Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
559-576 1971
K.J. WEBER t)
SUMMARY INTRODUCTION
One of the most conspicuous geological features of the The research for oil, in Nigeria by the Shell-BP
Niger Delta is its growth fault pattern. Almost all the oil
reserves are contained in rollover structures which are Petroleum Development Company started in 1937.
associated with growth -faults. These structural features are Commercial oil production commenced in 1958 and
thought to have been formed by the force of gravity acting ,by September 10,70 about 1800 accumulations of oil
on a thick body of sediments supplied mainly by the Niger and gas, had been discovered in 146 'structural
River. These sediments form, a typical deltaic offlap se- features.
quence consisting, of a wedge of continental sands grading
downwards into marine clayey sediments which, at a In addition numerous discoveries have been made
greater depth, are in a state of undercompaction. by other companies, particularly in the offshore'
Stratigraphically most of the known oil accumulations region. The position of 91 oil fields is shown in fig. 1.
occur in the paralic sequence, i.e. the transition zone'between Further discoveries can be expected as exploration
the continental and fully marine. sediments. The paralic activities continue.
sequence consists of a large, number of sedimentary offlap
cycles, each cycle starting with a marine clay, generally less Even now the Niger Delta is a more prolific oil
than 150 feet thick and changing upwards progressively into province per unit of surface area than the Gulf coast
proximal fluviomarine interlaminated silt, sand and clay of Texas and Louisiana. Oil production from Shell-BP
which are usually followed by various types of more sandy
barrier-bar and coastal-plain deposits. The, cycles are termi-
nated by transgressions which erode away part of the offlap On vela. .m eo,,ed is
1 Forado E uary
teI
Fig. 2b.
Schematic section perpendicular to the coastline.
GROWTH FAULTS AND
ROLLOVER STRUCTURES
The stratigraphy of the Niger Delta, the major faults are well known from numerous publications on
sedimentary cycles and tectonic movements of the Gulf Coast tectonics (H a r d i n and H a r d i n, 1961;
basement are described by S h o r t and S t a u b 1 e O c a m b, 1961, S h e 1 t o n, 1968). The exact way
(1967), Frankl and Cordry (1967) and Ma- in which these faults are formed is not entirely clear
r o n (1969). These subjects are summarized briefly, but it is likely that gravitational slumping in under-
but this article deals mainly with growth faulting and compacted z> marine clay plays an important part.
the application of sedimentology to oil-field develop-
ment. Comparisons of the Tertiary with the Recent 2)
Niger delta sediments are also made. In general the weight of the solids of the overburden is
carried by the sediment grains while the pressure of the
It is stressed that the ideas presented in this article interstitial water is hydrostatic. However a rapid accumula-
represent the outcome of the combined efforts of tion of poorly permeable clay and silt can prevent the
many geologists over a twenty year period. escape of sufficient water to reach this equilibrium and
561
Clay diapirism in the form of ridges paralled to the Trace of crestal plane.
Section shown
in figure 5
emo di j% o
Afln /- Zc
1
i tt ,.
00
10 II i
\ \\ \ I"
1 \
50
5 km
Seismic line showing 30, thinning j
of the sedlmen tory cycle
underlying the Guembelino-4 marks
Fig. 4
Fault map of the Olomoro-Oweh fields area at the level of the Guembelina-4 marker, together with the measured and estimated
net sand thickness in the underlying sedimentary cycle.
NW OldEH OLOMORO
SE
f-
Marine shale
Guembelino-4
Polaeontological marker
4 2 1 9 21 14 10 3 2 1 23 5 4 8 /19 12 25
I t ._ a_...._..:.. I la
Datum __ ...................
level
ay plug
.. PB
Oftle
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
5.01
_-
ell 3
--
poinr tw
.....
I
._...........- -
_
`
_ ._
BB C
Qom.
O
B9
a
M ne shale
Barrier foot laminated sand, silt and shale
with o high gamma radiation
0.5 tkm
[__ ] Sand (PB =point bar, fill, BB. barrier bar, T.lranegrneeive 1
0- to
20
9M Silt, shaley sand and lignite
_ Shale 30
=.a Gravel
--- Thin shale
<z,7 Possible interconnection between adjacent sands
Example of a thick lens-shaped sedimentary cycle mainly composed of point bar sands, Olomoro and O,weh fields.
563
In cases where a series of rollover structures is paction. Thus when the area with the maximum rate
present along a growth-fault trend, the lens shape of of sedimentation shifts in a lateral sense, the crest of
sedimentary cycles can sometimes be observed the resulting anticline will shift in the same direction.
because correlation is possible over a sufficient Such lateral shifts of the crestal culmination are
distance. An example is shown in fig. 5 which is a commonly observed in the Niger delta rollover
stratigraphic cross section of a thick sedimentary structures.
cycle in the twin fields Olomoro and Oweh. The sand Although several contemporaneous lenses of sand
thickness in the centre of the section is about 230 can be in lateral contact along a fault trend, the
feet, tapering off to about 110 feet to the east and an number of individual genetic sand bodies that con-
even lower figure to the west. Differential compac- tinue from one lens into the next may often be
tion enhances the lens shape because of the lateral limited. In the case illustrated in figs. 4 and 5 only
differences in the sand/shale ratio. one sand bed could be correlated with certainty from
The closure of the structures parallel to the faults the Olomoro - Oweh area into the Eriemu field, viz.
may well be mainly the result of the lens shape of the a 20 feet thick barrier bar, of, sand at the base of the
sedimentary cycles combined with differential com- sedimentary cycle (fig. 5). In certain cases the aquifer
NW SE
Gamma
ray 21 23
Datum levet
Sand
-"Clay 120 m
I* 1265m Mom
E Laminated sand/clay
Fig. 6
Stratigraphic section' through the Forcados Estuary field showing an unconformity caused by upward movement of the
'underlying marine clay.
'564
of oil reservoirs _may thus be restricted in size samples are usually required to establish the strati-
especially when the distance to the next growth fault graphic relationships.
in the coastal direction is small. A limited water drive
is indeed observed in several fields.
The degree of faulting of the rollover structures GEOMORPHOLOGY
varies across the delta in a complicated manner. The
structures along, the coast and offshore tend to, be The present geomorphology of, the Niger delta has
faulted more intensely than the structures further been described in detail by A 11 e n (1964, 1965) and
inland. The various types of oil accumulations asso- in the N e d e c o reports (1954, 1959, 1961). M a -
ciated With these different configurations are shown r on (1969) compared the Recent and ancient delta
in fig. 3. The upward movement of clay ridges which configurations. Furthermore several studies were car-
is observed near the coast and offshore (fig. 3d) can ried out on the Recent sedimentation in the Niger
cause unconformities, an example of which is shown delta region, both onshore and offshore, by geologists
in fig. 6. However only a few of such unconformities of Shell-BP and the Koninklijke/Shell Exploration
have as yet been identified. and Production Laboratory. Many samples were
An important aspect, typical for growth-fault taken offshore, while on land shallow core holes were
regions, is the difficulty in correlating over large drilled along the coast and in areas of predominantly
distances in a section perpendicular to the coast. The fluviatile sedimentation. A typical, example of this
growth faults often have maximum throws of over work is shown in fig. 7.-
3,000 feet. This, coupled with the change in deposi The. assembled data have been combined in a
tional environment in this direction and the large model (fig. 8) in order to obtain a better under-
differences in thickness. on either side of the faults, standing of the lateral and vertical development of
makes direct correlation of the logs difficult. Detailed the sand bodies in the subsurface paralic sequence. It
paleontological and palynological analyses on shale. has been assumed that -the climate, oceanic currents
Fig. 7
Holocene deposits in core holes 1.1, 25-33, Nigeria (after J.P. v.d. Sluis, K.S.E.P.L.).
565
and tectonic activity have been more or less constant depth ranging from about 30 to 10 metres. The silt
from the beginning of the Eocene to the Recent with and sand are transported by longshore currents
the exception of the Pleistocene period. The Pleisto- which 'distribute the pediment load of the rivers
cene regression and the post-Pleistocene transgression along the coast.
are events that complicate a direct comparison of the 3. Coastal belt of barrier bars consisting of fine to
Recent and sub-Recent sedimentation with the Ter- medium sand. The bars extend over and interfinger
tiary. This is especially due to the ensuing anomalous- with barrier-foot sediments at a depth of roughly
ly large distance from continental, slope to the 10 metres. Again longshore currents are Tespon-
present-day coastline (50-60 km). sible for the transport of the sand. Beach ridges on
The following- physiographic units can be distin- the surface of the bar represent successive stages of
guished in the Recent delta (fig. 8): growth. Peat can be formed in the swampy
1. Holomarine zone in which predominantly clay is depression between the beach ridges. On the
deposited and which ranges from the outer shelf down-current end of barrier bars, sand spits extend
up to a depth of about 30 metres. In certain areas into tidal channels which also belong to the. coastal
lag deposits of the post-Pleistocene transgression belt. River-mouth bars are formed in front of these
are still lying at the surface. tidal channels.
2. A transition zone of either fluviomarine or bar- 4.- A tidal coastal' plain extends behind the barrier
rier-foot sediments characterized by the deposition bars and comprises tidal flats and swamps with
of laminated clay, silt and fine sand in a water dense mangrove vegetation which alternate with
Barrier bar
Barrier foot
Natural
levee
Point
bar
Tidal
swamp
EM Marine clay
EN Transgressive sand
Beach
ridges;
Fig. 8
Block diagram showing geomorphology, cyclic sedimentation and an active growth fault in the tertiary Niger delta coastal zone.
566 ,
tidal distributary channels and lagoons. The dis- sedimentation along the downthrown side of the'
tributary channels meander to varying degrees but fault. Beneath the block diagram a section. has been
this tendency diminishes near the coast. The sketched through a cycle in the Obigbo North field
sediments range from medium to coarse sand in which shows that over a distance of about 2 km the
channel fills via fine clayey sands in the natural sand thickness of a barrier bar can more than double
levees to clayey, silty and peaty deposits, in the probably mainly as a result of the growth fault.
swamps and lagoons. The edge of the tidal swamps The composition of a. given cycle observed in an
moves seaward as the back of the barrier bars is oil well of course depends greatly on the location of
eroded, the well with respect to the relevant ancient coastline.
5. The flood plain of the major rivers contains an In oil .fields which are fairly wide perpendicular to the
accumulation of medium to coarse point-bar sand main growth fault, the lateral changes in the deposi-
and some clayey backswamp deposits. tional environment of the sediments of each cycle can
From the studies of the Recent delta sediments, be observed. An example of this is shown in fig. 9
various criteria were derived for recognising the which is a schematic N-S cross-section with a length
depositional environment of sands and clays in the of about, 5 km through a series of four cycles in the
subsurface. For the sands, the main criteria are Bomu field (see also F r a n k 1 and C o r d r y, 1967,
based, on the grain-size distribution, sedimentary p. 204-205). In this case a transgressive sand is
structures and the authigenic minerals, e.g. glau- developed at the top only of the uppermost cycle,
conite. For the clays the faunal content, pollen but on top of the underlying cycle a basal conglomer-
analysis and clay mineralogy can be used. Studies ate of clay-ironstone pebbles is present. The lower
based partly or entirely on observations in other two cycles are only partly developed within the field
areas are also of interest (L a g a. a i j and K o p - area.
s t e i n, 1964; P o r r e n g a, 1967). The criteria In many cases, such as in the series of cycles in the
which have proved to be most useful; will be
mentioned in the discussion of the various environ-
ments of deposition.
1
--{ conglomerate
basal
F-i 3
0
Fluviomarine, barrier loot
offlap sequence which commences with a marine mostly argilloceous
0
Fine to very fine sands Littoral, mostly beach and barrier,
shale and continues with laminated fluviomarine
Fine to very fine sands, Lagoonal, mainly barrier back
sediments. Barrier-bar and/or fluviatile sediments may slope, tidal delta, wash-over, etc.
follow before another transgression terminates the Very fine to coarse sands Composite channel build-up
cycle. This type of cycle is also known from other Locally calcareous sands Transgressive sand
0
BF_
- IOmV
9amma
API
150
Were WI
16
0 SN
e
Ampl. SN n4b
reworking and winnowing of the eroded beds. In
addition, the gravelly sands contain an abundance of
------
X8800 debris such as shale fragments, foraminifera, bryozoa
and fish otoliths. Burrowing extending into the
underlying offlap sand is common. This type of
transgressive sand is probably associated with a
PB Point bar
8900' regional transgression which pushed, the shoreline.
BF
--- -ar back over a considerable distance. In consequence the
M _ 000 '
deposition of clastic particles is, very slow. The
presence of abundant glauconite is indicative of slow
T - , ----
_--- marine deposition (P o r r e n g a, 1967).
-- y;fir=- -
-----
BF There is also another less common type of. onlap
:ti-
- - ""- - 910_0- deposit which is generally thicker than the above
M
-
type, viz. up to 10 metres instead of up to about
T- 3 metres. In this type of onlap and the contact
BF2 ---- m'
between the onlap and underlying offlap sediments is
BBI
-- - --- ---_-- 9200
less erosive. The onlap seems to have taken place
BF1 }-- `
more gradually and the onlap sands have the charac-
B _% Barrier bar ter of fluviomarine sediments. However instead of the
- rrier }oot -} 9300=_ normal upward coarsening of the fluviomarine depo-
sits, these onlap sands become finer upwards and
Marine clay =-
finally grade into marine clay. Streaks of coarse grains
__.+..- _-
Tr. sand ._.. _" and glauconite and clay intercalations are common.
This type of onlap,, may be associated with strong
growth-fault activity in a limited area. The transgres-
Fig. 10
Example of a series of offlap sequences j n the paralic sive sand in the'Agbada field cycle shown in figure 12
sequence Uzere West field. is of this type.
7980'
r
f
P BB
17880,
ty
BB =.
11
=L
8000
BF BF BOod
i
r
MIC
3
MC
802d 48020,
Fig. I I
Interpretation of high gamma radiation of barrier foot sediments in well Olomoro-5 (after M.B.K. Lutz).
MARINE CLAY
-
_ __
Datum level
f-st.cloy ? 1RANSGR Ssl, co
f-xl t^- clean
-Kf Bond BARRIER BAR
_._
f-xf
_ - tY Sand
-xl -
MARINE CLAY
to
SO __199% by weight
more than 25 feet clean
barrl er bar sand N
BARRIER FOOT
odo T
Ikm
J
)500 microns
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN BARRIER FOOT AND BARRIER BAR SKETCH MAP OF THE DATUM LEVEL HORIZON SHOWING COASTAL TREND
Fig. 12', -
Example of lateral development of barrier sand sequence in the Agbada field.
569
FLUVIOMARINE (DELTAIC FRINGE) AND the barrier bars by longshore, currents and wave
BARRIER-FOOT DEPOSITS action is a well known process.
A 1 1 e n (1965 a) also describes the erosion of the
Towards the top, the marine clay becomes more landward side of, the barrier bars by tidal, charnels
sandy and gradually changes to laminated clay/silt/ (fig. 8). However the remaining barrier-bar sands are
fine sand. Because of the rapid sedimentation the usually still several kilometres in width (an average of
layers are little disturbed by burrowing. This is of 5 km in the Recent delta). The length of the barriers
interest because this part of the offlap, cycles is parallel to the coast is very large (5 - 37 kin with an
deposited on a very flat slope.. Thus after folding in a average of 18 km in the Recent delta)., Thus the
rollover structure, these intervals can be used for barrier bars have the character of widespread sheet
deriving accurate structural dips from the dipmeter sands.
logs. The majority of the oil fields have a width
Gradually the fluviomarine character becomes perpendicular to the coastal trend of 2 km or less and
more pronounced; the sand laminae thicken and the a length of less than 8 km. Barrier bars encountered
average grain size increases; plant, remains- are very in a field can thus in. general be correlated over all or
common and occasionally accumulate in thin lignitic most of a field's area. In the case illustrated in fig. 4
streaks. This type of sediment often forms the and 5, the barrier bar near the base of the cycle could
proximal fluviomarine frontal part of coastal barriers be correlated over a length of 21 km parallel to the
and is termed "barrier foot". growth fault, from the eastern end of the Olomoro
A remarkable feature of the "barrier foot depo- field up to the Afiesere field. Since the sand thickness
sits is the high gamma radiation commonly associated is about 6 metres, a length/ thickness ratio along the
with these beds. In fig. 10, the "barrier foot" gamma fault of several thousand is obtained.
radiation is often higher than that of the marine clay. The sand thickness of a barrier bar is generally not
A study was made of the origin of this radiation by much greater than about 12 metres except near
analysing a series of sidewall samples from a high growth faults as shown in fig. 8. This is because at a
radiation zone of this kind in the Olomoro field water depth of over 10 metres predominantly shale
(fig. 11). The source of the radiation appears to be interbedded barrier-foot deposits are formed. In fields
the high percentage of silt size zircon. Zircon contains that are relatively wide perpendicular to the coastal
in general from 200 - 2,000 ppmm Th and from 600 - trend one can often observe a reduction of the
6,000 ppm U. thickness of the clean barrier-bar sand in the seaward
direction' of the type shown in the model (fig. 8).t A
good example is a cycle in the Agbada field (fig. 12).
BARRIER BAR In this example the high gamma radiation of parts of
the barrier foot and the upward coarsening of the
The barrier foot is often overlain by the higher- barrier sequence is also shown.
energy barrier beach and washover sands. The cleaner The upward coarsening is often fairly gradual and
and coarser'sands deposited in the zone where wave is reflected by gradual changes in SP log and
action takes place are termed "barrier bar" deposits. gamma-ray log response., This coarsening is almost
The sands are fine with an average grain size of always accompanied by an upwardly increasing per-
250-60 microns. The sorting of the sand varies meability.. Thus in oil-beating reservoirs of this type
considerably. Of more diagnostic value is the ratio of the, resistivity generally increases in an upwards
maximum (D1) to average grain size (D50) which direction.
rangesfrom 1 to 3- In the fluviatile sediments of the Clay breaks in the, barrier bars, unlike clay breaks
Niger delta this ratio is always higher than 3. in fluviatile sediments, can often be correlated over
The main part of the barrier bars is usually parallel large distances. These continuous clay breaks reduce
bedded with occasional small-scale cross-bedding in the vertical permeability of many barrier-bar reser-
the lower part and a limited number of burrows. Silty voirs.
clay breaks, and lignite, beds are common.,Most of the It is fairly common to find a series of barrier-bar
peat is formed in the swampy depressions between sands on top of each other with only a very thin
the beach ridges (A I 1 e n, 1965 a). The formation of marine clay and/or a thin interval of barrier-foot
570
sediments in between the clean sands. Such a succes- metres, The width/depth ratio ranges from 38 to 200.
sion of genetic units of the same type is termed an Although tidal channels tend to migrate, the subsur-
amplified sand body and is -generally the result of face width/thickness ratio of tidal channel-fills is
rapid subsidence during the deposition. probably in the same range. In fig. 7 the section
In places where a barrier bar is, eroded by crosses the Tidal channel obliquely; the width in the
distributary channels, as in the bottom part of the section is about 3,500 metres and the thickness about
cycle in fig. 5, so-called composite sand bodies are 17 metres, i.e. a width/thickness ratio of about 200.
formed which consist of more than one type of Tidal channel-fills often consist of a series of thin
genetic unit, ' cross-bedded sequences fining upwards with a clay
pebble or gravelly lag deposit at the base, and
separated by thin clay beds. The grain-size distribu-
TIDAL CHANNELS tions are similar to those of fluviatile deposits in the
lower deltaic plain. Clay breaks between these se-
At present many estuaries and tidal channels are quences give the channel-fills a serrated character on
found along the delta coast. The maximum width of the SP and gamma ray logs. The clay breaks are
the tidal channels is 2,700 metres with a depth of 20 .generally difficult to correlate in contrast to the very
/ TC TD BS
,i _ -- BB
BS CF
BB
BB
MC -- - _ MC BF
MC MC C
CF
BS BS CF
CF BF
BF BF
-
MC C MC _ MC
-- -
OF
MC - -- OF
MC
---- --4 OF
1 j OF-
T MC MC
T
BB BB r
J- T T
BB
. BF BF BF BB
MC MC
BF
Wt
MC Marine cloy 11
T Transgressive it
Fig. 13
Stratigraphic section through 9 part of the Egwa field paralic sequence, showing a tidal channel-fill.
571
continuous clay breaks in barrier bars. The sequences the fluviatile sand bodies is the sharp base of the sand
which fine upwards sometimes show up clearly on the units in the logs. Occasionally however clay pebbles
micrologs. at the base of the sand may obscure, this log effect.
Fig. 13 shows a tidal channel in the Egwa field. A The width/thickness ratio, ,of the point bars in
distributary channel apparently developed into a tidal fig. 5 ranges from about 400 to 800 which is roughly
channel. The section runs at an angle with the coastal the range to be expected for point bars. At one side
trend. Thus on one side the channel-fill is flanked by the oval point bars are often terminated by the clayey
clayey backswamp and lagoonal deposits while on the fills, of the Oxbow lakes (fig. 5).
other side we find the barrier bar through which the Backswamp deposits consisting of silty clay, thin
channel eroded its way. Thus the section "is very sand beds, (e.g;. small creek - fills)- and peat are
similar to the one through Recent sediments shown in commonly' preserved between and beside point-bar
fig. 7. The effect of differential compaction is very sands. Further away from the axis of the river valley
marked. The width/thickness ratio of the composite they can become prominent.
distributary and tidal channel-fills is about 50 (about Closer to the coast on the tidal flats the rivers
1,500 metres wide and roughly 30. metres thick on subdivide into many distributaries. Most of these
average). distributary channels also have the tendency to
The river-mouth bars associated with,, the tidal meander but many more or less straight channels are
channels have occasionally been identified Olomoro,
Their characteristics and position in the cycles, 10 my 21'
however, are rather similar to barrier bars and the Sp Gamma ray
difference is difficult to see on log evidence alone.
9700'
,000000
Oil -water MWN
contact
not yet
established
Fig. 15
Example of a complex hydrocarbon distribution in a series of four sedimentary cycles in the Afiesere and Eriemu fields.
sands nearly always have a high permeability through- However the uppermost barrier sand is cemented
out. Consequently the oil-filled culminations in by secondary carbonate derived from the disconform-
Afiesere and Eriemu have high average oil saturations. ably overlying fossil-rich transgressive deposits. The
The average porosity of such a unit is usually porosity and permeability are much reduced and the
remarkably constant from one end of the field to the bed contains tight zones with very little oil. In sands
other. of this type an irregular oil distribution is to be
The thin natural-levee or crevasse sand attached to expected. Productivity from such a reservoir will in
the upper-most point bar (or channel fill) in the well general be poor.
Afiesere-12 contains some stratigraphically trapped The channel-fill eroding the two barrier sands has
oil near its tip (Afiesere 14). Such small irregular oil the best permeability of the sands in the cycle
accumulations are common. because of its much larger average grain size which
The next cycle (11) is much more complex. It together with the log response make it stand out
consists principally of two barrier-bar sands which clearly from the surrounding barrier sands. This
again form an amplified unit. Furthermore in the cliannel-fill has a good oil saturation and can be
Eriemu field there is also a distributary-channel fill. expected to produce well. Updip to the SE the
Logs and, sidewall sample analysis indicate that the continuation of the barrier sands do contain some oil
lowest barrier has a high porosity and a fairly good but in both cases the petrophysical properties have
permeability. It contains a small structurally trapped deteriorated seriously. This lateral deterioration of
oil accumulation. barrier sands is often observed in long sections and is
574
WNW ESE
AP 20 1
Gamma ray logs
60 too 6 o AN BO 14 \ 60 4PI ,Do 13 - BO AEI 120 1 80 API 120 4
Lignite=
BARRIER BARRIER
BAR
Sand
Lpminplee I
tlom/sit}/sane with
BARRIER FOOT co mOn F remain
BARRIER
M-1 BARRIER
BAR
..
- Lam nD,ed
c1oDm/So /sand with
BARRIER FOOT n Dloni remain
Clay
MARINE
SHALE
.;
onaflone
--
TRANSGRESS A SECTION SHOWING GAMMA RAY LOG CORRELATION AND LITHOLOGY
CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE
, 2mF
T 0 BO IOOm
50
well6 aaa..
't
- 13
14
---
ooooa
0
L. III 500 200 100 sp 20
prof flip
I
185
=ed.grn
>500 5050 <62/o
D.
CUMULATIVE AVERAGE GRAIN-SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF
B
UPPERMOST BARRIER BAR IN THREE WELLS
MAP SHOWING THE REGULAR THICKNESS
DISTRIBUTION OF A BARRIER BAR SANG
Fig. 16
Example of a depositionary cycle including two barrier sands (Cycle III of Fig. 15).
usually related to the pinch out from barrier-bar into the sands is much less than in the channel fill sand of
barrier-foot deposits (see fig. 8, 9 and 12). the cycle. The channel fill is also poorly sorted but
The next cycle (111) contains important oil reserves the average grain size is much, larger. In this case the
in a series of three barrier sands with one small cumulative average gram-size distributions of the
channel fill between the upper two barrier sands. In uppermost barrier bar sand which is given in fig. 16d
all three barriersands the oil accumulations are shows an anomalous coarse tail which is not usually
terminated in the updip direction in the manner present in barrier sands. However there is no question
discussed above. about mistaking this sand for a channel fill because of
A detailed correlation of the central part of the the typical upward coarsening sequence. The upper-
lower two barriers is given in fig. 16a. The typical most cycle (IV) is the most complex one. It is again
gamma-ray log response for an amplified barrier unit composed of an association of barrier and channel-fill
of this kind is clearly shown. The regular thickness sands. Two large channel fills with width/thickness
distribution of a barrier-bar sand is demonstrated in ratios of about 200 and a smaller channel fill in
fig. 16b. In fig. 16c the grain-size analysis is given of between are prominent in the highest part of the
series of sidewall samples from three wells. The structure. To the NW almost all barrier sands appear to
coarsening upward, of the sand is very -clear. The be in communication' with these channel fills, while
upper parts of the sands are coarser than usual to the SE the barriers are mostly isolated. Obviously
probably because of the presence of nearby tidal the correct correlation of such a complex unit is
passes. difficult and lithological evidence is needed to identi-
The sorting is poor because of the admixture of fy the various depositional types.
the coarse and medium sand and the permeability of Again a detailed section is presented of a .part of
575
Hole0121A" Hde 09 Hole 09/e"
50 API 10,0 ,a AI, 12 1 B0 API II,U
o
CHANNEL-FILL
UPPER PART
BARRIER FOOT
C fl 1
LOWER PART
BARRIER FOOT IDELTA FRINGEI
MARINE SHALE
14 13 P 50 IOOm
00 Io0%by w1
Cum weigh
44
dS1
Nd.. El
-II
Y well 6 .ss.
IB
14 =oaoo
IQOOO 5 0 290 0 1 0. 5 20 10
510ifl 00
Fig. 17
Example of large distributary channel-fill,: illustrating the, higher productivity of channel compared with barrier sands (Cycle IV
of Fig. 15).
this cycle, viz: of the large channel fill in the centre tivities. Typically the completion in the barrier-bar
and its neighbouring beds (fig. 17a). The difference in sand in well-11 produces only a tenth of the daily
log response of the channel fill and the barrier sands production of a channel-fill completion. This empha-
is striking. The effect of the differential compaction sizes the need to comprehend the nature of the
when one compares the ,thickness of equivalent reservoirs at an early stage.
intervals in the Wells 1 and 4 is also interesting.
The typical isopach map of a channel fill of this
CONCLUSION
type is shown in fig. 17b. The grain-size distribution
of series of sidewall samples from three wells is given
The extensive studies of the Recent sediments of the
in fig. 17c. A comparison with fig. 16c will illustrate Niger delta, similar 'studies of other deltas and the
the difference between the vertical grain-size distribu-
detailed, analysis of the subsurface information to-
tion in a channel fill and in barrier sand. gether provide a wealth of data which have great
In this cash fig. 1,7c was primarily used to select economic value in the nevelopment of oil fields in
optimum intervals for perforation. An empiric rela- Nigeria.
tionship between average grain size, sorting and
porosity (from compensated formation-density logs)
provides an estimated permeability distribution. The ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
most permeable intervals were perforated as shown in
fig. 17c, Because of the high viscosity of the oil this The author ,wishes to thank the Shell-BP' Pe-
selection was essential to obtain satisfactory produG- troleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited
576
for permission to publish this paper. Furthermore he Comp., Amsterdam, p. 216-226.
wants to emphasize the fact that the above data are Maron, P. (1969) - Stratigraphical Aspects of the Niger
the. result of studies by a scorer of geologists of which Delta. Jour. Mining and Geology, 4, Nos. 1 & 2
p. 1-12.
only a few have been mentioned in the text. Merki, P.J. (1970) - Structural Geology of the Cenozoic
Niger Delta. Proc. First Conf. on African Geology,
Ibadan University of Nigeria (in press).
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