Int. J. Business Excellence, Vol. 9, No.

4, 2016 511

Using a means-end chain to investigate the effect of

personal values on brand positioning of green
restaurants

Mei-Yuan Jeng
College of Management,
Da-Yeh University,
No.168, University Rd.,
Dacun, Changhua 51591, Taiwan
Email: mei521113@yahoo.com.tw

Tsu-Ming Yeh*
Department of Leisure Recreation and Management,
Da-Yeh University,
No.168, University Rd.,
Dacun, Changhua 51591, Taiwan
Email: tmyeh@mail.dyu.edu.tw
*Corresponding author

Abstract: This study uses a means-end chain to investigate consumer

awareness, decision-making processes and personal values concerning
restaurant attributes. The results of the study show that consumers value
restaurants that use recyclable or biodegradable products and local ingredients.
In terms of resulting benefits, consumers value feelings of physical and mental
health and environmental protection. In value terms, consumers hope that their
choice of restaurant will improve their relationships with others, enable them to
enjoy life and increase their quality of life, sense of belonging and
self-actualisation. In addition, the findings show that consumers with different
awarenesses of restaurants green attributes have different decision-making
processes. However, they share the same terminal value of making life
happier. For restaurant operators, this provides an opportunity for not only
green brand positioning but also attracting target customers through decor,
menu choices and services.

Keywords: green restaurants; means-end chain; MEC; hierarchical value maps;

HVMs.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Jeng, M-Y. and Yeh, T-M.
(2016) Using a means-end chain to investigate the effect of personal values on
brand positioning of green restaurants, Int. J. Business Excellence, Vol. 9,
No. 4, pp.511521.

Biographical notes: Mei-Yuan Jeng is currently a PhD student in the College

of Management, Da-Yeh University, Taiwan. Her research interests include
service management, tourism management and behavioural intentions.

Copyright 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

512 M-Y. Jeng and T-M. Yeh

Tsu-Ming Yeh is currently a Professor in the Department of Leisure and

Recreation Management at Da-Yeh University, Changhua, Taiwan. He
received his PhD degree from the Department of Industrial Engineering,
Chung-Yuan Christian University in 2006. His research interests include
service management, tourism management, quality management and service
operations management.

1 Introduction

In recent years, increased environmental awareness has encouraged more people to focus
on environmental issues. Consumers are showing greater interest in stores that emphasise
green and sustainable practices. In the process of consumer decision-making, individual
assessments or awareness of environmental values can influence attitudes and
behaviours. Therefore, during the decision-making process, consumers awareness and
emotions influence their attitudes toward consumption in restaurants (Manaktola and
Jauhari, 2007; Kwun, 2011; Ryu et al., 2012) and willingness to spend more on green
products (Schubert et al., 2010). Studies have shown that consumers who are concerned
about environmental issues are willing to purchase green products or services to satisfy
their individual values (Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007). Green actions taken by restaurants
can help satisfy consumer expectations (Schubert et al., 2010); thus, individual values
must be included in any analysis of consumer decision-making (Perugini and Bagozzi,
2001).
This study uses a means-end chain (MEC) and laddering interviews as qualitative
tools to distinguish green attributes of restaurants and explore the effect and personal
values on information processing and decision-making outcomes to establish linkages
between attributes, consequences and values. These results can help restaurants determine
consumer values that could assist in providing services that meet the needs and desires of
consumers.

2 Literature review

2.1 Green brand positioning

Businesses are increasingly concerned with green consumption and environmental issues.
They are willing to develop green products and position themselves as green businesses
to increase their competitive advantage. In addition, organisations actively engaged in
corporate social responsibility can reduce their financial risk (Prakash, 2002) and alter
customer attitudes and behavioural intentions (Molina-Azorn et al., 2009).
The US Green Restaurant Association (GRA) believes that green restaurants provide
restaurants, beverage-related businesses, food suppliers and customers with economical
and practical approaches to fulfilling their environmental responsibilities. These practices
include using water resources efficiently, reducing waste and developing recycling
routines, using environmentally friendly building materials and furniture, purchasing
environmentally sustainable ingredients, increasing efficient energy use, using recyclable
products and reducing pollution and the use of chemicals. Patrick et al. (2005) argued that
 Using a MEC to investigate the effect of personal values 513

green brand positioning refers to marketing activities that promote environmental issues
to distinguish a brands products from other brands. Environmentally responsible
practices can help restaurants create a positive image (King and Lenox, 2001), strengthen
relations with customers and promote more harmonious relations within society.
Meaningful positioning helps to simplify consumer decision-making (Ries and Trout,
1986; Lundstrom, 2009) and a green brand strategy is an essential element of green
positioning. If green brand attributes are not communicated to consumers effectively,
eco-sustainable products will not be successful in the market (Pickett et al., 1995).
Sengupta (1990) proposed that brand awareness of target consumers is divided into
functional benefits and non-functional emotional attributes. In addition, in the
relationship between the consumers and brands, emotional attributes have received
increasing prominence (Thompson et al., 2006) as a core pillar of market differentiation
and sustainable competitive advantage (Lindstrom, 2005; Ibraheem and Al-Hawary,
2013).

2.2 Personal values and restaurant consumer behaviour

Values refer to a belief that one type of behavioural pattern or object is ultimately
superior to another (Kinicki and Kreitner, 2003). Value is a critical predictor of future
behaviours (Ryu et al., 2012; Ha and Jang, 2013). Values are important predictor
variables in consumer behaviour as a firmly rooted set of beliefs and important
assessment criteria for individual behaviour. How personal values affect reactions in
different situations explains an individuals behavioural expression, controls words and
actions and determines how an individual evaluates and attaches a level of importance
to things (Kinicki and Kreitner, 2003). Therefore, personal values affect the decision-
making process (Chryssohoidis and Krystallis, 2005), while both personal internal and
external values affect behaviour (Coogan et al., 2007). Studies have shown that personal
values affect a willingness to engage in environmental conservation (Winter et al., 2007;
Clemes et al., 2011; Ha and Jang, 2013). Consumers have a high regard for restaurants
that show active concern for the environment and believe that restaurants that implement
green practices are beneficial to their health and the environment (Schubert et al., 2010).
Therefore, including personal values in a decision-making model can more accurately
predict environmental attitudes and behaviour of consumers (Bodur and Sarogll, 2005).

2.3 Means-end chain (MEC)

The MEC is a final state model that shows how individuals use a choice of product or
service to achieve a desired goal. The MEC provides a theoretical basis for a potential
relationship between the consumer decision-making process and cognitive structure. It
also involves analysing personal values, which reveal multiple levels of decision
makers cognitive choice structure (Pitts et al., 1991). Method refers to the subjective
perception of product attributes held by decision makers, while objective refers to the
values held by individuals. The main purpose of this theory is to understand consumer
decision-making and connect the two nodes of methods and objectives to explain
consumer behaviour (Olson and Reynolds, 1983). Consumers believe that a choice of
specific attributes can help individuals realise desired values. That is, in the minds of
consumers, there is a three-way relationship between attributes, consequences and
values (Tillmann, 2007).
514 M-Y. Jeng and T-M. Yeh

MEC models have exhibited good results in marketing strategies such as

product formulation and advertising (Reynolds and Whitlark, 1995; Pike, 2012; Kangal,
2013). As consumers in recent years have increasingly focused on leisure- and
entertainment-based consumption decisions, some scholars have begun to use the MEC in
the field of leisure consumption to research consumer decision-making behaviour
(Lpez-Mosquera and Snchez, 2011; Watkins and Gnoth, 2011; Ho et al., 2013).

3 Research methods

3.1 Data collection

As this is an exploratory study, we use soft laddering as the primary method for data
connection and analysis (Hofstede et al., 1998). The interview process is divided into two
steps.
Step 1 Elicit the attributes that restaurant consumers consider green. The question items
are as follows: Why do you like to eat in this restaurant? What are the qualities
you hope to find in a green restaurant?
Step 2 Carry out in-depth interviews, exploring the relationship between restaurant
attributes, consequences attained following consumption and personal values.
First, we assess whether the answers provided in the first step refer to restaurant
attributes. Using these attributes as a starting point, we carry out one-on-one,
in-depth interviews, asking the following questions: Why do you think these
characteristics are important to you? What benefits can these characteristics
bring you? What values do these benefits help you to realise? (The LOV scale
can be used for prompts). Interviewers systematically guide respondents from
restaurant attributes to consequences and then from consequences to personal
values until they have answered all of the questions.

3.2 Research subjects and sampling design

Interviews were carried out between August and October 2013. Each interview lasted
approximately 40 to 60 minutes. Interviews took place in chain restaurants with a positive
corporate image and a focus on environmental issues. The types of restaurants included
fast food, hot pot and casual dining (such as McDonalds, Karuisawa and Tokiya). The
interviewee was then guided toward the research topics, identifying reasons for his or her
choice of restaurant, to identify linkages between restaurant attributes, result benefits and
desired values. The number of valid samples was 20, including nine males (48%) and
11 females (52%). In terms of age, most (14) respondents (70%) were over 30. Retirees
and homemakers comprised six respondents (30%); respondents with tertiary education
made up the largest group with 16 respondents (40%);13 (65%) respondents lived in the
central region and the greatest number of respondents ate in restaurants between four and
six times a week (45%).
 Using a MEC to investigate the effect of personal values 515

3.3 Data analysis

We carried out content analysis on the gathered data. Analysis was conducted in three
steps. First, we used interview transcripts to categorise similar statements. Following
discussions with three experts familiar with the MEC theory and restaurant research, we
excluded unsuitable statements and named each of the factors, producing 26 factors. The
next step was coding. The 26 factors were classified through the MEC into attributes,
consequences and values (A/C/V), determining the operational differences between each.
Finally, we carried out a reliability analysis, using the Kappa index, to calculate the
inter-judge agreement between pairs of codes as a measurement index (Budd et al.,
1967). Kassarjian (1997) believes that reliability greater than 0.85 is satisfactory. In this
study, content analysis produced 11 attributes (A), eight consequences (C) and six values
(V) (see Table 1). Intercoder agreement was 0.91, 0.89 and 0.94 and reliability was 0.98,
meeting the satisfactory level recommended by experts.
Table 1 Definitions of attributes, results and values

Attribute Result Value

Specific Price (A2) Functional Favourable Instrumental Enjoyment of life
attribute Green result environmental value (V1)
environment (A3) habit (C3)
Enhancement of
Delicious food Understanding life quality (V2)
(A4) the importance of Better
environmental relationship with
Convenient protection (C4)
location (A8) others (V4)
Increase of
Restaurant consumption
appearance (A9) frequency (C7)
Restaurant Physically
environment healthier (C5)
(A10) Increase of
Restaurant environmental
activity (A11) awareness (C8)
Abstract Use of reusable Psychological Elevated mood Terminal Happier life (V3)
attribute or biodegradable result (C1) value Social identity
products (A1) (V5)
Stress relief (C2)
Use of local food Helping to protect Social
(A5) the environment belongingness
Use of organic (C6) (V6)
products (A7)
Energy
conservation and
carbon reduction
(A6)
516 M-Y. Jeng and T-M. Yeh

Table 2 Restaurant consumption implication matrix

Category C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 total
A1 4;0 1;1 0;2 1;0 4;1 0;1 0;5 0;3 0;2 10;15
A2 1;1 2;0 1;0 1;1 1;0 0;1 0;2 0;2 0;1 4;7
A3 0;1 4;0 0;1 3;1 1;0 0;4 0;1 0;3 8;10
A4 1;0 2;0 0;1 0;1 0;1 3;3
A5 1;0 1;0 0;1 1;0 1;1 0;2 0;1 0;1 4;6
A6 1;0 1;0 0;2 1;0 3;2
A7 3;2 0;2 1;0 3;1 0;1 0;3 0;1 0;1 0;1 7;12
A8 1;0 0;1 1;1
A9 1;0 1;1 0;1 1;0 0;1 0;1 0;1 3;5
A10 1;0 1;0 2;0 0;1 0;1 4;2
A11 1;0 0;1 0;1 1;2
C1 4;0 1;0 1;0 4;2 0;1 0;2 2;0 1;1 13;6
C2 1;0 1;0 1;0 3;0 1;1 1;0 0;1 1;1 9;3
C3 2;0 1;0 2;1 7;1 0;1 0;1 12;4
C4 1;0 1;1 1;0 1;0 1;0 0;2 0;1 1;1 6;5
C5 1;1 1;0 5;0 0;1 1;0 8;2
C6 1;0 1;0 3;0 2;1 2;1 9;2
C7 1;0 1;0 5;0 7;0
C8 1;1 1;0 1;0 1;0 1;1 0;1 5;3
Total 13;4 10;6 12;3 5;1 9;4 9;1 8;2 5;2 10;15 10;14 9;13 6;10 4;6 6;9 117;90

4 Research results

4.1 Description of attributes, consequences and values

From the content analysis in Table 1, we obtained 11 attributes (A), eight consequences
(C) and six values (V). There were seven concrete attributes (price, green environment,
taste, convenient location, restaurant appearance, restaurant environment and restaurant
activities); four abstract attributes (use of recyclable or biodegradable products, local
ingredients and/or organic products, energy conservation and carbon reduction); five
functional consequences (good environmental practices, understand the importance of
environmental protection, increased consumption frequency, health benefits and
increased environmental awareness); three psychological consequences (happy mood,
stress relief and helping to protect the environment);three functional values (enjoyment of
life, enhancement of life quality and better relationships with others); and three terminal
values (happier life, social identity and social belongingness). Looking at the frequency
of responses, from the 11 attributes, the use of local ingredients was mentioned most
often (15 times), followed by the use of recyclable or biodegradable products (seven
times). From the eight consequences, increased consumption frequency was mentioned
most often (nine times), followed by good environmental practices (seven times). From
the six values, a happier life was mentioned most often (16 times), followed by better
 Using a MEC to investigate the effect of personal values 517

relationships with others (11 times) (Table 2). Higher frequencies indicate factors that are
more important to consumers.

4.2 Implication matrix

The implication matrix is used to produce the hierarchical value map (HVM) and is an
important tool for integrating the frequency of associations. The chain relationships
between attributes, consequences and values produced by laddering are represented by
numbers in the matrix to indicate the frequency of direct and indirect chain links between
attributes and consequences, shown in the matrix columns and consequences and values,
shown in the matrix rows (Reynolds and Olson, 2001). The values before the symbol (;)
indicate the frequency of direct chain links between the factors, while figures after the
symbol indicate the frequency of indirect chain links between the factors. The figures
indicate the strength of the chain link between the factors. The restaurant consumption
implication matrix is shown in Table 2.

Figure 1 Hierarchical value map (for a cut-off point of 3)

4.3 Hierarchical value map (HVM)

The results show that the 20 respondents constructed 78 value ladders, producing an
average of 3.9 ladders for each respondent. In order to ensure that the HVM clearly
shows the important A/C/V chain relationships, we used Reynolds and Gutmans (1988)
suggested cut-off level of three, including A/C/V associations with a frequency of three
or more links in the HVM (Figure 1). The frequency of the links between factors is
518 M-Y. Jeng and T-M. Yeh

indicated with arrows of differing thickness with thicker lines indicating stronger
relationships. Typically, an association with four or fewer links is considered weak, an
association between five and nine links is considered moderate and an association of ten
or more links is considered strong (Fotopoulos et al., 2003). From the overall analysis, a
happier life is the terminal value sought by consumers, while better relationship with
others is a functional value. Looking at the strength of associations in the frequency of
links between attributes and consequences, the association between use of recyclable or
biodegradable products and helping to protect the environment (4;1) is the strongest,
reaching a moderate level, while the highest frequency of links between consequences
and values occur between favourable environment habit and happier life (7;0), also
reaching a moderate level.

4.4 Research results

The purpose of this study is to use an HVM produced by the MEC and laddering
interviews to explore the personal values of restaurant consumers and identify the
importance of concrete and abstract attributes of green restaurants to consumers. The
results of this study can be used as a basis for brand positioning of green restaurants.
In terms of green restaurant attributes, consumers focus on the use of local food,
reusable or biodegradable products and a green environment. Of these, the use of
recyclable or biodegradable products and a green environment were most highly valued.
This result confirms the findings of Schubert et al. (2010). From the above information,
we find that consumer spending in restaurants is not solely motivated by basic
physiological needs. Apparently, the experience of food consumption in a restaurant has
expanded from satisfying mere physiological demands to psychological demands of
leisure, environmental protection and health. As such, when a restaurant provides more
than basic physiological demands, discrimination based on green attributes becomes a
successful strategy for restaurant positioning.
In terms of result benefits, consumers believe that after eating in a restaurant, the
following characteristics are most important: feeling physically healthier, being in a good
mood, experiencing a release of stress, protecting the environment, increasing
consumption frequency and developing a favourable environmental habit. At the same
time, based on Reynold and Whitlarks (1995) classification, these results are in line with
functional consequences (increased consumption frequency, good environmental
practices and health benefits), as well as psychological consequences (happiness and
helping to protect the environment). These results also confirm the findings of Schubert
et al. (2010) and Lpez-Mosquera and Snchez (2011) in that the experience of a green
environment can increase happiness and relieve stress; green restaurants satisfy consumer
desires and the above traits of feeling physically healthier, elevating mood and releasing
stress, which are important for achieving the value target.
In terms of value goals, consumers would like to attain better relationships with
others, enjoy life more and improve their quality of life. The research supports the theory
that green environments help to provide these goals. Lpez-Mosquera and Snchez
(2011) utilised the MECto acquire a green environment for visitors to relieve stress and
further acquire instrumental value of enjoyment of living fun and enhancement of life
quality as well as terminal value of better relationship with others and happier life.
 Using a MEC to investigate the effect of personal values 519

5 Conclusions

5.1 Research contributions

The combination of an MEC model and a laddering interview could help understand
consumer values. The connection between decision motives, attributes and target benefits
is shown in Figure 1. Applying a laddering interview to test consumers of green
restaurants, three attributes, six results and one terminal value have been confirmed. The
HVM offers a restaurant marketing strategy and helps to develop a structural measuring
instrument to evaluate the targets of other competitive restaurants. Most interesting,
however, is that although consumers perceive that restaurant attributes would generate
different results and values, the terminal value is a happier life. It is regarded as a
potential positioning opportunity. In addition to discriminating the attributes, the HVM
also presents more abstract psychological results and terminal values as well as a strength
evaluation of a restaurants green positioning. From the aspect of demands, such an
approach would attract more target consumers in a practical sense for organisational
management of small-scale restaurants. It could also reduce costs by removing several
positioning topics for adapting to various groups. Furthermore, higher result benefits are
acquired from broader attributes that a restaurants green positioning could include more
consumers, such as local businesspersons and visitors.

5.2 Management implications

The purpose of this study was to combine an MEC with laddering interviews and use an
HVM to provide a structured measurement tool for restaurant marketing and
development, with the aim of creating a basis for goal evaluation in competition with
other restaurants. The findings show that consumers value restaurants that use recyclable
or biodegradable products and local ingredients. Therefore, restaurants can collaborate
with local farmers to provide local specialties and use environmentally friendly products
to attract consumers. In terms of result benefits, consumers value feelings of physical and
mental health and helping to protect the environment. Therefore, we suggest that green
restaurants use organically grown ingredients as a marketing strategy. In value terms,
when selecting green restaurants, consumers hope to achieve better relationships with
others, enjoy life, improve their quality of life, have a sense of belonging and experience
self-actualisation. Restaurants can use green buildings and landscaping to create simple
spaces that will give consumers a sense of belonging. The results show that awareness,
consequences and values associated with green attributes of restaurants may vary
between consumers; however, they share the same terminal value of making life
happier. This can provide a basis for the positioning of a green restaurant, as restaurant
operators can use menu choices, decoration and services to create feelings of happiness
and attract their target customers.

5.3 Limitations of the study and recommendations

With qualitative research, this study explores the opportunities of green positioning of
restaurants based on consumer value. As the research sample is small, it is not considered
a restriction, as one of the advantages of using the laddering interview technique is the
acquisition of generalised data from a small number of interviewees. It is suggested that
520 M-Y. Jeng and T-M. Yeh

future researchers could apply a soft laddering technique for in-depth data interviews,
which could be developed into a quantitative questionnaire to compensate for the lack of
large-scale interviews and acquire more accurate results. Successive researchers could
screen attributes, results and values from distinct types of industries worldwide through
local key groups for target positioning and market segmentation.

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