Carmichael function

In number theory, the Carmichael function of a positive

integer n, denoted (n) , is dened as the smallest positive
integer m such that (pk ) = pk1 (p 1).

By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic any n > 1 can

a m
1 (mod n) be written in a unique way

for every integer a that is coprime to n. In more alge-

braic terms, it denes the exponent of the multiplicative n = pa1 pa2 . . . pa(n)
1 2 (n)
group of integers modulo n. The Carmichael function is
also known as the reduced totient function or the least where p < p < ... < p are primes and the ai > 0. (n =
1 2
universal exponent function, and is sometimes also de- 1 corresponds to the empty product.)
noted (n) .
For general n, (n) is the least common multiple of of
The rst 36 values of (n) (sequence A002322 in the each of its prime power factors:
OEIS) compared to Eulers totient function . (in bold
if they are dierent, the ns such that they are dierent are
listed in A033949) a(n)
(n) = lcm[(pa1 1 ), (pa2 2 ), . . . , (p(n) )].

Carmichaels theorem states that if a is coprime to n, then

1 Numerical example
Carmichaels function at 8 is 2 because for any x co-prime
a(n) 1 (mod n),
to 8 it holds that x2 1 (mod 8). For example, 72 = 49
1 (mod 8), where 7 and 8 are coprime (their greatest
where is the Carmichael function dened above. In
common divisor equals 1; they have no common factors).
other words, it asserts the correctness of the formulas.
Eulers totient function is 4 at 8 because there are 4 num-
This can be proven by considering any primitive root
bers lesser than and coprime to 8 (1, 3, 5, and 7). Whilst
modulo n and the Chinese remainder theorem.
it is true that 74 = 2401 1 (mod 8), as shown by Eulers
theorem, raising 7 to the fourth power is unnecessary be-
cause the Carmichael function indicates that 7 squared is
congruent to 1 (mod 8). Raising 7 to exponents greater 3 Proofs
than 2 only repeats the cycle 7, 1, 7, 1, ... . Because the
same holds true for 3 and 5, the Carmichael number is 2
The following proofs proceed by induction.
rather than 4. [1]

3.1 Proof for Odd Prime Powers

2 Carmichaels theorem
From Fermats little theorem, we have ap1 = 1 + hp .
For a power of an odd prime, twice the power of an odd For k = 1, h an integer:
prime, and for 2 and 4, (n) is equal to the Euler totient
(n); for powers of 2 greater than 4 it is equal to half of
the Euler totient: k1
ap (p1) = 1 + hpk

{ k
(n) ap 18,
if n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17,
(p1)
19,=22,
(1+hp k p
23, 25,)26,=27,
1+hp k+1
+ . . .= 1+h0 pk+1
29, 31, 34,
(n) = 1
2 (n) ifn = 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, . . .
for some integer h0 .
k1
Eulers function for prime powers is given by By induction, we have ap (p1)
1 (mod pk ) .

1
2 5 PROPERTIES OF THE CARMICHAEL FUNCTION

3.2 Proof for Powers of Two The above proof is wrong because the element coprime to
a need not be coprime to b, and hence one can not write
For a coprime to powers of 2 we have a = 1+2h . Then, m(b) = k2 b + 1. In particular, take a = 3, b = 6 and
m = 2, then 22 is not congruent to 1 mod 6.
Proof. Using the following result
a2 = 1 + 4h(h + 1) = 1 + 8Ch+1
2

2
where we take advantage of the fact that Ch+1 =
a(n)
(h + 1)h/2 is an integer. (n) = lcm[(pa1 1 ), (pa2 2 ), . . . , (p(n) )].
So, for k = 3, h an integer:
the result follows.

k2
a2 = 1 + 2k h
5.3 Composition
2k1 k 2 k+1 k1 2
a = (1 + 2 h) = 1 + 2 (h + 2 h )
For all positive integers a and b it holds
2k2
By induction, when k 3, we have a 1 (mod 2k )
.
(lcm(a, b)) = lcm((a), (b))
4 Hierarchy of results This is an immediate consequence of the recursive de-
nition of the Carmichael function.
Since (n) divides (n), Eulers totient function (the
quotients are listed in A034380), the Carmichael func-
tion is a stronger result than the classical Eulers theo- 5.4 Primitive m-th roots of unity
rem. Clearly Carmichaels theorem is related to Eulers
theorem, because the exponent of a nite abelian group Let a and n be coprime and let m be the smallest exponent
must divide the order of the group, by elementary group with am 1 (mod n) , then it holds
theory. The two functions dier already in small cases:
(15) = 4 while (15) = 8 (see A033949 for the asso-
ciated n). m|(n)
Fermats little theorem is the special case of Eulers theo-
That is, the orders of primitive roots of unity in the ring
rem in which n is a prime number p. Carmichaels theo-
of integers modulo n are divisors of (n) .
rem for a prime p gives the same result, because the group
in question is a cyclic group for which the order and ex-
ponent are both p 1.
5.5 Exponential cycle length

For a number n with maximum prime exponent of xmax

5 Properties of the Carmichael under prime factorization, then for all a (including those
function not co-prime to n ) and all k xmax ,

5.1 Minimality
ak ak+(n) (mod n)
Suppose m 1 (mod a) for all m coprime with a.
c

Then (a)|c In particular, for squarefree n ( xmax = 1 ), for all a

Proof. If c = k(a) + r with 0 < r < (a) then

mc 1mr 1 (mod a) for all m, since r < (a) and
(a) minimal such number a a(n)+1 (mod n)

5.2 Divisibility 5.6 Average and typical value

a|b (a)|(b) For any x > 16:

Wrong Proof: Since b = k1 a we get m(b) = k2 b + 1 =
1 x B(1+o(1)) ln ln x/(ln ln ln x)
k1 k2 a + 1 for all m coprime with a. Statement follows x nx (n) = ln x e
[2][3]
from minimality. .
 3

Where B is a constant, 6 See also

Carmichael number
( 1
)

B=e 1 0.34537 .
p
(p 1)2 (p + 1)
7 Notes
For all numbers N and all except o(N) positive integers n
N: [1] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2011-06-
15. Retrieved 2010-01-05.

[2] Theorem 3 in Erds (1991)

(n) = n/(ln n)ln ln ln n+A+o(1)
[3] Sndor & Crstici (2004) p.194
where A is a constant,[3][4]
[4] Theorem 2 in Erds (1991)

log p [5] Theorem 5 in Friedlander (2001)

A = 1 + 0.2269688 .
p
(p 1)2 [6] Theorem 1 in Erds 1991

[7] Sndor & Crstici (2004) p.193

5.7 Lower bounds [8] Ford, Kevin; Luca, Florian; Pomerance, Carl (27 Au-
gust 2014). The image of Carmichaels -function.
For any suciently large number N and for any arXiv:1408.6506 [math.NT].
(ln ln N )3 , there are at most

8 References
N e0.69( ln )
1/3

positive integers n N such that (n) ne .[5] Erds, Paul; Pomerance, Carl; Schmutz, Eric
(1991). Carmichaels lambda function. Acta
For any sequence n1 < n2 < n3 < of positive inte- Arithmetica. 58: 363385. ISSN 0065-1036. MR
gers, any constant 0 < c < 1/ ln 2 , and any suciently 1121092. Zbl 0734.11047.
large i:
Friedlander, John B.; Pomerance, Carl; Shparlinski,
(ni ) > (ln ni ) c ln ln ln ni [6][7]
. Igor E. (2001). Period of the power generator and
small values of the Carmichael function. Math-
ematics of Computation. 70 (236): 15911605,
5.8 Small values 18031806. ISSN 0025-5718. MR 1836921. Zbl
1029.11043. doi:10.1090/s0025-5718-00-01282-
For a constant c and any suciently large positive A, there 5.
exists an integer n > A such that (n) < (ln A)c ln ln ln A
Sndor, Jozsef; Crstici, Borislav (2004). Handbook
.[7] Moreover, n is of the form
of number theory II. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
pp. 3236,193195. ISBN 1-4020-2546-7. Zbl
1079.11001.
n= q
(q1)|m and qprime is Carmichael, R. D. The Theory of Numbers. Nabu
Press. ISBN 1144400341.
for some square-free integer m < (ln A)c ln ln ln A .[6]

5.9 Image of the function

The set of values of the Carmichael function has counting
function

x
,
(log x)+o(1)
1+log log 2
where = 1 log 2 = 0.08607 .[8]
4 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text
Carmichael function Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmichael_function?oldid=794244078 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Iso-
morphic, Dominus, Chinju, Silversh, Charles Matthews, Giftlite, Numerao, Tromer, Grutness, Ling Kah Jai, Oleg Alexandrov, Arbol01,
Hello5959us, Rjwilmsi, Joan, Gregh3285, Zanetu, Jim.belk, Model Math, Tawkerbot2, CRGreathouse, HenningThielemann, Myasuda,
MaxEnt, Mon4, Joh5n, Nilisco, TomyDuby, Doctahdrey, El bot de la dieta, Diophantine, Virginia-American, Bryant124, Addbot, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, ArthurBot, Liorma, Raulshc, D'ohBot, Kalanchoea, Tttfkkk, Icakir, Onrandom, Deltahedron, SBareSSomErMig, Apnorton,
Gmkwo, Georey Lamont Critzer, InternetArchiveBot, MC1228, Rnd2000, Bhavinmoriya and Anonymous: 45

9.2 Images
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:OEISicon_light.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/OEISicon_light.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Watchduck.svg' class='image'><img
alt='Watchduck.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/40px-Watchduck.svg.png'
width='40' height='46' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/60px-Watchduck.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/80px-Watchduck.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='703'
data-le-height='806' /></a> Watchduck (a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)

9.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0