTS
rails during normal operation of traffic at axle loads of 25t and 22.82
t respectively the stresses generally remain within yield strength
and endurance limit of rail steel and therefore flexural fatigue of rails
is not likely to take place unless the exceedances above these
limits become routine due to poor maintenance of rolling stock.
90UTS rails as a component, under no thermal stress. The fatigue
strength of the rail was found to be 26Kg/mm2. It may be noted
that, fatigue strength will be affected by residual stress present in
the rail. At the 26Kg/mm2 fatigue strength, the backward calculation
from Smith's diagram indicates presence of residual stress of about
20Kg/mm2 in the sample.

3.8 ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE (RCF)

3.8.1 Rail is subject to heavy compressive stresses at the point of rail-
wheel contact. To keep these stresses under check, an optimal
rail-wheel contact is required to be maintained [5]. In advanced
railway systems, this is ensured by rail profile grinding. Since, rail
grinding is not yet introduced on IR on regular basis, the rail wheel
contact is not optimum. This results into excessive contact stresses
at the contact point. This is leading to frequent failures of rails much
before the stipulated 800GMT life [11] and, therefore, achieving service
life of rail as high as 800 GMT becomes improbable in the present
uncontrolled rail-wheel interaction regime.
3.8.2 The RCF defects in rails develop due to contact shear stresses
generated at the rail wheel interface. The principal cause of RCF
defect is presence of very high contact shear stresses below the
3.7.10 The values of permissible dynamic stresses worked out at different
surface (generally 5 to 10mm below loading surface)[5]. The
values of constant stresses in order to avoid fatigue failure is tabulated
magnitude of these shear stresses can be enough to cause a tear
below:
inside head (when shear stress exceeds yield stress or the fatigue
Static Stress Dynamic stress Remarks limit to shear mode) 5 to 10mm below surface and thus create
in Kg/mm2 in Kg/mm2 nucleus for fatigue even without any perceptible material flaw.
0 37.2 No residual stress and no thermal stress Sometimes, even an otherwise innocuous defect like very small
10 32.0 Only thermal stress inclusion or an incoherent grain boundary could be sufficient to act
as nucleus for fatigue crack propagation in this high stress region.
20 26.0
31 15.0 Residual stress =21 Kg/mm2 3.8.3 Large numbers of rail fractures are reported on account of rolling
contact fatigue in rails of 90UTS[10,11,12]. These fatigue defects
34 13.0 Residual stress =24 Kg/mm2

Volume - II 233 Volume - II 234

 are generally called gauge corner cracking (GCC) and kidney defect
in head.
3.8.4 Studies were undertaken by RDSO in this regard on Agra Division of
NCR in Aug, 2002-Sep, 2004. The results of these studies, published
in RDSO report No.MC-82 of Sep, 2004 [11], indicate that large
number of failures of 90UTS rails had occurred at a cumulative GMT
much less than prescribed value of 800. The statistical analysis of
data suggest an average value of 214.89GMT at failure and life in
GMT at Mean value plus 2 times the standard deviation comes to
390GMT for 52 kg 90UTS rails.
3.8.5 Analysis of fractures reported in year 2002-2003 and 2003-04 [10,12]
indicate that about 40% of the failures are on account of defect
code 211 i.e. internal flaw in head, transverse breakage. About 20%
fractures are on account of bolt hole cracks and 12% are on account
of sudden breakage. Thus, it can be concluded that majority of rail
failures are on account of transverse defects in rail head, majority of
which in case of rails of 90UTS or higher, can be attributed to RCF.
3.8.6 'Statistical report on Rail and Weld failure for the period April,2003
to March,2004' published by M&C Dte. of RDSO in Sep-2004 [12] in
this regard states that defect 211 (mainly kidney flaw) is the most
prominent cause and gauge face corner kidney failures are increasing
specially in 90UTS rails. Reports on rail failure investigations carried
out in M&C Dte. of RDSO suggest that most of these failures are by
fatigue initiated due to contact stresses and from inclusions.
Considering only 52Kg, section which is obtained in 72UTS and
90UTS rails, the failure of 90UTS rails is around 1.2 times more
than 72UTS rails.
3.8.7 In addition, replacements of rails on account of transverse defect
detected by ultrasonic testing should be included in order to judge
the enormity of RCF problem correctly. Although data pertaining to
such replacements are not available readily, the results of ultrasonic
testing of rails amply indicate that magnitude of the problem is
menacing. The study of defect generation rate in rail head for year
2005-06 [14] on the route where 22.82tonne axle load is operating
indicate a mean defect generation rate of 1.93 no of defects/km/
annum with standard deviation of 2.87 no of defects per km per
annum.
3.9 If the fatigue life is to be estimated when the stress level is not constant,
a cumulative damage theory is used[1]. These theories estimate the
Volume - II 235
damage already caused by the stress cycles the object has been
subject to. The remaining life is then used to predict the remaining
healthy life of the component. The cumulative damage theories
estimate the time left (or life) for the initiations of a fatigue crack (the
fatigue crack initiation life or the FCI life). However, it should be noted
that failure is not predicted at the end of the FCI life. A finite time is
expected for the propagation of the crack and this is referred to as the
fatigue crack propagation (FCP) life.
3.10 FCI life: This can be estimated by Manson-Coffin formula [8].
Equation 1
and the equivalent stress amplitude eqv:
Equation 2
where C and (eqv)th in equation 1 are the FCI resistance coefficient
and FCI threshold; and n is the strain hardening exponent. (eqv)th is
the upper limit of the equivalent stress amplitude below which the FCI
life tends to be infinite. The term Kt is the stress concentration factor
and the constant C may be interpreted as the value corresponding to
the equivalent stress amplitude when Ni = cycle (in tension test).
The term C can thus be taken to be the UTS (in Mpa) and (eqv)th can
be taken to be the endurance limit (Se). In equation 2, S and R are
the nominal stress range and stress ratio (min/max stress). A value of
R = -1 indicates fully reversed load, for which eqv: is given by S/2
or the amplitude of the stress cycle.
Let, Nij be the expected life at a stress level eqv j. Define damage Dj as:
Then the cumulative damage Dc is given by:
Where k is number of equivalent stress amplitude levels and nj.is the
number of stress cycles at that level. FCI is then predicted to occur
when the cumulative damage exceeds unity. The main problem in
Volume - II 236
 predicting FCI life is to establish what are the FCI resistance coefficient 20Mpa m 1/2 gives crack propagation rate ratio for 880 grade rails
and FCI threshold; and n the strain hardening exponent for the material and 685-835 grade rails as 100:72. Accurate comparison of FCP
of the rail. Following which for each loading case, the nominal stress rates in various rails is possible when the parameters used in the
range and stress ratio are to be determined. Use of equation 2 then above equation are representative to the rails. Thus there is an urgent
leads to the value of eqv , which can be used in equation 1 to compute need to determine C, n, K (elastic stress intensity factor) etc.
the expected life. Presently these data are not available for rails used 3.11.4 The above considerations suggest that though UTS as well as yield
on IR. Moreover, this theory can be applied reliably only when load stress of 880grade rail is higher, while considering the fatigue life of
spectrum on the section is accurately defined. Since it is not possible
rail suitable reductions on account of higher rate of crack propagation
to accurately define the load spectrum of a section in most of the
and lower stress intensity factor needs to be built in to determine
cases the prediction of FCI life are not reliable.
the fatigue life of these rails when the actual loads on rails happen
3.11 FCP Life: The estimation of FCP life is undertaken using principles of to cross the yield strength of the rails.
fracture toughness.
3.12 In absence of data regarding IR rail steel for determination of FCI and
3.11.1 UIC-ORE conducted large number of tests on fracture resistance of FCP rates, indirect evaluation of fatigue life of rails needs to be
rails and bending fatigue resistance of full rail sections. There are undertaken.
two major aspects related to this namely fracture toughness normally
3.12.1 The GMT wise analysis of rail fractures in 90 UTS rails as contained
expressed as the critical intensity factor KIC and rate of crack
in the Statistical report on Rail and Weld failure for the period
propagation normally referred to as da/dN.
April,2002 to March,2003 [10] and April,2003 to March,2004 [12]
3.11.2 The results of stress intensity factor for UIC R 200(700) and UIC published by M&C Dte. of RDSO indicate following:
260(900) rails which are equivalent for 72UTS and 90UTS rails
respectively for steel specimen from rail head, actual rail with applied % of total failures
stress and residual stresses and actual rail without considering GMT 0-50 51-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300 301-350 >350
residual stresses are as under [3]:
Yr 02-03 24.11 16.14 12.03 12.98 8.81 7.96 5.69 12.24
Rail grade Stress intensity factor in Mpa m-1/2
Yr 03-04 20.77 18.54 12.82 13.3 10.01 8.05 4.98 11.55
Steel Actual stress Actual stress
specimen (applied stress without consid- Yr 04-05 23.14 14.89 12.85 11.95 8.31 8.43 8.31 5.81
+ residual) ering residual
stress 3.12.2 It can be seen from the above that more than 87% of the total rail
UIC R 200 (700) 50-52 39-47 36-44 fractures take place within 350 GMT of the rail life. The figures of rail
UIC 260 (900) 36-39 33-36 24-32 fractures diminish thereafter. One of the reasons for this trend may
be that defects would start appearing in the ultrasonic testing and
3.11.3 The crack propagation is governed by Paris law [7] which can be beyond this most of the rails would start getting renewed.
represented as:
3.12.3 The analysis of proposals received from zonal railways for renewal
da = CKn of 90 UTS rails in Railway Board on account of rail fractures [9]
dN reveals following:
where C and n are constants and K is change in stress intensity
factor. Rail Type Mean GMT Standard Deviation Mean+SD
Taking C= 5 x 10 14 and n= 4.5 for 880 grade rails and C= 7.2 52/90UTS 293.7 76.58 370.31
x 10-13 and n= 3.5 for 685-835 grade rails, a value of K = say 60/90UTS 429.75 112.15 541.90

Volume - II 237 Volume - II 238

3.12.4 It can be seen from above that, 52kg/90UTS and 60kg/90UTS rails example, in case the rail has completed stipulated life in terms of
are being replaced on account of rail fractures within 370 and 540 GMT then the figures pertaining to rail/weld failures, corrosion and
GMT respectively in majority of cases. This correlates well with the wear are not required to be sent.
observations in Para 3.12.1 above.
5.2 In view of above, the analysis presented below indicates which of the
3.12.5 It can be seen from the above that the fatigue life of 90 UTS rails above parameters namely wear, corrosion, rail/weld failures and
needs to be revised downwards even for existing axle loads. Summing completion of life in terms of GMT has dictated the renewal of rails. In
up the discussions on fatigue of the rails it is considered appropriate other words the analysis is a good indicator of the fact that which of
to adopt a life figure of 350 GMT for 52kg/90UTS rails. This represents the above parameter is causing exhaustion of rail life at the earliest.
a reduction factor of 0.67 on the presently prescribed value of 525
GMT based on wear considerations. Adopting similar reduction factor
in 60kg/90UTS rails give the life of 533 GMT say 550 GMT. The life
based on statistical analysis of proposals of track renewal based
on rail fracture as shown in the table above is also very close to this
value. It may be noted that above life patterns are based on erstwhile
axle loads ie 20.82t. The life expectancy is likely to go down with
increase in axle load to 22.82t/25t without optimization of rail wheel
interaction.

4. RAIL LIFE BASED ON CORROSION

4.1 The statistical analysis of data pertaining to track renewal proposals
received in Railway Board from Zonal Railways on account of corrosion
indicate following:

Rail Type Mean GMT Standard Deviation Mean+SD

52kg/90UTS 322.15 90.67 412.8
60kg/90UTS 360.19 87.12 447.32

5. STUDY OF TRACK RENEWAL PROPOSALS

5.1 A study of rail renewal proposals received for the year 2006-07 Track
Renewal Program in Railway Board [9] was made. Before discussing
the analysis of the data following points are worth noting for having a
proper perspective:
5.1.1 The proposals are considered based on the wear, corrosion, rail/
weld failures and completion of life in terms of GMT.
5.1.2 In the format provided to Zonal Railways for sending the proposal, if
Analysis of the Rail Renewal Proposals 2006-07 for
the proposed rail renewal is justified on any of the above 72 UTS and 90 UTS Rails
considerations, details of the other parameters are not required. For
Volume - II 239 Volume - II 240
4.2.1 It can be seen from above that: 6.2 Proper handling of rails and preventive measures to check fatigue
4.2.1.1 72UTS rails: crack initiation (e.g. rail profile grinding) needs to be ensured as 90UTS
rails exhibit higher crack propagation rates as compared to lower UTS
More than 85% of the rails exhaust their life laid down in terms
rails.
of GMT.
6.3 On the sections where rail grinding has not been implemented on
Replacements are done on account of wear in only 12% cases.
90UTS or higher grade rails, following precautions shall be taken:
This can be reasonably attributed to rails in graded and curved
sections. 6.3.1 The rail life stipulated in IRPWM for 90UTS rails be corrected as
shown below. The renewals can be undertaken based on completion
4.2.1.2 90UTS rails:
of fatigue life coupled with evidence of exhaustion of fatigue life in
In 68% of the cases the life in terms of GMT is not exhausted the form of excessive rail fractures. A spate of rail fractures on a
before renewal. particular section averaging to 2 or more withdrawals of rail per km,
Corrosion (36%) emerges as the major contributor in premature in a year, due to fracture and/or rail flaws detected ultrasonically
renewals. This calls for immediate measures to control corrosion. shall be treated as an evidence that the fatigue life of the rail has
Replacements on account of wear can be mostly relegated to been exhausted.
curved, heavily graded sections. Rail Section Rail Life in GMT
Replacements on account of fractures are about 15% against 60Kg/m 500
0% in case of 72UTs rails. The figure is likely to rise rapidly with
52Kg/m 350
increased axle load if rail grinding is not introduced.
6.3.2 Close monitoring of the rail shall be carried out w.r.t. development of
5. COMPARISON OF 90UTS RAIL LIFE BASED ON VARIOUS Gauge Corner Cracks (GCC)/ head checks and defect generation
CRITERIA rate. The ultrasonic examination of rails covering gauge corner area
The discussion on the rail life based on wear, corrosion and fatigue of rail head should be carried out at the frequency stipulated for
considerations is summarized below: normal testing of rails in Need Based Concept(NBC).
S No Criteria Life in GMT 6.4 Immediate measures to control corrosion of rails are called for as the
life of rail can be increased marginally even with rail grinding on the
52kg 90UTS 60kg 90 UTS
corrosion prone sections.
1 Wear 525 800
6.5 Further studies regarding fatigue life (FCI and FCP life), deterioration
2 Corrosion 410 450 modeling of rail under increased axle loads and effect of rail grinding
3 Fatigue (Fractures) 350 550 on rail life when grinding is introduced on IR should be planned in
order to revise the values to achieve optimum service life of rails.
From the above, the lowest one should be adopted as rail life till a
6.6 Determination of various parameters required for assessing fatigue
more deterministic approach becomes available in light of fresh studies.
life of rails namely endurance limit, Marin Factors, elastic intensity
factors etc should be taken up.
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.7 Further studies should be taken up to work out Virtual Rail Life for
6.1 Rail grinding should be implemented on rails with 90UTS or higher Indian conditions based on analysis of data pertaining to all factors
grade rails at the earliest in order to enhance fatigue life of rail, bring responsible for replacement of rails and also taking into account the
rail-wheel interaction to optimum level and avoid risk of undetectable rail still in service for 90UTS rails.
flaws in railhead.
Volume - II 241 Volume - II 242
REFERENCES [16] Suresh S, Fatigue of materials, Cambridge University Press,
[1] Anoop Chawla and Sudipto Banerjee, Report on Phase IV of Rail- Cambridge, 1991.
Wheel Dynamics Project- Fatigue analysis of rails, IIT Delhi, July- [17] V Venkataramayya, Technical Paper No 323, Stresses in Railway
2002. Track, 1950.
[2] C W Clarke, Technical Monograph No 12, Track Loading Fundamentals,
April 1959. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[3] Coenraad Esveld, Modern Railway Track, Second Edition, 2001. Authors thankfully acknowledge the valuable suggestions given by Mr
[4] Indian Railway Permanent Way Manual, Second Reprint, 2004. N Aravindan and Mr Rakesh Chopra, the past and present Additional Members
[5] International Heavy Haul Association, Guidelines to Best Practices (CE), Railway Board. Contributions of Mr H L Suthar, Director, Civil
for Heavy Haul Railway Operations: Wheel and Rail Interface Issues, Engineering Planning, Railway Board and Mr M P Joshi, ADE, Track Design
First Edition, May 2001. Dte, RDSO, Lucknow are also thankfully acknowledged for providing details
regarding Track Renewal Proposals and calculation of rail stresses
[6] Joseph Marin, Mechanical behaviour of engineering materials, Prentice
respectively.
Hall, Eagle Wood Cliffs, NJ, 1962.
[7] Joseph Shigley and Miscke R Charles, Mechanical engineering design,
5th Edition, Mc Graw Hill Publishers, Mechanical Engineering Series,
1989.
[8] L F Coffin, Fatigue in machine and structures power generation,
fatigue and microstructure, American Society for Metals, 1978.
[9] Railway Board, Track Renewal Proposals received from Zonal Railways
for year 2006-07 in Civil Engineering Planning Directorate.
[10] RDSO, Statistical Report on Rail and Weld Failure for the period
April,2002 to March,2003, Aug 2003.
[11] RDSO, Report No.MC-82, Study on spate of rail fractures taking place
in Agra-TKD section of NC Railway especially due to gauge corner
fatigue, Sep, 2004.
[12] RDSO, Statistical report on Rail and Weld failure for the period
April,2003 to March,2004, Sep-2004 .
[13] RDSO, Report No CT-12, Investigations of Track Modulus under Static
Loads, Dec 2005.
[14] RDSO, Report No TK/SR/05/06 of Aug 2006 on Operation of BOXN
wagons loaded up to CC+8+2 as Pilot Project on identified iron ore
routes (year 2005-2006).
[15] Results of Qualifying Criteria Tests conducted on Rails produced by
Bhilai Steel Plant from Aug 99 to Dec 05.

Volume - II 243 Volume - II 244

 A STUDY OF RAIL STRESSES IN THE
CONTEXT OF RUNNING HIGHER AXLE LOADS
ON INDIAN RAILWAYS
M.S. EKBOTE*
SYNOPSIS
Indian Railways have embarked upon a massive Program of developing
dedicated freight corridors on which the freight trains with 30 and 32 tonne axle
loads are expected to run. To begin with an increase of 8 tonnes over the carrying
capacity of freight wagons has been permitted on certain selected routes. In this
paper an in depth analysis of rail stresses is presented to indicate the suitability
of existing track structure for running such heavy axle loads.
1. INTRODUCTION
on Indian Railways conventionally the goods trains are running with a
total load of 3000-4000 tonnnes depending on the terrain and the requirement
of traffic. On certain coal carrying routes trains of 58 BOXNs wagons with a
total load of 4500 tonnes have been running on a trial basis. The axle load of
these BOXN wagons has been conventionally kept as 20.32 tonnes and an
additional load of 2 tonnes (axle load of 20.82 t) per wagon was already
permitted on certain high density routes.
With a view to increase the throughput additional payload up to 8
tonnes (axle load of 22.82 t) has been permitted recently on certain selected
routes, which give an increase in axle load of 8+2 tonnes to the conventional
BOXN wagons.
In the long run however it is essential that we should examine the
feasibility of running trains with higher (22.86 t) axle loads on a sustained
basis on our system.
In addition IR has now prepared a master plan to construct dedicated
freight corridors on which trains with an axle of 30-32 tonnes are proposed to
be run on a sustained basis.
2.0 RAIL STRESSES AN IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION
While permitting the Heavier Axle loads the rail stresses so induced
Volume - II *AM (CE) Retd.
is an important parameter, which has to be critically examined. It has to be
ensured that the induced Rail stresses would be well within the acceptable
limits and that the proposed rolling stock (with heavier axle load) would not
lead to premature renewal of rails or should not adversely affect the
maintainability of track.
3.0 BRIEF METHODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING RAIL STRESSES
On Indian Railways Track stresses are calculated by the methodology
recommended by Track standards committee in their 53rd meeting (July-
1977) and approved by Railway Board. The method has been updated from
time to time to revise permissible stresses based on results of latest research
and recent studies of track modulus on concrete sleeper track.
3.1 On the Indian Railways a semi-empirical approach is followed for
calculations of rail stresses -. The rail sleeper assembly is considered
to be an infinitely long beam resting on an elastic ballast layer and for
analyzing the effect of vertical load the bending moments /deflections
etc are calculated by the classical theory of beams on elastic
foundations. The track modulus is the constant and is defined as load
required per unit length for a unit deflection. It is obtained experimentally
by field trials. Indian Railways adopt double track modulus method in
determining rail stresses since experimentally it was observed that
the load deflection graph has two distinct parts i.e. initial track modulus
up to 4 tonnes of wheel load and a distinctly flat slope beyond 4
tonnes known as elastic track modulus. For BG till recently 75 Kg/
cm/cm and 300 Kg/cm/cm were the values of initial and elastic track
modulus being adopted for calculating rail stresses. These were based
on trials carried out in 60s on wooden and metal sleeper track. In
2005 additional data has been made available for track modulus for
concrete sleeper track with 1540 and 1660 sleepers/km of sleeper
density.
3.2 The effect of adjacent wheels under a particular wheel in a rolling
stock.
Depends on the axle spacing and wheel loads of the train of wheel
loads. The combined effect under the wheel is considered taking into
account the entire wheel loads of the particular rolling stock. For manual
calculations suitable master diagram is used to ascertain effect of
adjacent axles and the depending on distance of the axle the distant
axles give a relief. Where the distance between any two adjacent
Volume - II 246
 axles is more than six times the distance to point of contra flexure
leading wheel effect is considered by augmenting the wheel load by
10 %.
The effect of eccentricity of applied wheel loads is considered by treating
the point of application of vertical wheel load at a nominal eccentricity
of 15 mms.
The torsional effects arising out of the eccentricity of load are also
considered by evaluating the tensile and compressive stresses at the
top and bottom of the railhead.
The effect of the flange forces is considered by using the Prudhoms
formula for lateral loads and rail is considered as simply supported
between two adjacent sleepers.
The combined effect of all the above forces is considered together in
evaluating stresses on top and bottom fibers of railhead.
The permissible stresses are specified separately for 72 and 90 UTS
rails and reduced to account for type of track structure viz LWR/SWR
or free jointed track depending on the induced stresses to account for
thermal stresses, stresses on account of flexing of rails, locked up
stresses etc.
Based on the study of likely stresses inherent in track structure the
Permissible stresses (Kg/mm2) are fixed as under-
UTS of Rails LWR SWR
90 25.25 30.25
72 19.45 24.25
In field the concrete sleeper track has to be necessarily laid as LWR
because of Its. Superior maintainability and riding quality. Hence even
though higher permissible stresses are allowed for SWR we have to
necessarily go for LWR as far as concrete sleeper track is concerned.
4.0 THE COMPUTER PROGRAM
A user friendly computer program has been developed by the author
for calculating Rail stresses which has the following features-
The effect of the adjacent axles is considered by using the
basic equation of beams on elastic foundations instead of the
Volume - II 247
master diagram thus avoids any reading errors from graph.
All data of standard rail section is picked up from subroutine
provided in The program. Similarly the value of track modulus
for conventional track as Well as concrete sleeper track with
1540 and 1660 sleepers/km density are Automatically picked
up from the subroutines. The spacing of sleepers for 1540 and
1660 sleepers per/km i.e. 65 and 60 cms are automatically
taken Care of for concrete sleeper track.
For standard rolling stocks as used on the Indian Railways the
data on axle loads and axle spacing is provided in the
subroutines.
The speed factors (Dynamic augments) for standard rolling stock
based on RDSOs reports C-100 and C-92 are also provided in
the subroutines. For this purpose the values from the graphs as
given in these reports are read at every 5 km/hr speed intervals
and used for making the subroutine.
For standard rolling stock where the calculated values are greater
than the permissible a message box is displayed to ask for
calculations at reduced speed and it calculates the stresses
for reduced speed at an interval of 5 km/hr till the stresses are
within permissible limits or till a speed of 30 km/hr is reached
which ever is earlier and then calculations are terminated.
Suitable warning by use of a message box is also provided.
For non standard rolling stock the details of axle loads, axle
spacing and speed factors have to be separately entered
The program has the option to calculate rail stresses either
with double track or single track modulus method. It follows the
methodology as discussed in the 53 rd Track Standards
committee meeting held in July 1975 vide item No 716 as
amended by RDSO from time to time.
5.0 A TYPICAL RUN OF THE PROGRAM- STEPS IN RUNNING THE
PROGRAM
From the start menu in task bar go to run command browse and
select the Rail_stress.exe file from the appropriate folder and press ok
button. It will open the following screen:
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Volume - II
1. Select Yes option button in case standard rolling stock and press proceed button and it will open the next screen
as under:

249
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On selecting the appropriate option button BG or MG, entering the relevant data and clicking the compute button
instantaneously gives the result as shown below-
250
Volume - II
Similarly the option for Non standard rolling stock asks for data on rolling stock viz. axle loads and axle spacing and
similarly gives the result instantaneously. A sample output for Non-standard rolling stock appears as shown below-

251
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252
6.0 STUDY FOR DIFFERENT AXLE LOADS but with adoption of 60 Kg rails we had switched over to 90 UTS
Using the above Program a study was done to determine the rail in early stages itself.
stresses for varying axle loads from 20t to 30t (in steps of 2 tonnes) for a (vi) In this study it has been assumed that the impact factors are
typical BOXN wagon for following track structures- independent of axle Loads and that they largely depend on speed
and type of vehicle suspension. This Will however need
(a) 52 Kg rail on concrete sleepers at a density of 1540 Sleepers/
corroboration by at least some pilot studies.
km (Annexure A)
(b) 52 Kg rail on concrete sleepers at a density of 1660 Sleepers/
km (Annexure B) 7.0 TENTATIVE OBSERVATIONS

(c) 60 Kg rail on concrete sleepers at a density of 1540 Sleepers/ Following are some of the tentative inferences from this study, which
km (Annexure C) indicates prima facie suitability of existing track structures for higher axle
loads-
(d) 60 Kg rail on concrete sleepers at a density of 1660 Sleepers/
More details about tentative suitability on rail stress considerations
km (Annexure D)
can be interpreted by perusal of the graphs.
6.1 Following have been the assumptions in this Study-
(i) The freight wagon being adopted will have similar dimensions
(axle spacing and over All Length) as the present BOXN wagon.
The increased axle loads should be Feasible within overall moving
dimensions.
(ii) The track must necessarily consist of concrete sleepers laid
as LWR. This is Considered imperative since LWR only offers
best maintainability for concrete Sleeper track.
(iii) The mathematical analysis assumes same values of track
modulus and considers the sleeper type to be identical to those
presently in use. The existing concrete Sleeper will have to be
tested for its suitability for a higher axle load. It may be Possible 8.0 OTHER COMMENTS
to conduct such a study in a fatigue-testing machine by The above study gives some insight into the feasibility of running
simulating higher Induced stresses and by suitably modifying higher axle loads on existing tracks. The above results have however to be
the criteria under static bending test for existing sleepers till we interpreted in light of the assumptions outlined in Para 6.1.
come up with a new design in case the existing design is found
It may however be concluded that for axle loads beyond 26 tonnes
inadequate for higher axle loads.
we definitely need to use a higher poundage rail such as 68 Kg rail currently
(iv) The rail section on existing sections where we envisage increase under examination. Such a rail section would definitely ensure an adequate
of axle load has to be minimum of 52 Kg. The 90R rails have safety margin as far as rail stresses are concerned. The other important
since been eliminated from all our important freight routes. If aspect with such higher poundage rail would be examination of contact
this has not been done in some isolated patches this has to be stresses. Adopting designed rail grinding can effectively control the contact
done on utmost priority. stresses and rail wear. In addition we have to make experimental investigations
(v) The 60 Kg rail wherever it exists might be of 90 UTS variety. It is to examine the suitability and take up design of a new concrete sleeper for
known that the long Lengths of 52 Kg 72 UTS did exist on IR 68/60 Kg rails for such higher axle loads.

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 Annexure B
Annexure A

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Annexure C

Annexure D

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 TRACK MAINTENANCE ON LINES WITH
HEAVIER AXLE LOADS

ING. RAINER WENTY*

1. INTRODUCTION
To increase railway line capacities there is a growing demand for
higher axle loads. Heavier axle loads cause higher strain on tracks and
track materials and therefore intensified track maintenance is
demanded. To keep the balance between increased freight revenue
and higher maintenance cost it is essential to maintain a good track
standard, deferred maintenance increases the followup cost
progressively. UIC studies and International experience especially from
railways in North America proof, that it is possible to run railway
lines with heavy axle loads at reasonable costs, if there is a good level
of track quality.
The development of high capacity- and special track maintenance
machines aims to reduce costs and to enable long lasting track
maintenance results.

2. EFFECTS OF HIGH AXLE LOADS ON TRACK MAINTENANCE When calculating the expected increase in track maintenance costs
2.1 UIC STUDIES K, track quality (standard deviation sd) appeared to be the most
important factor:
In Europe the axle load was increased from 20 tons to 22.5 tons and
the aim is to further increase the maximum load to 25 tons. In 1983 reduce quality from sd = 1mm to sd = 2mm K = 23 %
ORE committees D 161 and B12 fostered a large scale measurement increase speed from 80km/h to 100km/h K = 15%
campaign about the effects of 20 t and 22.5 t axle loads on the vertical
increase axle load from 20t to 22.5t K = 8%
and lateral wheel forces on different quality track. These measurements
formed part of extensive research into the effect of raising the axle The above mentioned shows clearly, that high quality track maintenance
loads12. The basic conclusion was: For most of the parameters is a basic condition for the economic operation of heavy load freight
examined, the increase remained less than the increase of 12.5% in trains.
nominal axle load. The research revealed, that track quality is the 2.2 HEAVY HAUL EXPERIENCE
most important parameter, followed by speed (fig. 1). Further on it
The constant increase in freight volume of US railroads (fig. 2) could
showed, that the ballast stress would remain constant, if a larger rail
only be handled by higher axle loads. The maximum permissible axle
section is used (change from NP 46 to UIC 54).
load was first raised to 30 t (33 American tons) and then further on to
35 t (39 American tons). The research work which accompanied the
*General Manager Marketing and Technical Sales,
Volume - II Plasser & Theurer, Austria, Vienna Volume - II 260
 introduction of such very high loads improved the improved the maintained. The involved costs would be:
knowledge of vehicle/track interaction very much. Phenomena which
occur under such circumstances very fast could be studied and the Without Stabiliser With Stabiliser
conclusions drawn are also applicable to standard tracks. With this Track renewal 363200 US$/km 364500 US$/km
knowledge it is possible to do maintenance and repair at the right
Track maintenance 7690 US$/km 9270 US$/km
time, before irreversible damage occurs in the track.
Additional costs for car
maintenance 780 US$/year
Service life of track: 35 years
Maintenance cycle: 3 years
Main line, 50 million t/year

In this example it is assumed, that the poorer track quality will cause
additional service costs for the vehicles passing over this kilometre of
track. The additional annual service costs shall amount to 780 US$.
On the other hand the additional costs for track stabilisation amount
to US$ 1300 per kilometre of track renewal and US$ 420 per km of
track maintained. Under this assumption the IRR by the 780$ which
are saved in rolling stock maintenance per year would be 15 %
(fig. 3). Further investigations into the negative cost effect of bad track
position to rolling stock maintenance costs would be advisable and
The first summary of results was presented in 1990 at a heavy haul certainly reveal further benefits of first class track.
workshop at the TTCI (Transport Technology Centre Inc) in Pueblo,
Colorado3. At the Heavy Haul Conference in Beijing, 1993, Rieberger4
showed the relation between track quality and dynamic axle forces,
based on the track calculation model of German Railways. At the
next conference in Capetown, 1997, R Chopra and A Krishan of Indian
Railways5 presented a field study based on this. The conclusion of
both papers was to keep track forces low by high quality track standard.
1999 at a heavy haul workshop in Moscow the matter was further
enhanced6 It was shown that low track forces also mean to have low
dynamic reaction forces on the wheels and thereby on the rolling
stock. Therefore track condition is a key figure in rail/wheel interaction
and maintaining high track standards bears a potential for reduction
of fleet maintenance expenditures. The following example shall indicate
the potential of savings by increased track quality. when introducing a
Dynamic Track Stabiliser to the maintenance process but not changing
the maintenance cycle. A higher average track quality will be

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 At the 2003 IHHA Specialist Technical Sessions the matter of the
effect of heavy axle loads was addressed again. Dr. Samuel and his
co-authors showed in a principle paper, that there are alternatives to
the classic approach to cope with higher loads by stronger (and more
expensive) track componentsV: Various research and standards
setting committees of the Association of American Railroads (AAR)
are working together through a research program at TTCI to implement
stress-state-reduction strategies, which are basically improved
monitoring and maintenance of wheels and rails. Very important is the
rail- and wheel profile maintenance.
With regards to track condition and track maintenance, an important
finding is, that heavy axle loads (HAL) cause higher track degradation
rates8. Track condition upgrading for HAL is best done before
introduction. Additional expense for track upgrading will be incurred if
done after loads are increased. Prompt maintenance becomes more
important, the higher loads cause even minor deviations to degrade
more rapidly than before. Track maintenance cannot be deferred to
the extent possible under lighter loads. Workmanship during repair
and maintenance cycles is critical. E.g. sudden transitions that
introduce bounce modes in vehicles initiate degradation at locations
some distance from the transitions.
2.2.1 BALLAST
Ballast tests with different types of stone showed a wide variation in
durability of track geometry. Track with dolomite or limestone ballast
required tamping cycles of 40 to 70 MGT, on sections with granite
or tap rock the cycle was 750 MGT. Maintaining good ballast in
good condition is obviously very important.
2.2.2 FORMATION
As important as the load distribution function of the ballast is the
bearing function of the formation (subgrade). A well maintained
formation in good condition is a prerequisite for a stable and low
cost track. Two main functions of the railroad formation are:
- to bear the traffic load without becoming damaged (fig. 4)
- to drain off the water to the side.
These two functions are interdependent. If the bearing capacity is
not sufficient, the drainage will fail due to the development of water
pockets. If the drainage does not work, the soil will be weakened

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 due to the presence of water and the necessary stability will not be
maintained. The rise in axle loads and train speeds, but also the
construction of tracks on formations with low bearing capacity and
neglected drainage can lead to formation failure.
Gbel-Lieberenz-Richter9, leading geotechnical railway experts in
Germany, see defects in the bearing capacity of the formation as
the prototype of formation failures by which mud pockets are created
which further on by the presence of water lead to pumping of slurry.
The whole track becomes vulnerable to frost and looses its horizontal
and vertical stability. Defects in the bearing capacity are caused by
an increase in loads and speeds on existing lines, but also by
deferred ballast cleaning and blocked drainage. It can be prevented
by placing a blanket material between the ballast and the formation.
A typical attrition and mud pumping spot is shown in figure 5.
Rehabilitation of sections of track with subsoil problems is absolutely
essential for many reasons: insufficient bearing strength of the subsoil
presents a substantial technical problem because the stability of
the permanent way as well as the track geometry is endangered to
a high degree. Enormous expenditure for track maintenance will be
the result, the service life of the entire permanent way material will
be reduced substantially. Therefore poor subsoil causes enormous
extra costs and can endanger HAL traffic.
2.3 CONCLUSIONS OF HEAVY AXLE LOAD EXPERTS10
- HAL effects are site and route specific
- Heavier axle loads decrease operating and equipment costs
but increase track costs
- Heavier axle loads increase the need for:
o Better track component materials
o Better track component designs
o Timely, focused maintenance (track and vehicle)
o Improved vehicle suspensions
o Vehicle monitoring to control loads
3 TRACK MAINTENANCE
The above considerations show very clearly, that not only for high
speed passenger traffic, but also for high capacity freight traffic it is essential
Volume - II 265
to keep the infrastructure in top condition. Deferred maintenance will not
only cause increased costs later on, but if track faults are allowed to develop,
the increase of the high axle loads by dynamic influences may lead to
complete failing of the system.
On heavy haul tracks, the necessary maintenance must be ensured,
as for any other production plant. Production breaks for maintenance of
catenary, signalling installations, rails and fastenings and the track geometry
should be scheduled so that the customer does not change to other traffic
carriers due to unexpected production breakdowns or delays. In these
production breaks, it is of course advisable to bundle the various maintenance
jobs to be performed.
New tracks must be serviced accordingly from the outset. Neglect of
the maintenance in the initial phase of service life will cause inherent failures
that cannot be compensated later.
Track maintenance technologies are further developed continually in
order to meet the requirements of high-capacity rail traffic. It is worthwhile
investing in high-tech machines with sophisticated work units. Machines for
track maintenance have become more efficient and are increasingly equipped
with intelligent controls. This has decisive effects on the work results and on
the cost-efficient performance of the tasks. The long-term effect of a
maintenance measure together with optimisation of the costs stands at the
forefront.
Some of the latest developments and trends are:
3.1 HIGH CAPACITY TAMPING-STABILIZING
Track maintenance requires machines which cause a minimum of
disturbance to traffic and a range of work processes which must be
coordinated as efficiently as possible. The better the work technologies
act together, the higher will be the achievable work output, the quality
of work and ultimately the cost-efficiency. Necessary train blocks for
maintenance must be kept to a minimum by fast working machines
which deliver long lasting quality. Continuous action tamping combined
with dynamic track stabilization fulfills this demands.
On Indian Railways, continuous action tamping and dynamic track
stabilization are well established by the 09-32 and 09-X machines as
well as the DGS 62 N. The economic and technical advantages have
been shown by a number of reports to the various conferences of the
Permanent Way Institution of India.
Volume - II 266
 One of the latest machine concepts for High Performance Tamping
machines is the 09-4X Dynamic (figure 11). It incorporates a continuous
action 4 sleeper tamping unit paired with two stabilizing units on an
articulated trailer. Especially for the duty on High Speed Lines the 09-
4X Dynamic is an interesting and cost effective alternative to the use
of 2 separate machines. Due to a further increase in overall performance
the time of track possession and thus the cost can be reduced
3.2 BALLAST MANAGEMENT
Considering that a single kilometer of a conventional double-track line
has between 3000 and 5000 m of ballast (depending on type of The other alternative is the BDS Ballast Distribution System,
permanent way and track spacing) the absolute necessity for an successfully in operation in the USA on AMTRAKs and Union Pacifics
economical handling and management of this valuable asset becomes track as well as Latvia (figure8) and Lithuania. One of the unique
obvious. The detailed knowledge of the quantities of ballast in the feature s of the BDS is that the ballast storing capacity can be enlarged
track (see EM-SAT ballast profile measuring) is the first step towards as required by adding material conveyor and hopper units.
an efficient ballast management. Some sections of a track lack ballast The BDS was introduced in May 1991. As a result AMTRAK was able
while others have surplus. So the goal has to be to regain the surplus to reduce its purchase of new ballast by 71 % during the remainder of
ballast and add it where it is needed. that year, a saving of around US$ 36.000, equivalent to approx. 34.000
t of ballast. Amtrak estimated that the system paid for itself within 2
years.

The combination of this task with the ballast profiling and distribution
work is at hand. The big advantage of this incorporation compared to
the previous method of loading, transportation, distribution, reclaiming
and returning the excess ballast is the saving of time, personnel and
equipment, thus achieving a much higher cost efficiency. Two proven
machine concepts could be used for this task.
The USP 2010 SWS combines high performance ballast distributing
and profiling with a ballast storage capacity of 10 m. By using an
additional trailer the integration of a second sweeper brush unit would
be possible (figure 7).

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3.3 MAINTENANCE OF LOCAL FAULTS
When a track has developed an unacceptable quality level (intervention
level) scheduled maintenance by a levelling, lining, tamping, ballast
profiling and stabilising machine group (MDZ) is carried out (figure 9).
In between scheduled maintenance cycles, even well maintained tracks
can develop single spots with geometrical faults over a limited length
(typical: 10 to 20 sleepers). Although the general condition of the
track is still within the permissible limits, the spot errors may cause
slow orders because they are exceeding the safety limits and spot
tamping becomes necessary. Also, if such spots are not eliminated
at the beginning of their development they will cause further track
damage due to the additional dynamic forces. The usual practice to
treat those spots with very basic machines or by power tools is counter-
productive, as they re-occur very soon.
German Railway (DB Netz AG) analysed the problem on its network.
They found an average of 10,000 spots per year with an increasing
tendency. Those singular errors were scattered over the whole network
of approx. 37 000 km route length. They had to be treated very soon
after they were detected, which was done by the local track gangs,
mainly with power tools. With a production rate of 3-4 spots per day,
the cost varied from 50-70 DM per sleeper11.
Volume - II 269
When looking for a machine to solve the spot maintenance problem
the major requirement are:
- High tamping quality to deliver a long lasting work result
- Heavy tamping units for easy penetration in the often very hard
ballast bed
- High transfer speed from spot to spot
- Work systems to handle material for spot repairs. On lines with
heavy freight traffic the timely elimination of local faults is
extremely important. The solution for conditions in India is the
multi-purpose tamping machine Unimat Compact M, equipped
with universal track and switch tamping units, and a material
handling crane (fig. 10).
A typical application of this machine is slack picking on plain line
tracks as well as in turnouts. For the operation in turnouts with concrete
sleepers it would be advisable to equip such machines also with a
three rail lifting unit.
3.4 BALLAST CLEANING
With the high static axle loads of heavy haul railways it becomes
extremely important to maintain a good quality of the ballast under
the sleepers. Due to the axle load impact, degradation of the ballast
occurs, fines fill the voids between the ballast stones. The fines
develop mainly under the ties and start to build up from the formation
surface towards the bottom of the sleepers, as also recent
investigations in Austria show (Figure 11).
Volume - II 270
 Additional ballast contamination is caused by fines from outside
(pollution and weak formation). Abrasion by tamping plays only a minor
role as several tests have shown.
Ballast with too high percentage of fines has fatal negative influence
to the track system:
- the drainage fails
- the elasticity decreases
- the track geometry does not last
- the longitudinal deflection of the rails is reduced, thus the specific
load on the system is increased, followed by progressive disintegration could not be carried out effectively any more. It is clearly visible, that
of the whole system. the ballast on top and in the cribs looks good, due to the frequent
Experts in Europe recommend ballast cleaning, when more than 30 supply of fresh ballast. Nevertheless, shoulder cleaning or tamping
to 50 % of fines have developed in the ballast. Another criteria used is could not improve the situation any more, it is necessary to undercut
the Fuller curve, that is when the ballast gradation has reached a and clean the ballast to prevent further damage.
state of minimal voids. Undercutter cleaners of the latest generation have the high output
When the ballast does not fulfil its task any more, the only sustainable which is necessary on extremely busy lines. Additional features like
mode of rehabilitation is either exchange or deep screening. Examples finger screen or ballast washing contribute to better ballast quality.
on heavy haul railways show, that constantly lifting and re-ballasting Latest developments are machine systems with three vibrating
of tracks does rather cause additional problems than solve the problem. screening units which allow outputs of up to 1500 m/hr. (The output
The example in figure 12 shows that due to the impact of traffic, the of a standard RM 80 ballast cleaner is up to 600 m/hr).
ballast broke down under the sleepers so that track correction work
Volume - II 271 Volume - II 272
3.5 FORMATION REHABILITATION
3.5.1 FORMATION PROTECTION LAYERS
The need to protect and improve the formation has existed ever
since railways have been in use. In 1889, H. Frazier of the
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway wrote: The stability of track depends
upon the strength and permanence of the roadbed and structures
upon which it rests: whatever will protect them from damage or
prevent premature decay should be carefully observed. The worst
enemy is water, and the further it can be kept away from the track
or the sooner it can be diverted from it, the better the track will be
protected.
The approach to the problem was:
- exchange the formation material itself or improve it by mixing it
with enforcement substances or
- protect the formation and enforce the structure by a protection
layer.
Today both methods are still applied but it has been found that the
application of a correctly dimensioned and compacted blanket of a
specified mixture of gravel and sand shows the most durable results.
In the 1930s German Railway (DB) found natural pits with the right
composition of gravel/sand. They started to rehabilitate track
sections on clay in the Nrnberg area and these sections still have
sufficient bearing capacity today.
Volume - II 273
In the years 1954/55 DB investigated extensively gravel/sand blankets
that had been installed in the 1930s and developed their substructure
construction standard DV836 which contains exact instructions
how to bu ild a Formation Protection Layer (FPL) (fig. 13). This
standard has been continuously improved according to the latest
research results and is the model for similar standards in other
countries.
3.5.2 METHODS OF FORMATION REHABILITATION
The classic method of formation rehabilitation is to dismantle the
track and use road construction equipment to excavate ballast and
formation material, bring in the new material, distribute and compact
it and then lay the track again. This open construction method
provides good access to the formation but has also major
disadvantages:
- The track is closed to traffic for the whole rehabilitation period,
this can last several weeks
- Large amounts of material have to be transported by lorries
- Very often the formation is to weak to carry the trucks and the
construction equipment, water traps are created which will very
soon cause new subgrade problems (figure 14).
The alternative is to use on track equipment which can carry out
formation rehabilitation without the necessity to dismantle the track.
In 1984 the first track bound formation rehabilitation machine PM
200 was developed by Plasser & Theurer and put into operation by
a German contractor. This machine excavates the ballast and
Volume - II 274
 formation under the existing track, loads the fouled material onto On track sections with weak formation, mechanised formation
special cars in front of the machine, inserts the gravel-sand mixture rehabilitation pays back in very short times. On such sections the
behind the excavating chain, grades and compacts the material, annual track costs can be eight times as high as on sections with
inserts the first layer of new ballast and tamps the track using an good formation. The cost of the machine operation is paid back
integrated continuous action tamping unit so that traffic can within the first two years.
commence immediately at 70 km/h.
In autumn 1994 the contracting company Swietelsky started to work
on Austrian Railways with the AHM 800. The fundamental
improvement compared to previously known methods lies in the
application of a recycling concept and in the improved consolidation
of the protective layer by adding water in the plant. This machine
operates in the same mode as the PM 200, but the top layer of the
existing ballast is conveyed to a ballast crusher where it is graded
down to the desired grain size to serve as protection layer material.
The machine has an output of 500 meter per day and more than 400
km have been rehabilitated using the machine.
Another machine with an integrated innovative ballast cleaning
concept, which went into service in August 2002, is the formation
rehabilitation machine PM 200-2R12. With a length of 200 m, this is
the longest machine ever to be produced in a Plasser & Theurer
workshop (fig 15).

3.5.3 QUALITY RESULTS (FIGURE 17)

As a new method for ballast processing, a ballast washing plant
has been incorporated which frees the ballast of cohesive material
(fig 16). Due to a separate purification plant on the machine for the
wash water, the water consumption can be kept very low despite
highly efficient cleaning of the ballast.
A large amount of ballast can be recovered and is put back on the
compacted formation protection layer that had been inserted under
the track by the machine.
Measurements prove that the machines do jobs of outstanding
quality. The specified bearing capacities and densities are achieved
by the machines. In a test series of more than 190 bearing
measurements, Austrian Railways also tested the work result after
6-12 months. It is remarkable that in any single case the strength of
the protection layer had further increased, in many cases by more
than 80%13.
A typical result of the density control :
- Average of 15 measurements DPr = 100.6 %
- Smallest measured value DPr = 98.2 % with 4.2% water content
- Largest measured value DPr = 102.3 % with 6.4% water content

Volume - II 275 Volume - II 276

 The uniformity of the layers is not only controlled during the working
process, measurements with geo radar years later show that
protection layers last, if they are installed using on-track machines.
When using road construction equipment for rehabilitation of soft
formation, the results are not that good.
The most significant sign of quality improvement are the extended
track tamping and ballast cleaning cycles. On tracks with badly
damaged formatiohn, tamping cycles of 6-12 months become
necessary, ballast cleaning is done every 10-12 years and the track
itself has to be relayed every 12 years (experience on lines with 50
to 60 million gross metric tonnes of traffic per year). After
rehabilitation, tamping cycles rise to 4-6 years, ballast cleaning
and track renewal cycles can be extended to 35-40 years.
Volume - II 277
4 CONCLUSION
A lot of publications show the amplifying effect of poor track quality on
the dynamic rail/wheel forces. On dedicated freight lines, where the level of
the forces is on the limit in quasi-static condition already, overloading of the
track by dynamic forces causes tremendous problems. A high track standard
therefore is not only a question of riding comfort, it is also important for the
stress level on track material and rolling stock. Besides that. life cycle
costs of track and rolling stock can be kept to a minimum by high quality
track and track maintenance methods anyhow.
The continuous development and improvement of track maintenance
machines has led to a series of designs for all applications, that not only
fulfil the high demands of heavy haul railways but also provide cost effective
solutions. Either by increasing the working speed or by implementing
technologies that save precious materials such as ballast. New high
technology machines contribute to the sustainability of the investments in
dedicated freight lines as they enable to keep a high maintenance level.
In any case, modern systems like the MDZ with continuous action
tamping and dynamic track stabilisation, heavy duty spot tampers, high
capacity ballast cleaners and formation rehabilitation machines are inevitable
tools for the optimisation of freight traffic.
REFERENCES
1 ORE D 161 rp4: Dynamic vehicle/track interaction phenomena from
the point of view of track maintenance, Final report: conclusions and
recommendations, Utrecht, September 1988
2 Esveld, Coenraad: Influence of higher speeds and increased axle loads,
Modern Railway Track, second edition, 2001, MRT-Productions,
p6266
3 The International Heavy Haul Association: Proceedings of Workshop
on Heavy Axle Loads, Pueblo, Colorado, 14-17. 10. 1990
4. Rieberger, K.; Wenty, R.: Track - Key to Load Bearing Capacity and
Efficient Maintenance, Proceedings of 5th IHHC 1993 in Beijing, p.
349...361
5 Chopra, R.; Krishan A.: Strategic options for Indian Railways to achieve
higher speeds and axle loads on mixed traffic routes, Proceedings of
6th IHHC 1997 in Capetown, p. 269...280
Volume - II 278
6 Wenty, Rainer: The relation between improved track quality and wheel
rail interaction, Proceedings of Wheel/Rail Interface, IHHA 99
workshop, 14. - 17.6.1999 Moscow, Russisa
7 Samuels, John; Kalay,S Semih; Iler, Darrell: Reducing the Stress State
of the North American Railroads, proceedings of Implementation of
Heavy Haul Technology for Network Efficiency, IHHA 2003 Specialist
Session, p1.551.64
8 Davis, D. David;LoPresti, Joseph; Li, Dingqing; Kalay; Semih: Track
for 39-ton Axle Loads and Beyond, proceedings of Implementation of
Heavy Haul Technology for Network Efficiency, IHHA 2003 Specialist
Session, p4.14.11
9 Gbel, Claus; Lieberenz, Klaus; Richter Frank: Der Eisenbahnunterbau
(The Railway Subgrade). German Railway (DB)-Fachbuch No 8-20,
Eisenbahn Fachverlag, Heidelberg-Mainz, 1996. pp. 164-173
10 Allen, Roy; LoPresti, Joseph: Optimising heavy haul track design and
maintenance, OVG conference Optimising the Wheel/Rail System -
Quality, Cost Efficiency, Financing, Salzburg, Austria, 14.-16.
September 2004
11 DB-Netz (German Railway)/BB (Austrian Railways): Workshop,
Vienna, July 4th-5th,2000
12 Beilhack, Fred: Planumsverbesserungsmaschine der zweiten
Generation (Formation Rehabilitation Machine of the Second
Generation) PM 200-2 R, ETR Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau..
No 4/2004, pp. 225-228
13 Schilder, Rudolf; Piereder, Franz: Formation Rehabilitation on Austrian
Railways five years of operating experience with the AHM 800-R,
Rail Engineering International, Edition 2000 Number 4, pp. 11-16
Volume - II 279
DEVELOPMENT OF ELASTIC FASTENING
SYSTEM FOR HEAVIER AXLE LOAD
OPERATIONS : A SYSTEMS APPROACH
ANIRUDH JAIN*, SATISH KUMAR PANDEY**
Elastic Fastening system used on Indian Railways has been evolved based
on experience gained by monitoring the performance in-service of fastening
components. The fastening has performed the desired function to a great extent,
under the existing operating conditions. A review of design parameters is
essential for improvement in the fastening system particularly to meet the
challenges of heavier axle load operations. There is also a need to have a
Systems Approach in design of the fastening assembly as a whole apart from
individual fastening components. This paper aims at understanding the vital
shortcomings of existing fastening components. An attempt has also been made
to suggest the improvements needed. Based on the review of shortcomings of
existing system, suggestions have been made for improvements in the fastening
components and assembly as a whole for better in-service performance of
fastening system.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rail fastening system is used to properly hold the Rail with sleeper
under moving train loads. The effective fastening system shall be
able to hold the rails with sleepers under all loading conditions by
properly transmitting the static and dynamic load without any significant
deterioration to track geometry. Rigid fastening system in form of Dog
spikes, Rail/Plate screws etc. were used with wooden sleepers, due
to inherent resilience of wooden sleepers.
1.2. With introduction of PSC sleepers, it has become essential to use
Elastic Fastening system. The advantage of natural resilient of wooden
sleeper is not available with PSC sleepers and the requisite resilience
has to be provided by the fastening system. Thus Elastic fastening
system came into existence. The present elastic fastening system
used on Indian Railways has been evolved with experience and has
been in service for more than 20 years. The fastening system consists
of 3 components namely Elastic Rail Clip, Metal/GFN Liners and
* Executive Director/ Track/RDSO/Lucknow
Volume - II ** Director/Track/RDSO/Lucknow
 Grooved Rubber Sole Plates. Another important component, though
connected with PSC sleepers but have very significant bearing on
performance of elastic fastening system, is SGCI insert.
1.3. The basic functions of an effective fastening system are as under:
i) It shall ensure the relative rigidity of rail sleeper assembly. The
effectiveness is reflected in track geometry parameters i.e.
gauge, alignment etc.
ii) It should offer adequate resistance to prevent longitudinal
movement of rail over sleepers. This is reflected in rail creep
and becomes more important in case of Long welded rails.
iii) It shall dampen the vehicle induced vibrations to reduce the
vibration at rail seat level to prevent damage to sleepers.
iv) It shall contribute in imparting rigidity to track structure as a
whole.
v) It shall require minimum maintenance and should have minimum
components for better maintainability.
1.4. The elastic fastening system used on IR, though has been in service
for more than 20 years and is giving the required functional service to
some extent; necessity has been felt to improve the fastening system,
so as to get enhanced service life with little / minimal maintenance
efforts. It is essential to understand the shortcomings and some of
the remedies to improve the fastening system.
2. AN OVER VIEW OF ELASTIC FASTENING SYSTEM IN USE ON IR
2.1. BASIC DESIGN FORCES FOR THE FASTENING SYSTEM
The fastening system is designed considering the forces, which are
supposed to be encountered in service. These forces are:
i) Force exerted by the wheel on rail in a plane perpendicular to
the track axis: This can be simplified as a sole force applied on
the Rail head having vertical component (Q), horizontal
component (Y) and its Eccentricity (S) at the level of running
surface of the rail. This force has to be counter balanced by
Vertical & Horizontal reactions & couple of forces (moment)
about longitudinal & vertical axis distributed over several sleepers.
So, forces on fastenings can be taken to be a similar system of
forces acting at the level of Rail foot on sleeper situated directly
under the point of application of loads on the rail. The system
Volume - II 281
includes a force consisting of a vertical component (R) and
horizontal component (S), a couple of forces about longitudinal
axis (M) and couple of forces (moment) about vertical axis (C).
ii) The longitudinal forces acting along the axis of track:
This force is mostly caused by thermal effect or the adhesive
forces between rail and wheel. The thermal forces are
considerably high in long welded rail, where as the adhesion
forces are considerable during starting / braking. This longitudinal
force is resisted by longitudinal reactions, transverse reactions
and by couple of force about vertical axis, when track is not
perfectly straight.
iii) Fatigue effect:
The dynamic forces on account of wheel load and its frequent
loading and off loading, induce the phenomena of fatigue at high
stress level. The fatigue phenomenon is considerable for
fastening system.
The components of fastening system need to be designed for
above forces. The design developed so far has evolved based
on experience of other railways. The fastening system are
normally evaluated for fatigue behaviour under various load
combinations. Studies done at UIC indicate that:
(i) Worst combination of vertical and horizontal component
is for conditions encountered for small radius curves. The
S/R ratio for this condition is taken as 0.6.
(ii) For tangent track and large radius curves, the S/R ratio
is 0.4.
The fastening systems need to be evaluated for above combinations
of loads for assessing the fatigue behavior.
2.2. TESTING LOADS FOR FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF FASTENING SYSTEM
2.2.1. Studies done at UIC indicate that presuming the rail to be acting as
a continuously supported beam, the vertical load acting at fastening
can be considered to be:
R xxQ
Q = nominal wheel load
= speed coefficient = 1.5
Q = 20.32/2 = 10t (For 20.32 t axle load)
R = 7.5 t
Volume - II 282
2.2.2. Considering the above loadings, the fatigue tests of fastening are
conducted in stages as under:-
* : UIC has stipulated minimum load of 0.5 t. Due to limitation of test set-up
at RDSO, the testing is being done at minimum load of 1.0 t.
2.3. DESIGN OF ELASTIC RAIL CLIP
2.3.1. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR TOE LOAD
One of the essential requirements of fastening system is that the
fastening should prevent the longitudinal movement of rails on
sleepers under longitudinal forces i.e. thermal forces and rail creep.
The thermal forces are considerably high in long welded rails and
normally govern the toe load requirement of fastening system. Elastic
rail clip is designed to offer the requisite toe load of fastening
assembly along with other fastening components namely Liner and
Rubber Pad.
For an ideal fastening, creep resistance offered by the fastening
system should match with the longitudinal ballast resistance of track,
so that the breathing length of long welded rails are optimum and in
case of rail fracture, excessive gaps are not created.
For 60kg rails on PSC sleepers at 1660 no. per km, the toe load
requirement per clip is of the order of 1050 kg. The design toe load
range of ERC MK-III being used on Indian Railways is 850-1100 kg
at 13.5 mm deflection. The effective toe load available in field is
less than the design toe load as explained in following para.
2.3.2. PROBLEMS WITH ERC MK-III
2.3.2.1. High level of stresses in clips: The ERC MK-III, offering a toe
load of 1000 kg, is subjected to maximum principal stress of
the order of 138 kg/mm2, which is about 97% of the UTS of the
heat treated clip material. Such high level of stress at isolated
location in the clip profile has a tendency, to subject the clip
material to plastic state of stress. Under fatigue loading
Volume - II 283
conditions, relaxation of steel material and thereby loss of toe
load cannot be ruled out.
2.3.2.2. The behavior of other components of the fastening system also
have an important role in determining the toe load of the fastening
system as a whole. Wear of components such as rubber pad
and liners as well as their manufacturing tolerances, cause a
reduction in the toe load of the clips, compared to their design
toe load. It has been observed that the loss of toe load is about
80kg per mm loss of deflection of the clip.
2.3.2.3. THE INADEQUATE TOE LOAD OF ERC MK-III ASSEMBLY
RESULTS IN FOLLOWING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS
i) Lower creep resistance and longer breathing length to
withstand the thermal forces.
ii) More gap required at SEJ for LWR track.
iii) Increased maintenance effort in terms of SEJ gap
adjustment, destressing etc.
iv) Gap between rail pad and rail foot causing deterioration
to rubber pad.
v) Lateral shifting of rail pads under traffic causing crushing
of liners.
2.3.2.4. It is interesting to note that reduction in thickness of rubber pad
in service causes loss of toe load, which is the reason for
deterioration of rubber pad. It is thus a vicious circle, which
needs to be over come by having the fastening system of higher
toe load.
2.4. GROOVED RUBBER SOLE PLATE
2.4.1. MAIN FUNCTIONS
The main functions of Grooved Rubber Sole Plates used in Elastic
Fastening Assembly can be summed up as under:
i) To dampen the vehicle induced vibrations to prevent over stressing
of clip material as well as damage to concrete at rail seat.
ii) To act as of medium of transfer of vertical load from rail to sleeper
rail seat.
iii) To offer creep resistance to rails by adequate friction.
Majority of vertical load is to be shared by Grooved Rubber Sole
Plate, as such it is essential that it should be adequately strong to
Volume - II 284
 withstand the vertical load at the same time it should provide the
desired dampening.
2.4.2. PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT DESIGN OF RUBBER PADS
2.4.2.1. The rubber pad used on IR is made from natural rubber and / or
blend of natural and synthetic rubber. The size of rubber pad is
dependent on the design of rail seat of PSC sleepers and its
thickness is restricted from insert design consideration.
2.4.2.2. The rail seat size used on Indian Railways (160 x 125 mm) is
small as compared to the rail seat size used on other advance
railways (176 x 140 mm). The lesser bearing area of rubber pad
results in over stressing of rubber pad, resulting in reduced service
life.
2.4.2.3. The insert used on PSC sleeper was originally designed for
52kg rails with 4.5 mm thick rubber pad. Over the years, use of
6 mm thick rubber pad and 60kg rails having thicker rail foot
has been adopted on the same sleeper design. There is no
further scope of increasing thickness of rubber pad beyond 6mm
used presently. World over rubber pads of 8 to 10 mm thick are
being used. Lesser thickness of rubber pad results in poor
dampening property, frequent deterioration & lesser service life.
2.4.2.4. The service life of rubber pad observed even under present
operating conditions has not been satisfactory.
2.4.2.5. The lesser pre-compression of pad, under no train condition, is
one of the reasons, for shifting of rubber pad at rail seat, resulting
in unequal loading on the pad and failure of the pad.
2.4.2.6. There is a trade off between the strength and softness of rubber
material to be used in track pads. While stronger pad offers
good abrasion resistance properties, its dampening properties
and pre-compression is poor. As such the rubber pad need to
be designed having appropriate strength and hardness.
2.4.3. EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION OF RUBBER PADS
2.4.3.1. The failure of Rubber pad is mostly on account of crushing of
rubber material, differential set in direction of traffic and
permanent set over the period of time. The crushing of rubber
pad is due to over stressing of pads. The permanent set resulting
in loss of thickness, though does not render the pad completely
unserviceable, it has significantly adverse effect on over all
performance of the fastening system.
Volume - II
2.4.3.2. The loss of thickness of rubber pad has following effects :
a) Loss of toe load of elastic rail clips causing it to fall off
frequently.
b) Reduced dampening property of rubber pad, resulting in
hammering at PSC sleeper rail seat and notch formation.
c) Increase fatigue of fastening components.
d) More forces on liner resulting in breakage of liners.
2.4.3.3. The rubber pads used in elastic fastening assembly are having
least life amongst all the fastening components and there is
need to increase the service life of the pad.
2.5. LINERS
2.5.1. MAIN FUNCTIONS
The main functions of liners are as under:-
i) To act as a medium of transfer of toe load from elastic rail clip
to rail foot on larger area.
ii) To hold and maintain the track gauge.
iii) It also plays an essential role where interchangeability of rail
section is required on same sleeper.
iv) To provide insulation in track circuited area.
v) As rail and ERC are of harder material, direct contact between
both may cause damage to each other. Liner of softer material
prevents damage to rail & the clip.
vi) It also protects insert from the lateral forces coming during
passage of traffic.
2.5.2. PROBLEMS WITH PRESENT LINERS
Metal liners are used in non track circuited area while GFN liners are
use in track circuited area.
a) Metal Liners
The metal liners are manufactured from rolled steel section.
These liners suffer from corrosion problem. Over period of time,
the thickness of liners gets reduced due to corrosion causing a
reduction in the toe load of the fastening system.
b) GFN Liners
The problem of breakage of liner in service and corrosion at rail
foot are two major problems with the existing liners.
285 Volume - II 286
 The cross breaking strength of GFN liners shall be adequate for toe There is a need to address these issues by way of laying down optimal
load of the clip as well as for the accidental forces due to uneven design and manufacturing tolerances for assembly as a whole, so as to get
seating of liners etc. it should also be able to resist lateral loads on the designed toe load from the fastening system.
rail seat without getting deformed and crushed.
To address the problem of corrosion of Rail foot, it is essential that the
material used for manufacture of insulated liners are free hygroscopic
properties.
2.6. PROBLEMS OF FASTENING ASSEMBLY AS A WHOLE
The various components of elastic fastening assembly are provided
with manufacturing tolerances as under:-
i) PSC Sleeper: Critical dimensions are the height of insert eye
for fixing of elastic rail clip and vertical distance between insert
eye & shoulder on which the heel of ERC rests. The tolerances
provided in these dimensions are + 0.4 mm & +0.8 mm
respectively.
ii) Liner: A tolerance of +0.2 mm has been provided in the thickness
of liners.
iii) ERC: A tolerance of +0.8 mm is provided in the toe load related
dimension of elastic rail clip.
iv) GRSP : Tolerances of +0.5 mm / -0.0 mm has been provided in
the thickness.
Following calculations give the extent of over deflection / under
deflection of the clips as a result of the combined effect of above
tolerances. This results in either over stressing of clips or loss of toe
load in fastening assembly.

+Ve (over def.) = 0.4 + 0.8 x 1.54 + 0.2 + 0.8 + 0.5 = 3.132 mm
(sleeper+insert) liner clip R/Pad

-Ve (less def.) = 0.4 + 0.8 x 1.54 + 0.2 + 0.8 = 2.632 mm

(sleeper + insert) liner clip

The above is schematically represented in figure-1 for better

understanding. It will be seen that even with all new components, the
deflection of clips can be about 2.6 mm less than the design deflection
of 13.5 mm. In this case, the toe load of the fastening assembly may
be about 200 Kg less than minimum design toe load of 900 kg.
Figure-1

Volume - II 287 Volume - II 288

3. EFFECT ON LOADING ON FASTENING COMPONENTS 3.2. The result of effect of applied load on various components as analysed
3.1. In order to assess the actual effect of load on various fastening from above tests is given in Table-1.
components, field measurements were carried out using Strain gauged Table-1: Effect of Applied Load on Fastening Components
ERC, Liners and rubber pad. Stresses in these fastening components
were measured under increasing loads. These field measurements
were done under static loading. In order to arrive at material properties,
the calibration tests were done in lab at IIT/Kanpur using test setups,
depicted in Figures 2 to 4.

Figure-2 :
Arrangement for testing
of ERC for Toe Load
Stress Measurement

3.3. From this table, following conclusions can be drawn:

i) Entire applied load is transmitted to Rubber Pad. The pad
should be strong enough to withstand the effect of applied axle
Figure-3 : load. The rail seat load taken in design of PSC sleeper should
Arrangement for be considered as design load for working out the required strength
testing of GRSP for and dimensions of rubber pad. The cross sectional area of pad
Load Stress Relationship should be derived based on these loadings.
ii) Under load of about 15t (design rail seat load for PSC sleepers),
the loss of toe load of ERC under applied load is around 600
kg. If, only the wheel load and dynamic augment are considered,
toe load loss for 9t load is about 400 Kg. This indicates that
with present design of elastic rail clip of design toe load of about
900 kg, available toe load under traffic condition is around 500
kg only. This has significant repercussion on performance of
Figure-4 : fastening system especially for GRSP.
Arrangement for
iii) Liners mostly remain unaffected of the axle load but the liners
testing of GFN Liners for
shall be strong enough to withstand the designed toe load of
Load-Stress Relationship
clips.
3.4. The design of fastening system for heavier axle loads shall take care
of the above aspects.
Volume - II 289 Volume - II 290
4. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF FASTENING SYSTEM FOR
HIGHER AXLE LOADS
4.1. ELASTIC RAIL CLIPS
4.1.1. As indicated in para 2.3.1, the toe load requirement per clip is around
1050 kg on longitudinal creep resistance criteria. The effect of loss
of toe load under applied loads needs to be considered, which is of
the order of about 400 Kg for applied wheel load with dynamic
augment, of about 9t. Thus the clip should be designed for toe load
of around 1400 kg 1500 Kg.
4.1.2. Increasing toe load of clips will have effect on the induced stresses
in the clip material. As such, there is need to increase the diameter
of clips or go for alternate material with better UTS. Studies done so
far have indicated that for increasing toe load of clips, the diameter
of clip shall be increased. Accordingly, Elastic Rail Clip Mk-V was
designed by RDSO for a Design Toe load Range of 1300- 1500 Kg.
4.1.3. In ERC Mk-V, 23 mm diameter rod has been used in manufacture of
clip in place of 20.64 mm diameter used for ERC Mk-III. The stress
level in clip material has been found to be significantly less than
that in ERC Mk-III. In order to make use of this clip on existing PSC
sleepers feasible, the central leg has been machined to 20.64 mm
dia. This clip can be considered for use in area where heavier axle
load is envisaged.
4.1.4. With minor modifications in rail seat assembly, particularly in the
inserts, it may not be necessary to carry out this machining. The
conceptual design of ERC MK-VI using 23 mm uniform diameter
rod has been developed by RDSO and is under FEM analysis.
4.2. RUBBER PAD
4.2.1. Rubber pad is the component which takes almost all the applied
vertical load. It is essential to increase the size of rubber pad.
Considering strength of rubber material as 67 kg/cm2 ( Min. specified
tensile strength in IRS specification as 100 Kg/ cm2 with FOS as
1.5) , the cross sectional area required for 15t Rail seat load works
out to 22500 Sq.mm. The size of rubber pad in lateral direction is
governed by the rail foot size, which is about 160 mm. Thus the
width of rubber pad shall be about 140mm. Considering the horns
etc., the size of rubber pad shall be approximately 170 x 160 mm.
Volume - II 291
4.2.2. The thickness of rubber pad is also require to be increased to 10mm
to have better dampening properties as well as to account for in
service deterioration of the rubber pad.
4.2.3. In order to address the issue of shifting of rubber pad from its position,
composite rubber pad has been developed by RDSO. This rubber
pad consists of two layers of rubber materials vulcanized together.
Bottom layer of softer rubber matrix remains in contact with PSC
sleepers and offers better seating and pre-compression. The top
layer of harder rubber matrix remains in contact with rail and offers
better abrasion resistance. The limited field trial of 6mm thick
composite rubber pad has exhibited better service performance over
conventional rubber pad. Thus it is desirable to use the composite
pad in place of conventional GRP.
4.2.4. Thus, there is need for use of composite rubber pad of size of about
170 mm x 160 mm with 10 mm thick will give a better in service
performance.
4.3. GFN LINERS
4.3.1. The higher rail section of 68 kg / meter may have to be used with
introduction of heavier axle load. In order to facilitate
interchangeability, the insert locations need to be kept such that
both 60kg / 68 kg rail can be used after changing the liners. The
liner design needs to account for this feature.
4.3.2. The leg thickness of GFN liners is also required to be increased to
counter higher lateral thrust under dynamic conditions. The thickness
of liners may also have to be increased for higher toe load clips.
4.3.3. Apart from dimensions, there is need to look for a non-hygroscopic
material for liner in place of GFN to address problem of rail foot
corrosion.
4.4. SLEEPER INSERTS
4.4.1. In order to accommodate higher rail section & increased thickness
of rubber pad, SGCI inserts will have to be redesigned.
4.4.2. The higher lateral thrust due to heavy axle load will also necessitate
the increase in wall thickness of inserts.
4.5. TYPICAL RAIL SEAT ASSEMBLY
4.5.1. Considering the above factors, typical proposed rail seat assembly
for 60kg rail on proposed new PSC sleepers is sown in figure-5. The
assembly consists of following components:
Volume - II 292
 fastening components are tested in assembly after individual
component testing before final acceptance. To begin with,
components like clip, liners and rubber pad can be included for
assembly test. In assembly, over all tolerance can be specified as
+ 1 mm for combined effect of these three components. The
assembly shall be checked with the above tolerance with use of
suitable fixture / gadgets.
4.6.2. This will necessitate a system in which complete fastening system
is supplied by a single source, who shall be responsible for over all
assembly as per final tolerance of the assembly.
4.6.3. The criteria for life cycle costing of assembly as a whole can also
be implemented if this system is adopted. This will have a far
reaching effect on improving the overall performance of elastic
fastenings without any significant effect on overall cost. World over,
this type of system is adopted and complete fastening system is
procured through single source.

Figure-5
i) Elastic rail clip Mk-VI: made up of 23 mm diameter spring steel
rods heat treated.
ii) Composite Rubber pad: 10 mm thick and plan area as 170 mm
x 160 mm.
iii) Liner of suitable insulating material: 8mm thick for both legs.
iv) SGCI insert with approximate height as 34.6 mm.
4.5.2. This rail seat assembly can also accommodate 68 Kg/m Rails with
change of liners, when required for future.
4.6. NEED FOR STRICTER TOLERANCES
4.6.1. As discussed in para 2.6 above, the tolerances of fastening
components and PSC sleeper has bearing on the overall performance
parameters of elastic fastening system as a whole. Substantial toe
load loss can occur due to combined effect of tolerance of fastening
system. There is need to go for a system where apart from
manufacturing tolerances of components, overall tolerance for
fastening assembly is also specified. This is possible only when all
5. CONCLUSIONS
5.1. The performance of fastening system in use indicates that improvement
is necessary in design of components and Rail seat assembly. The
Toe load of fastening system requires improvement and the improvement
in service life or Grooved Rubber sole plates is essential even for
present level of operations. The action has been taken to improve the
material quality of GRSP. Further improvement is necessary for
dimensions of pads as discussed above.
5.2. Rubber pad is the most vital component of elastic fastening system.
Poor in-service performance of this vital component needs to be
address on priority. Immediate action can be taken to increase the
thickness of rubber pad to 10mm. In the long run, the plan area of
rubber pad needs to be increased to about 170 mm x 160 mm. While
increase in thickness of rubber pad requires only modification in design
of inserts, increase in plan area can be done only after change in
design of PSC sleepers.
5.3. The optimal toe load required for elastic rail clip is around 1400 kg
1500 Kg. There is need to develop a new design of elastic rail clip
with increased Toe load and reduced stress level. To begin with, ERC
MK-V can serve the purpose on existing PSC sleepers. With change

Volume - II 293 Volume - II 294

 of insert of PSC sleeper for increased thickness of Rubber pad, 23
mm diameter uniform elastic rail clip can be used , which will reduce
the manufacturing cost of clip on account of machining etc.
5.4. There is a need to lay down the tolerances of all fastening components
in the assembly besides the tolerances of individual fastening
components. This will require a change in procurement process, in
which all the fastening components will have to be delivered through a
single window. This is likely to improve the over all performance of
fastening system without any major cost implication. The system of
life cycle cost and performance warranty for fixed over all life of all
fastening components can also be implemented to get a substantial
improvement in the fastening assembly.
Volume - II 295
TRACK STRUCTURE FOR DEDICATED
FREIGHT CORRIDORS
DESIGN CONSTRUCTION MAINTENANCE
J.S MUNDREY*
1. INTRODUCTION
With a GDP growth of 8%, targeted to reach 10%, the transport
demand of the country is rapidly going up substantially. The transport
demand is particularly concentrated on the so called golden quadrangle
routes linking the Metropolitan regions of New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and
Chennai, which at present carry around 80% of Indian Railways traffic and
are highly saturated. In addition, there is exponential growth in container
traffic which cannot be met with unless substantial increase in transport
capacity is achieved by the Indian Railways. Indian Railways have, therefore,
rightly decided to have dedicated freight corridors on the golden quadrangle
routes, starting with the first high performance freight corridors on Delhi-
Mumbai and Delhi-Kolkata routes, at an estimated cost of Rs.22,000 crores.
While detailed planning is already underway, the information available
indicates that the freight corridors may follow the following operating
parameters:
Train length 120 to 130 wagons
Axle Load 30 Tons
Trailing load 14000to 16000 tonnes
Maximum line speed 100 km/h
Length of overtaking loop 1500m
Average distance between stations 45 km
For the dedicated freight corridors, it will be desirable that a new design
criteria in respect to alignment and other construction parameters, is followed.
Important alignment parameters are with respect to curves, grades,
super elevation, cant deficiency/cant excess, centre to centre distance of
track, maximum moving dimension, structural clearances, etc.
Volume - II* Formerly Adviser, Civil Engineering, Railway Board, India
 The track and bridge structures on these corridors shall also have to Schedule-I , Chapter I. For the movement of double stack containers, however,
be properly designed to meet the requirement of specific loading environment. the new height, dimensions for freight corridors may be prescribed.
In the following paragraphs, the alignment design criteria to be followed All the stations shall have to be provided with passing loops of longer
and the norms in respect to design, construction and maintenance of track length, indicated presently of 1500 metres length. The turnouts and turn in
structure on these corridors, have been brought out. It may be mentioned curves at the loops should be properly designed to allow a speed of at least
that it is almost after one and a half century of Indian Railways operation 60 kmph, to avoid unnecessary time loss.
that an opportunity has come to the Indian Railway engineers in designing
the track and other structures without any constraint being imposed on
3. BALLASTED TRACK STRUCTURE
them by the existing network. With the new technology at their command,
effort has to be made to design the new infrastructure, capable of meeting The conventional ballasted track structure has been adopted by all
the present and future transport requirements in the most efficient manner the World heavy haul railways.
and at the least cost. Ballasted track structure essentially consists of the following
components: Fig. (1)
2. ALIGHNMENT DESIGN CRITERIA Rails: - Rails to sleeper fastenings
Indian Railways for the construction of new lines have been adopting a Sleepers: - Ballast;
limit of 5-degree for curves and 1 in 100 for grades. Curves sharper than 3- Sub-ballast/blanketing material; - Formation and drainage
degree are known to create problems in rail/ wheel interaction. Similarly,
steeper grades create problem in hauling of trains. With the new
advancement in the construction of tunnels and high bridges/viaducts, it
should be possible to adopt easier grades and curves.
It is also not necessary to follow the same criteria throughout the
freight corridors. With that approach, it should be possible to optimize the
alignment design parameters for the various sections of freight corridors.
Similarly, optimization would be needed for transition curves, both vertical
and lateral, super elevation, cant deficiency/cant excess, etc. Softwares
are now available which can optimize the alignment parameters taking into
account the construction and operational expenses on life cycle cost basis.
On dedicated freight corridors, dedicated freight stock will be moving
at a nominated speed. There will, thus, be no difference in the speeds of the
various trains. This factor should be taken into account while deciding the
super elevation to be provided on curves.
Indian Railways have been adopting structural clearances for the
possible movement of 12 ft. wide passenger coaches since 1936, particularly
in the construction of tunnels and through bridges. They, however, never
introduced the wider coaches so far. The present proposal of running 3500
mm wide rolling stock on freight corridors, is well within the provision of 3660
mm, available on the new lines constructed since 1935. It may, therefore,
be advisable to adopt the same criteria in dimensions as available in Fig. (1)

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 At stations, turnouts form an important constituent of the railway track.
In addition, there are other items of track structure such as: level crossings,
insulated joints, switch expansion joints, sand humps, buffer stops, etc.
The effect of heavy haul operation on the performance of various track
compoents, needs to be well understood to evolve the right type of track
structure. This aspect is discussed in the following paragraphs:
3.1 RAILS
Rails are usually designed to meet the requirement of flexural bending
stresses and rail/wheel contact stress, encountered by them during
their service life.
Longitudinal bending stresses
On I.R., longitudinal bending stresses in rails are calculated by the
following formula:
Where
Xi = the distance from the load to the point of contraflexure of the rail
in cm.
M0 = the bending moment in the cm tonne immediately under an
isolated load P tonne on one rail
F (compression) = the consequent compressive stress in the rail-
head, under the load P, in tonne per square cm.
F (tension) = the consequent tensile stress in the rail-foot, under the
load P, in tonne per square cm.
d = deflection of track in cm
Volume - II 299
P = Load on one rail in tones
I = Vertical moment of inertia of rail section in cm4
U = Track modulus in kg/cm/cm
Z = (comp) = Section modulus of rail in compression cm3
Z (tension) = Section modulus of rail in tension cm3
I, the moment of inertia of rail is reduced by 10 per cent to cater for the
loss of section of rail in service
As may be seen in this formula, stresses on rails get affected by
static loads, loading pattern of the wheels, dynamic augment and
track modulus.
Rail wheel contact Stress
With increase in axle loads and reduction in wheel diameters, the rail
wheel contact stresses have assumed considerable importance. Very
high contact stresses develop in the immediate vicinity of the rail
wheel contact zone which at times lead to plastic flow of metal in the
rail head.
Maximum contact shear stress which occurs in the transverse direction
at right angles to the rail, is calculated by the following formula given
by UIC/ORE.
Volume - II 300
 Tmax = maximum shear stress in kg / mm2 For maximizing the service life of rails, all heavy haul railways follow
Q = static wheel load in Kg increased for on-loading on curves. This the good practices of
on-loading is taken as 1 ton (1000 Kg) a. Using longest possible joint free rails without holes.
R = wheel radius in mm (fully worn condition) b. Reducing the thermit welds to the bare minimum.

In heavy haul operation, rail/wheel interaction play a very important c. Continuity of long welded rails through turnouts.
part in the performance of rails, particularly on curves and on turnouts. d. Continuous monitoring of rail profiles track geometry and ballast
The problems, generally, faced at the rail head are: excessive rail profiles.
wear, rail surface defects, gauge corner fatigue defects, rail corrugation, 3.2 CONCRETE SLEEPERS
etc. Thus, in addition to their capability to counteract bending and
In the case of Indian Railways, broad gauge concrete sleepers are
contact stresses, rails must be capable to withstand harsher rail/
designed to meet the following conditions:
wheel interaction environment of heavy haul operation.
- Vertical load at rail seat: 15 tonne. This assumes an axle load
Heavy Haul Association of 22 tonne with appropriate distribution of load and its dynamic
Heavy Haul Association formed by the Railways, dealing with heavy augment;
haul operation, has issued guidelines in respect to the best practices - Lateral load 7 tonne.
for heavy haul railway operations. They have made recommendations
for the rails and other track components best suited for various level of
traffic. These recommendations for the axle loads of 30-34 tonnes and Figure 2 gives the loading diagrame for broad gauge concrete sleeper
for traffic densities available from 20 50 + gmt, are given at Annexure of Indian Railways
I, in a tabulated form.
From the tables, it can be seen that 60 Kg UIC standard rails are good
enough for tangent track for the axle loads and GMTs envisaged on
Indian Railways. For curved track, premium rails have been
recommended. In view of the high propensity of curved track, heavy
haul railways generally use head hardened rails, even on their straight
track. For Indian Railways, the curved lengths may not be excessive
and thus use of head hardened rails may be limited to curves alone.
For obtaining the desired service life from the rails, it has been
recommended to
i. Periodical grinding of rails to remove corrugation and damaged
rail surface.
ii. Rail profile monitoring at 3 6 months interval and taking
corrective measures, if required.
iii. Lubrication of wheel/rails to maintain the following level of friction:
Gauge face : U<0.25-0.30
Rail head : U<0.35-0.40
Figure 2

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 For the Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC), a new loading diagram
shall have to be evolved for optimizing the concrete sleeper design.
The new loading diagram will take into account the following factors:
a. Axle load
b. Suspension characteristics of the rolling stock bogie for
determining the maximum wheel load and the dynamic augment
at various speeds taking into account the track geometry of
DFC track
c. Sleeper spacing
d. Track modulus
e. Vertical and lateral strength of the rail.
A new sleeper design will be evolved to provide necessary resisting
moments, shear values and other characteristics to give long trouble
free service life.
Sleeper Spacing
For effective packing by track machine, it will be desirable not to
reduce the sleeper spacing to less than 60 cm.
There may be a demand by existing sleeper manufacturers to adopt
the softer option of continuing with the existing sleeper cross section,
but for the DFC, the optimum design should be evolved, to get the
desired strength at least life cycle cost.
3.3 RAIL TO SLEEPER FASTENING SYSTEM
Rail to sleeper fastening system, presently used on Indian Railways,
has not been giving satisfactory performance, mainly on account of
the poor quality control in their manufacture. While the Pandrol type
assembly has been well received by the trackmen, there have been
excessive loss of toe load of the elastic clips and poor service life
from elastomeric pads and nylon liners. The manufacturing tolerances
of various components of the assembly have also been too wide,
creating problem in the efficient track maintenance. The problems
have mainly arisen on account of the wrong policy that has been
adopted in procuring assembly components from different
manufacturers. The ills of the system can be rectified if all the
components are procured from one source, making the suppliers single
point responsibility to meet the performance parameters, as is being
done in most of the advanced railway systems.
Volume - II 303
The rail to sleeper fastening assembly for the DFC should have the
following performance standards:
a. Elastic clip toe load of 1000 1300 Kgs with a deflection of
about 11 to 13mm.
b. Elastomeric pad to provide the desired level of impact
attenuation and have a service life of about 10 years
c. Nylon liner to have service life of about 5 years
In evolving the new specification for fastening system, operational
environment of harsh climatic conditions, particularly in respect to
temperature, dust, humidity and rain fall, will have to be taken into
consideration. There should be periodical monitoring of the performance
of the fastening system, preferably in association with the supplier,
so that necessary awareness is created at all levels about the
performance of the various components in track. This will provide the
necessary input for taking corrective measures in improving the design
and quality of the future supplies.
3.4 BALLAST
Ballast structure is an important constituent of the Track structure.
While rails provide a running surface, ballast is required to absorb
most of the impact energy transmitted to the track by the rolling stock.
The ballast acts as a medium for energy absorption by undergoing a
temporary change in its particle contact relationship. The ballast also
undergoes permanent settlement. Periodically, the ballast particles
have to be lifted back to their earlier position by mechanical tamping
of track, to restore their normal elastic properties to get the desired
level and alignment of track. Apart from many functions that the ballast
performs in the track such as distribution of load, providing lateral and
longitudinal stability to track, facilitating easy drainage, etc., energy
and vibration absorptions are the most vital functions that the ballast
performs in the track.
The increased axle loads and high train speeds on DFC track, will,
generate higher impact energy and thus will place a greater demand
on the ballast performance.
The ballast section as adopted on Indian Railways for their LWR track
with a ballast cushion of 30 cm, should be good enough for adoption
on DFC tracks. Most of the heavy haul railways have similar ballast
depth on their track. Heavy haul association has also recommended
30 cm ballast depth.
Volume - II 304
 The quality and gradation of ballast will be very important for DFC a new 160 kmph railway line in Malaysia, prescribing zero settlement.
track. Indian Railways for their main lines, have laid down detailed It has been mentioned in the Malaysian design criteria that the track
specifications for the quality and gradation of ballast, which are as sub-structure, shall be so designed as to:
follows:
i. Prevent contamination of ballast by upward migration of fines;
i. Aggregate Abrasion value 30% Max. ii. Prevent sub grade attrition by ballast;
ii. Aggregate Impact value 20% iii. Ensure adequate drainage;
iii. Water absorption not more than 1% iv. Prevent sub grade shear failure;
iv. Size and gradation: v. Prevent ballast degradation;
a. Retained on 65 mm sq. mesh sieve 5% Max vi. Prevent sleeper attrition.
b. Retained on 40 mm sq. mesh sieve 40%-60% While zero settlement may be difficult to achieve, a uniformly high
c. Retained on Not less than 20 mm sq. 98% for track modulus will be an important requirement of the DFC track.
mesh sieve machine Soft-ware such as GEOTRACK and KENTRACK have been
crushed. developed, which permit calculation of track deflection and track
modulus as a function of -
These quality standards are required to be followed strictly on DFC 1. axle load,
track.
2. properties of the rails and sleepers,
3.5 SUB-BALLAST/BLANKET MATERIAL AND FORMATION
3. sleeper spacing,
The term sub-ballast and blanket are synonymous. It is a layer of
4. properties of the ballast and underlying layers, and
specified course grained material interposed between ballast and
formation commonly known as blanket. It serves the following 5. track geometry, etc.
objectives: The model also provides an estimate of the stresses and deformations
a. To distribute the load on formation reducing the sub-grade in the ballast, sub ballast and sub-grade layers as a function of the
stresses within the sub-grade strength. same variables. These soft-wares can be used for studying the behavior
of the ballast and sub-grade in track, and for predicting the permanent
b. To eliminate mud pumping.
deformation.
c. To contain the seasonal moisture content variations in sub-grade.
3.6 TRACK DRAINAGE
The depth of sub ballast depends upon the loads, both static and Most of the civil engineering structures such as bridges, buildings,
dynamic imposed on the track and on the type of sub grade soil dams, power houses, etc., are usually provided with massive solid
underneath. The design of sub-grade, which include replaced soil, foundations, when compared to the loads that they carry. Railway
and sub-ballast, will require considerable attention if the track structure track structure is significantly different in as much as, it is a tiny
is to be kept free from frequent attention. Indian Railways have issued structure carrying massive loads. It is resting on a floating foundation,
certain guidelines for ensuring stability of formation and also in respect which undergoes deformation during service and is required to be
to the depth of sub-ballast. These would not be enough for the DFC brought back in position by continuous process of nursing with the
track structure. With the phenomenal advancement in geo-technology, use of sophisticated track maintenance equipment. For track, which
track structure can now be designed with no settlement, after the rests on cohesive/non-cohesive soils, drainage plays a very important
track is constructed and commissioned for traffic use. At annexure I, role. The ingress of water at different levels affects the track stability
is placed an extract from the design criteria that has been adopted for
Volume - II 305 Volume - II 306
 and therefore, track structure has to be guarded against such in flow
of water.
Water comes on the track in the form of
a. Rainfall
b. Flood water, and
c. Water from the sub-soil.
Indian Railways have issued detailed instructions for providing side
drains, catch water drains, to ensure that water coming on the track,
is taken away and that reaching to track from outside is arrested well
in time and diverted to the proper outfall. Sufficient attention is not 4.2
often given to create necessary drainage network for catching the
sub-soil water, below the track before it can cause any destabilization.
A net work of underground drains will have to be built, where required,
to entrap water, before it reaches a dangerous level.
Water is the greatest enemy of track structure. An eminent track 4.3
engineer when asked about the 3 things that should be done for
achieving durable track structure, he mentioned that the first
requirement is drainage, second requirement is drainage and the third
is also drainage.
4.4
4. SPECIAL TRACK LAYOUT
4.1 TURNOUTS
Two types of turnouts i.e., 1 in 8.1/2 and 1 in 12 have been the
standard layouts on Indian Railways for the last many years. In the
last few years, thick web rails have been introduced in switches and
cast manganese crossings have replaced the fabricated crossings. 4.5
The speeds on these turnouts still remain quite low.
For dedicated freight corridors, modern, sturdier high speed turnouts,
shall have to be provided. These turnouts, shall have the following
features:
a. The maximum permissible speed of 60 km on turnout tracks.
The turnout in curves shall also have to be designed for that
speed.
b. The rails will be continuously welded through turnouts. 5.
c. Canted rail profile shall continue through turnouts. This has been
adopted in DMRC turnouts. operations:
Volume - II 307 Volume - II
d. Thick web rail switches with elastic fastenings, roller/coated
sliding chairs, and modern electric/hydraulic pulling arrangement,
e. Sensing devices, possibly contact less for monitoring of
turnouts,
f. Cast manganese crossings will have weldable legs for carrying
the C.W.R. through them.
With the provision of sturdy components and proper turnout geometry,
the maintenance requirement of turnout will be at par with in tangent
track i.e., every 3-4 years.
SWTICH EXPANSION JOINT (SEJ)
With the continuity of continuous welded rails through turnouts, the
requirement of SEJ will reduce. In freight corridors, stronger SEJ will
need to be provided. Such designs using full web rails, are available
in the world market.
INSULATED JOINTS
Glued insulated joints in use on Indian Railways have life of about 5 to
7 years. Modern designs of insulated joint, as used on advanced
railway systems, have a life equal to the life of the rail, the same may
be used on DFC.
BUFFER STOPS
On Indian Railways the provision of sand humps on loops, is a standard
practice. Their performance has always been doubtful, as their design
is based on certain retardation values, which are seldom available. It
will be desirable to have properly designed friction/hydraulic buffer
stops at such locations.
TRACK AT BRIDGE APPROACHES
Abrupt change in track stiffness from bridge to the approach track
results in high dynamic loading and faster track degradation. Special
attention shall have to be paid on DFC for the consof approach track
with the provision of approach slabs, provision of granular back-fill
material, duly compacted increased sub-ballast and increased sleeper
density.
CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
Track construction for new lines can be sub-divided into the following
308
 i. Marking the correct alignment and grades at the construction
site.
ii. Soil investigations, correct interpretation of results and formulation
of guidelines with respect to obtaining the right soil mix,
compaction, methodology, blanketing requirement, etc.
iii. Planning and execution of drainage works.
iv. Preparation of sub-grades for banks and cuttings according to
the guidelines, exercising strict quality control.
v. Ballasting and its compaction.
vi. Linkage of track
vii. Finally lifting, leveling, aligning and stabilizing the track from
time to time with modern track machines.
On Indian Railways, guidelines have been issued from time to time to
the construction engineers for achieving the desired quality standards, but
the results are far from satisfactory.
For DFC tracks, the following additional measures should be adopted
to ensure stability and integrity of the track.
Past experience has shown that unstable formations give endless
troubles, and are difficult to improve even at considerable cost. Maximum
attention is, therefore, required to be given to drainage, earthwork and blanket.
All track works should be done mechanically to avoid damage to track
components and obtain the right quality standards.
Thermit joints should be reduced to the bare minimum, even flash butt
welded joints made in the field should be reduced to the extent possible.
Longest possible single rails, further welded into long panels at the
rail rolling mills in the integrated welding plants, should be transported to the
track laying sites, on modern roller rakes.
Various types of track laying machines are available in the world
market, which ensure speedy track construction and also ensuring the highest
quality standards. A judicious choice of such machinery may be made to
suit a particular construction environment. Three types of track laying
equipment are available in the world market
a. Sleeper layers, followed by rail placing equipment
b. Laying with track panel, and
c. Complete track laying trains, which carry out both sleeper laying
and rail placement in a continuous operation.
Volume - II 309
The present system of track construction has to be replaced, adopting
any of the above mentioned technologies.
Construction of turnouts needs even greater attention. Complete
turnouts must be assembled in an assembly yard and only after fully satisfying
the layout geometry, the turnouts should be transported and placed in position.
No amount of efforts is excessive in assuring the right quality standard
during track construction as they will pay enough dividends during the service
life of track.
6. MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING
Dedicated freight corridors will have a track structure comparable with
any of the heavy haul railway system With a sturdy track structure and good
quality construction, maintenance requirement is likely to be much less
than the conventional track of Indian Railways.
The track maintenance and monitoring requirements of DFC track
may be divided into
(i) Periodic maintenance by on-track tamping, lifting and levelling
machines. This periodicity may be around 3 to 4 years, including
for turnouts. All this work will be farmed out to the contractors,
who will bring their own machines.
(ii) Spot attention/emergency repairs, which may be of two types -
a Rectification of rail/weld fractures and replacement of
isolated components.
b Tamping of isolated sleepers, including turnout sleepers
This work will be carried out by departmental maintenance
gangs, who will have two separate units for the above two types
of works.
For (a) - the unit will be equipped with a mounted
multipurpose gang lorry mounted with a crane. In this unit 4
5 trained persons under the charge of a supervisor will carry out
the required function.
For (b) - a unimat tamper will be provided to tamp the
sleepers on plain track and turnouts.
A Foreman, who will be in charge of about 100 Kms of track,
will be responsible for the effective functioning of both these
units. The Foreman will also be provided with a patrol car for his
own inspection.
Volume - II 310
 (iii) Track monitoring system, which will consist of two types of
equipment
a. Track recording car, which will record both track geometry,
vertical and lateral acceleration and riding index.
b. Ultrasonic rail flaw detection equipment.
The monitoring work will also be given to the contractor, who will have
his own equipment to work.
The track maintenance units can also be given multi-disciplinary duties
in as much, as they can be trained to look after the signaling and OHE
equipment, installed along the track. Details about their working and
responsibility can be worked out.
7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. In view of the mounting traffic demands, Indian Railways have rightly
decided to have Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC).
2. In the DFC 30 tonne axle load wagons will be moving in train loads of
14 to 16 thousand tons, at a speed of 100 kmph.
3. It will be desirable that proper design criteria is established for DFC in
respect to alignment and other construction parameters to achieve
maximum operational efficiency, without any constraint imposed by
the existing rail network.
4. The proposal of running 3550 mm of wide rolling stock on DFC is well
within the provision of 3660 mm available on the lines constructed on
IR since 1935, as indicated in the Indian Railways Schedule of
Dimensions Revised 2004.
5. Ballasted track structure will generally be adopted on DFC except in
tunnels or long viaducts where ballastless track structure can be
economically justified.
6. For designing track structure guidelines issued by Heavy Haul
Association, could be followed.
7. For the design of concrete sleepers, a new loading diagram should be
established, taking into account the higher axle loads, suspension
characteristics of the rolling stock, track modulus, and other relevant
factors.
8. For rail to sleeper fastening system, Pandrol type rail fastening system
with a toe load of about 1000 to 1300 kg may be adopted.
Volume - II 311
9. Single point responsibility for the efficient functioning of the fastening
system should be fixed by procuring all the components from one
source.
10. The ballast specification as adopted on Indian Railways, could be
followed on DFC with stricter compliance to the quality control.
11. Adequate depth of sub-ballast should be provided for proper distribution
of on-coming loads to bring them down to the bearing capacity of soil.
12. Track drainage should be given the importance that it deserves.
A network of surface and underground drains should be provided to
drain away the water.
13. Turnouts will be designed for a maximum speed of 60 kmph on turnout
curves. Sturdy turnout structures consisting of thick web rail switches
and CMS crossings, capable of carrying long welded rails through
them, should be adopted.
14. Design of switch expansion joints, insulated joints, buffer stops, etc.,
should follow the latest practice adopted on Heavy Haul Railways.
15. The track at bridge approaches should be properly designed so as to
avoid high dynamic loading at these locations.
16. The track construction should be completely mechanized to avoid
mishandling of track material and damage to the track components.
The choice of machinery will depend on the local construction
environment such as availability of service roads, speed of
construction, etc.
17. As far as possible, rail joints should be avoided by procuring the longest
possible single rails. Site welding should be brought down to the barest
minimum. Thermit welding is to be avoided to the extent possible.
18. With a high standard of track construction, the periodicity of track
maintenance should come down considerably, say over 3 to 4 years.
19. Most of the track work should be farmed out to the contractors. The
departmental gangs may be deployed only for emergency repairs,
who should be provided with a high level of mobility and a reliable
communication network.
20. It may be advantageous to make the track Foreman responsible for
the maintenance of wayside signaling and overhead equipments as
well. The track men, who will all be in skilled category, should be
trained to handle multi-disciplinary tasks.
Volume - II 312
Annexure I

Annexure I

Volume - II 313 Volume - II 314

 Annexure II
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR TRACK SUB-STRUCTURE AS ADOPTED
Annexure I

ON HIGH SPEED LINES IN MALAYSIA

TRACK SUBSTRUCTURE
The track substructure shall include:
i. Well prepared sub-grade with a soaked CBR of not less than
5% and dry density not less than 95% of the maximum dry
Terrain: <875 meter radius Traffic Density: 20-29 MGT

density (modified proctor) and dynamically compacted in layers

able 3: Traffic Mix: Dedicated HH Axle Load: 30-34

of 150 mm under OMC. Core sample shall be taken at random,

tested for compaction, and certified before laying sub-ballast.
ii. well graded sub-ballast of granular material laid in layers of
maximum 150mm thickness with CBR of not less than 25%
and dynamically compacted.
iii. Clean ballast (washed with running water) of not less than 300mm
thickness, laid in layers of not more than 150mm and compacted
each layer with suitable mechanical vibratory rollers. The ballast
shall be as per approved specification. After each tamping, the
ballast inclusive of the sides shall be fully compacted with
approved dynamic track stabilizer machine until the track settles
and stabilizes to the desired level.
The track substructure shall also be designed to ensure:
i. plastic settlement of the sub-grade of not more than 10mm
after one million repeated load applications of a 20 ton-axle
load during the construction stage with no settlement of
whatsoever once the track is commissioned for traffic;
ii. that vertical stresses on the sub-grade due to a 20 ton-axle is
less than the threshold stress (i.e., the stress level for which
rate of plastic deformation will not increase with load repetitions)
which shall be determined by repeated trail tests and repeated
plate load tests.
The contractor shall take note that it may be necessary to adopt sub-
grade improvement techniques such as grouting, lime treatment,
compaction, replacement, admixture stabilization, etc.
Adequate subsurface drainage systems shall be designed for and
constructed to maintain the track sub-structure free of excessive
moistures arising from precipitation, surface flows or subsurface
Volume - II 315 Volume - II 316
 seepage or any other sources and to maintain ground water levels to HOW HEAVY AXLE LOADS AFFECT
be at least 720 mm beneath top of sub-grade. Approved sub-surface
drainage shall be provided in all cutting area. RAIL GRINDING
The track substructure shall also be so designed as to:
i. Prevent contamination of ballast by upward migration of fines; G. ROBERT NEWMAN*
ii. Prevent sub-grade attrition by ballast;
iii. Ensure adequate drainage;
iv. Prevent sub-grade shear failure; Am increase in axle loads affects rolling stock, bridges, and track
structure.
v. Prevent ballast degradation;
The purpose of this paper is to explain specifically how one mainte-
vi Prevent sleeper attrition.
nance factor, rail grinding, is affected by increasing axle loads. Regarding
DESIGN PRACTICE AND METHODOLOGY rail grinding as axle loads increase, the following factors are some of those
Slope Stability that must be considered in a rail maintenance program:
Slope stability analysis shall be carried out adopting either: 1. Wheel to Rail Contact Area 2. Rail Profile Examples
i. Morgenstern-Price method or: 3. Surface Defects 4. One Point Contact
ii. Janbu (rigorous) method 5. Two Point Contact 6. False Flanging
Effect of precipitation and ground water and seepage conditions shall 7. Corrective Grinding 8. Maintenance Grinding
be assessed and accounted for in stability analysis. 9. Grinding Frequency 10. Grinding Machines
RETAINING STRUCTURE Each of these topics will be addressed briefly:
Earth pressures shall be determined from:
i. Civil Engineering code of Practice C.P.2 (1951) 1. WHEEL TO RAIL CONTACT AREA : The most important factor in rail
ii. DBS 8002: 1994 Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structure safety regarding profile is to ensure that the gauge corner of the rail is
not the load bearing area on the head of the rail. This condition sim-
In the case of reinforced soil retaining structures internal stability shall
be analysed and designed for as prescribed in: ply means that the center of the load bearing area needs to be at the
middle of the rail head as shown in the pictures below -
i. Reinforced Earth Structures
Recommendations Rules of the Arts. French Ministry of
Transport, August 1980
ii. B.S. 8006: 1991. Draft British Standard Code of Practice for
Strengthened/Reinforced Soils and other Fills
In the picture
condition on
the right is the
correct condition

Volume - II 317 Volume - II *President M/s Harsco Track Technology, USA

2 RAIL PROFILE : Typically when using a radius gauge for rail profile 4. ONE POINT CONTACT :
grinding the greater the axle load the larger the radius is used. For
example for heavy axle loads a 250 mm radius would be used rather
than a 200 mm radius for lighter axle loads as shown below:
One point contact on the high rail
in a curve often creates damaging
high contact stresses on the
gauge corner of the rail.

5. TWO POINT CONTACT :

200 mm Radius 250 mm Radius

3. SURFACE DEFECTS : The most common surface defects found with

heavy axle loads are gauge corner shelling, spalling, corrugation, and Normally two point contact on the
plastic flow. high rail of a curve reduces
contract stresses. This usually
is a more favorable condition, and
can be achieved by profile grinding.

6. FALSE FLANGING :

Plastic Flow On
Gauge Corner

Axle & wheel assembly shifts to Slightly hollow wheel creates

Corrugation flange contact false flange stress in rail

Volume - II 319 Volume - II 320

7. CORRECTIVE GRINDING : Initial application of profile grinding required Determining how many 72 Stone Production Rail Grinders may be
significant amounts of metal removal, and thus significant grinding needed for Indian Railways is a simple calculation. First some
passes, to remove surface defects and to reshape the rail head. assumptions are made, and these assumptions can be adjusted for
Corrective Grinding is usually associated with multiple passes with a the real case.
large production rail grinder that removes significant levels of metal by 1. Indian Railways has 60,000 km of track.
grinding.* 2. Indian Railways needs to grind 75% of that track on an annual basis.
The objective is to do corrective grinding infrequently. Corrective grinding 3. Track windows average 4 hours with 3 hours of spark time per shift.
takes extra time on the track, and once corrective grinding is completed
4. Each year represents 230 shifts.
more frequent maintenance grinding should be the following treatments
5. Each rail grinder has 72 grinding stones working at maximum
on a regularly scheduled basis.
of 30 horsepower each.
8. MAINTENANCE GRINDING : As maintenance grinding (preventive With the number of 72 Stone Production Rail Grinders as a variable,
grinding) becomes more widely used, however, the benefits of more average grinding speeds are compared to number of machines until a
frequent grinding and the elimination of rail surface defects at an early reasonable grinding speed is calculated as follows:
stage becomes increasingly apparent. This has already been observed
in the case of corrugation re-growth. This concept has also been
applied to rail surface defects. Grinding of these surface defects
while they are relatively shallow requires significantly less metal removal
than when the surface cracks have grown to a significant depth. In
fact, grinding at this early stage can avoid the formation of gauge corner
cracking, corrugations, or other surface defects entirely, provided that
the grinding is carried out regularly on an ongoing basis. *
This method normally includes light frequent grinding passes.
Therefore based on the assumptions four or five 72 Stone Production
9. GRINDING FREQUENCY : The objective is to grind frequently enough Rail Grinders will be required.
to enter and remain in a maintenance grinding mode. The following
table shows how some Class I North American Railroads have provided 10. GRINDING MACHINES : Production Rail Grinding machines typically
enough Production Grinding Capacity to remain in the maintenance have from 48 to 120 Grinding Stones. The following specifications
grinding mode: describe one example of a production rail grinder:
120 Grinding Stones
30 Horsepower Per Motor
300 Meters In Length
7,000 Installed Horsepower
Weight = 1200 Tons
Typical Grinding Speed = 20 kph On Grade
Water Capacity = 250,000 Liters
Fuel Capacity = 24,000 Liters
Traction Drive = 8 Axles All Electric
#Zarembski, Allan M. The Art and Science of Rail Grinding Published Maximum Travel Speed = 80 kph
by Simmons-Borardman Books, Omaha, Nebraska, 2005 Crew = 10 people
Volume - II 321 Volume - II 322
 Features of this type of machine are shown:

Fire Fighting
Equipment

Grinding
Control
Center

Full Consist which is about 330 meters in length

Crew Living
Accommodation
Car (Crew living
on board the 120
Production Rail
Grinding has
been found to be
the best way to
operate and
maintain the
machine.)
A End Control Car

Volume - II 323 Volume - II 324

 Kitchen
Car

Power and Traction Car

Water
Tank Car

Foam
Station for
Fire
Prevention

Grinding and Dust Collection Car

Volume - II 325 Volume - II 326

 TRACK AND VEHICLE PARAMETERS a significant role in determining the force level, while the unsprung
mass of the vehicle and its primary suspension usually have
INFLUENCING RAIL/WHEEL IMPACT FORCES lesser influence.
iii) At high frequencies (500-2000 Hz), the response is mainly
R.K. VERMA* dependant on the track and wheelset masses and the elasticity
of the rail/wheel contact zone.
The intermediate and high frequency forces arise due to discontinuities/
imperfections in rail/wheel running surfaces. Research into the nature of
SYNOPSIS such forces (impact forces), carried out by British Railways at dipped joints
The imperfections in rail/wheel running surfaces give rise to dynamic (a common rail running surface imperfection), shows two distinct peaks
forces, which increase with increase in axle loads and speeds. Hence, the track with quite distinctive characteristics and differing effects on the track. These
and vehicle parameters, influencing such forces, need to be checked, in order to two peak forces are called P1 and P2 forces.
decide the correct design and maintenance practices, suitable for high axle
loads and speeds.

1. INTRODUCTION
Rail and wheel running surfaces are not perfectly smooth but contain
discontinuities/imperfections such as rail-joints, points and crossings, wheel
flats etc. Even though long welded rails are being widely adopted, rail-joints
still remain on bridges, points and crossings, sharp curves and track-circuit
breaks. The rails often dip by several millimeters near the joints. Even
welded rails often have such dipped joints.
The above discontinuities/imperfections in rail/wheel running surfaces
give rise to dynamic forces, which increase with increase in axle loads and
speeds. In this paper, with the help of certain simulation studies done by
British Railways, an attempt has been made to check the track and vehicle
parameters, influencing such forces, in order to establish the correct design
and maintenance practices, suitable for high axle loads and speeds.

2. NATURE OF RAIL/WHEEL DYNAMIC FORCES

The spectrum of forces experienced by the track covers a wide range 2.1 P1 force: The P1 force is the first impact force, generated almost
of frequencies immediately after a wheel passes over the defect. Its magnitude is 5-
6 times the static load. It is of high frequency (>100 Hz, typically 200-
i) At very low frequencies (<10 Hz), the track system has a
400 Hz) and short-duration. So, while it can cause damage to the
relatively small effect; the loading is due to variation in suspension
rails and sleepers, it does not generally penetrate into the ballast and
forces, caused by the vehicle body and bogie motion. These
the subgrade. It is the root cause leading to rail-head damage, bolt-
forces are known as Ride Forces.
hole crack and fish-plate breakage. This force is associated with
ii) At intermediate frequencies (20-100 Hz), the track system plays battering of the rail-end corner by the unsprung mass of the vehicle
Volume - II *Sr. Professor, IRCEN, Pune 01 327 Volume - II 328
 and is related to the inertias of the rails and the sleepers. It depends
upon static axle load, vehicle speed, size of rail defect and also track
mass. Its dependence upon vehicle unsprung mass is nominal. It can
be calculated by the following equation -
where,
P1 is in kN/wheel
Po = Static wheel load (kN)
2 = Size of rail defect, measured as sum of the angles between
each rail end and the horizontal, called total joint angle or
ramp angle (radians)
V = Vehicle velocity (m/s)
KH = Linearized Hertzian contact stiffness, which is axle load
dependent (N/m)
Me = Effective track mass at P1 frequency (kg)
Mu = Unsprung mass/wheel (kg)
The total joint angle considered in a track design is 0.02 radians for
jointed rails, i.e. 5 mm dip over 1 m length. For welded rails, it depends
upon the welding standards and the subsequent track maintenance
standards; which if assessed as poor to average, is assumed as 0.012
radians and if assessed as good, is assumed as 0.005 radians.
From the above equation, it may be observed that P1 force has two
components, one is static and the other is dynamic. British Railways
have given a simple graph in Annexure I to find out the dynamic
component.
2.2 P2 force: The P2 force, which is the second impact force, occurs after
a small delay (6-8 millisecs). It is associated with rail bending, which
is a more resilient deformation mode as compared to corner battering.
Consequently, P2 force is smaller than P1 force and the difference
increases with increase in vehicle velocity. Its magnitude is 3-4 times
the static load. It is of medium frequency (<100 Hz, typically 50 Hz)
and long-duration. So, it penetrates into the ballast and the subgrade,
causing track geometry deterioration, apart from damaging the rails
Volume - II 329
and the sleepers. It depends upon static axle load, vehicle speed,
size of rail defect, just like P1 force and also on track stiffness and
vehicle unsprung mass. It can be calculated by the following equation-
where,
P2 is in kN/wheel
Po , 2 , V and Mu as defined in para 2.1
Mt = Equivalent track mass (kg)
Ct = Equivalent track damping (kNs/m)
Kt = Equivalent track stiffness (MN/m)
From the above equation, it may be observed that P2 force also has
two components, one is static and the other is dynamic. The dynamic
component can be found out from the graphs given by the author in
Annexure-II and III, based on the above equation.
3. LIMITING VALUES FOR P1 AND P2 FORCES
British Railways stipulate the threshold values for P1 and P2 forces
per wheel as 400 and 250 kN respectively, for welded rails and 512 and 340
kN respectively, for jointed rails.
Australian Railways stipulate the measurement of P2 force for vehicles
with unsprung mass per axle in excess of 1.9 t or with an axle load greater
than 25 t. The limits imposed by them for various track classes are given in
Annexure IV.
4. CHECK FOR P1 FORCE:
To limit the P1 force to 400 kN/wheel for welded rails, the maximum
permissible track and vehicle parameters are
4.1 Track parameters: The P1 force increases with increase in track
mass, i.e. a PSC sleeper track will give rise to a larger P1 force,
compared to a wooden sleeper track. Since PSC sleepers are the
type of sleepers in use on Indian Railways, the next parameter
influencing the P1 force, i.e. total joint angle is checked. For a track
with 52 kg rails laid on PSC sleepers with 1540 nos. per km
Volume - II 330
 (a track mass of 550 kg/m) and a vehicle velocity of 60 kmph with
23 t axle load, the permissible joint angle is 0.04 radians, as per the
graph in Annexure I. In other words, the welds should not dip by
more than 10 mm over a 1 m straight edge, assuming that the wheel
running surface is smooth.
4.2 Vehicle parameters: Wheel flat can be considered to have the same
effect as joint angle. The equivalent total joint angle 2 , for a wheel
flat of length L (mm) and wheel dia. D (mm), can be found out by using
the following equation -
Using the graph in Annexure I, for a track mass of 550 kg/m, the
length of wheel flat should not exceed 40 mm (with a wheel dia. of
1000 mm), for a vehicle velocity of 60 kmph with 23 t axle load, assuming
that the rail running surface is smooth.
4.3 Combined effect: Para 4.1 and 4.2 suggest that while a relatively small
wheel flat can cause high impact force, only a severe rail dip can
produce an effect of the same magnitude. It is also important to note
that the forces from dips are limited to the location of the weld or joint,
while the wheel flat forces can occur at any position along the track. If
both the rail and wheel running surfaces have imperfections, P1 force
will be still larger. Hence, any imperfections in the rail running surfaces
must be avoided. It becomes essential to have welded rails and also
maintain the joints in perfect condition. Weld correction should be
done to remove geometrical imperfections in weld geometry. Low welded
and fish-plated joints can be corrected by the mobile joint bending
system STRAIT (Straightening of Rails by Automated Iteration
Techniques). It may also be noted that the P1 force will be larger at
points and crossings on PSC sleepers, due to higher track mass.
Therefore, rail discontinuities at points and crossings should be avoided
by using welded rails and swing nose crossings. Switch type SEJ
should be used in place of conventional SEJ. Monitoring of the condition
of wheel running surface is the most important aspect and hence,
wheel impact load detectors must be installed at suitable places in
sufficient numbers.
Volume - II 331
5. CHECK FOR P2 FORCE
To limit the P2 force to 250 kN/wheel for welded rails, the maximum
permissible track and vehicle parameters are
5.1 Track parameters: The P2 force is sensitive to total joint angle and
track stiffness, as may be observed from the graphs in Annexure II
and III. For a vehicle with CASNUB bogie (Mu = 1170 kg/wheel) at 60
kmph and 23 t axle load, the permissible total joint angle is 0.03
radians. In other words, the welds should not dip by more than 7.5
mm over a 1 m straight edge, considering that the wheel running
surface is smooth. The type of joints and their maintenance aspects,
as discussed in para 4.3, will help in reducing the P2 force also. A
stiffer track and a greater track mass usually contribute to corrugations,
as they increase dynamic loadings. The resulting vibration of the sleeper
causes deterioration of pads and fastenings, damage of concrete
sleepers and also ballast breakdown. Remedial action for this
expensive dynamic phenomenon is rail grinding. This also eliminates
other types of rail running surface imperfections.
The most important contributors to track stiffness are increased ballast
depth and pad stiffness. In addition, ballast resiliency is also very
important. Therefore, adequate clean ballast cushion and resilient pads
are necessary. For increased axle loads, the track stiffness needs to
be increased, in order to limit the vertical track deflection. Abrupt
changes in track stiffness, as in the case of bridge approaches etc.
should be avoided by providing suitably designed transitions.
The P2 force decreases slightly with increasing track mass, as may
be observed from Graph 2 in Annexure III, suggesting the benefit of
a heavy track structure against track geometry deterioration.
5.2 Vehicle parameters: The P2 force is sensitive to unsprung mass, as
may be observed from the graphs in Annexure II and III. A vehicle
with CASNUB bogie at 60 kmph and 23 t axle load will produce 162
kN of P2 force on standard welded rails. For a vehicle to run at 100
kmph with 30 t axle load, the unsprung mass should not be greater
than 1375 kg/wheel.
6. CONCLUSION
The following track and vehicle parameters, influencing rail/wheel impact
forces, should be checked, in order to decide the correct design and
Volume - II 332
maintenance practices, suitable for high axle loads and speeds
i) Rail/wheel running surface imperfections
ii) Track stiffness

Annexure I
iii) Unsprung mass of vehicle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
i) Jenkins, H.H., et al, The Effect of Track and Vehicle Parameters on
Wheel/Rail Vertical Dynamic Forces, Rail Engineering Journal,
January 1974.
ii) Zarembski, A.M., The impact of rail surface defects, Railway Track
and Structures, November 1984.
iii) Esveld, C., Modern Railway Track, Second Edition.

Volume - II 333 Volume - II 334

 Annexure II Annexure III

Volume - II 335 Volume - II 336

 Annexure IV EFFECT OF HEAVIER AXLE LOAD ON TRACK
STRUCTURE AND TRACK MAINTENANCE INPUT

NARENDER KUMAR*, A. K. CHAKRABORTY**

SYNOPSIS
With the advent of modern and heavier track structure the concept of track
maintenance is undergoing continual changes. Transformation to heavier axle
loads as a result of huge increase in passenger and freight traffic is the need of the
hour. The present track technology is once again in the face of a challenge
whether we can cater to heavier axles with the present day track structure.
Definitely we can but with some changes in strategies in track maintenance.
Efforts have been made to present the effect of heavier axle load on track structure
and the maintenance strategies therein.

Class A 60 kg/m head hardened rail on concrete sleepers

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Class B 60 kg/m head hardened rail on timber sleepers
A huge passenger freight (about 8,700 trains) and goods freight (about
Class C 53 kg/m standard rail on concrete sleepers 5,700 goods trains) plying daily on Indian Railway track demands a stable,
Class D 53 kg/m standard rail on timber sleepers
Class E Progressively lower standards

* Source: Code of practice for the defined interstate rail network, Vol.5,
RCP-1010: General principles for rolling stock.

* Director/Track Machines, RDSO/Lucknow

Volume - II 337 Volume -**IISr.Section Engineer/ Track Machines, RDSO/Lucknow
strong and reliable railway track with riding comfort. At present, the capacity Knowing train running speed in the section, traffic load T of the line is
of this traffic fleet is required to be increased and this is to be materialized thereafter calculated as:
with the introduction of heavier axles. Presently the heavier axles plying are T = S.Tth
22.0 t and upto 25t on a few nominated routes. The increment in the axle load
Where S = 1.0 for lines without passenger traffic
has many effects on Loco, Carriages & Wagons, Track ,Bridges, formation
etc. The most important effect from civil engineering point of view is on = 1.1 for lines with mixed traffic and Vmax < 120 kmph..
track, bridges and formation. Axle loads of some of locos and on-track = 1.2 for lines with mixed traffic and 120 kmph < Vmax < 140 kmph
machines in Indian Railways are tabulated above.
= 1.25 for lines with mixed traffic and Vmax > 140 kmph
Based on the daily traffic load, the various railway lines are classified
2.0 AXLE LOAD AND TRAFFIC LOAD into groups according to UIC standards:
Axle Load and traffic load are critical factors for track structure. These
are the main factors for the fatigue of rail, sleeper, ballast and sub-grade. In
order to reduce the operating cost, especially for goods freight, the axle load
was increased from 20 t to 22.0 t and further to 25 t on some nominated
routes. UIC group
2.1 A series of studies in world railways has revealed that rail fatigue is an
exponential function of axle load Q, and stresses developed within the
rail are proportional to the parameter Qa where the exponential a takes
values in the range of 3 to 4 and closer to 4. Thus any increase in axle
load results in a much larger increase in track structures fatigue.
2.2 The traffic load on a line depends on a number of factors like kinds of (in thousands of ton)
vehicles e.g., locomotives, shunting engines, goods vehicles and Fig. 1
passenger vehicles, speeds etc. The total algebraic sum of these
loads cannot account the traffic load correctly because the algebraic 2.3 Increment in axle load will no doubt reduce the unit cost of
sum doesnt stipulates that how the load is applied and what are the transportation but the cost of rolling stock maintenance, track and
respective speeds. A complex parameter is taken to estimate the bridge maintenance may increase. The maintenance of track and
traffic load more accurately. Railway Engineering uses the analogue bridge may invite special attention with specific and more efficient
of the passenger vehicle unit (PVU) of traffic engineering. In order to mode to count aim the maintenance cost to the minimum.
workout the traffic load (GMT) on a track, the loads of various trains are
corrected into equivalent passenger train loads.
3.0 THE RAIL WHEEL INTERFACE

Thus Tth = Tp + K frTtr + Ttr . K tr Wheels are guided by two rails vertically and laterally. The contact
area between rail and wheel is elliptical.
Where Tth = Theoretical traffic load, Wheel movement on rails gives rise to the tendency of creep. As per
Tp = daily passanger traffic load, fig. No.2 the wheel rail contact area can be divided into S1 and S2. The
area of S1 and S2 depends on wheel speed and with different effects acting
Ttr = daily freight traffic load,
on that area like cohesive force between rail and wheel etc. The vehicle
K fr
= 1.15, rolling resistance consists of two components F1 and F2 corresponding to
K tr
= 1.40 S1 and S2 respectively and act in opposite direction. F1 is generated by
Volume - II 339 Volume - II 340
vehicle increment i.e., it is of kinetic origin. F2 is generated by elastic hogged/dipped rail etc) and wheel tread shelling, the change results
deformation of the S2 surface i.e, it is of elastic origin. As speed increases, in the dynamic forces between wheel and rail (fig 3.).
S1 becomes larger and S2 respectively smaller. At high speeds, S2 almost
decreases to zero, and therefore the rolling resistance of the vehicle coincides
with dynamic friction. According to Coulombs law the following relation will
apply:

Fig. 3

If the impact occurs abruptly, as at a gap in the rail, the redirected

wheel must move the rail away. This movement is resisted by inertia
of the rail and the wheel. The more abrupt the impact, the greater is
the acceleration of the contacting surface. On the other hand the
Fig. 2 shorter the time duration of the impact, the greater is the inertia
provided by the rail and wheel. The frequency of the impact occurring
for a very short duration is as high as 100Hz and above as this may
F = = Q
result in tendency of decoupling of wheel sets from the bogies. The
Where F = vehicle propelling force mass which is greatly effected by the acceleration is wheel set mass
= Vehicle friction i.e, the axle load.
= Co-efficient of friction The forces of high frequency impact tend to plastically deform the
contact surfaces locally and to send shock waves through the rail and
Q = vertical load on wheel.
wheel. The energy pathway starts with compression and heating of
the rail head in the immediate adjacent mass of the impact which
From the above relation it is clear that with increased axle load,
results in a tensile stress wave to propagate along the rail having
propelling force i.e, tractive effort is to be increased.
duration of 0.3 0.5 ms and may travel through the rail at speeds upto
3.1 RAIL WHEEL DYNAMIC INTERACTION 8,300 kmph. The rail is set into vibration at a natural frequency in the
The rail, sleeper and wheel set make up the unsprung masses that range of 1 KHz to 1.5 KHz laterally causing the possibility of the
are the first point to response to any irregularities in the contact surface. compressive stress exceeding the yield strength of work hardened
In case of theoretical rolling the two surfaces remain in constant rail, the tensile stress wave may contribute to growing transverse
contact. But practically due to uneven rail table (that may be due to cracks in the rail.

Volume - II 341 Volume - II 342

4.0 ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE OF RAILS DUE TO HEAVY AXLE stress and relatively low wear ( as in case of 90 UTS rails). Flakes
LOAD similar to head checks, usually slightly inclined or parallel to the
Rolling contact defect including head checks, longitudinal horizontal direction of travel, can also be found on low rail (inner rail) surface in
and vertical cracks, squats etc. results in recurring investment in rail renewal curve. The defects start immediately under the surface (~1/10 mm),
every year around the globe. The following alarming defects generated as a develops immediately and reaches the surface quickly.
result of plying heavy haul are required to be tackled promptly. Under traffic load this defect grows at an acute angle to the rail surface,
4.1 HEAD CHECKS initially following the layers of ferrite in a perlitic rail steel down into
the rail and it may turn downwards with a risk of multiple breakages. It
Head Checks occur primarily on the gauge corner and between the
is relatively difficult to predict the development of this kind of defect.
gauge corner and crown on the high rail in curves with high shear
Rail fractures from head checks have been observed in high speed
passenger track and are also common on heavy haul lines. Preventive
rail treatment (grinding, milling, planning) on stretches with tendency
to develop rolling contact fatigue defects is usually recommended to
preventively correct this type of defect.
4.2 LONGITUDINAL HORIZONTAL CRACKS
Wheel Longitudinal horizontal cracks can occur in the rail head or web, or in
the transition area between the rail head and the web or rail web and
base. These are advanced longitudinal cracks in the rail parallel to the
longitudinal rail axis. The crack may propagate upwards or downwards
Defect before breakage occurs. Longitudinal horizontal cracks on the rail can
have serous consequences in case of rail breakage since loss of rail
guidance may result. Longitudinal cracks can occur over long sections
Rail and thereby results in several breakages. In case of high residual
stresses, these cracks can spread into rail web area relatively quickly.

Fig. 5 Longitudinal Horizontal Cracks

The defect may be caused by internal segregation linked to the
manufacture of the materials. It may also be caused by the defects in
welded joint in rail web area. Longitudinal Horizontal Cracks can also
Fig. 4 Head Checks be caused by micro cracks on rail ends. Thermal cuts without pre-
heating increase the risk of crack formation.
Volume - II 343 Volume - II 344
4.3 LONGITUDINAL VERTICAL CRACKS
This defect type is mainly attributed to production problems in relation
to metallurgy or rolling.Old production methods generate a higher
concentration of phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen in the rail's vertical
plane of symmetry. This layer can get very brittle often with sulphide
inclusions. Modern rail production methods have virtually excluded
this type of defect.
Fig. 6 Longitudinal Vertical Cracks
Difficulty in detection and the possibility of rail head breakage over a
long distance (meters) makes this type of defect one of the most
dangerous with a high risk of derailment.
The development of this defect type can be divided into two stages:
Stage 1
The crack starts growing along the affected rail and can get very long
(there have been reports of cracks up to 120 m in length).
Stage 2
The crack reaches the surface, becomes visible and then starts to
open (in case of 213 rail head widening), and the rail looses strength
and integrity.
Volume - II 345
4.4 TRANSVERSE BREAKAGE OR FISSURE (PROGRESSIVE CRACK
ORIGINATING FROM WITHIN THE HEAD)
It is a progressive fracture starting from one or several nuclei within
the rail head. The crack develops towards the surface during service
and when it reaches it, complete breakage occurs soon. Such defect
is also known as kidney defect. The developing crack inside cannot
be detected visually until it reaches surface, but can be detected by
special equipment, e.g. ultrasonic flaw detector. If detected before
reaching the surface and the rail is broken open to expose the developing
crack, the progressive nature of the crack around a nucleus can be
seen as a smooth usually oval shaped patch. If the crack has reached
the surface, the path may be rusty.
Fig. 7 Kidney failure
When the cracks spreading from a nucleus within the rail head, reach
the surface, they appear as transverse cracks on the fields or gauge
side of the head or at the fillet under the head or on the running surface
or the rail.
This defect may be found repeatedly in the same rail (can therefore
result in a large gap). Invariably other rails from the same cast also
show similar defects.
Volume - II 346
4.5 SQUATS
These are the defects pertaining to rail contact fatigue and appear on
head in the form of black spot mainly on straight lines with high shear
stress, specially in the zones where acceleration and braking occurs.
Rolling stock with ABS and anti spin device may worsen the situation.
The area is darkened because subsurface cracking reduces the integrity
of the rail material and depresses the rail surface, where black and
oxidized debris accumulate. Each squat consists of two cracks, a
leading one which propagates along the direction of traffic and the
other propagates in opposite direction of traffic. One of this crack
may propagate transversely across the rail head and lead to failure of
the whole section. The origin and development of squats is same as
for head-checking, but the critical defect size for squats is higher.
Fig.8 Squats
4.6 PROPAGATION OF DEFECTS SPECIALLY IN CASE OF HEAVY
AXLE LOADS
All these defects are rail contact fatigue defects and may lead to rail
failure and derailment if they are not removed in time. The main remedy
is that the rail steel should be clean, oxide and hydrogen should be
greatly avoided and better steering arrangement of the bogies should
be provided. All these defects propagate with cyclic loading and a
very small size initial defect may propagate to lead to a fatigue failure.
Volume - II 347
4.7 FATIGUE CRACK MANAGEMENT
All the rail defects mentioned above are greatly caused by rail wheel
contact pressure at higher axle load. Such abnormalities shall be
managed by an effective monitoring and remedial steps. Intensity of
process of formation and development of cracks in the rail head at
many levels is defined by the level of contact pressure. Considerable
effort has been made recently to explain the fatigue crack growth
(FCG). It has been recognized that in short cracks the driving force
for FCG is usually taken to be the applied stress intensity range
(K) with
K = Kmax K min
Where Kmax and K min are the applied maximum and minimum stresses
respectively. Hence the driving force is greatly influenced by cyclic
loading in which the difference (Kmax K min) will increase with increment
of axle load. A significant study was conducted to evaluate the role of
crack closure and microstructure in the fatigue growth of short crack.
A significant effect of grain boundaries and inclusions on short crack
FCG behavior was observed. For very short crack lengths, fatigue
crack growth rates do not appear to be a function of either K or R
ratio (the ratio of maximum to minimum stress).
4.7.1 LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS
In the analysis of stress near the tip of a sharp crack (where a
stress singularity is presumed to exist). The concept of using elastic
stress concentration factors break down. Linear elastic fracture
mechanics (LEFM) manages to overcome this problem by analyzing
the stress field surrounding the crack tip, rather than the infinite
stress in the region. Cracked components may be stressed in one
or more of the following modes:
Mode I = Tension, normal other the crack faces (opening mode)
Mode II = Shear, normal to crack front (edge sliding mode)
Mode-III = Shear, parallel to the crack front (baring mode)
Mode I is predominant stress situation in most practical cases.
Mode II and III tend to be less significant and their contributions to
fatigue crack growth can be ignored.
The parameter which has been adopted to describe the elastic stress
field in a cracked structure is called the crack tip stress intensity
factor K. The value of K depends on the applied stress field, the
Volume - II 348
 size and shape of the crack, and the geometry of the cracked distribution system from rail head to sub grade. The bending moments
component. For the case of mode I loading, it is typically expressed developed in sleepers may be studied by the simplified simulation as
in the form given in the fig.- 9.
K1 = Y n0a
Where n0 is the nominal surface stress, a is the crack depth and Y
accounts for the effects of crack shape and component geometry.
Provided K is the same for two different cracks, the stress fields near
both crack tips will be identical and both cracks should behave similarly.
It is for this reason that K can be used to describe the residual strength
of a cracked body. When the load is increased on a cracked
component, the level of stress intensity at which the crack begins to
propagate is called the fracture toughness of the material.
4.8 SOLUTIONS
It is required to have reliable USFD testing and defect management
system resulting in positive reduction of rail failures /breakages. Most
of the defects are inherent in nature but when they propagate from
micro to macro sizes as an effect of unusual loading on rail wheel
Fig 9
contact surface due to heavier axle load and dip or low rail joint/profile
it is necessary to detect these flaws before they tend to fatigue failures.
It is very important to monitor the no. of rail defects detected during
USFD testing and the no. of rail failures (both reported and unreported)
to know the real effect of increased axle load. Presently we are
monitoring only the no. of reported rail failures. It is also required to
monitor the track geometry particulary emphasizing on heavy haul
routes.

5.0 HEAVY HAULING EFFECT ON SLEEPER, FASTENINGS AND SUB-GRADE

Like the rails, sleepers and sub grade infrastructure shall be taken
into account for operation of heavier axle loads.
5.1 SLEEPER AND SLEEPER SPACING
Indians Railway has already adopted mono block pre-stressed concrete
sleepers. With the present design of mono block concrete sleepers Fig 10
the capability of taking axle load more than the present heavier axle
load of 22t is not doubted. The sleeper's spacing is presently 600 mm The sleeper is simulated as a beam protruding at both ends,
(@ 1660 sleepers per Km.). In US, 32t axle load is plying on such Wheel load is assumed to be applied at a point,
mono block prestressed concrete sleepers. But from the consideration
Ballast reaction is considered uniform over a length 2 l below
of rail fatigue and fatigue to sleeper it is desirable to look into the load
each rail.
Volume - II 349 Volume - II 350
 However the last assumption is not accurate. Analysis of the effects
occurring at the sleeper-ballast interface is specially complex.
It belongs to the unilateral contact problems of mechanics and at
present no satisfactory approach has been found. On site, stress
measurements under the sleeper yielded the distribution as shown in
the figure with a maximum stress 1, given by relation,
P pad and liner are also strong enough to withstand increased axle load
1 = provided they are properly fitted and maintained. The most common
(L/2 + 3 l/2)
Where, = Sleeper width
L = Sleeper length
l = distance between sleeper end to wheel load
application point (in this case 54 cm)
P = per-axle load
P = 2Q
Country Wise Track Structure and Axle Load
(Mono-block pre-stressed concrete sleepers are
used by the above railways)
Volume - II 351
Obviously with the increase of axle load 1 shall increase but the present
design of mono block pre-stressed concrete sleeper doesnt over rule
the capability to sustain the stress by the sleepers of increased axle
load.
5.2 FITTING AND FASTENING
The present design of elastic fastening (ERC mark III,IV), grooved sole
lack of maintenance leads to crushing of concrete sleeper at rail seat
due to perished sole pad and ineffective elastic rail clip and liner. A
systematic and regular maintenance and monitoring shall be adopted.
At present ERC- Mark V is successfully developed and the toe load
has been increased to 1200-1500 kg. The material and design of GR
pad also needs revision.
5.3 BALLAST AND SUB-GRADE
Stone ballast are widely used in Indian Railways. The ballasts greatly
functions for
Further distribution of stress transmitted by the sleepers.
Attenuating greatest part of train vibration.
Resisting track shifting (transverse and longitudinal)
Facilitating rain water drainage.
Allowing track geometry to be restored and correcting track
defects (with the used to track maintenance equipment.
A layer of gravel is used under ballast to protect the appear surface of
sub-grade from intrusion of ballast stones. This blanketing further
facilitate rain water run off and distributes the stresses. In heavier axle
loads the tendency of transverse shift of the track due to unbalanced
centrifugal force in curve as the dynamic force H (t) is directly
proportional to the axle load as per following empirical formula:
P(t) . V (km/h)
H (t) =
1,000
Where, P = per axle load (t)
V = Speed of train (Kmph)
This tendency is resisted by transverse track resistance which depends
on the type of sleeper, ballast cushion, track maintenance etc.
Volume - II 352
 Transverse track resistance for twin block concrete sleeper maintained A component generated from friction on the lower surface of the
mechanically may be given by the empirical formula. sleeper, proportional to sleeper weight,
L (t) = 1.5 + P(t)/3 A component resulting from friction between the sleeper sides
And it is clear that increased axle load also helps to increase transverse and the ballast filling in the crib. This component depends on
track resistance. degree of filling in crib. The lateral component amount 30% in
5.3.1. BALLAST & BALLAST PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS ON the case of mono block pre-stressed concrete sleepers.
TRANSVERSE TRACK RESISTANCE A component developed at the two ends of the sleeper and
Transverse track resistance is the resultant of the following three depending both on the width of ballast occupancy c and whether
components: the ballast is super elevated.

6.0 MAINTENANCE INPUT

6.1 PRESENT SYSTEM OF TRACK MAINTENANCE IN INDIAN
RAILWAYS
The present practice of Track Maintenance is a three tier system of
track maintenance. Area of track maintenance work may be broadly
classified as :
(i) Maintenance work by heavy on- track machines (OMU)
Fig. 11 Influence of transverse track resistance on (ii) Maintenance work by small track machines (MMU)
degree of filling of crib.
(iii) Maintenance work by manual effort.
A fresh strategy for deployment of machines and manpower for optimum
track maintenance is necessary to cater to the changes in track
technology accompanied by phenomenal increase in traffic density,
axle load and changed socio-economic conditions of trackmen. With
increased axle load above 22 t it is necessary to endeavor mechanized
system of track maintenance. The effect of heavier axle load on the
various components of track structure as discussed earlier demands
specific and optimized maintenance output. Notwithstanding the
strategic change of track components, the essential step to cater
heavier axle load is a good maintenance practice keeping in mind the
various track stresses. Mobile mechanized unit is the most important
machinery of mechanized track maintenance system.
6.1.1 MAINTENANCE WORK BY HEAVY ON- TRACK MACHINES (OMU)

Fig. 12 Correlation of transverse track resistance at sleeper end As already in practice, ballast tamping, ballast cleaning, ballast
with geometrical characteristics of ballast cross-section . profiling etc. are done with the help of following machines:

Volume - II 353 Volume - II 354


6.1.2 MAINTENANCE WORK BY SMALL TRACK MACHINE (MMU)
A fresh strategy for deployment of machines and manpower for
optimum track maintenance is necessary to cater to the changes in
track technology accompanied by phenomenal increase in traffic
density and heavier axle load. Mobile mechanized unit (MMU) is the
most important machinery of mechanized track maintenance system.
6.1.2.1 MMU ORGANISATION
The mobile maintenance unit consists of two group :
i) Group-I: Each PWIs section of 40 to 50 Km of double
lined track shall be covered by Group-I. The headquarters of
this group shall coincide with that of the PWI in charge. The
functions of this group are :
a) Need based spot tamping
b) In-situ rail welding.
c) Casual renewals and repairs except planned renewal.
d) Overhauling of level crossing.
e) Replacement of glued joints.
f) Rail cutting, drilling & chamfering.
g) Permanent repairs to fractures.
h) Creep or gap adjustment involving use of machines.
i) Destressing of LWR track.
ii) Group-II: Each AEN-sub section shall be covered by
Group-II and the same shall be placed under PWI in-charge
having same headquarter as that of AEN. The functions of
Group II are :
a. Reconditioning of turnouts
b. Minor repairs to the equipment of MMU.
Volume - II 355
6.1.3. MISCELLANEOUS WORKS BY MANUAL EFFORT (DIRECTED
TRACK MAINTENANCE)
The most important function of this unit is to carry out the need based
maintenance as decided from the out come of track monitoring by
TRC recording/foot plate inspection/physical inspection on foot or by
push trolley etc this includes emergency repair of rail failure, patrolling,
spot attention of low patches etc. with the help of small track machine.
6.1.3.1 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
(i) One of the most important function of the MMU system is
spot tamping. The spot tamping is a part of directed track
maintenance (DTM). As and where required, the isolated
portions of the track can be effectively attended to improve
certain parameters like unevenness, cross level and
alignment by using hand held off track tampers. With the
use of such tampers concrete sleeper / flat bottom sleeper
track can be tamped with an average progress of 40 to 50
sleepers per hour. During tamping, correction of lateral
alignment, vertical profile and cross level can be done by
using hydraulic track lifting and slewing device (TRALIS).
All these equipment are having approved vendors and are
already being used by zonal railways.
(ii) A recent development of common electrical power pack for
operation of rail drilling machine, rail cutting machine (both
saw type and abrasive disc type), weld trimmer and rail profile
weld grinding machine makes these machines lighter in
weight and operator-friendly. On the other hand, the common
power pack will considerably reduce the maintenance works
of machines as the prime movers of these machines are
electrical motors in place of individual I.C. Engines.
6.2 CHANGES IN MAINTENANCE STRATEGY
The three tier maintenance system should be followed, emphasizing
the following

A close monitoring of bad spots like rounded off ballast/pumping
patches etc should be in routine.

No low joints/dip should be allowed.

Even a minor defect in alignment/profile should be corrected
(with hydraulic track lifting and slewing device)
Volume - II 356

Intermediate packing/picking of slacks with the help of off-track
tampers

Ballast profiling and regulation/filling crib should be a regular
practice.

Removal of defective portion of rail (as detected by USFD testing)
should be done on top priority basis.

Regular grinding of rail profile (particularly in curves) should be
done to remove RCF.
7.0 CONCLUSION
To cope up with the increasing demand of freight load it will be
compulsion to increase axle load in order to have an increase in carrying
capacity of rolling stock. And such increased axle load will demand a vigil
and strategic deployment of track maintenance machinery by the track
engineers. In the present circumstances, Indian Railway has no reliable
tools to detect the rail flaws. Other components of tract structure like sleepers,
fastenings, ballast etc. are not exactly in the face of challenge so far design
is concerned. Of course maintenance/treatment of unreliable sub grade
(formation/cutting/ embankment) should be given utmost importance so far
maintaining a reliable sub grade is concerned. It presumes that we have to
go for much effective, strategic and prompt track parameters monitoring, rail
flaw detection and maintenance system.
REFERENCES
i) Railway Engineering (Second Edition 2000) by V.S.Profillidis.
Associate professor, section of Transportation, Democritus Track
Greece University.
ii) Early Fatigue Crack Growth at Welds (Vol.26) by C.C.Monahan.
iii) Fatigue Crack propagation ASTM special publication no. 415.
iv) Fatigue life analysis and prediction (Conference proceedings, 26 Dec.
1989), Edited by V.S.Goel.
v) Sixth International Heavy Haul Railway Conference 6-10 April 1997,
Cape Town, South Africa.
vi) International heavy haul Association Sts-Conference 14-17 June 1999,
Moscow Russia.
Volume - II 357
THE RAIL ROAD AHEAD
N. ARAVINDAN*
SYNOPSIS
Rail is a very special structural member. It has to directly bear the brunt of
wheel loads. Increasing Axle loads has a direct bearing on life of rail. On the
background of the enhanced axle load operation introduced on Indian Railways,
examining the existing practices of Rail management to make suitable
improvements will be essential to sustain such operation. This paper examines
the issues involved in rail management with suggestion for adoption on IR.
TURNAROUND OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
Turnaround of Indian Railways (IR) transport business has been drawing
attention in various quarters with various views.
The facts are
IR showed surplus earning increasing the margin!
Increasing margins in a transport industry that too for one of the size
of IR in a short time is practically not possible through infrastructure
expansion and assets augmentation or putting in place new
technologies or methods of management.
The GDP growth of the country provided traffic for IR with not only an
opportunity but also a national responsibility, which IR could have
simply watched and allowed other transport sectors to take away or
do something quickly to capture this opportunity.
Based on certain earlier experiences, IR therefore acted in time to
increase the Permissible Carrying Capacity (PCC) of its freight wagons.
This increased the throughput of the system and hence the earnings,
with same assets and systems of working, by about 10% immediately.
Permitting CC+10 t operations thus is one single major factor for the
turnaround.
Obviously this statement does lead to other questions such as
If so why was it not done earlier?
Volume - II * Fellow; Institution of Permanentway Engineers, India.
 Anyway over loading was going on and therefore what has been done
is just regularization of existing practice (axle loads of operation) and
getting financial advantage for over loading.
What about safety of track and bridges? Will the system sustain this
level of heavy axle load for long?
Can the axle load be increased further; say to 25 or 30 tons? Many
Railway systems in the world operate at such higher axle loads.
Before attempting specific answers to these questions it is better to
examine certain basic facts. With the asset replacement spurt given by
Railway safety Renewal Fund, the track and most of the bridges needing
replacement were replaced during 5 years period 0f 2001 2006. On important
routes track with rails overdue renewal was practically eliminated. Every
asset, movable or immovable is designed to perform satisfactorily over certain
period of time under certain conditions. The load conditions used for design
are generally based on experience and are generally over rated to cover
uncertainties. Similarly the methodology adopted for capacity provision for
assets are generally more than required due to inaccuracies and simplification
in assessment of structural behavior and properties of materials used. Based
on the knowledge of the accuracy of these two factors a comfort margin is
provided while new assets are designed. The criticality and maintenance
practices of the structures also play a roll in deciding the level of this margin.
Generally codes take these factors into account and stipulate specific limits
as standards. Railway track and wagons are also designed with this
philosophy for certain stipulated loads and capacity. When load is increased
beyond the design value resultant stress in components of these assets do
get increased beyond the originally assessed values. The increased stress
has immediate and long term effects. Accurate knowledge of these will enable
organizations to take cost effective decisions on permissible loads, methods
of monitoring, maintenance and replacements. Of various railway assets
involved in the enhanced axle load operation, wagons, locomotives, track
and bridges are critical ones experiencing direct immediate effect and are
also critical from cost and safety considerations. Rail which directly bears
the wheel load is very critical in this and routes for increased axle load
operation had them in good condition to with stand its immediate effects.
However knowledge on its long term effect to take corrective actions in time
will be essential to sustain the operation. This paper therefore, limits its
scope to examining the long term effects of enhanced axle load operation
on Rails.
Volume - II 359
UNIQUE FEATURES OF RAIL
There are many unique features of Rail in its performance requirement
and design considerations. Rail is basically considered as a beam supported
on elastic foundation for its flexural design and the section is dimensioned
keeping in view requirement of wheel guidance and stability of rail fastened
to sleeper. However in contrast to normal beams;
Rail is basically designed for limiting flexural stress with higher level
of permissible stress than any other flexural member; up to 50% of its
UTS and very near its yield limit.
Rail is subjected to higher level of residual stress from its
manufacturing process which eats into it useful load carrying stress
range. Typically 50% of its capacity is taken away by residual stress.
Rail is subjected to varying levels of thermal stress in service which is
a substantial component reducing the margin for load induced stress
in its design and it is not uniform all the time and at all places. Typically
maximum allowance is made in design. The static stress component
considered in flexural fatigue life assessment is only the undesirable
residual stress and the non uniform and fluctuating thermal stress.
It directly bears the rolling load with very small contact area and hence
is subjected to high contact stress which in higher axle load (HAL)
operation decides its life. Structural design for rail does not provide for
accurate enough analysis for this and its effect.
Its head shape is critical for safe running of wheels which wears at
rapid rate. Such wear also affect the contact area and contact stress
rendering it unsafe due to rolling contact fatigue than its load carrying
capacity in terms of bending strength.
EXISTING RAIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Rail is designed to specific shape to meet its functional requirements.
IR generally uses 52 kg; designed by IR and 60 Kg UIC profiles. Both 72 and
90 UTS rails have been used and of late only 90 UTS rail is used as standard
both for 52 kg and 60 kg profiles. Choice of rail for use in a particular route is
governed by the characteristics of route in terms of traffic as laid down in
Indian Railways Permanentway Manual (IRPWM). Rails are presently rolled
to longer length (65m) and butt welded in rail rolling plants before
transportation. Generally long welded rails are in use unless constrained by
locations. Aluminothermic welding is adopted for in situ welding.
Volume - II 360
 In service monitoring practice consists of occasional visual inspections
supplemented by periodical ultrasonic scanning for structural integrity test
and rail temperature monitoring to ensure its functional requirement. Ultrasonic
testing is by hand held equipments and is mostly manual without the facility
on storing imaged information. Such equipments have limitation of test speed,
accuracy and extant of area of rail section scanned compared to on board
mobile testing cars. Rail welds are scanned by hand probing. When loss of
section is suspected to be more, then profile measurement at discrete
intervals is done manually to judge the necessity of rail replacement. IR had
acquired an on board Rail profile measuring system which periodically runs
on identified routes to measure rail head profile. Presently this data is only
used for cross verification of wear data measured manually to justify rail
renewal proposals at railway board level.
Main maintenance practices include periodical rail destressing, anti
corrosive painting and rail replacements. It can be said that the preventive
maintenance practices for enhancing structural integrity of rail and hence its
life is practically none and the main repair consist of rail replacement when
loss of section due to wear and/or corrosion or the failure rate or the GMT
carried reaches stipulated limits.
Since the rail life was controlled earlier by wear switching over from 72
to 90 UTS was considered as a logical step to increase the rail life. Life of
the then standard 52 kg 72 UTS rail, based on wear, was estimated to be
350 GMT. An extrapolated value of 550 GMT due to increased head depth to
accommodate wear was stipulated for 60 kg 72 UTS rail. On switch over
from 72 to 90 UTS rails, based on limited observations of wear comparison
between 72 and 90 UTS rails; which was 1.5, the rail life for 90 UTS rails was
fixed as 525 and 800 GMT for 52 kg and 60 kg respectively. The service life
(GMT) stipulation laid down therefore is on the basis of wear of rails; even for
90 UTS rails. Service life of rail is governed by loss of section by wear and
corrosion and also based on its fatigue life. Limiting values for loss of section
is specified in IRPWM form various rail sections. Fatigue limit is specified in
terms of number of rail withdrawals per km. The service life specified in
terms of GMT should relate to these two criteria.
However it is observed that for 90 UTS rails, service life is governed
either by corrosion (based on usage location) or by fracture rate than wear
and hence 90 UTS rails does not give the expected GMT.
Typically 60 kg 90 UTS Rail on an average serve for 360 GMT (based
on Rail renewal proposal data furnished by Railways to Board) which is only
45% of the stipulated 800 GMT when they become due for renewal based on
Volume - II 361
rate of rail failures criteria. Sample study of reasons for rail renewal indicate
that while 85% of 72 UTS rail renewals were after exhausting stipulated
GMT , in about 68% of 90 UTS renewal cases the rail had not carried the
stipulated GMT. Studies conducted by RDSO in 2002-2004 on reasons for
high incidence of Rail failures in 90 UTS rails indicate that the failures are
mostly by development of kidney flaw in head from (gauge corner) Rolling
Contact Fatigue (RCF). About 40% of the total rail fractures are attributed to
RCF in 90 UTS rails; having 20% higher propensity compared to 72 UTS
rails.
Jointed (13m free rail) track gave way to long welded track and majority
of IRs track now is with LWR on Concrete sleepers. While adoption of LWR
gave the benefit of reduced rail joint failures and hence increased the safety
level as well as better maintainability of track, the flip side is increased in
service rail stress level due to thermal stress. This reduces the possibility of
increasing load induced stress; say for increasing the axle load, poor
standards of Rolling stock maintenance and/or reduces rail life from flexural
fatigue due to increased in service stress range. Typically stress in rail is
calculated using elastic beam theory as for as vertical wheel loads are
concerned. For a 60 kg rail with concrete sleepers wheel load imposed
stress for 22.8 t axle load is around 23 kg/mm2. Residual stress at 10 kg/
mm2 and thermal stress at 10 kg/mm2 is provided in design considerations.
With an yield stress of 46.8 kg/sq mm for 90 UTS rails (52% UTS at 0.2%
proof strain), the above stress levels when compounded leaves about 4 kg/
mm2 for stress due to curving, differential temperature on either side of rail
etc, for maximum permissible stress in rail up to yield limit. RDSO conducted
flexural fatigue life assessment of 60 Kg 90 UTS rails under pure bending
without thermal stress and found it to be 26 kg/mm2. Theoretical assessment
of permissible dynamic stress range for various levels of static stress in 90
UTS rail gives following values from Smiths diagram.
Static Stress Dynamic Stress range
kg/mm2 kg/mm2
0 37.2
10 32.0
20 26.0
30 15.0
35 13.0
Volume - II 362
 Considering the residual stress and max tensile thermal stress in rail,
max stress level under service occurs at mid point of bottom flange. Rail
failure statistics however does not indicate more failures emanating from
this point. Reason could be that in theoretical assessment of rail stress, the
static component of stress considered is residual stress and the maximum
thermal stress which may not be occurring at all instances and hence actual
static stress level may be less than this accommodating higher dynamic
stress range of about 25 kg/mm2 due to wheel loads.
Analysis of rail renewal proposals indicate following.
While service life of 72 UTS Rail is generally governed by stipulated
GMT that of 90 UTS rail is governed by Rolling Contact Fatigue.
Replacement of 90 UTS rail on corrosion consideration shows a higher
trend; 38% renewals being on corrosion account.
In short present rail management practices do not lend it self to fully
reap the benefit of higher poundage or higher UTS of 60 kg 90 UTS
rails.
THE ROAD AHEAD AND DESIRABLE RAIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Search for solutions to provide higher carrying capacities over unit
length of track will attain greater importance. Typically over existing
infrastructure (Track and Bridges) there will be need to carry higher axle
loads. Constrained by existing moving dimensions, for augmenting carrying
capacity, wheel diameters will get reduced. Indian Railway being a system
carrying both fast moving lighter axle load passenger traffic as well as slow
speed heavier axle load freight traffic on the same infrastructure, better rail
management practices will become inescapable to meet safety and economy
requirements.
Following suggestions can help in this direction.
1. IR has 60 kg 90 UTS rails on its track as standard and other track
components like sleepers, fastenings are designed to suit this. It is
observed that Rolling Contact Fatigue is the main reason for reducing
the service life of this rail. Present monitoring and maintenance practices
do not address this problem adequately. Rail Grinding is the only
solution to address this problem and IR should introduce Rail grinding
as a regular rail maintenance practice at the earliest.
2. Putting in place an appropriate Rail grinding programme involves
Volume - II 363
collection of wheel profile data and existing rail table profile data and
designing suitable conformal target rail profiles to mitigate the Rolling
Contact Fatigue. Since IR is already having a modern Rail Profile
measuring system it should be used to collect required rail profile
data. Simultaneous collection of wheel profile data will also be
necessary. Attempt was initiated on IR in this direction a few years
back but was not pursued and the rail grinding programme came to
grinding halt. IR has trained pool of man power in this area and this
programme should be activated immediately.
3. Existing procedure for checking adequacy of rail needs rationalization.
Procedure for designing structures has large margins to cover
uncertainties and unknowns. While this is logical for creating new
structures, the procedure for checking the adequacy of existing
structures shall be more realistic and different from the one used for
creating new assets. Checking adequacy of rails for enhanced axle
load operation considers occurrence of all critical stresses
simultaneously at all the time. Structural analysis methods for rail
need re-examination to specify more accurate method. Procedure
laid down should conform to practices followed and not contradict. A
finite element model tried earlier for rail stress assessment is still to
reach its logical end.
4. In HAL operation rolling contact fatigue plays most important role and
accurate methods of assessing contact stress and its effect needs to
be evolved to achieve full benefit of higher UTS rails and deciding
adequacy of rails for enhanced axle load operation.
5. Production of 72 UTS rails has been completely given away. This
needs rethinking keeping in view the extant of routes that will be covered
by HAL and the extant and time frame in which rail grinding will be
introduced as a regular maintenance routine. If rail grinding can not be
introduced it may be economical to use 72 UTS rails. A perspective
plan for routes that will be covered for HAL operation and its
maintenance plan will help.
6. Rail corrosion is a serious problem reducing the life of rail drastically
though the problem may be location specific. Using lesser poundage
rails like 52 kg (72 UTS) on such locations will be cost effective till
effective corrosion prevention methods are in place. While codal
provisions can be treated as recommendatory, Executives in charge
of maintaining the assets should be allowed to decide on the type of
rail (Track structure) to be used.
Volume - II 364
7. Adequate knowledge on rail life from considerations of RCF, flexural
fatigue and wear needs to be acquired from railway systems having
facility of test tracks (for IR rails and wheels). It will be necessary to
conduct studies on the effect of thermal stress in rail on it fatigue life
so that appropriate allowance is made for the same in design and
capacity assessment than as at present.
8. Rail failures are unacceptable to systems which operate passenger
services in view of its consequences. Hence installation of real time
rail fracture monitoring and announcing systems will be the step in
right direction. Its development needs to be pursued with all
seriousness. Exploiting full potential of rail can then be easier. Similarly
real time monitoring and announcing systems for wheel over load need
to be installed on all critical routes.
9. Ultrasonic testing of rail should cover entire rail head and should be
made through self propelled vehicles with electronic data storing and
analysis capabilities. Testing methods and frequencies will need
change based on assessment of defect generation rates which can
be decided based on such data.
10. Residual stress in rail is an undesirable component for rail users and
manufacturing practices should be improved to minimize it. Presently
it is of the order of 20 kg/mm2 high is very high and does not enable
the rail user to avail the potential of rail in carrying load.
11. A re-examination of rail profile keeping in view the changed nature of
axle loads, wheel profile and rail maintenance practice; specifically
rail grinding and corrosion, needs to be made. It makes sense to have
more area in head with suitable profile to achieve conformal profile
with minimum grinding for rails to be used in heavy axle load operation.
Rail profile and metallurgy should be so chosen keeping in view the
monitoring and maintenance practices so that rail life from consideration
of wear, flexural and rolling contact fatigue or corrosion is more or less
same.
12. Pending further studies, IRPWM provisions for GMT based rail life
need to be amended for 90 UTS rails.
Volume - II 365
PSC SLEEPER FOR HIGHER AXLE LOAD
RAJEEV VERMA*, AMAR NATH GUPTA**
SYNOPSIS
Indian Railways have started operation of 22.82 t axle load on selected
routes. Operation of 25 t axle load is also likely to take off in near future. Checking
of existing PSC sleeper for its suitability for higher axle load becomes necessary.
This paper deliberates on suitability of the existing PSC sleeper for higher axle
loads.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
PSC sleeper was introduced on Indian Railways in the late 60s. After
a number of transitional designs, the existing design to drawing Nos. RDSO/
T-2495 for 52kg rails and RDSO/T-2496 for 60kg rails were developed. This
design was adopted in 1978. Since then, the existing PSC sleeper to this
design has seen 3 decades on Indian Railways track. This PSC sleeper
was designed for an axle load of 22.5t.
1.1 To keep pace with increased freight traffic, Indian Railways is
contemplating to increase throughput by allowing higher axle load on
existing track. Moreover, Heavy Haul operations on new Dedicated
Freight Corridor planned on Eastern and Western sectors are also on
the anvil.
1.2 Dedicated freight corridor has been planned for 30t axle load operation
and feeder routes from existing network are planned to carry 25t axle
load. Therefore, 25t and 30t axle load will co-exist and these are
Indian Railways Business requirements. Therefore, there is a need to
upgrade the Track structure for higher axle loads.
1.3 In this paper, an attempt has been made to examine the existing PSC
sleeper design for 25t and 30t axle load and to suggest course of
action for the future.
* Jt.Director/Track, RDSO
Volume - II ** Dy.Director/Track, RDSO
2.0 DESIGN CRITERIA 2.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR 22.5 T AXLE LOAD SLEEPER:
The existing PSC sleeper has been designed for 22.5 t axle load. The The important design parameters for PSC sleeper for 22.5 t axle load
design criteria are as under: are as their :
Axle load : 22.5t
Load distribution factor : 0.55-0.60
Static railseat load : (22.5/2)X0.55 = 6.1875 6 t
Dynamic augment for speed
and rail-wheel irregularities : 2.5
Rail seat design load : 6 X 2.5 = 15 t
Centre binding coeffcient ( ) : 0 & 0.4
Ballast pressure : 6kg/cm2
Design load and ballast reaction diagram:
Factor of safety : (Resisting moment/bending moment) = 2
Load factor at rail seat bottom : (Failure moment/ bending
moment) = 3

Note: Sagging moments and compressive stresses are taken as

positive.

3.0 PSC SLEEPER FOR 25 T AXLE LOAD

The existing design of PSC sleeper has been checked for its theoretical
suitability for 25t axle load. To demonstrate it practically, some Old PSC
sleepers released from track as well as some old sleepers lying in sleeper
plants, unused, have also been tested for cracking load to assess their
residual strength so as to assess whether these sleepers can be trusted to
take 25t axle load.
3.1 CHECKING OF DESIGN
The design of existing PSC sleeper has been checked for 25t axle
load and important structural parameters have been worked out.
Following table shows a comparison of these parameters with those
for 22.5t axle load.

Volume - II 367 Volume - II 368


3.1.1 It can be seen that for 25 t axle load, the resultant stresses at rail
seat bottom are 15.05 kg/cm2 which are safe i.e. no tension. However
the resultant stresses at centre top are 31.99 kg/cm2, which are
more than the permissible value of -22 kg/cm2 (permissible tensile
stress) for M-55 grade concrete.
3.1.2 The factor of safety values at rail seat and center are 1.82 and 1.14
respectively against 2.02 and 1.27 for 22.5 t axle load. For the present
design of sleeper, a lower value of cracking load at railseat, 220 KN
has been specified against a theoretical value of 248 KN while at
center a higher value, 60 KN has been specified as against 56 KN.
From these specified cracking load, FOS obtained are summarized
as under:
Volume - II 369
3.2 TESTING OF SLEEPERS
3.2.1 The factor of safety values for 25 t axle load at rail seat and center
are 1.604 and 1.236 as worked out above, with specified load.
However, actual load tests on old released/unused sleepers have
demonstrated that the cracking load values are generally more than
the calculated values. One apparent reason for this is the
conservative assumption that prestress loss of 30% will occur over
the years. In actual practice this may be a little less than 30%.
Another reason may be, the modulus of rupture values being achieved
in the field are more than the assumed values in the calculations. To
demonstrate the above and to assess the suitability of PSC sleepers
for higher axle loads, released sleepers from track and old sleepers
lying in plant, rejected dimensionally, have been tested for cracking
load. Test results so obtained, have been analyzed to find out
whether the sleepers can take higher axle load or not.
3.2.2 For this purpose, released sleepers of about 16 years age, received
from Allahabad Division of NCR (Fatehpur) were tested in B&S
laboratory, RDSO. The test results of these sleepers are enclosed
at Annexure-I.
3.2.3 Further Western Railway, S.E. Railway, N.E. Railway and Eastern
Railway were requested to test a few released sleepers (15-20 years
old ) for cracking load in a nearby sleeper plant and send the test
results to RDSO for further analysis. The test results received from
these railways have been tabulated at Annexure-II.
3.2.4 Apart from above, some of the concrete sleeper plants were also
asked to test the old sleepers lying in the plants, rejected on
dimensional grounds or the sleepers waiting for dispatch. The test
results of these sleepers are compiled at Annexure-III.
4.0 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS:
4.1 OLD PSC SLEEPERS RELEASED FROM TRACK, ALLAHABAD
DIVISION OF NCR
4.1.1 The test results of sleepers brought from Fatehpur / NCR are
compiled at Annexure-I. Most of the cracking load values obtained
at rail seat are much below the specified value of 220 KN. The
values at center top are around the specified value. It is suspected
that minor cracks might have developed at rail seat in these PSC
sleepers during the service / transit / handling, resulting in loss of
Volume - II 370
 strength of concrete as well as wire due to corrosion etc. Hence,
test results of sleepers received from Fatehpur/ NCR have not been
used in further analysis.
4.1.2 It is observed that the above sleepers were already being replaced
under a sanctioned CTR work. Though the TSR was justified to
accommodate 60 kg rail in place of existing 52 kg rail, general
health of sleepers was not good. This highlights the fact that before
permitting higher axle loads on a section, PSC sleepers shall be
critically examined for signs of distress.
4.1.3 The above also demonstrates that there may be some sections
where deterioration of PSC sleeper has occurred faster than
expected. There may be a variety of reasons for this like improper
quality control during manufacture, improper handling in unloading
and laying, improper track maintenance, running of trains with heavier
axle loads, highly corrosive atmosphere, heavy damage caused
due to hammering while replacing ERCs etc.
4.1.4 In case of doubt about condition of sleepers, it will be a good practice
to take out a few sleepers and subject them to load test to come to
a conclusion.
4.2 OLD PSC SLEEPERS, RELEASED FROM TRACK IN WR, SER,
NER AND ER
4.2.1 Test results of sleepers, released from track, in WR, SER, NER
and ER are compiled at Annexure-II. Age of sleepers is varying from
5 years to 24 years. On these test results, statistical tools have
been applied to calculate the standard deviation. Treating the
distribution of test results as Normal distribution the characteristic
cracking loads have been calculated. The characteristic cracking
load is that value below which not more than 5% of the test results
are expected to fall.
4.2.2 The results of statistical analysis are summarized below:-
Volume - II 371
4.2.3 Adopting these characteristic cracking loads, back calculations have
been done to calculate resisting BM and factor of safety against
cracking for 25t axle load. The values are summarized below.
DESIGN AND RESISTING BMs FOR 25 t AXLE LOAD
4.2.4 From the above table, it is observed that design BMs imposed at
rail seat and centre for 25t axle load are 1.324 t-m & -1.384 t-m
respectively against observed resisting moment of 1.792 t-m and -
1.884 t-m. This gives a factor of safety of 1.354 and 1.361 for 25t
axle load at rail seat and center respectively.
4.2.5 At rail seat bottom the factor of safety has reduced from 1.787 to
1.354 for 25t axle load i.e. by 24%. However, it is pertinent to
mention that resultant stresses at rail seat due to 25t axle load are
within permissible limit as seen in para 2. Hence, it can be inferred
that section at rail seat can bear the stresses due to 25t axle load
but with reduced margin of safety i.e. 1.354 as against 1.787 for
22.5t axle load. Moreover, this FOS has been calculated from a
characteristic cracking load, 95% of the sleepers are expected to
have higher cracking load values and thus a higher FOS.
4.2.6 At center top factor of safety is 1.361 for 25t axle load as against
1.375 for 22.5t axle load. Both are almost of the same magnitude.
This has happened due to the fact that the cracking load values
obtained at center top are significantly higher than the specified
values. It is to be noted here that the resultant stresses at center
top due to 25t axle load are more than the permissible tensile stress
of concrete, as mentioned in para 2. However, as demonstrated by
high FOS, it is expected that the sleeper center can bear the stresses
due to 25t axle load. This hidden strength is coming, presumably
Volume - II 372
 from the fact that actual loss of prestress at centre of sleeper is
much less than the value of 30% taken into account in calculation
as well as due to higher value of modulus of rupture of concrete.
4.2.7 To safeguard against chances of failure of sleeper at center top, as
demonstrated by results discussed in para 4.2.6 above, adequate
care shall be taken in track maintenance to avoid centre binding.
4.3 OLD PSC SLEEPERS NOT USED IN TRACK
Some of the concrete sleeper plants were also asked to test the old
sleepers lying in the plants rejected on dimensional ground. The test
results of these sleepers are compiled at Annexure-III. The age of
sleepers is varying from 1 month to 21 months. On these test data
statistical tools have also been applied and the results are
summarized below:
These test results have not been used further for any analysis as the
values will change after being used on track and sleepers are not too old.
5.0 ACTUAL LOAD SHARE OF PSC SLEEPER IN TRACK:
All the above imposed loads and moments are based on the
assumption that load share of an individual sleeper is 55% of the load applied
on rail top. This is based on studies carried out with a sleeper density of
1540 sleepers/Km. Recently in a study conducted in RDSO, the load share
of sleeper directly under load has been found to be 41% for a Track structure
consisting of 52 kg rails, on PSC sleeper @ 1660 sleepers/Km and 300 mm
ballast cushion. Even if, the load share is taken as 45% of applied wheel
load, the design rail seat load for 25t axle would be 14t {(25/2) X 0.45
X 2.5 = 14}; whereas the existing sleeper has been designed for 15t rail seat
load. It is expected that with 60 kg rail section, the load share will be further
reduced. This gives more confidence that the existing PSC sleeper will perform
satisfactorily under the axle load of 25.0t at 1660 sleepers/km.
Volume - II 373
6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 25T AXLE LOAD:
6.1 From the above analysis and discussion, it can be inferred that 25t
axle load can be permitted on existing PSC sleepers, though the
factor of safety has reduced by 24%. The track structure shall consist
of 60kg rails, 60 cm spacing of PSC sleeper, minimum 300 mm ballast
cushion on stable formation.
6.2 A revision can also be done in the existing design merely by increasing
the initial prestressing level of HTS to improve the FOS. At present,
the HTS wires are prestressed to 70% of breaking load, if they are
stressed to 75% of the breaking load, the results will be as under:
It can be seen from the above table that resultant stresses at centre
top have now become -11.75 kg/cm2, even lesser than in the existing
design which earlier were more than the permissible value of -22 kg/
cm2 . Also the factor of safety at center top has increased from 1.14 to
1.28, which is of the same order as in existing design. Hence this
revision to 75% initial prestress, is better with no financial repercussion.
7.0 DESIGN OF PSC SLEEPER FOR 30t AXLE LOADS :
7.1 Though the existing PSC sleeper can be used for 25t axle load
operation, for 30t axle load new sleeper needs to be designed to take
care of following aspects:
Volume - II 374
 a) Excessive stresses at rail seat and centre section of PSC while fatigue test shall be conducted at Bridge & Structure Lab,
sleeper. RDSO.
b) Excessive ballast pressure.
c) The sleeper top needs to be widened to accommodate wider 8.0 CONCLUSIONS :
and thicker rubber pad for satisfactory performance. Based on the deliberations in above paras, following conclusions can
d) The rail seat assembly has to be designed to provide flexibility be drawn.
to adopt any of 136RE, UIC68, UIC 60 rail section. 8.1 25t axle load can be run on existing PSC sleepers laid to a density
e) A heavier sleeper is required to provide more longitudinal and of 1660/Km.
lateral resistance to track to counter higher thermal forces on 8.2 A slight modification of existing design with initial prestress level as
account of heavier rails as also the higher longitudinal forces 75% of breaking load can also be tried for 25t axle load operation.
like traction and braking, exerted by heavier trains.
8.3 For 30t axle load operation, new sleeper design should be used.
7.2 Considering the above factors, a new sleeper design ( EDO/T-2255 )
has been developed using 18 nos. 3 ply 3mm HTS strands. In this
design, the design rail seat load has been taken as 20t, which is
derived from the existing practices. The salient features of the design
are as follows:

7.2.1 The design has been done using the 18 nos. 3 ply 3mm HTS strands
which are same in existing design of sleeper to drawing no. RT-
2496. Thus the weight of HTS has been kept same. However, the
weight of sleeper in the design is 321kg against 267 kg in existing
design, which is almost 20% higher.
7.2.2 The trial casting of the new design of PSC sleeper for 30t axle is
being done at Concrete Sleeper Plant, Anwarganj, Kanpur for
laboratory testing. Static Bend Test shall be performed at Kanpur

Volume - II 375 Volume - II 376

Volume - II 377 Volume - II 378
 GAUGE RESTRAINT MEASUREMENT SYSTEM GRMS
OR
PERFORMANCE BASED MEASUREMENT OF
RAILWAY SLEEPERS AND FASTENING SYSTEMS

KEVIN SLAHERTY*

From 1850 to 1950 visual track inspection was the only means to
evaluate the overall condition of the railway track structure. During the 1960s,
the technology was introduced to conduct rolling geometry evaluations of
track structure that were mainly contact based measurements of basic
geometry. In the 1980s we saw the first introduction of inertial based
geometry measurement systems. These developed and grew in acceptance
and use as the railway world begun to integrate computer technology with
railway track evaluations.
Inertial based geometry continued to expand to include not only gauge,
but surface, curvature, alignment, cross level or super elevation, warp and
twist. As this technology advanced it became evident that applying loads
similar to a rail car could enable the industry to collect geometry data from
the rail structure that reflected what was happening under a train. This was
the beginning of Performance Based Geometry. In the 1990s, Laser -

Volume - II 379 Volume - II * GM, Sales, M/s Holland L P, U.S.A.

Optical Rail Wear Measurement systems were introduced to the rail industry.
This was the measurement of the wear condition of the rail and enable
evaluation of effect rail life remaining.
In early 2000, the first commercial introduction of Performance Based
Track Strength measurement was introduced for the evaluation of the sleepers
and fastening systems. The development of this technology began years
prior with the building of the first Split Axle in 1978. Three important
developments occurred in the 1980s, first the Federal Railroad Association
and American Association of Railroads began evaluations of lateral track
strength measurement, second the introduction of mobile computers that
were capable of storing large volumes of data and third the first field evaluations
of track strength measurements.

It was not until the 1990s that the U.S. Railroad industry saw the
introduction of GRMS Gauge Restraint Measurement Systems. Serious
investigations of lateral track strength standards also began. This was
accompanied with further development to GRMS application equipment. In
2002 in the Federal Railway Administration in U.S. established the first GRMS
minimum safety standards.

So what really is GRMS? Performance based measurement of the

strength of the cross ties or sleepers and the fastening systems. At this
point it would be beneficial to define several terms that will be used for
determining track strength.
The first is Load Severity which is calculated as follows:
Load Severity S = L cV
Where L is the lateral force applied to the rail, c is the (estimated)
coefficient of friction, and V is the vertical force or load applied.
Volume - II 381 Volume - II 382
 For example: L = 9000 lbs. (3750kg), c = .04, and V = 14,000lbs
(5,800kg)
Therefore our Load Severity or S is 3,400 lbs (1400kg) with a
L/V of. 64
It has been determined through field analysis that a minimum Load
Severity of 3,000 lbs (1,250kg) is required in order to overcome typical frictional
forces at the rail/sleeper interface. Above 1,250 kg effective measurement
of the sleeper/fastener system can be made.
Effectively controlling and measuring the lateral and vertical forces
while performing GRMS testing is critical to collecting accurate data and
from there applying the data to formulas to evaluate track strength.

UTG Unloaded Track Gauge

The more precisely the lateral and vertical loading is controlled and
measured the accurate the data and projections that can be derived from
that data.
There will be two measurements of gauge, an unloaded measurement
and a second measurement taken directly at the load axle, loaded track
gauge.
Volume - II
LTG Loaded Track Gauge
GWR Gauge Widening Ratio
PLG24 Projected Loaded Gauge (24 kips)
More acronyms, what is this? UTG is obviously the gauge measured
5/8 inches below the running surface, with out any loading. LTG is the same
measurement at a constant loading with in a specified lateral and vertical
loading range. GWR Gauge Widening Ratio is the measurement of lateral
gauge strength and PLG24 is the projection of the maximum gauge that
would occur with 24,000 lbs (10,000kg) lateral load and 33,000 lbs (13,750kg)
vertical load. These formulas and measurements set the standards for
acceptable safety standards for gauge widening.
At this point, a natural question is Great, What does all this do for
track maintenance? Or better yet, how does this save money and therefore
pay for the cost of collecting this data. The most obvious is the reduction in
derailments caused by weak sleeper conditions or failed fastener systems.
But that is a really hard case to prove, because how much money did the
railway save because a derailment never happened? I call these soft dollars.
You cannot spend soft dollars elsewhere. Where are the hard dollars?
GRMS will focus the limited resources of the sleeper replacement
budget on target areas of the weakest track conditions. Additionally this will
383 Volume - II 384
 relieve the reliance on visual track inspections to determine the soundness
of the sleepers or fastening systems. It will move sleeper and fastening
maintenance from subjective evaluation to Performance Based Track Strength
Evaluation. With this information, we can develop sleeper replacement
programs aimed at repairing our weak spots based on true performance not
subjective evaluation.

Take a look at the photos below

Volume - II 385 Volume - II 386


Is this a good fastener or bad? If you were making a visual inspection
at 40 kph, what would your evaluation be. How about the sleeper? Good or
bad? Did you notice any rail seat abrasion? By the way was there any
negative rail cant? How about differential plate cut on a wooden sleeper? I
guess true evaluation by visual inspection falls a little short of where we
need to be. We just looked at a few sleepers and tried to make an evaluation
on the condition. How do we evaluate a 40,000 kilometer Railway System?
GRMS Performance Based - Gauge Restraint Measurement System.
What is next? The latest complimentary technology to GRMS is
digital imaging. This combined with GRMS testing will combine performance-
based measurement of sleepers and fastening systems with digital video
imaging. Now with the combined technology, very specific and detailed
sleeper and fastening system programs can be targeted at specific areas
that do not meet acceptable track safety standards.
Volume - II 387
EFFECT OF HEAVIER AXLE LOAD TRAINS ON
TRACK FOUNDATIONS
M.K. GUPTA*, S.K. AWASTHI**, S.K. OJHA***
SYNOPSIS
Old tracks were designed based on the track design parameters required
at that time. After a long time elapsed, track parameters changes considerably. It
is very essential to think with the heavy mineral routes. CC+8+2 t for BOXN is
selected in iron routes on Indian Railways. Indian Railways is also heading for
dedicated freight corridor (25t axle load) in present scenario. Track foundation
was designed with present higher axle load considering the existing situations.
In due course of time, axle load increases and will go on increasing day by day.
To reduce the stresses, indirect & direct losses, track foundations has to be
designed for increased axle load. In foreign railways axle load are in the range
of 30-35t where as in India are in the range of 20.32 t an expecting to increase up
to 30 t in near future. Hence effect of heavier axle load on formation and thereafter
design is very essential. It is better to construct the new railway formation keeping
in view of higher axle load so that the formation will not give trouble after
opening of traffic in service condition. This paper deals with the effect of higher
axle load trains on track foundation along with the design of track bed with
different approaches adopted in UIC and Indian Railways.
INTRODUCTION
At present Indian Railways are passing through a very important phase
in which vehicle operation cost increases per year rapidly. In future there is
increase in demand of transportation and competition with other modes of
transport. Therefore it is necessary for technical changes in railway track
structure to cater to increased demand of transport by rail road. Possible
options are:
(i) construction of additional track on saturated routes
(ii) increasing train length
(iii) Increase in load carrying capacity of wagons by increasing axle loads.
This paper is meant for explore the possibility to increase the axle
* Director, GE Directorate, RDSO, Lucknow
** ARE, GE Directorate, RDSO, Lucknow
Volume - II *** SSRE, GE Directorate, RDSO, Lucknow
load. Due to increased axle load pressure will increase in the formation. Following empirical formulae are adopted by various world railways to
In foreign countries like USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa etc. find out the pressure on the top of formation:
wagons are running with 30 35 t axle loads. There is already advancement
in locomotives, wagons, track, signaling system, electrification etc. To keep i) Elastic formula :
pace with the foreign railways we should also think upon to increase the max = 2PS / dl (U / 64EI)1/4
axle loads. Presently rails, sleepers, fitting reach their optimum benefit.
where,
Moreover, pressure on formation will slightly decrease if we increase sleeper
density. A study by RDSO with IIT/Kanpur shows that formation of track will max = Maximum pressure on formation
withstand the increased axle load safely if we cater for the same during P = Dynamic wheel load
construction of formation. Hence to cater this increased axle load, design of S = Sleeper spacing
formation is very essential from geo-technical point of view.
d = Depth of ballast cushion
l = Length of effective rail seat
EFFECT OF HIGHER AXLE LOAD ON FORMATION
U = Track Modulus ( Elastic)
When higher load is coming from the top, it will impact the track
structure then load is transfer to the ground through the formation. For safe EI = Flexural rigidity of rail
transferring of the load, formation should be sound and stable. Higher load
will also effect bridges and induced higher stresses will safely taken by the ii) German Formula :
bridges sub structure & foundation. For design of formation, induced stresses Po = 1.5 x S / (3(L-g)+b)h tan
due to higher axle load must be safely taken by the formation. The stress where,
induced are in the range of 0.6 to 0.9 kg/cm2 at bottom of sleeper for 20.32
t axle load as determined in track panel study conducted in house in RDSO Po = Pressure on sub-grade
in 1999. These stresses are merges in the range of 0.25 kg/cm2 at 1.3 m S = Load on sleeper
below sleeper bottom and varies from 0.1 kg/cm2 to 0.15 kg/cm2 at 2.4 m L = Total length of sleeper
from sleeper bottom for different axle loads. The general pattern showing
g = Gauge of the track
variation of induced stresses with the depth for various axle loads is shown
in the graph below- b = Width of sleeper
h = Depth of ballast
= Angle of distribution of pressure in the ballast

iii) Loves formula :

Pc =Pm { 1-( 1/1+ r2 /h2)3/2}
where,
Pc = Maximum pressure on formation top
Pm = Mean pressure at the bottom of sleeper
r = Radius opf circle whose area equals the sleeper bearing area
h = Depth of ballast
Fig. 1 Variation of stresses with depth for various axle loads

Volume - II 389 Volume - II 390

(iv) Talbots Formula (for American Rail Roads) : and plotted for 20.32t axle load as under:
1.25
Pr / Pa = 16.8 / (h)
where,
Pr = Maximum pressure on formation top
Pa = Mean pressure at the bottom of sleeper
h = Thickness of ballast cushion in inches
v) Japanese National Railway Formula :
Pr / Pa = 58 / 10+h1.25
where,
Pr = Maximum pressure on formation top
Pa = Mean pressure at the bottom of sleeper
h = Thickness of ballast cushion in cm
vi) Boussinessqs Equation :
Pc = 6 q0 /2h2
where,
Fig 2 Variation of formation pressure for 20.39t axle load
Pc= Maximum pressure on formation top as per Talbot formula
q0 = Rail seat load
h = Thickness of construction in inches
COMPARISION OF FORMATION PRESSURE CALCULATED AND
OBSERVED IN FIELD BY PRESSURE CELLS
MAXIMUM FORMATION PRESSURE AS PER ABOVE FORMULAE
FIELD STUDIES CONDUCTED BY RDSO
Intensities of pressures at top of formations for different axle loads are
given in table below assuming 30 cm ballast cushion under bottom of sleeper:
The sections on which tests were conducted and the RDSO reports
on which the results were published are as follows:

Since the average formation pressure is near the value of formation

pressure calculated by Talbot formula, hence Talbot formula may be used
for calculation of formation pressure. Formation pressure has been calculated

Volume - II 391 Volume - II 392

 Actual formation pressure measured in field in the above sections 2. AAR uses this design methodology considering two design criteria
with different track structure are compared with theoretical values. Inference viz. Progressive shear failure and excessive plastic deformation of
of comparison of stress are as follows: sub-grade.
Stress measured at formation top either with 20 cm or 30 cm ballast The thickness of blanket to be adopted will be the maximum of the
cushion and under 20.32 t axle loads with different type of track structure above two design criteria.
are lower than the theoretical stresses worked out using Talbot formula i.e.
use of Talbot formula to work out stresses at different depth below bottom of
sleeper appears to be safe and so may be adopted for design of railway
formation.
Hence to cater the higher axle load up to 30t, it is essential to
redesign the railway formation/foundation. Design of formation
consists of
I) Design of blanket FIG. 4 Excessive Sub grade Plastic Deformation (Ballast Pocket)
II) Design of slopes
III) Design over soft soil b) UIC
Design of blanket is one of the important aspect in design of In this approach track bed thickness equation for different combination
formation because stresses will increase as axle load increases. Design of axle load, GMT, speed and type of soil has been used. UIC uses
of slopes and design over soft soil for higher axle load need not required three bearing capacity classes (P1, P2&P3) and four types of soil
due to increase in axle load because design will not effect when axle quality classes (QS0,QS1,QS2 &QS3). In this approach prepared
load increases. sub-grade material is in excess to the track bed layer. Prepared sub-
grade depends on quality class of sub-grade soil and bearing required
DESIGN METHODOLOGY BEING ADOPTED BY WORLD RAILWAYS FOR of sub-grade soil. QS3 type of prepared sub-grade is similar to our
DESIGN OF BLANKET : blanket material. Thickness of track bed layer is above the prepared
sub-grade and will depend on quality class of prepared sub-grade.
(a) AAR :- Track bed layer includes depth of ballast. Track bed layer is also
1. Uses GEOTRACK mathematical modal to work out stresses and
deformation at different depth below bottom of sleeper for various design
combination of axle load , speed, GMT, track structure ,type of soil
and intrinsic properties of soil like E & V

FIG. 3 Sub-grade progressive shear failure Fig.5 UIC Design

Volume - II 393 Volume - II 394
 similar to our blanket material. Hence our blanket can be replaced
with sum of thickness of prepared sub-grade and thickness of track
bed layer excluding depth of ballast.
Blanket= Prepared sub-grade+ (Track bed layer-Ballast cushion)
c) BRITISH RAILWAYS
In the 1970s, British Railways developed a threshold stress design
method for selecting granular layer thickness. This method was
recognized worldwide as the most rational. Its objective is to limit the
stress on the sub-grade soils to less than a threshold stress in order
to protect against sub-grade failure by excessive plastic deformation.
The stress is determined from repeated load tests in which the
cumulative strain of the soil is noted as a function of the number of
loading cycles applied. At applied stress levels above the threshold
stress level, the rate of cumulative plastic deformation of the soil will

Fig.6 Specification & thickness of Blanket

be extremely rapid. At applied stress levels below the threshold stress
level, the rate of the cumulative deformation is small.
Existing provision of blanket thickness for higher axle load in
existing Guidelines of Earth work GE:G-1, July 2003 :
Presently 20.32t axle load is running on the existing track. As per
Guidelines of Earthwork, No. GE: G-1, July-2003, blanket thickness
has been designed with 22.5 tonne axle load and reproduced below:
The criteria for depth of blanket on different type of soil is as under:
a) Following soils shall need minimum 1m thick blanket:
Silty clay of low plasticity (ML-CL)
Clay of low plasticity (CL)
Silt of medium plasticity (MI)
Clay of medium plasticity (CI)
Silt with low plasticity (ML)
b) Following soils shall need minimum 60cm thick blanket:
Clayey gravel (GC)
Silty sand (SM)
Clayey sand (SC)
Clayey silty sand (SM-SC)
c) Following soils shall need minimum 45 cm thick blanket:
Poorly graded gravel (GP) having uniformity coefficient more
than 2
Volume - II 395 Volume - II 396
 Silty gravel (GM) DESIGN OF FORMATION AS PER AAR APPROACH
Silty gravel-Clayey gravel (GM-GC) The calculations are made for 25t & 30t axle load for four types of
d) Following soils shall not need any blanket; soils as per design methodology given earlier and as per accordance with
AAR report R-898 and tabulated below:
Well graded gravel (GW)
Well graded sand (SW)
Soil conforming to specification of blanket
Soil having grain size analysis curve lying on the right side
of the enveloping curve for blanket materials
Rocky beds except those consisting of shales and other
soft Rocks which becomes muddy after coming into contact
with water.
CONCLUSION
For heavier axle load traffic above 22.5t and up to 25t & above 25t up
to 30t, additional blanket thickness of 30cm & 45cm respectively, It is evident that Indian Railways provision of blanket thickness for
over and above as given above of superior quality material should be higher axle loads are much more conservative causing uneconomical
construction in comparison to provisions of UIC and specially of AAR.
provided.
The design approach adopted by IR is subjective & based on experience
DESIGN OF FORMATION AS PER UIC APPROACH
where as the one adopted by AAR is scientific and rational.
The calculations are made for 22.5t, 25t & 30t axle load as per design
It is therefore concluded that
methodology given earlier and as per accordance with UIC-719R and
tabulated below: i) IR may adopt the design approach of AAR to have a scientific
and economical way of designing railway formation.
TABLE SHOWING COMPARISION OF THICKNESS OF BLANKET AS ii) To achieve the aim described in (i) above, IR should procure
PER I.R. AND UIC CODE GEOTRACK model, its application in field, validation if any of
design output, other benefits/utilities of GEOTRACK model and
its effectiveness.

REFERENCE
(i) State of the art report on sub grade stress and design of track
substructure, Civil Engineering Report No. C 271.
(ii) State of the art report on provision of Railway formation, Report No.
GE 35.
(iii) ORE Report D 71, RP 12.
(iv) UIC Code 719 1994 R
(v) UIC Code 714 1963 R
(vi) Guidelines of earthwork in railway project, no.GE:G-1, July,2003
Procedure for Railway track granular layer thickness determination
Report no. R-898, Oct-1996
Volume - II 397 Volume - II 398
 RAILWAY TRACK SUBSIDENCE CONTROL
WITH JUTE GEOTEXTILE
A CASE STUDY UNDER EASTERN RAILWAY
TAPOBRATA SANYAL*, P.K.CHOUDHURY**
1. INTRODUCTION
Embankment built for Roads & Railway tracks undergo subsidence
mostly as a result of inadequate bearing capacity of the fills. Railway tracks
are more vulnerable to subsidence than road tracks due to more sustained
repetitive dynamic loads imposed on them. The majority of railway
embankments in India was built when Geotechnical Engineering did not
take its roots in constructional spheres related to soil. There was hardly any
room for choice of fill materials not to speak of the punctiliousness required
in proper soil compaction with the OMC. This has led to use of fills from
borrow pits irrespective of their quality and character. Use of fills with high
clay content i.e. with high P.I. leads to entrapment of water within the body
of embankments, causing differential volume changes with the variation of
water/moisture content within. Railway track subsidence along with mud
pumping is a common phenomenon. Short term measures to remedy the
inherent deficiency do not help.
In this article, a case study for prevention of railway track subsidence
is presented in which Jute Geotextile (JGT) in various forms were put to use.
The affected railway tracks are located at a distance of 36 kms and 46 kms
respectively from Howrah under Chandanpur Gurap Section of Howrah
Bardhaman Chord line. The Railway Engineers, for the last several years,
took pains to restore the subsided track to the desired level by adopting
conventional measures without permanent effects.
2. PRE-REMEDIAL SITUATION AT SITE
The railway embankment in question at both the locations is fairly
old, having been built with cohesive fills of varying composition silty clay to
* Geotechnical Advisor, IJIRA & JMDC, Kolkata 700 016.
** Project Co-ordinator & In- Charge, Geotech Cell, IJIRA, Kolkata 700 088.
Volume - II
silty loam. There are three tracks. The central track interposed between two
outer ones has not faced any subsidence problem. The southern track is
more affected than the northern.
The height of the embankment is not uniform and varies between 1.0
meter to 6.0 meters from G.L. Side slopes of the embankment were also
disuniform ranging between 1:2.5 to 1:5. The cess at the side of the southern
track was almost non-existent due to unabated erosion of the surficial soil.
Borrow pits almost touch the toe of the embankment at most places with
water within. When the subgrade was exposed for inspection, no sand
cushion was seen under the ballast layer.
The nature of problems encountered in the affected stretch were not
one but several. The track alignment was seen to be disturbed, side slopes
were steeper in places than what the angle of internal friction of this fill could
permit, cross-level was not in order, there was creep in formation with erosion
of cess along with settlement and surface-soil erosion in slopes. Annex-I
presents the details of the types of problems at different stretches.
Howrah Division of Eastern Railway carried out a number of studies
for finding out the reasons for the perennial track subsidence in the section.
Incidentally, the section is one of the busiest in the Indian Railways. Important
passenger trains like Rajdhani Express, Poorba Express etc. run on this
line, apart from a series of heavily loaded goods train and frequent EMU
locals.
The first study was done in 1968. The subgrade was reported to be
made of shrinkable soil, but not of black cotton type. Shear Strength of the
fill was found to be poor (1.47 T/sq.m to 1.96 T/sq.m) while natural dry
density was in the range of 70% to 80%. Driving of Sal-ballahas in series (75
cm apart, 30 cm away from the edge) was suggested.
In the second study done in 1977 it was advised to provide sand
drains at critical locations with slopes flattened to 1:2.5 and lime piles
provided at critical stretches.
In the third study done in 1987, providing of sand-blanket and sand-
drains was suggested.
The Railway engineers reportedly implemented the recommendations,
but the track could not be stabilised to the desired degree. The main area of
concern was about the disturbance of the cross-level and the alignment of
the outer tracks. The matter was reportedly referred to R.D.S.O., Lucknow
which recommended provisions of sub-bank and salballah piling at the trouble-
stretches.
Volume - II 400
3. REASONS OF TRACK SUBSIDENCE AND REMEDIAL PRINCIPLE
Poor quality of the fill (clayey composition), entrapment of water within
the embankment due to drainage deficiency and inadequate compaction at
O.M.C. during construction could be the probable reasons of subsidence of
the two outer tracks laid over the embankment. Ballasts were seen to have
penetrated into the subgrade as a result due to absence of a separating
layer between the subgrade and the ballast-base. The Railway engineers
desired to try out the remedial package with JGT in the southern track which
was more severely affected.
Remedial principles were based on the following
a) drainage of rain water before it could reach the subgrade
b) providing a separating layer between the subgrade and the
ballast-base
c) improving bearing capacity of the subgrade
d) prevention of lateral dispersion of the embankmenttoe
e) cess-and-slope reclamation
The remedial package based on the above was proposed by Sanyal
(2000) by use of Jute Geotextile in several forms as a trial in the stretches at
36/13-21 km and 48/3-9 km. commencing from Madhusudanpur Station and
Belmuri Station respectively.
4. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE REMEDIAL PACKAGE
The following stage-wise implementation programme was framed.
n RECOMMENDATIONS (FIRST SET)
b to scoop out the ballast layer completely exposing the subgrade
in the space between two sleepers manually. The hanging lines
are to be rested on rail-clusters and wooden blocks on both
sides.
b to spread a thin sand-layer on the subgrade alter taking out the
penetrated ballast pieces to prevent puncturing of JGT
b to lay woven JGT (specifications given in Annex-II) on the sand
cushion overlain by non-woven JGT (specifications given in
Annex-II). The woven JGT was provided to act as filter implying
that it would check movement of subgrade particles and at the
same time will allow pore-water to seep through the fabric pores.
The purpose of placing non-woven JGT was to make it act as
Volume - II 401
shock-absorber and as drainage medium
b to place a layer of sand over JGT (22.5 cm to 30 cm). The
purpose was two fold. The layer would act as a cushion against
dynamic stresses induced by moving trains and also as an
additional drainage medium along with JGT. Sand was
mechanically vibrated with portable vibrator for ensuring its
compaction.
b to replace the scooped out ballasts after washing.
It may be mentioned in this connection that woven and non-
woven JGT were in conjunction to take advantage of better
drainage capability of the non-woven fabric and better filtration
properties of the woven one. Woven JGT posseses higher tensile
strength than non-woven JGT and can withstand induced stresses
better. Permittivity and transmittivity are better with the
combination.
n RECOMMENDATIONS (SECOND SET)
b to lay JGT-encapsulated rubble (brick ballast) drains at a suitable
gradient, by removal of earth, reaching the bottom end of the
subgrade with the open end of the JGT-capsulated drain finished
on the exposed embankment slope.
The purpose was to facilitate drainage of water from the subgrade
level. Saucer surface drains on the slopes were advised to prevent
rain-gully formation.
n RECOMMENDATIONS (THIRD SET)
b to build the cess (cess width at least 900 mm) and berms at
the toe of the embankment
b to provide lateral restraint by building sausages (boulders
encapsulated in wire nets) at the toe of the embankment where
water-filled borrow-pits were perilously close.
n RECOMMENDATIONS (FOURTH SET)
b to restore the embankment profile (slope 1:2.5) with borrowed
carted fill materials ensuring adequate compaction
b to lay open-weave JGT (specifications in Annex-ii).
b to place grass-sods/spread seeds on slopes for quick vegetation
growth.
Volume - II 402
5. PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATION AND WORK METHODOLOGY vulnerable stretch where remedial measures were undertaken did not require
The Railway engineers were insistent, not without reason, that there any intervention for the first time. This substantiates the effectiveness of the
could be no disturbance of the train-timings during execution. Speed measures done by use of Jute Geotextile in several forms. It may be stated
restrictions would certainly be imposed. As a result, the work was so here incidentally that where mud-pumping is noticed, additionally insertion
programmed as to complete resectioning and restoration of the subgrade of Jute prefabricated vertical drains, atleast upto the depth of the subgrade,
between two sleepers within a day. will be helpful. This intervention was not necessary in view of absence of
mud-pumping in the stretch chosen for trial.
The contractors (Engineering Projects India Ltd a Central Govt.
Concern along with their sub-contractors) divided the workmen into 7 groups,
each group comprising six men for carrying out recommendations 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
simultaneously. The critical job of re-sectioning and restoration of the affected The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and co-operation from
sub-grade between two sleepers consisted of Shri P.K.Singh (former Sr. DEN Coord, HWH Division), The authors are
0 scooping out ballasts and exposing the subgrade after excavation also grateful to Shri K.P.Saha of EPIL, Kolkata, Sri Gopal Shaw, and Shri
0 placing of supports made of rail-clusters (fabricated separately) O.P. Gupta of M/s. Gangadhar Shaw & Associates for their help and active
support.
0 dressing the subgrade after picking up penetrated ballast pieces
0 placing a thin cushion of sand over the subgrade
REFERENCE
0 laying of woven JGT overlain by non-woven JGT over the sand-
cushion Sanyal T Track Subsidence in Railway Embankments A case for
Jute Geotextile as a solution (Published in the proc. of the Indian Geotechnical
0 placing of sand on the non-woven JGT, compacting the sand
Conference held at IIT, Mumbai in Dec, 2000).
with mechanical portable vibrator
0 re-placing ballasts followed by removal of rail clusters
The work area measured 1.30 m (length) x 4.00 m (wide) x 0.80 m
(depth) which had to be completed in one day in all respects. It was noticed
that excavation itself took at least 4 hours.
The length of the trial stretch initially allotted measured 250 metres
followed by another contiguous stretch measuring 200 metres.
It needs mention here that the site had no direct road access worth
the name.

6. CONCLUSION
The entire work was completed within 83 working days covering a
stretch of 450 metrers. The notable feature was that train services were not
allowed to be disturbed during the entire period of execution. The work
methodology was so planned as to ensure completion of the job in time.
Similar methodology may be adopted in other areas also.
The restored stretch remains undisturbed after five seasons,
withstanding five full monsoons. According to the Railway engineers, the
Volume - II 403 Volume - II 404
Volume - II 405 Volume - II 406
Volume - II 407 Volume - II 408
 EFFECT OF CC+6+2 OPERATION ON TRACK
A CASE STUDY ON CENTRAL RAILWAY.
S.N.AGRAWAL*, P.K.MUDLIAR**
SYNOPSIS
Indian Railway is undergoing historic phase of rapid growth. A
compounded growth rate of about 10% is envisaged in freight traffic. To achieve
this, bold and path breaking decision of increasing the axle load was taken in
the year 2005 by increasing the carrying capacity to CC+8+2 on the dedicated
Iron-Ore routes on 04.05.2005. Central Railway volunteered and proposed
Railway Board for permitting the enhanced carrying capacity of CC+6+2 on
dedicated routes for Coal traffic which was approved by Railway Board on
17.11.2005. The nominated routes on Central Railway cover sections on
important East-West and North-South routes of Golden Quadrilateral. Central
Railway has witnessed almost one year of this operation and in this paper effort
has been made to present the observed effect on track. Effort has also been made
to summarize the issues which are considered important for sustaining such
operations in future.
1. BACKGROUND
Railway Board took a historic decision of enhancing carrying capacity
on iron ore routes to CC+8+2 on 04.05.2005. In line with this decision,
Central Railway volunteered and proposed Railway Board for enhancing the
carrying capacity on selected coal routes to CC+6+2. In the beginning six
such routes were proposed. Railway Board, vide their approval dated 17th
November, 2005, permitted enhancing carrying capacity of wagons to CC+6+2
on these nominated routes on Central Railway in Box N wagons.
Subsequently, few more sections were added to the list of nominated routes
in view of the operational requirement. Central Railway also took the lead to
obtain CRS sanction for the BOX N wagons for CC+6+2 operation, which
became the basis for obtaining CRS sanction on other railways for similar
operation.
On Central Railway, the collieries are situated on Nagpur division near
* CTE, Central Railway
Volume - II ** Dy. CE Track-II,, Central Railway
Ballarsha and the power houses are situated in Chandrapur, Sarni (Itarsi-
Nagpur Section), Bhusawal and Nasik Road. Thus, the routes covered for
CC+6+2 operation are falling on the golden quadrilateral of MumbaiHowrah
(Gitanjali route) and New DelhiChennai (Grant Trunk route). Sections of
Central Railway on which CC+6+2 operation has been permitted are shown
on the System Map of the Railway (Annexure-I). The operations with this
enhanced carrying capacity began in November, 2005 i.e. on the face of
winter season and now almost one year has passed. As of now, about 60%
of coal rakes loaded in Western Coal Fields situated in Nagpur division are
CC+6+2 rakes.
2. PRECAUTIONS TAKEN
Prime concern after introduction of CC+6+2 operation is its impact on
rail fractures and weld failures. Accordingly, following steps were taken
to ensure safety:
2.1 INTERNAL MEASURES
(i) Introduction of double shift Key-Man Patrolling:
The patrolling has been introduced to cover track from 0400
hrs. in the morning till 2000 hrs. in night.
(ii) Protection of Thermit Welds with Joggled Fish plates:
In terms of policy circular No.3, thermit Welds which have carried
more than 50% of stipulated GMT are to be protected by Joggled
Fish plate, the population of such welds is huge. However,
thrust was given to this item duly prioritizing the welds based
on their location like fracture-prone area, vulnerable section,
non-track circuited section and track circuited section. This
has helped in containing the weld failures to a large extent.
(iii) Opening and examination of fish plated joints and Joggled Fish
plates.
(iv) Providing double rubber pads at fish plated joints, thermit welds
and fracture-prone locations.
(v) Providing thicker sole plate behind CMS crossing.
(vi) Winter de-stressing of LWRs.
(vii) Intensive USFD Testing and USFD testing for gauge face corner
defects with the help of Sperry walking stick.
The first three measures listed above, have helped in a great extent to
Volume - II 410
 detect the fractures well in time. This has resulted into reducing the Observation on Nagpur Division
fracture cases affecting punctuality and safety despite overall increase
in the defect generation.
2.2 EXTERNAL MEASURES
(i) Check on over loading :
A check was made on over loading by randomly picking up the
weigh bill details. Initially, it was observed that few of the wagons
were being loaded as much as CC+13. About 25% wagons
were being found overloaded beyond CC+6+2 and 5 to 10%
wagons were found over loaded beyond CC+8+2. Constant
interaction and persuasion with commercial branch and the
division, the over loading has now been contained to a large
extent and in the sample checks now, the overloading is coming
hardly 0.5 to 1 Tonne beyond the enhanced carrying capacity.

3. EFFECT ON TRACK
After completion of about 9 months of operation with enhanced carrying
capacity, an attempt was made to study the effect on track. For making
this assessment, tangible parameter like defect generation rate (both in the

Observation on Bhusawal Division

form of defect detected during USFD testing and defects leading to rail
replacement), effect on points and crossing, effect on SEJs, instances of
scabbing, effect of glued joints, fish bolt snapping instances etc. were
studied. The comparative figures for the 9 months period from January to
September, prior to enhanced loading and after introduction of enhanced
loading for the two divisions are as above:
From the above tables, it can be seen that whereas the defect
generation in the form of USFD testing and instances of rail replacement
have increased upto about 50%, there is a substantial increase in deterioration
of other components like SEJs, crossings and glued joints.
As directed by RDSO, the results of USFD Testing were also analyzed
for 6 months period as per the format given by RDSO. The comparative
position of the two divisions are as under :-

Volume - II 411 Volume - II 412


Detailed analysis of section-wise defects generation of the above two
divisions is annexed as Annexure-II. From the analysis of defects noticed
during the USFD Testing, it is seen that there is an increase of more than
90% in the defects detected during the normal testing on both the divisions.
On BSL division, the weld testing reflects an increase of 81% whereas on
Nagpur division, reduction is recorded in the number of defects in welds
detected. The reduction is because of TRR done in stretches where LWR
was made from free rails. Thus, in general, there is an increase by about 50-
60%. Further, details have been submitted to RDSO for their analysis. The
data submitted also reveals that the new OBS defects found, have increased
by 195% on Bhusawal division and about 95% on Nagpur division.
An attempt was also made to study the effect on Track Geometry,
however, no definite conclusion can be drawn from the observed patterns.
Considering the fact that other parameters like traffic pattern, rate of
renewals and maintenance efforts remaining the same, the above
observations reflect that the enhancement in carrying capacity, has long
term effect on track health. Whereas it is acknowledged that there is no
looking back from the direction in which we have started progressing, we will
have to address these issues and the track renewal criteria and maintenance
cycle may require suitable changes.
Volume - II 413
Incidentally, the other operational problems like parting, load stalling,
engine failure cases, also show an increase on these divisions. The
comparative figures are enclosed as Annexure-III.
4. AREAS OF CONCERN
1. From the limited data collected so far it is observed that the
contact stresses are going to be an area of major concern. It is
seen that wherever the contact stresses are critical due to
reduced contact area like SEJs, crossings and glued joints,
there is phenomenal increase in the rate of failures.
2. From the limited data collected during the USFD Testing with
Sperry Walking Stick (first round is still in progress), it is
observed that out of 275.8 Km of testing, total 137 IMR defects
were observed. It is, therefore, be prudent to carry out detailed
studies in defect propagation rate so as to optimise the
maintenance resources required for replacement/handling of
these defects.
3. The track renewal criteria and tamping cycle needs review.
4. Effect on formation is another important area where no analysis/
field study has been made so far. Additional loading is bound to
create adverse effect on the formation and major formation
failures/trouble may arise in future. Adequate planning is to be
done at this stage itself to encounter the problem.
5. The size of wheel flat needs to be re-looked. In 1992 while the
limits of wheel flat for locomotives, wagons and coaches were
specified, following limits were laid down:
From the above table, it can be seen that the permissible flat size co-
relates with the axle load and unsprung mass. Now, when the
permissible axle load in wagons is being increased from 20.3 Tonnes
to 22.9 Tonnes, there is a strong need to review permissible size of
wheel flat.
6. At present these loads with enhanced capacities are running
mostly intra-railway and therefore, checks on overloading could
Volume - II 414
 be exercised to certain extent. However, with regular extended
operation, such movement will be taking place inter-railway. To Annexure-I
check the overloading, installation of Wheel Impact Load
Detector (WILD) is must. However, the installation of WILD is
getting delayed because of inter-disciplinary issues.
7. Stalling of loads due to inadequate powering is another area of
concern. This adversely affects in two ways. Firstly, the rail is
damaged due to wheel slipping and secondly, there is reluctance
to permit speed restrictions even on slightly graded sections
due to fear of stalling.
8. The coal is heaped-up while loading and during movement, it
slips and falls on the track contaminating ballast and thus
adversely affecting the track drainage.
9. Maintenance windows are getting reduced even though there is
not much increase in number of trains due to stalling and
deteriorating speeds.
10. Commercial department has confessed in writing that it is
practically not possible to regulate the loading within specified
tolerance of 2 Tonnes. If that be so, it may be worthwhile to
review this limit of loading tolerance and fix up the enhanced
carrying capacity accordingly. On Central Railway JPO has
been issued wherein speed restriction of 50 KMPH has been
specified beyond CC+6+2+2 and up to CC+6+2+4 Tonne and
thereafter a speed restriction of 30 KMPH up to a convenient
point of load adjustment.

5. CONCLUSION
From the limited experience gained so far, it can be concluded that
the Pilot Project of increasing the carrying capacity has succeeded in its
objective. However, the effect of enhanced loading on the infrastructure
cannot be ignored. Proper cost benefit analysis is to be made to review the
renewal criteria. The maintenance cycle also needs to be reviewed in order
to sustain the enhanced loading on long term. The allied issues like check
on over loading, permissible size of wheel flat, instrumentation for studying
the effect of track and bridges in more detail, study of defect propagation
rates in rails, installation of WILD etc. needs to be pursued more vigorously
in a time bound manner.

Volume - II 415 Volume - II 416

Volume - II 417 Volume - II 418
Volume - II 419 Volume - II 420
 RUNNING OF HIGHER AXLE LOADS EFFECT Electronic weigh bridge installed at Guntakal West station. Since
WILD is not installed in our Railway, the particulars could not be
OF HIGHER AXLE LOAD ON TRACK AND analyzed.
BRIDGES IN BELLARY-GUNTAKAL- RENIGUNTA 1.3 All bridges are inspected twice a year by Sectional ADENs and the
AND GUNTAKAL-NANDYAL SECTION OF distressed Bridges are inspected by Sectional SSEs/PWay, Sectional
ADENs, ADEN/Bridges and Respective Sr. DENs/DENs as per the
GUNTAKAL DIVISION frequency laid for categories I and II.
1.4 FIRST QUARTERLY REVIEW
B. VISHVANATH EERYA*, D. SRINIVAS RAO**, SANKARAN*** During The first quarterly review after introduction of CC+8+2, it was
noticed that even though loading up to CC+8+2 was permitted
1.0 INTRODUCTION provisionally, the trend of overloading beyond CC+8+2 was continuing
with individual loads going up to 110 MT or more at times (i.e., axle
1.1 Railway Board has permitted operation of BOXN wagons loads up to
load of more than 25 GMT). The monthly over loading particulars were
CC+8+2 on identified iron ore routes as pilot project vide Railway
sent to Headquarters and Commercial/Operating Branches. Though
Board lr No.2003/CE-II/TS/5/Vol I dt 02/05/2005. Guntakal Division
the over loading has come down considerably now, isolated over
being the fore most route in transporting iron ores on this Railway, the
loading is not fully avoided.
stretch between Bellary-Guntakal (SL) and Guntakal-Renigunta(UP/
SL) was identified for the pilot project and from 15/05/05 the heavy Incidence of crossing nose chipping/Breakages, Scabbing and stalling
axle load vehicles were introduced with a speed restriction of 60 Kmph. were also found on increase. Most of the stalling cases were found, to
Certain practical aspects are being discussed in this paper. have taken place on steep rising gradient for a long stretch in
combination with rain water which increases the axle load. Similarly
1.2 As per MEs instructions RDSO has circulated formats to all divisions
Scabbing were also found mostly on rising gradient, signal approaches
for furnishing the monthly details of
and where trains speed is restricted due to caution order or other
1) USFD normal testing reasons.
2) USFD GFC testing The crossing nose chipping was also on increase where re-conditioning
3) USFD Weld testing had been done number of times.
4) Rail/Weld failures 1.5 INTRODUCTION OF CC+8+2 IN GUNTAKAL-DHONE-NANDYAL
5) Installation of WILD(Wheel Impact Load Data) SECTIO:

( vide letter No. CT/DG/LW/BOX dated 09-06-2005 & 22/23-06-2005). The higher axle loads of CC+8+2 were also permitted between
Guntakal-Dhone-Nandyal stretch in Guntakal-Guntur section and trains
In addition, during the course of introduction we found increase in started running with higher loads from Feb06 onwards.
1) Crossing nose breakage/chipping, 1.6 INTRODUCTION OF CC+6+2 IN WADI-RAICHUR SECTION
2) Stalling, The higher axle loads of CC+6+2 was also permitted between Wadi-
3) Scabbing. Raichur stretch in Wadi-Guntakal section and trains started running
Hence, the details of the above also were collected monthly and with higher loads from Jun06 onwards.
analysed. Over loading particulars were also collected from the Based on the field trials, the effects of BOXN wagons plying with
higher loads of CC+8+2 and CC+6+2 is summarized as under:
* Sr DEN/Co-ord/GTL
** Sr DEN/S/GTL
Volume - II *** ADEN/Tr/GTL Volume - II 422
2.0 TRACK
2.1 FORMATION
The formation is almost made up of Silty-sand(SM type) soil. No
abnormality is noticed except small stretches, where the formation is
weak, have started showing further signs of distress and instability
(heavy slacks are forming at frequent intervals). The only solution is to
carry out formation treatment like Sub-ballasting with Vibro-max roller
or strengthing with Geo-grid. The formation treatment is already planned
and will be completed in due course in about 15 Kms. .
2.2 BALLAST & SCREENING
The support beneath the rails is critical factor for effective transfer of
loads. The function of ballast is to transfer and distribute the load from
sleeper to larger area of formation, to provide elasticity and resilience
etc., to track and to provide means for maintenance of alignment and
other track parameters like unevenness etc., Increasing axle load
will require increased depth of ballast cushion.
The existing ballast cushion on these route is ranging from 150mm to
250mm. Fifty percent of the track is single line with mixed traffic and
the annual GMT carried out over single line section of Guntakal-
Renigunta is about 45 GMT. At stretches where deep screening is
due and with less ballast cushion pumping of ballast, Rail/Weld
fractures, formation of low welds have increased.
Efforts have been taken to complete the deep screening of Track as
per norms and ballast has been dumped into the track as required.
But, due to dropping of iron-ore particles which were loaded beyond
the door level and improper closure of wagon doors, the ballast gets
contaminated and are becoming solid bed like rock affecting drainage
and running quality with formation of pumping sleepers. With the result,
it is necessary to carryout shoulder ballast cleaning once in 2 years
and Deep screening once in 7 years.
2.3 SLEEPERS
The entire stretch is on PSC sleepers. Though PSC sleepers have not
got much affected, the fittings are not exerting the necessary toe
load. The reason are explained in subsequent paras. The fittings of
channel sleepers on steel girder bridges are becoming loose and the
number of attentions to the track on girder bridge and its approaches
have increased.
Volume - II 423
2.4 FITTINGS
2.4.1 GR PADS
The crushing of GR pads are heavy and where slack sleepers are
noticed, the GR pads are working out/getting crushed specially at
locations of free joints, Bridge approaches, LC approaches, high
and low/cupped welded joints where enough toe load is not being
exerted by ERCs. GR pads may be planned for renewal once in 2
to 3 years.
2.4.2 MS LINERS
The corrosion in MS Liners is becoming more compared to earlier
due to dropping of iron-ore on the MS liners and requires frequent
replacement. Though liners are greased along with ERC, still the
liners getting corroded is not avoided and becoming thin not exerting
the necessary toe load. Liners also may be changed once in 3
years depending up on the corrosion and toe load. Galvanized liners
which are used between TIM-NKDO on UP line, are giving better
results and the same may be planned for provision in CC+8+2
route entire.
2.4.3 ERCs
The dropping of iron-ore particles affects ERCs also. In spite of
greasing of ERCs, the iron-ore is sticking to ERCs and the ERCs
are getting corroded and in combination with liners becoming thin,
they are not exerting the necessary toe load at rail seat with the
result formation of slack sleepers and movement of rails are noticed.
ERCs are to be programmed for renewal duly conducting toe load
testing at frequent interval.
2.5 RAILS
Due to dropping of iron-ore particles on flanges of rails, the corrosion
in 90UTS rails are increasing compared to earlier, necessitating
painting of rails at increased frequency as that of corrosion prone
area, though the stretch is in non-corrosive area. Galvanization of
rails may prevent corrosion specially in yards.
Forming of Small spots on top of Rail head: Due to iron ore particles
dropping on top of the rail, formation of small spots upto 2mm size is
noticed which may effect the running qualities of track at a later stage.
Volume - II 424
2.5.1 HOGGING & BATTERING
At all free joints, battering has increased with slight hogging. The
battering is predominant specially at the approaches of CMS
crossings, in spite of provision of gapless joints. The rails at
approaches of CMS crossings is changed frequently to have a good
running quality of points and crossings depending upon the battering.
2.5.2 RAIL FAILURES
Rail failures are comparatively very less about 2 in 04-05, Nil in 05-
06 and 03 in 06-07(upto Nov06).
2.5.3 WELDING
The entire stretch is mostly laid with 10RP/SWP/FP Joints converted
into LWR by SKV welds. Most of the stretches are in LWR territory
with isolated free joints at station approaches, long major bridge &
approaches. In-situ welding was done mostly by SKV process and
the weld failures in these stretches have come down considerably
from 252 in 04-05, 133 in 05-06 and 74 in 06-07(upto Nov06) due to
rail renewals, Deep screening, Destressing and TFR as and when
they are due. The formation of cups at weld joints though noticed, it
has still to be watched to have a reasonable assessment for
programming TWR.
2.5.4 GLUED JOINTS
The failures of glued joints are slightly on increase, especially the
joints which have become low and gaps formed between 2 rails with
slight battering on the landing rail. The glued joint may be
programmed for replacement once in 5 years.
2.5.5 CURVES
Wear on outer rails in curves have increased, necessitating greasing
of curves once in a week/twice a week depending upon the
sharpness. The wear on sharper curves in GTL-NDL section has
considerably increased in the last 8 months of running of CC+8+2
and 13kms were proposed for CTR in PWP 2007-08, out of which 8
Kms has already been sanctioned and balance is being proposed
Volume - II 425
on OOT basis. Provision of automatic greasing machine may help
in reducing the wear and till such time greasing has to be done
atleast once in 3 to 4 days in these sharp curves to avoid wear on
outer rails.
2.5.6 POINTS AND CROSSINGS
This being the weakest link, requires frequent attention. Due to
constant hammering at all free joints including crossings, the packing
gets badly disturbed and alignment defects noticed. The fittings are
resulting in getting crushed/wornout/ dropped, also running quality
getting deteriorated, necessitating packing with Unimat mandatory
once in 6 months with casual attention with off-track tampers as
and when necessary. The GR pads of complete turnout are to be
changed once in 4 years & under points and crossings once in a
year with 10mm GR pads with horns. GFN liners are to be changed
once in 3 yrs, specially outer liners once in a year where side wear
takes place and GFN lines are getting ejected. ERCs are to be
programmed for replacement depending upon the toe load.
Due to wheels jumping from wing rail to crossing and vice versa,
the wear of crossing nose & wing rail have considerably increased
with chipping/breakage of crossing noses, specially at locations
where re-conditioning have been done number of times and where
resilience is not available due to hard bed.
The codal life of crossings as given by Board letter is 5 years. In
CC+8+2 route where wear in crossing is considerable and number
of times being reconditioned, this may be reduced to 3 to 4 years
by which time the crossing might have been reconditioned more
than three times. The switches may also be programmed for
replacement once in 3 years as defects in GFC testing were noticed
in 4 stock rails after introduction of CC+8+2..
Due to dropping of iron-ore, the ballast bed gets contaminated. In
combination with ballast getting powdered due to increased frequency
of attention, the ballast bed becomes hard and non-resilient affecting
running qualities.
Volume - II 426
 The deep screening of points and crossing may be programmed
once in 5 years to have good resilient bed and better running quality.
2.5.7 PACKING
It is observed that, formation of slacks are on the increasing side
specially at yielding formation, bridge approaches, points and
crossings approaches, level crossings, curves and at free /low weld
joints. It is desirable to have machine packing once in 9 months and
at isolated locations like bridge approaches etc., once in 6 months.
Off-track tampers can be used for stray locations as and when
needed .
2.5.8 USFD TESTING
The defect generation ratio in CC+8+2 route in BAY-GTL, GTL-RU
and GTL-NDL sections for the year 05-06 & 06-07 is given below:
The defect generation ratio in normal testing of USFD is very less
with less than 2 per KM/year in 52/60 KG 90UTS and about 3.3 in
BAY-GTL in 52/72 UTS which is already programmed for replacement
during 2007-08. In GFC testing also the DGR is considerably low
with about maximum 1.8 in 05-06 in BAY-GTL and have come down
to less than 1 in 06-07 at all sections.
The frequency of USFD testing with NBC and GFC can be done
alternatively at the same frequency so as to ensure testing is
continued throughout the year.
Volume - II 427
2.5.9 GREASING
Due to dropping of iron-ore particles, the liners are getting corroded
and seized. To avoid this, greasing of ERCs and MS liners have to
be done once in a year as that of corrosion prone area.
2.5.10 PAINTING
As explained earlier, the rail flanges and webs are getting corroded
due to iron-ore dropping, necessitating painting of rails once in 1
to 2 years as in corrosion prone area and in yards once in 6 months
duly removing all the scales. Metalizing of rails in yards will reduce
corrosion.
2.6 STALLING
On steep rising gradients, more number of stalling cases are noticed,
especially in rainy season where the axle load is getting increased
due to water content. The comparative details of stalling is given below:
Strict discipline is to be maintained to control over loading and additional
tractive power should be arranged in rising gradient during rainy period.
2.7 SCABBING
Scabbing also found on rising gradient, signal approaches and where
trains speed is restricted due to caution order or other reasons. The
comparative details of scabbing are given below:
Drivers are to be counseled in Engine manship so that they can have a
better control over the train and scabbing can be minimized.
2.8 BRIDGES
No abnormalities were noticed on bridge structures after introduction
of CC+8+2 in physical inspection. It has to be watched further for
coming to any conclusion on the effect of CC+8+2 on bridges. The
Volume - II 428
 track parameters on girder bridges are getting disturbed at frequent
interval. On old steel girders manufactured during 1910-1920, slackness
in rivets are found in five bridges in RU-GY section. They are getting
aggravated due to running of CC+8+2. Alignment on girder bridges and
approaches are getting frequently disturbed. Electro meric pads are
worning out and getting crushed requiring frequent replacement.
Therefore, Special gang has to be formed exclusively to attend to the
track on bridges and it is felt that, for smaller spans up to 9.15m
replacement of steel girders with PSC slabs have to be planned.
Headquarters has to finalize NDT testing of bridges and agencies for
instrumentation and evaluation of bridges.
2.9 EFFECT OF WHEEL FLATS
The heaviest loads applied to the track from vehicles are those, which
arise from irregularities on wheel such as wheel flat. As per the
report of ORE 161.1/RP 3 on the tests carried out on flat tyres measuring
the effects of speed , size, sleeper types and axle load, increase of
axle load from 20t to 22.5 t (12.5%) causes an increased wheel flat CONCLUSION:
force of the order of 0 to 6%. Studies also revealed that, movement of Due to increase in axle loads in the mixed traffic conditions, the following
wheel with flat can generate dynamic forces as high as six times of the recommendations are proposed because of conflicting requirements
normal static load in extreme condition. Therefore , wheel flat with high of passenger traffic where safety is paramount and commercial
axle load will result in higher rail stresses reducing the fatigue life of requirement of freight traffic
rails causing fracture of rails/welds in extreme cases. The problem
1. Preventive Rail grinding at predetermined intervals will not only be safe
assumes alarming proportions in case of thermit welds (which have
but also cost effective solution for prolonging the life of rails
impact strength of 7-10% of parent rail) in LWR territories , during
winter season, when the full tensile stresses are present in rail section. 2. Curves in general and sharper than 400m radius in particular will require
Hence, wheels with flat tyres shall be detached next station whenever better maintenance of track geometry, as the lateral forces on curved
it is noticed . Installation of WILD will help in detecting the additional track increases with increase in axle load and increase in speeds
loads due to defects in wheel. 3. Wheel flats are to be given a serious consideration in terms of detection,
2.10 Manpower requirement: Due to various works involved in enroute detachments. Role of train passing staff in C&W depots,
maintenance of track where in additional load of CC+8+2 are running stations and control office be clearly defined and non-compliance should
the additional manpower required for various works are given on next be viewed seriously.
page: 4. Ballast cushion have to be increased to 350mm and pending deep
To supervise all the above works, one JE/SE may be given to each screening to be done on priority to avoid rail/weld fractures
SSE/P.Way section in addition to the regular maintenance staff 5. Weak formation are to be strengthened on priority
available. As the number of track men posts can not be increased, out 6. Following additional inputs are required due to running of
sourcing of the above works can be done to ensure safe running of CC+8+2 rakes in BAY-GTL-RU & GTL-DHNE-NDL Section:
traffic.

Volume - II 429 Volume - II 430

Volume - II 431 Volume - II 432
 EXPERIENCE IN MAINTENANCE OF TRACK
FOR HEAVY AXLE LOAD

V. K. PASWAN*

SYNOPSIS
In Asansol Division of Eastern Railway total length of 104.32 km has been
identified for CC+8+2 route w.e.f. May 05. Analysis has been done for this route
based on field & official datas & records. Accordingly normal USFD as well as
GFC testing by Sperry Walking Stick was conducted and various observations
has been observed regarding rail/weld failures & other maintenance problems.

1. INTRODUCTION
Enhanced loading for CC + 8 + 2 has been introduced from May,2005.In
Asansol division of Eastern Railway following routes have been identified for
CC+ 8 + 2 loading.
i) Adra Asansol = 1.5 Kms.
ii) Kalipahari-Damodar Link DN Line = 2.54 Kms.
iii) Asansol-Durgapur DN-II = 42.07 Kms. ( w.e.f May,2005)
iv) Durgapur-Khana DN-II = 49.35 Kms.
v) BQT-Durgapur Steel Plant DN Line = 8.86 Kms.
Due to huge growing industries around the Durgapur and surrounding
area which are mostly based on iron and steel, the movement of iron ore
load has increased and is in great demand.

2. DESCRIPTION
Report shows that the movement of CC + 8 + 2 rakes per month have
increased from 57 (September05) to 85 (November06). A brief analysis has
been done showing the maintenance problem based on records taken from
field as well as office which is shown in the table -1. While going through the
table-1 it can be easily understood that the efforts for maintenance have
been increased many times.
Maintenance input has increased many folds due to increase in rail

Volume - II 433 Volume - II *Sr. DEN/3 /ASN

fracture, USFD defect rail like IMR, OBS, DW etc. This Pilot Project is kept

TABLE - 1
under constant monitoring and monthly report on rail/ weld failure, USFD
testing results, unusual occurrence like loading, stalling, wheel burnt, over
loading etc. is being prepared on monthly basis and a copy sent to HQ in
prescribed Performa.
The result of USFD testing, rail/weld failure has been scrutinized
meticulously. 0n the basis of that scrutiny a comparative statement for last
3 yrs has been prepared where all the failures reported as well as non reported
has been taken into account. The statement is attached as Table-1. The
nos. of failure occurred during pre and post duration of CC + 8 + 2 operation
has been compared and analyzed properly. To have a clear cut idea in
maintenance of the track about the pre and post duration of CC + 8 + 2,
records have been prepared accordingly and both the conditions have been
taken into account. From the Table-1 it can be seen clearly that the adverse
affect of such operation on rail.

3. SECTIONAL DETAILS
The sectional speed of DN-2 line of this section mentioned above
between Asansol-Durgapur & Durgapur-Khana is 100 Kmph. The track
structure is 52kg rail on 52kg PSC sleeper. Maximum portion are LWR
Recently a portion of this section about 30 Kms has been replaced by 60 Kg
PSC sleeper and for 12 Kms TRR(P) by 60Kg has been completed for rest
of the portion for 30 Kms CTRP is in progress. All the points & xings on main
line are fan shaped lay out and all the SEJs of LWR are on Spl. Size PSC
sleeper. For the section of Asansol-Adra the sectional sped is 90 Kmph and
Track structure is 52Kg rail on 52Kg PSC sleeper. And for the section of
BQT DSP the sectional speed is 30 Kmph and the track structure is 60Kg
rail on 60Kg PSC sleeper. This line is basically a yard line which connect
main line to Durgapur Steel Exchange Yard for feeding iron ore and other
materials to Durgapur Steel Plant.

4. OBSERVATIONS
After going through the Table-1 following observation has been made.
1. In DN-II line of Asansol-Durgapur the rail fracture was 5 (from
May04 April05 during pre duration of CC+8+2) and increased
to 17 from May05-April06. During this year upto October it is
only 3 fractures, may be due to intensive USFD testing and
remedial measures. Also it can be observed that IMR detected

Volume - II 435 Volume - II 436

 Continued : TABLE - 1
through normal USFD testing as well as testing of rail through
Sperry Sticks for gauge face corner, the IMR has been found
equal to 181 nos. All the IMRs has been removed which resulted
into decrease in rail/weld failure in this year.
2. In DN-II line of Durgapur-Khana section the no. of IMR detected
through normal USFD is 24 for this year upto October and was
nil during last 2 yrs and also the no. of OBS is found 49. And
also the no. of OBS found 49 in the year 2006-07 upto Oct06.In
comparison to the previous year of 93 nos. The propagation of
inherent flaw in OBS marked rail is found very fast leading in
conversion to the IMR category in subsequent months. The
hammering action on cupped form SKV welds is found vigorous.
Thus the rate of failure of such welds becomes increasing. The
rate of vertical peaks in OMS-2000 run is found in increasing
trend causing frequent and repeated attention of track.. The
deformation of rail head at ordinary track not yet takes place.
No rail head grinding operation has been done so far but the
wear on tongue rail tip crossing nose, at yard line in particular
is increasing. This may be the cause of derailment due to no
route. The impact on grooved rubber pad, sleeper seat is still
under observation.
3. For the other Sections such as Kalipahari-Damodar Link DN
Line & BQT-DSP line since the length is small the monitoring
being done in better way. Kalipahari-Damodar link connects
Eastern & South Eastern Railway & recently in this year only
TRR(P) has been done and we were able to raise the speed
from 15 Kmph to 50 Kmph. This may be the reason that failure
are not occurring.
4. The occurrence of stalling & wheel burn is negligible in this
section.

5. CONCLUSIONS
Conclusion based on observation drawn as under
I. There is a sudden increase in Rail / weld failure after introduction
of CC+8+2 operation, leading to extra input in track maintenance.
Hence extra manpower, materials, machines are required.
II. Frequency of USFD testing needs to be increased in addition
to need based concept in CC+8+2 routes.

Volume - II 437 Volume - II 438

 III. GMT based renewal of rails & fittings to be reviewed on account EXPERIENCE OF RUNNING OF
of fatigue condition in addition to the threshold value as prescribed
in IRPWM. CC+8+2 AXLE LOAD BOXN
IV. Review in stipulations of OBS marked rails, for removal in time OVER SOUTH WESTERN RAILWAY
bond manner like IMR as because propagation of inherent flaw
are much more rapid in this case.
D.G. DIWATE*, S. BALAKRISHNA**, VIPIN KUMAR***
V. Criteria for Through weld renewal to be reviewed based GMT
carried in addition to the service life.
SYNOPSIS
Indian economy is growing at the rate of 8% at present and likely to grow
at faster rate in future. Indian Railway plays important role in development of
economy by providing faster and efficient freight transportation. With large
growth of traffic, most of routes of Indian Railways have been saturated. To cope
up with the demand to carry additional freight traffic, Indian Railway had two
options. First option is to lay new railway line to carry additional traffic and
another option is to increase the carrying capacity of existing rakes itself. Indian
Railways have already taken a wise decision to construct two new freight
corridors i.e. western corridor and eastern corridor to meet future demand of
increasing traffic. But it will take considerable time say more than five years to
construct and make these corridors operational. To answer the immediate need
of increasing traffic, Railways have taken a well thought decision to carry extra
load in each rake during May 2005 on certain busy high density iron ore routes
upto CC+8+2 T and coal routes upto CC+6+2T. In South Western Railway 484
Kms are covered for CC+8+2 train operations. The paper deals with the
experience of S.W.Rly of last 18 months on CC+8+2 operation.

1.0 NEED OF HIGHER AXLE LOAD IN SWR

South Western Railway (SWR) is one among seven elite railway zones
chosen to operate high axle load operation i.e. CC+8+2 on its busy iron ore
route i.e. Bellary-Vasco. Karnataka state is rich in iron ore in surroundings
of Hospet and Bellary. Iron ore from these areas is transported to eastern
coast and western coast for loading into ships for exporting to other countries.
Most of iron ore is transported to nearby western coast in Goa region. Due
to poor road network and their condition, capacity of roads to handle the
heavy iron ore traffic is very much limited. Hence most of iron ore is transported
through Railways only.
At present, only single railway line is available between Hospet and
Vasco which is mostly carrying iron ore traffic on SWR along with connecting

* PCE,SWR
** CTE/SWR
Volume - II 439 Volume - II *** DyCE/Track/SWR
feeder branch lines of Hospet-Swamihalli and Tornagallu-Ranjitpura. Higher
axle load is being operated over 484 Kms route length in SWR. These routes
were Gauge converted to BG during 1996. There is always demand from iron
ore exporters for additional rakes but the capacity of providing rakes is
restricted on sectional capacity to operate limited number of goods trains
on single line railway network with constraint to cross western ghat of 25
Kms length with 1 in 37 gradient and 8 degree curves. In such situation,
railway decision to transport extra load in each rake has given tremendous
growth in iron ore transportation on SWR where existing routes have already
been saturated. Already annual GMT of these single line sections has reached
to 34.44 GMT.
2. HIGHER AXLE ROUTE CHARACTERSTICS IN SWR
3.0 PLANNING
During May 2005, thorough planning was done to ensure the successful
implementation of higher axle load operation over SWR. At HQ level a joint
Volume - II 441
meeting was convened with Sr DEN/Co-ord and Sr DENs of Hubli Division
involved in operation of higher axle load and action plan for precautions to be
taken by Divisions was drawn. Further Divisional engineers also conducted
meeting with Asstt Engineers and Supervisors and each and every Pway
personnel was properly counseled regarding additional precautions to be
taken during higher axle load operation. Following detailed actions were
planned:
3.1 RENEWAL OF 90R RAILS
While implementing 22.82 axle load, 30 Kms of 90 R track on main
line of Bellary-Hubli-Dharwar was still left for renewal. Work was already
sanctioned and priority was fixed for expeditious renewal of 90R rails
from main line and it was ensured that 90R rails were fully eliminated
from main line by July05.
3.2 SCABBING OF RAILS/ TRIAL FOR PROPER POWERING
Hubli-Londa section of Bellary-Vasco is mostly Semi-Ghat / Ghat
section while it crosses western hills. In Ghat section gradient is as
steep as 1 in 37 and in SemiGhat section, gradient is 1 in 80. In these
sections with steeper gradients, number of stalling and scabbing cases
were being reported even before implementation of CC+8+2 which
was mainly due to improper powering. For successful implementation
of higher axle load, number of trials with different powering on higher
axle loaded rakes were conducted to decide the powering requirement.
After trials, proper powering is now ensured and cases of stalling and
scabbing have been brought down to almost zero at present.
3.3 JOGGLE FISHPLATING OF AT WELDS
As AT welds are the weakest links in the track, it was decided to
strengthen AT welds by providing joggle fishplates. On first priority,
weld failure prone sections were chosen and AT welds were protected
by providing joggle fish plates to control the weld failures and increase
safety.
3.4 GREASING OF GAUGE FACE OF OUTER RAIL
BOXN wagons with higher axle load will exert higher lateral thrust on
outer rail on curves. In order to reduce the wear of outer rail and to
reduce the probability of derailment, frequency of greasing of gauge
face of outer rail on curve is increased.
3.5 USFD TESTING TO IDENTIFY GAUGE FACE CORNER DEFECTS
Due to increased load, rolling contact fatigue defects i.e. head checks
and gauge corner cracking of rails would occur resulting in more rail
fractures. USFD testing to detect Gauge face corner defects of rail
was implemented by shifting probe on higher axle routes.
Volume - II 442
3.6 LAYING OF FANSHAPE PSC LAYOUTS 4.0 MONITORING
During gauge conversion in 1996, wooden turnouts were laid on these 4.1 MULTI DISCIPLINARY CORE GROUP
routes and almost all turnouts were wooden at the time of As per Boards order, Multi Disciplinary Core Group consisting of PCE,
implementation of higher axle load. As wooden turnouts with built up CME and COM headed by GM has been constituted for quarterly
crossing would not sustain the high axle load traffic replacement of review of the operation of higher axle load. Every quarter, Multi
wooden T.O. with PSC fan shape layout was prioritized. Almost all Disciplinary Core Group are reviewing operation of higher axle load
wooden turnouts (around 130 nos ) on main line have been renewed and report are sent to Board regularly on quarterly basis. Except
with PSC fan-shape layout and 70% renewal has been completed on frequent crushing of rubber pads and breakage of GFN liners on outside
loop lines also. of sharp curves, not much abnormality was noticed from track side at
present.
3.7 CHECKS ON OVERLOADING
4.2 WELD FAILURE/RAIL FRACTURES
Board have mentioned in their letter of 2nd May 2005 that while operating Even before implementation of CC+8+2, there were large no of weld
higher axle load, a strict discipline has to be maintained and staff failures in 90 R track. 90 R rails from main line were replaced by
responsible for overloading should severely be punished. At the time July05. As can be seen from the data of rail/weld failures, there is no
of implementing higher axle load, only one in motion weigh bridge was definite trend of increase in weld/rail fracture in 52 kg track due to
functioning in SWR and it was also in out of order condition most of operation of higher axle load.
the time. Loading was done with weight-volume ratio and there were
every chance to load excess iron ore in BOXN wagons and virtually
there was no record available on later date about quantity loaded. To
control overloading, five more in-motion-weigh-bridges have been
commissioned. After commissioning of in-motion-weigh-bridges in
SWR, it is possible to monitor overloading more closely and cases of
overloading have been brought down. But isolated cases of overloading
are still being reported which also need to be checked for which detailed
procedure is being finalized at zonal railway level.
3.8 WELDING OF JOINTS AND PROVISION OF 1 m FISHPLATES
Isolated fish plated joints were planned for welding and joints which
can not be welded on main line were planned to be provided with 1 m
long fishplates to sustain higher axle load.
3.9 CUSHION AT RCC SLAB BRIDGES
Due to increased axle load, more impact was expected on slab bridges.
To reduce the effect, it was planned to provide 300mm clean ballast 4.3 USFD TESTING RESULTS
cushion at R.C.C. slab bridges. Increased cushion is being provided
During normal USFD testing, the IMR defect generation in rails was
along with machine packing.
1.27 nos in 2005-06 and 0.96 nos upto IInd quarter 2006-07 per 100
3.10 PROVISION OF SPRING WASHERS Kms testing. Similarly for GFC USFD testing, the defect generation
was 1.16 nos per 100 Kms testing during 2005-06 which has reduced
To avoid frequent loosening of bolts in points and crossing, spring to NIL in 2006-07. Hence it can be concluded that there is no adverse
washers were provided. effect on defect generation in rails due to operation of higher axle
load.

Volume - II 443 Volume - II 444

 TABLE 4.3 USFD TESTING RESULTS TABLE 4.5 OVERLOADING

It can be seen that extent of overloading is gradually being controlled.

4.4 STALLING/SCABBING CASES

Number of stalling cases has almost been brought down to zero by TABLE 4.6 WAGON DEFECTS
ensuring proper powering after conducting number of trials on higher
axle route train operation. There were three cases of stalling in 2005-
06, which have been brought down to zero in 2006-07 till end of IInd
quarter.
TABLE 4.4 STALLING/SCABBING CASES

4.5 OVERLOADING
Already five in motion weigh bridges are functioning on CC+8+2 routes
of SWR. Four out of five in motion weigh bridges are installed after
implementation of CC+8+2. Overloading will have serious adverse
affects on infrastructure i.e. track, bridges and stocks carrying the
traffic.

Volume - II 445 Volume - II 446

4.6 WAGON DEFECTS
The wagon defects noticed during train examination after
implementation of CC+8+2 have increased manifold as shown in the
table as above.
From the above table, it is evident that wagon body and under frame
defects and brake gear defects are increased drastically
4.7 INSTRUMENTATION OF BRIDGES
Five bridges have been selected for instrumentation. Instrumentation
of the selected Railway Bridges includes assessing their static/
dynamic behaviour, development of computational models to assess
the current condition and to develop tools for system identification
and residual life assessment due to enhanced axle loads and
longitudinal loads on the bridges. Work of instrumentation has been
entrusted to IISc. Bangalore and they have started preparing suitable
computer/finite element model based on the existing bridge details.
Instrumentation work will commence soon.
4.8 DESTRESSING OF LWR TWICE A YEAR
As routes operated with higher axle load in SWR are in Zone I & I of
I temperature zones of Zone, there is not much temperature variation,
hence the need of frequent destressing of LWR was not felt.
5.0 CONCLUSION
Already South Western Railway have got 18 months experience of
running of higher axle load of 22.82 T axle load. No un-towards incidences
have taken place while operation of higher axle load except some increased
wagon defects and frequent replacement of rubber pads. In fact by operation
of higher axle load, more discipline in loading and powering could be ensured.
Cases of stalling and scabbing have in fact been reduced with disciplined
higher axle load operation.
With experience of successful implementation of 22.82 T axle load in
SWR, SWR is planning to strengthen their routes of 1286 Kms for operation
of 25 T axle load and Indian Railways will soon be included in elite group of
Heavy Haul Railways of World.
Volume - II 447
EFFECT OF HIGHER AXLE LOADS A STUDY ON
ALLAHABAD DIVISION
A.B. KHARE*, SUMIT SINGHAL**
1.0 When CC+4+2T loading was permitted on NCR there was a general
impression in the field supervisors and at ADENs/DENs level, that with the
increase in axle load, maintenance efforts required will be much more then
the normal axle loads. But it is rather easy to say then to quantify the effect
of higher axle load on the maintenance effort and correlate the direct effect
of axle load with asset failures in track.
After 1- year of introduction of CC+4+2T and about four months of
experience with CC+6+2T axle loads on Group A routes of ALLAHABAD
Division almost every divisional Engineer was categorical about increase of
fractures in the section.
2.0 RF Data of the division was analyzed in various traffic section of the
division and it was noted that total No. RF/WF has actually shown decreasing
trend in various patches and increasing trend in other patches. On further
detailing it was perceived that reduction of RF/WF in the patches could
have been due to:
l Large scale replacement of rails
l Large scale deep screening carried out
l Lesser Rail temperature in subsequent years.
l Destressing done in the recent past.
l Destressing carried out at lesser td.
Increase in RF/WF was could have taken place due to obvious reasons
such as:
l Effect of higher impact of loading
l Over aged Rails
l Exceptionally lower temperature in next year.
l Fatigue failure
l Less ballast cushion or caked up cushion.
l Higher initial stress in rails.
* Dy.CE/TP/NCR/ALD
Volume - II ** Sr.DEN/IV/ALD
 To overcome the effect of above parameters study of RF/WF with Length of 60 Kg and 52 Kg (90 UTS) rail in track Km. for each GMT
respect to GMT (Rail renewal) and Deep screening (ballast cushion) been band of 100 GMT was considered and fractures on these patches were
studied independently as discussed below: - taken separately. Rail and Weld fractures per Km. on such GMT bands have
been compared before and after introduction of higher CC+4+2T axle load.
Based on the above data very interesting findings have been noted which are
3.0 EFFECT OF GMT
discussed in following para:
General Analysis of Rail fracture/Weld fractures on territorial basis
3.1 ALD-MGS SECTION
revealed that, even after introduction of higher axle loads, fractures have
increased in year 2005-06 over 2004-05 and there is general decrease in This section consists of 197 Km. rails in 60 Kg and balance 99 Km is
fracture for year 2006-07 in the corresponding period. But such isolated of 52 Kg. In Up and Dn direction making total length as 296 Km.,
statement is not technically correct and detailed analysis is required to be means about 66% rails in 60 Kg and 34% rails in 52 Kg. It is noted
done to account for lesser population of rails in the subsequent yeardue to that about 80% of these rails, have completed more than half of the
rail renewals, effect of additional GMT traffic carried, and change in ballast respective stipulated life for both 60Kg and 52Kg.
cushion in subsequent year, etc. In 60 Kg rails, rail and weld fracture per Km. have increased only for
Population of Rail with in various traffic sections in year 2004-05 was GMT band of 500-600 GMT and with the exception of 800 and beyond
as following:- GMT band. In other GMT bands of less than 500 GMT erratic pattern
has emerged.
Table-1 (Rail length in Track Km.)
On the contrary RF/WF in 300-500 GMT bands are showing declining
Section 60 Kg 52Kg 90 UTS
trend. Results of less than 300 GMT are erratic and do not indicate
Up DN Total Up DN Total any pattern.
MGS-ALD 142 55 197 06 93 99 Therefore increasing trend in RF/WF cannot be attributed with increase
ALD-CNB 161 93 254 33 101 134 in axle load as no trend is established in the above data.
CNB-TDL 146 96 242 79 129 208 3.2 ALD-CNB SECTION
TDL- GZB 157 127 284 24 54 78 This section consists of 254 Km 60 Kg Rail and about 134 Km 52 Kg
90 UTS rail on Up & Dn lines and population of rail completing half of
Data of year 2004-05 and 2005-06 are primarily taken for analysis and stipulated age is about 65% in 60 Kg and 35% in 52 Kg. in the section.
it is noted that absolute number of RF/WF have increased after introduction In the section declining trend of RF/WF per Km in GMT bands of 200-
of higher axle loads, which is clear from Table 2. 800 GMT bands is noted, with exception of 600-700 GMT bands which
does not have any fracture in year 2004-05. But fracture in 800 and
Table-2 (No. of rail fractures) above GMT only has shown increase trend.
Section 2004-2005 2005-2006 52 Kg rail in this section had also remained in track even after
completion of stipulated life. Even in this GMT range increasing trend
Up DN Total Up DN Total
in 400-800 GMT bands has not been observed. There is increase
MGS-ALD 207 182 389 214 194 408 trend only in 800 and above GMT band.
ALD-CNB 274 220 494 284 214 498 Again newer rails (<50% of stipulated life) of 60 Kg and 52 Kg both,
CNB-TDL 306 287 593 314 309 623 has not shown any definite trend. Two isolated results in 200-300 and
TDL-GZB 218 211 429 220 221 441 300-400 GMT have not been considered for analysis, as these are
exceptional results, which could have due to any extraneous reasons.

Volume - II 449 Volume - II 450

3.3 CNB-TDL SECTION
Population of 60 Kg and 52 Kg rails in this section is 54 Km and 46
Km respectively on both the lines and total length is 450 Km.
This section also has maximum population approximately 75% and
67% rails in 52 Kg and 60 Kg respectively, which has completed more
than 50% of stipulated life.
Data of 60 Kg rails are not showing any trend at all and therefore no
effect of higher axle load is established.
In 52 Kg 90 UTS rails, decreasing trend of RF/WF per Km has been
noted in 300-600 GMT band. However for GMTs above 600 GMT i.e.,
after stipulated life of the rails, increase in RE/WF per Km. has been
noted.
Similarly in this case also increase in failure cannot be attributed to
increased higher axle loads.
3.4 TDL-GZB SECTION
This section consisting of 78% 60 Kg and 22% 52 Kg has completely
newer rails in 60Kg and only 20% of rails have completed more than
50% of stipulated life.
Number of rail/weld fracture per Km. in this section has decreased
marginally after introduction of heavier axle load, which is obvious
from the enclosed data.
In this traffic section no increase in RF/WF per Km. has been noted
for both 60 Kg and 52 Kg (90 UTS) rails after introduction of higher
axle loads. Data of only 300-400 GMT has only shown slight increase,
which could have been an exception.
4.0 There are many other factors responsible for change in the rail fracture
pattern e.g. ballast cushion, initial rail stresses, distressing time and
temperature, incidences of flat tyre, etc. It is highly difficult to analyze the
effect of these factors separately. However effort has been made to see the
effect of deep screening also or say clean/caked cushion.
4.1 EFFECT OF DEEP SCREENING (BALLAST CUSHION)
Study of RF/WF pattern on ballast cushion is further studied on one
specific section i.e. in CNB-ALD section.
In this section about 50% of track was overdue for Deep Screening
and clean ballast cushion in the section was in the range of 100-125
Volume - II 451
mm in year 2004-2005 and only 25% of the track was having clean
cushion more than 250 mm. This has changed to 25% in 100-125 mm
clean cushion and 50% in 250 mm and above clean cushion range in
year 2005-06.
It can be said in general terms that fractures have increased after
introduction of heavier axle loads but to study the effect of ballast
cushion on rail/weld fracture, number of RF/WF fractures on track
screened in less than 3 years, 3 to 6 years, 6 to 10 years and more
than 10 years have been identified separately, which is directly related
to age of screened track. It is noted that RF/WF per Km in the track
overdue for deep screening has risen to approximately double. But
there has not been any change in RF/WF per Km. on the newly deep-
screened track. Interestingly number of fracture per Km. have
decreased on the track screened in last 03 years to 10 years period
which is evident from Table 5 and Chart 6.
From the above it is clearly stabilized that effect of higher axle load is
pronounced in non-elastic ballast medium (caked cushion) but there
is no affect what so ever in a well resilient track.
5.0) CONCLUSION
From the above analysis it is clear that even through if appears in
general that effect of higher axle load leads to increased Rail-Weld
fractures. But if we analyse the data carefully then it is evident that
there is no increase in RF/WF due to higher axle load but it is due to
aging of track, may it be life, GMT carried on rails, or caked up cushion.
Therefore, to meet the challenge of carrying higher axle load, in line
with the corporate objective, engineers have to accept challenge and
increase maintenance datum to a little higher level.
In the above analysis, data taken is for a very short period and there is
further scope to test it with larger time span. And with the passage of
time our experience and confidence will certainly go up. the indication
received from this analysis of may further be substantiated after three
four years of study. But in the interim period engineers should be
vigilant with increased maintenance standards.
Volume - II 452
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Volume - II 461 Volume - II 462
 INCREASE IN LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF
FREIGHT TRAINS ON INDIAN RAILWAY
ATUL KUMAR KANKANE*
SYNOPSIS
Mission 800 Tonne freight loading is the latest revolutionary decision
taken by Indian Railways. This would require enhanced investment for
upgradation of infrastructure for capacity augmentation and universalisation
of 22.9 T axle load. Greater responsibility has fallen on shoulders of Track
Engineers for making infrastructure fit for increased loading. Gearing ourselves
up for technological and structural inputs is the need of the hour. Recently many
guidelines have been issued by Railway Board for enhancing the loading capacity
of existing wagons on certain specified routes of I.R. These guidelines are to be
implemented effectively to achieve the desired goal. In this paper, an attempt has
been made to study the implication of all the instructions, problems associated
with their implementation and suggestions for better follow up. Certain measures
have been suggested to tie up the loose ends of various instructions issued from
time to time in this connection.
INTRODUCTION
Indian Railways is a major transporter of the country. During 2005-06,
668 MT of freight loading was done by Railways, with 10% growth over
previous year. In terms of revenue the growth was 18% during the same
period. Due to fast track development of the Nation, Mission 800 MT has
been envisaged by Ministry of Railways. To achieve our projected loading
target, change in policies and corresponding technological input is must.
One of the major policy decision taken by Railway Board in recent time is to
enhance the carrying capacity of the wagons. A pilot project was launched
in year 2004 when loadability of the wagons was increased from CC to
CC+2 and CC + 3 Tonne. At that time winter months were excluded for
enhanced loading. Restriction of winter months was removed subsequently.
In 2006, the loading capacity of wagons has further been increased to CC +
6+ 2 T and CC + 8 + 2 T. This is a quantum jump in loading capacity of
wagons. This is going to affect both track and bridges considerably. The
Volume - II * Dy.G.M. & Secretary to GM, West Central Railway
axle load has been increased to 22.9 T which is about 10% increase over
existing axle load. Instructions have been issued for various instrumentations
etc. to monitor various parameters of existing assets. Till now we have
failed to give any input to track or bridges to cater for the increased axle
load. To prove our worth, we have to fight against time and quickly make our
house in order. Quick decisions are needed to up-grade the track and bridges
where ever required. Railway Board vide letter No.2005/CE-II/TS/5 dated
12.06.2006, 28.06.2006 and 06.07.2006 have already approved operation of
25 T axle load on certain routes. Time is not far away when we as P-Way
Engineers, will be asked to carry 30 T or may be 40 T Axle load on certain
dedicated routes.
BACK GROUND HISTORY
For last two years, many letters and circulars have been issued by
Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Commercial Directorates of
Railway Board for enhanced carrying capacity. All these circulars were
issued in quick succession, superseded again after issue and new one
were issued. This has created lot of confusion in field. The implementation
of policy has become difficult due to this. As Field Engineer, it is our duty to
implement the Boards policies as quickly as possible. There is an urgent
need to streamline the procedures for effective implementation of enhanced
carrying capacity to achieve the desired objective. There are certain inherent
contradictions in the policy guidelines which are to be ironed out
expeditiously.
CONTRADICTIONS
1. Economics of running the higher axle load train at lesser speed has
not been worked out. These trains will generally run in already saturated
sections of Indian Railway. Present day maximum speed of goods
train is generally 75 Kmph which will be reduced to 60 Kmph. In 90R
territory the speed will be further reduced to 30 Kmph and 50 Kmph for
loaded and empty direction respectively. This will lead to reduction in
line capacity. Running of slower train in already saturated routes will
further reduce the average speed of goods train. In long run, we may
not be able to gain any thing substantial on this account.
2. Engineering Directorate and Commercial Directorate are in two different
planes while implementing the new policy. Engineering Directorate
vide letter No.2005/CE-II/TS/7 dated 01.5.2006 stipulates following
Volume - II 464
 guidelines:-
(i) Installation of weigh bridges at loading points and compulsory
weighment of every rake.
(ii) Installation of WILD at a location in the proposed route so that
every rake gets covered by such installation in detecting wagon
condition.
(iii) Ensuring adequacy of track structure to minimum standards as
stipulated in para 2.1 of Boards letter No.2003/CE-II/TS/5 Vol.I
dated 04.5.2005.
(iv) Ensuring adequacy of bridges as per stipulations in para 2.2 of
boards letter referred in (iii) above.
(v) Ensuring CRS sanction / provisional speed certificate for running
of a particular wagon with enhanced axle load.
(vi) Ensuring adherence to wagon maintenance in terms of railway
boards letter no.2005/M(N)/204/2 dated 06-06-2005.
While Rates Circular No.41 of 2006 circulated by Commercial
Directorate vide letter No. TCR/1394/2004/2 dated 10.5.2006 permits
loading of CC+8+2 T and CC+6+2T on different identified routes with
effect from 15.5.2006 without ifs and buts, it simply mentions that GM
should comply the instructions mentioned in the letter of Engineering
Directorate.
3. As per Railway Boards letter No.2005/CE-II/TS/7 Pt. dated 9.5.06,
for weighment, letter No.TCI/2004/109/4 dated 4.11.2004 will be
applicable. As per this letter -
a) In-motion weigh bridges are to be installed at every loading point
vide CRBs D.O.No.2004/Dev.Cell/IDEI/2 dated 29.09.04. The
progress of installation of weighbridge is well known.
b) If weighbridges do not exist weight/volume ratio method will
continue to be applied.
This is not a scientific method. However, this method will be used for
more widely than the actual weighment of rakes by weigh bridges. In
light of above stipulations, mandatory weighment of rakes vide letter
No. 2005/CE-II/TS/7 dated 1-5-2006 is not possible.
4. As per Civil Engineering Directorate, vide letter No.2005/CE-II/T/7 dated
1.5.2006, separate instructions regarding issue of RRs on the basis
of actual weighment by weigh bridge and transmission of records
Volume - II 465
through FOIS terminal or by fax were required to be issued by Traffic
Directorate for CC+8+2 or CC+6+2 operation. There is no mention of
such instructions in Commercial Circular No.41 of 2006.
5. On Wheel Impact Load Detector (WILD), train can pass at near
normal speed vide ED(Dev) Note No.2004/dev.cell/IGRI/5 dated 3.5.06.
This is confusing because speed is to be clearly specified. We do not
know the effect if train passes at normal speed on WILD.
6. Rolling Stock modification by providing the additional springs on BOXN
wagons was pre-requisite to above instructions. Enhanced capacity
loading has been permitted vide Commercial Circular No.41 of 2006
without any modification in wagons. This will cause enhanced dynamic
impact on track and bridges.
7. CRS sanction was pre-requisite for running of a particular wagon with
enhanced axle load as stated in Civil Engineering Directorate letter
dated 01.5.06. In certain railways, CRS had conveyed conditional
sanction clearly mentioning prior compliance of items stated in letter
of 01.5.06. The conditional sanction has been considered as CRS
sanction and enhanced axle loads have started plying on the authority
of Commercial Circular No.41 of 2006, without doing any work in the
field.
8. The loading of train is known only at originating station. Passing
stations en-route do not know the extent of loading in the train, at
present. The originating station can load with enhanced capacity
after obtaining the CRS sanction in their system. The passing railways
where CRS sanction is not available will not be able to know about
weighment particular etc. Therefore, these trains are running at normal
speed without CRS sanction on passing railways enroute.
PROBLEMS
1. CONFUSION OF ROUTES
Various routes have been declared by Railway Board fit for operation
of CC+6+2 and CC +8+2 load ( vide Commercial Circular No.41 of
2006). There is no continuity in the routes identified for both types of
operations. There are many missing links which are creating
confusion during booking and movement of rakes.
2. COMMODITY SPECIFIC ENHANCED LOADING
The increased capacity for loading is commodity specific as well as
Volume - II 466
 route / destination specific. It is very difficult to follow the guidelines
of speed restrictions as Guards and Drivers are accustomed to follow
the speed restrictions depending upon the availability of speed
restriction boards at site. It is impossible to put speed restriction
boards for different loadings at different locations. Therefore, any
speed restriction imposed for enhanced loading will be applicable to
all the goods trains running on that route.
3. INCREASE IN AXLE LOAD WITHOUT ANY PREPAREDNESS
Board have issued guidelines for instrumentation on track and bridges,
installation of weigh bridges and WILD on 9/5/2006 vide letter No.2005/
CE-II/TSM Pt. and started operation of CC+8+2 T and CC +6+2 T
freight train from 15/5/2006 ( as per Commercial Circular 41 of 2006).
Preparedness at field level has not been taken into account. Increased
Axle load has came into operation without any work on track, bridges
or rolling stock.
4. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH WILD
As per Railway Board Mechanical Directorates letter No. 95/M (N)/
95/31/Pt.I dated 4.3.2005, the installation, supervision and
maintenance of WILD system will be the responsibility of Mechanical
Department of Zonal Railway, who should also make the reports
available to Engineering Department as and when required. However,
as per Civil Engineering Directorates letter No.2005/CE-II/TS/7 Pt.
dated 9.5.2006, same Engineer (SE/ JE) nominated by PCE/CE should
take recording and the installation and maintenance should be ensured
by Engineering Department. This has again created confusion.
The procurement and installation of WILD could not be done till now
though increased axle load has come into operation. The installation
and commissioning cannot be done immediately, it will take time:
Hence, the effect of heavier axle load on track cannot be measured
from beginning. The initial period of assessment is the most important
period for ascertaining the effect of new experiment which we will
miss and our analysis will be based on incomplete data.
5. CONFUSION OF SPEED RESTRICTION FOR ENGINEERING STAFF
Everywhere guidelines are given that suitable speed restrictions are
to be imposed depending upon the condition of bridge etc. There is
no objectivity about the speed restriction, to be imposed in various
varying conditions. At present field staff do not know the impact of
Volume - II 467
sudden increase of load, how will they be able to judge the required
speed at each bridge.
More number of speed restriction boards for enhanced loading in the
section will cause further inconvenience to train running staff as well
as track maintenance staff.
6. INSTALLATION OF IN-MOTION WEIGH BRIDGES
The progress of installation of weigh bridges is very tardy. Weigh
bridges are not being installed at every loading point. In some of the
cases these are installed away from the loading point. There is no
corresponding commercial circular making weighment of the loaded
rake mandatory. Therefore, problem of further overloading over and
above CC + 6 + 2 T and CC + 8 + 2 T has not been taken care of.
7. PROBLEM OF IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVIER TRAIN
It is not possible to identify the load of each wagon / train while on run
because same rolling stock will be used for normal capacity loading
as well as for enhanced loading.
8. INSTRUMENTATION ON BRIDGE
On bridges a good scheme of instrumentation, measurement and
collection of data has been specified. Further follow up regarding
analysis of data is not specified. As Indian Railway is a big system,
the follow up action should be well documented. It should not be left
with individual Engineering ingenuity.
Work of instrumentation and collection of data could not be started till
now. This will also take some time after that only analysis can be
done.
9. BRIDGE REHABILITATION
Re-habilitation / re-building of bridges is a very time consuming process
till that time the effect of running of heavier axle load on bridges
without doing any work is not known to us. Discussion on bridge
rehabilitation can be taken only after analysis of data after
measurement over a period of time.
SUGGESTIONS
i) Running of heavier train should be treated as running of new rolling
stock where CRS sanction is taken for whole route. This will eliminate
running of heavier trains with out CRS sanction on enroute railways.
Volume - II 468
ii) Each railway should notify the stations for loading and unloading of
rakes with enhanced capacity. This notification should be done on
the basis of continuity of routes and availability of CRS sanction for
that route.
iii) To overcome the problem of speed restrictions, enhanced overloading
is to be permitted only on dedicated rolling stock with additional springs
and clear marking of pay load of CC+ 8 + 2 T or CC + 6 + 2 T. This will
facilitate clear identification of heavy loaded rake in field. This will
also help in observance of speed restriction by the train running staff.
iv) Instrumentation on bridges and analysis of data should start right now
to prepare ourselves for increase in axle load even upto 25T / 30T. For
this, concerted efforts are required. Zonal Railways should keep
adequate funds and quickly finalize the agencies for instrumentation,
analysis of data. Future course of action for rebuilding and rehabilitation
of bridges is to be decided early. Further enhancement of load carrying
capacity in future should also be kept in mind while deciding the
rebuilding / rehabilitation of track and bridges.
v) Instrumentation at various level is a specialized job. This requires
proper training in installation, measurement and analysis. Required
number of trained man power for operation, maintenance and analysis
of Data is not available, therefore the instrumentation planning should
consists of supply, maintenance, analysis and submission of report
suggesting future course of action for rebuilding/ rehabilitation.
vi) The frequency of USFD testing should be clearly specified in High
Density Routes. This will help in creating adequate infrastructure of
man and machines. More technical input is required for increasing
the reliability of USFD testing. Present system of USFD testing may
not be adequate when we run 22.9 T or 25T/30T axle load trains.
vii) In addition to installation of WILD near major yard or near major loading
point, WILD should also be installed near maximum falling gradient
track in the section and near identified bad locations with reference to
braking / wheel binding. Bad section identified on the basis of data
collected from WILD should have more frequency of USFD testing.
viii) Normally, all the rakes are to be weighed. However, stricter measures
are required in case of enhanced capacity loading. System of
weighment by in-motion weighbridge is to be streamlined. Each rake
with enhanced loading ( CC + 8 + 2 T or CC + 6 + 2 T ) must be
Volume - II 469
weighed to detect further over loading. Any operating / commercial
staff violating this provision should be penalized. Necessary directions
should be issued in this regard. Periodical monitoring at Divisional
and Zonal level is to be done to prevent over loading. The compulsory
weighment of every rake running with CC+6+2 or CC+8+2 also requires
change in commercial procedure Weigh bridges have already been
installed at certain locations. At these locations, issue of RR on the
basis of weighment can be commenced. If weighbridge is out of order,
normal loading is to be done.
ix) For all the loadings, the Railway Boards letter issued by Commercial
Directorate, circulated vide letter No. TCI/2004/109/4 dated 4.11.2004
should be followed. As per this letter, where weigh bridges are not
there, RR should be prepared on the basis of weight / volume ratio
method and proper record is to be maintained at the loading station /
siding as well as in Divisional Control Office. Excess loading detected
either by weighbridge or by weight / volume ratio method shall be
adjusted before issue of R.R. There are instructions for charging of
demurrage for detention of rake till the weight is adjusted. In present
system of preparation of R.R, the Commercial Clerk writes the weight
with remark said to contain.Tonne . To be checked at nearest
weigh bridge . This system should be discontinued because in this
system, the commercial staff disown the responsibility of checking
the loading.
x) Instructions are required to be issued for actions to be taken whenever
excessive impact wagon is detected on WILD. Punitive action on
concerned staff in case of non-compliance is to be defined to prevent
running of further over load wagons or defective wagons. Periodical
monitoring of detection of excessive impact wagons and action taken
is required both at Divisional and Zonal level by Mechanical and
Engineering department.
xi) Calculation of actual GMT on the routes identified for enhanced loading
will be another problem area as both type of loaded traffic will be
running on such routes. Controller must know the type of loading.
Separate classification is to be given for such type of traffic. This will
help in calculation and preparation of future statistical records. As it
is conceded that increase in axle load will result in accelerated
degradation of Track and Bridges, the GMT with CC + 6 + 2 & CC + 8
+ 2 shall be compiled separately for each route.
Volume - II 470
xii) Boards instructions contained in letter no. 2005/M(N)/204/2 dt.
03.06.2005 for periodical meeting of concerned PHODs to review the
operation of heavy axle load trains should be ensured. the effect of
running of CC+6+2T and CC+8+2T load should be critically analyzed
in their meetings.
CONCLUSIONS
We, as Track Engineers, should be able to foresee the future.
Considering the boom in economy and over all developmental pace of nation,
we should prepare ourselves for future. Certain routes have already been
approved for operation of 25 T axle load. A time is not far when we will have
to run 25T and 30T Axle load on regular basis. We should plan all our
Research & Development resources in such a way that we are able to meet
the expectations. Route-wise cost benefit analysis has to be done to judge
the economic of rehabilitating the track and bridges to become capable of
handling the enhanced pay load. Sitting idle is not going to serve our purpose.
A pro-active plan has to be made and action has to be taken accordingly.
This will require quite a good amount of money and trained manpower both
at supervisory and officer level. Agencies for instrumentation etc. are to be
fixed expeditiously and analysis of data is to be done. All the rebuilding and
rehabilitation efforts should not be limited for 22.9T axle load but aimed for
30T Axle load and in certain heavy density routes, even 40T axle load.
Need of the hour is a clear policy directive in this connection. A separate
Cell of instrumentation of Bridges and analysis of data can be created in
Bridges Directorate of R.D.S.O. and at zonal level for suggesting the ways
and means for increase in axle load and continuous monitoring of efforts
being done in this regard.
Volume - II 471
OVERLOADING OF WAGONS :
THE ETHOS & THE IMPLICATIONS
REFLECTIONS OF AN EX-RAILWAYMAN
M.N. PRASAD*
1. In any transport system the designs of both vehicles and infrastructure
are based on certain loading standards as adopted from time to time.
The safe carrying capacity of each type of vehicle is fixed based on its
own designed strength, taking care to ensure that the total of pay-load
and tare weight does not result in axle-loads exceeding the limit
prescribed. Since both vehicles and infrastructure are subjected to
dynamic loading, the effects of cumulative damage due to fatigue under
repeated loading cycles during the life span of the assets are also
taken into account in their design.
2. On Indian Railways, it had been a long-established convention to lay
down the limits of wagon axle-loads for general operation over the whole
system, with the exception of certain specified streams of traffic such
as heavy minerals which were allowed to be moved by wagons with a
heavier axle load of 22.85t, on particular routes cleared for the purpose.
In the former category we have the BOXN and BCN wagons which
form the bulk of the wagon fleet, with axle-loads of 20.32t and 20.82t,
respectively, while in the latter category fall the BOY-s with a heavier
axle-load of 22.85t. The carrying capacities of the general purpose
wagons, BOXN and BCN have been fixed as 55.81t and 55.7t,
respectively, to keep to the axle-load limits as indicated.
3. Traditionally, a tolerance margin of 2t used to be prescribed for these
wagons to allow for any unintentional error in loading. But overloading
in excess of this margin would require off-loading of the excess. This
also used to serve as a deterrent against unscrupulous overloading of
wagons.
4. The purpose of the above-mentioned limits was to ensure that there
was neither any excessive overloading that might damage the wagon,
nor any excessive axle-load that might damage the infrastructure, viz,
the track and bridges.
Volume - II * Retd. Chairman, Rly. Board
5. The ad-hoc decision taken by the Railway Board, two years ago, to
permit and also insist upon overloading of the general-purpose bogie
wagons to the extent of CC+8+2t was aimed at an extra loading of
10t per wagon and thereby stepping up the freight traffic output of the
existing fleet. This worked out to an overload of 17% for BOXN wagons
and 18% for BCN wagons above their marked carrying
capacities. According to reports, this unconventional strategy has
contributed substantially to IRs traffic growth and revenue earnings,
which has been widely acclaimed as a spectacular achievement. The
writer, however, is inclined to infer that while taking such a momentous
decision the powers-that-be were not fully aware of the technical
implications of such flogging of assets and the likely consequences
thereof.
6. In this context, the writer would like to make the following observations,
based on his knowledge and experience as an Engineer, hoping that
these will serve as an aide memoire for the deliberations of IPWEs
National Seminar on the subject.
6.1. Overloading up to CC+8+2t would result in increase of the static
axle-load from 20.32t to 22.82t (ie, 12.6%) in the case of BOXN
wagons and from 20.82t to 23.32t (ie, 12.0%) in the case of BCN
wagons. The dynamic wheel-loads would also increase
correspondingly. As a result, the stress levels reached in rails, rail-
joints and the floor systems of through girder bridges would be
proportionately higher than what was obtaining before. Other
attendant track problems, like rail-wear, hogging or battering of rail-
ends, etc would also get aggravated.
6.2. Bridge girders which are designed for BGML or later loading standards
may safely carry the heavier axle-load wagons. But substandard
girders and those where the floor systems have suffered loss of section
due to corrosion would need to be investigated and suitable
precautions taken. In the same way, bridge substructures which are
not up to the prescribed standard, or showing signs of distress,
would also have to be regarded as vulnerable, because of the increased
longitudinal forces (tractive effort and braking force) exerted by the
heavier trains.
6.3. In the case of wagons, the 10t overload (which amounts to 17% of
the designed CC for BOXN and 18% for BCN) would mean an increase
of about 14% in the stress levels in the bogie components. Any
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component such as springs, which is not already designed to carry
such overload, will become prone to premature failure on account of
shortened fatigue life.
6.4. Steel, when subjected to repeated stress cycles, shows well-defined
fatigue characteristics, which is commonly depicted in the form of
an S-N curve. As the stress range (S) increases, the number of
cycles (N) the member can withstand before fatigue failure decreases
very sharply. Designs of track, bridge girders and wagon components
usually ensure that the stress levels are kept within safe limits which
will not cause fatigue failure during the expected life-span of the
asset. Despite this, stray cases of failures in the form of rail fractures,
failure of rail joints and breakage of wagon springs, etc do take place
prematurely, for various other reasons. Any deliberate attempt to
increase the stress levels to the extent of 12 to 12.6% in the case of
rails and upto 14% in the case of wagon bogie components, as
brought in paras 6.1 and 6.3, is bound to result in a disproportionately
sharp reduction in their fatigue life. The writer recalls an instance
when it was found from the S-N curve that a 10% increase in stress
over the designed level could cause a 40% reduction in fatigue life, a
fact which those not familiar with the fatigue phenomenon may find
hard to comprehend.
6.5. Under the operation of overloaded wagons, those stretches of track
which are already having occasional failures of rails or rail joints are
bound to develop failures on a much larger scale. This would equally
apply to wagon components which were already prone to in-service
failures for some reason. (A year ago the writer had heard a report of
cracks having developed in the bogie frames of several EMU-s on
the Mumbai Suburban system of C.Rly, which was believed to be
the result of fatigue developed under excessive overloading during
peak hours.)
6.6. Under the regular operation of freight trains with heavier axle-loads, it
may become increasingly difficult to maintain the track to the required
standard on important trunk routes and main lines, especially during
the monsoon months. This could pose a major challenge to PWay
engineers, particularly on routes cleared for higher speeds.
7. From what has been stated above, it would be abundantly clear that
the decision to overload wagons to the extent of CC+8+2t, which was
apparently taken arbitrarily, without full appreciation of all the
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 implications, is fraught with the risk of premature failures of both track round, as well as engine turn-round. This, according to the writer,
and wagon components, which could lead to catastrophic accidents needs to be pursued more seriously, shedding off the old concept of
to running trains, sooner or later. The present policy of overloading, regarding locomotives as the most precious asset and making them
therefore, calls for an immediate review by the Board. haul the heaviest trailing loads that can be started on the ruling gradient
8. Since considerable damage to the tracks and wagon stock may have of the section.
taken place already on account of the deliberate overloading resorted 11. It is hoped that the National Seminar of IPWE (I) will address itself to
to for almost 2 years, it is imperative that a close watch should be kept the examination of all the relevant issues and bringing home to the
on the incidence of failures of both track and wagon components, so powers-that-be the adverse implications of overloading of wagons as
that timely measures can be taken to ensure safety. In the case of done at present.
track, it must be remembered that newly relaid rails may be
comparatively trouble-free for some years, after which the incidence of
premature failure due to fatigue may arise.
9. In the case of BOXN and BCN wagons, if it is established that the
designs have adequate reserve strength to permit overloading to the
extent of CC+8+2t, which could also be got confirmed through fatigue
tests by RDSO, the right step would be to up-rate their CC itself by 8t
(which will come to 63.7t for the BCN wagon) and retain 2t only as a
tolerance limit, as was earlier done. If such up-rated wagons are required
to be run on any section where the track or bridges are below par,
suitable loading restrictions could be applied.
10. For increasing the goods throughput by better utilisation of the available
wagon fleet, a safer and more ethical alternative would be to improve
the average speed of through goods trains. In the late 80-s it was a
part of IRs technology mission to double the average speed of BG
goods trains, which was then of the order of 24km/h or so. This was
proposed to be achieved by cutting down detentions en route by closer
monitoring and, more importantly, by using higher horse-power
locomotives. This in fact, was one of main justifications for the
procurement of 6000 h.p. 3 phase a.c. electric locos. In that
connection, trials conducted with the available 6000 h.p. locos between
Kanpur and Ghaziabad in early 1990 had shown an increase of about
40% in the average speed, as compared to the 2 x WAG consists
(4400 hp.) which were currently being used for hauling the 4500t trailing
loads. The saving in time was achieved through reduction of the time
lost in regaining normal speed after each stoppage or speed restriction
en route and the consequent reduction in the number of precedences
to be given to mail/express trains. It may be appreciated that even a
20% increase in the average speed of goods trains will yield a 20%
increase in through-put and a corresponding reduction in wagon turn-
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