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MANANGEMENT PRINCIPLES
I YR STUDENTS
Contents:
Objective:
This course provides an overview of management. It covers
theory, process and practice of the four fundamental management
skills: Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling as well as the
role of managers in organizations.
Unit I:
Concepts:
The Evolution of Management Science Classical neo
classical and modern theories of management Management Defined
Basic Principles and Process of Management Planning: Basic
Techniques Key factors Business environment Business
environment Micro-Macro relevant techniques for environment
scanning
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Unit II:
Policies Formulation Classifications Strategy Concepts
Process Organization: Hierarchy factors to be considered &
classifications Methods of grouping typical patterns used
Organization charts & manuals
Unit III:
Authority: Authority relationships Delegation of authority &
relationship Centralization & decentralization Span of control: Pros and
cons of narrow and wide spans of control Optimum span
Unit IV:
Communication Introduction to managerial communication
Traits of good communication Formal and informal channel-follow up
Unit V:
Co-ordination need techniques Control: process
performance standards measurement of performance remedial actions
Unit VI:
Management by objectives Management by exception
Trends New perspectives in Management
Outcome:
Use management terms as they relate to business situations
Understand and apply management principles and concepts
as they apply to business situations
Understand the role of management in making business
decisions
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MANAGEMENT
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Staffing: Job analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for
appropriate jobs.
Leading: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and
getting people to do it.
Controlling: Monitoring, checking progress against plans, which
may need modification based on feedback.
Motivating: the process of stimulating an individual to take action
that will accomplish a desired goal.
Management hierarchy:
Top-level management
Middle management
Lower management
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This level of management ensures that the decisions and plans taken
by the other two are carried out.
Lower-level managers' decisions are generally short-term ones.
Principles of Management:
The Principles of Management are the essential, underlying factors that form the
foundations of successful management. According to Henri Fayol (1841-1925) in his
book General and Industrial Management (1916), there are fourteen 'principles of
management'.
1. Division of Work
3. Discipline-
4. Unity of Command -
This principle states that every subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to
one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it
is likely to create confusion and conflict.
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Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes.
5. Unity of Direction -
All those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same
objectives. All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan
of action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.
The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives
first. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal
interests of individuals.
7. Remuneration -
Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore
greatly influences productivity. The quantum and methods of remuneration payable
should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of effort.
The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on company size.
Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top
management. Sharing of authority with lower levels is called decentralization. The
organization should strive to achieve a proper balance.
9. Scalar Chain -
Scalar Chain refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest
rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to
bottom linking all managers at all levels. It is considered a chain of command. It involves
a concept called a "gang plank" using which a subordinate may contact a superior or his
superior in case of an emergency,defying the hierarchy of control.However the imediate
superiors must be informed about the matter
10. Order -
Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure.
Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.
11. Equity -
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Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just
workplace. Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees.
The period of service should not be too short and employees should not be moved from
positions frequently. An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed before
he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to him.
13. Initiative -
Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organization.
Initiative on the part of employees is a source of strength for the organization because it
provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely to take greater interest in the
functioning of the organization.
This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace;
individually and communally. Team spirit helps develop an atmosphere of mutual trust
and understanding.
These can be used to initiate and aid the processes of change, organization, decision
making, skill management and the overall view of the management function.
Scientific management
Taylor believed that the industrial management of his day was amateurish, that
management could be formulated as an academic discipline, and that the best results
would come from the partnership between a trained and qualified management and a
cooperative and innovative workforce. Each side needed the other, and there was no need
for trade unions.
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Managers and workers
Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system:
The introduction of his system was often resented by workers and provoked numerous
strikes. The strike at Watertown Arsenal led to the congressional investigation in 1912.
Taylor believed the labourer was worthy of his hire, and pay was linked to productivity.
His workers were able to earn substantially more than those in similar industries and this
earned him enemies among the owners of factories where scientific management was not
in use.
Management Theories:
At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized.
Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The
United States highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful
measurement and specification of activities and results. Management tended to be the
same. Frederick Taylor developed the: scientific management theory which espoused
this careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were
standardized as much as possible. Workers were rewarded and punished. This approach
appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic,
routinized activities.
Eventually, unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects
of these theories. More attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in
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the organization. A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its
workers prospered as well. Human Resource departments were added to organizations.
The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of
workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned.
Various new theories were spawned, many based on the behavioral sciences (some had
name like theory X, Y and Z).
Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933), on the other hand focused more on human relations
rather than on scientific type approaches in order to increase production. Follett's studies
allowed for other theorists to study new areas, including Chester I. Barnard (1886-1961).
His contribution was the introduction of the informal organization concept. He believed
that if properly managed, this could be a powerful tool in helping the organization
achieve its' goals (Daft and Marcic, 1998).
UNIT-II
POLICIES
Terry says, A business policy is an implied overall guide setting up boundaries that
supply limits and direction in which managerial action will take place.
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Policies tend to predecide issues, avoid repeated analysis and give a unified
structure to other types of plans.
Policies are found in all functional areas and at various levels within these areas.
Policies serve an extremely useful purpose.
A policy is a positive declaration band a command to its followers.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLICIES:-
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Marketing and sales policies
Financial policies
Personnel policies
STRATEGY:-
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Strategy is the complex plan for bringing the organization from a given posture
to a desires position in a future period of time.
NATURE OF STRATEGY:-
Characteristics:-
Long-term plan provides the directions in which human and physical resources will
be deployed for achieving organizational goals primarily concerned with expected trends
in the markets an interpretative plan is forward looking mainly the job of top
management.
TYPES OF STRATEGIES:-
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This implies giving up operations altogether or closing down.
STRATEGY-MAKING PROCESS:
ORGANISATIONAL HIERARCHY:-
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Organizational hierarchy is the vertical representation of ranks of personnel
within an organization, each layer subordinate to the one above it. Organization hierarchy
is often shown in the form of an organization chart. An extended hierarchy is typical of a
bureaucracy, but during the later 20th and early 21st centuries the layers of hierarchical
positions within large organizations have often been reduced as part of downsizing
exercises. These result in the shallow or nonexistent hierarchies of flexible, flat
organizations, within which there is greater employee empowerment and autonomy.
Top
leve Strategic decisions
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FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED ARE AS FOLLOWS:-
Department:-
This means dividing large and complex organizations into smaller and
flexible administrative units. The more the number of departments the more the
administrative work of the middle level.
Chain of Command:-
The flow of command (authority) from the top level to the lowest level of
management does decide the organization hierarchy.
Span of Management:-
This refers to the number of sub-ordinates that are directly under a
supervisor. This takes into consideration the number of sub-ordinates that a single
supervisor can effectively manage at one time.
DEFINITION OF GROUP:-
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A group consists of two or more persons who are interacting with one
another in such a manner that each person influence and is influenced by others.
Members of a group have a common goal; interact with one another and corporate work
together to achieve a common goal. Group is different from a mere aggregation or
assembly of persons.
TYPES OF GROUPS:-
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A membership group consists of persons who actually belong to the group.
They may or may not be satisfied with being members of the group. A reference group
is a group with which a person identifies himself or to which he would like to
belong. There may be a conflict between the norms and values of membership and
reference group.
2. Job Specialization:-
In large organizations there is narrow specialization. It causes burden and
fatigue Employees are unable to understand how they contribute to the main job
and goals of the organization. They develop informal relationships to release their
tension.
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MERITS OF INFORMAL GROUPS:-
Sense of Belonging: -
In a formal organization, an employee is one among thousands and feels no
sense of belonging. Informal groups fill this void by providing a social structure and
status.
Safety Value for Emotional Problems:-
The daily work routine causes tension and frustration to workers.
Communication Channel:-
In a formal organizations, employees receive important information about
the company only when it is officially released.
Social Control:-
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Every informal group has its norms which serve as guides to correct
behavior for members.
Self-policing:-
When the informal group is cooperative, management is relieved of the
burden of supervision. Informal groups may help to promote organization objectives by
strengthening the ties of their members with the organization.
Provide Feedback:-
Informal groups provide feedback about employees and their work
experiences to management
Resistance to Change:-
An informal group has its own culture conventions and work methods. The
group resists those demands of management which are perceived as a threat to its culture.
Sub-optimization:-
Members of an informal group give preference to their own needs and goals
over the objective of the organization.
Role Conflict:-
When a person is a member of both formal and informal groups the faces a
conflict.
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Rumor:-
Informal groups are often the source of rumors. An outbreak of rumor can be
very harmful to the company.
Group Think:
Many members come to believe that whatever the group decides is good
any idea however useful which decides from the group philosophy is rejected.
Management does not create informal groups. Therefore, management should take steps
to harmonize these groups with formal organizations. The following steps may be taken
for this purpose:-
(i) Where informal group norms are acceptable they should be institutionalized.
(ii) Management should make constructive us of informal lines of
communication
(iii) When informal leaders develop, they may be appointed to positions of formal
authority.
(iv) All major cliques comprising the informal organizations should be catalogued.
Definition:
An organizational chart is a diagrammatical form, which shows important aspects of an
organization including the major functions and their respective relationships, the channels
of supervision, and the relative authority of each employee who is in charge of each
respective function.
Types: All organization charts may be classified into three broad categories:
1. Vertical Charts:
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Shows the organization structure in the form of a pyramid from top to
bottom in vertical lines
2. Horizontal charts:
Highest position is shown in the extreme left and lowest in extreme right
Highest position is shown in the centre and lowest in the outermost circle
Position of equal status lie at the same distance from the centre
Personnel Chart: same process of functional chart is used but boxes here
contain personnel information.
A master chart shows the whole structure of the organization and provides a clear picture
of the entire structure.
A supplementary chart depicts the various units within a department and authority
relationship among them.
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Advantages and uses:
Shows clearly the various positions in the organization, the lines of authority and
responsibility.
Facilitates communication
Limitations:
Organization manual:-
Name
Nature
Objectives
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Location
2. Administrative
Organization structure
Job descriptions
Policies
3. Procedural
Standard instructions
Methods
Types:
1. Policy Manual:
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Gives the set-up of the Co.
3. Operations manual:
Advantages:
Written form
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Provides uniformity and consistency in operations
Drawbacks:
Expensive and time consuming
Manuals may put on record those relationships which should not be exposed
UNIT-III
DECENTRALISATION
Decentralisation refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest level all authority
except that which can only be exercised at central points. Decentralisation refers to the
systematic delegation of authority in an organisation context. Effective decentralization
requires a proper balance between dispersal of authority among lower levels and adequate
control over them.
Importance of decisions
Effects of decision
Checking of decisions
ADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALISATION:
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Relief to top executives
Motivation of subordinates
Quick decisions
Executive development
Effective communication
DISADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALISATION:
Expensive
Difficulty to coordinate
Lack of uniformity
External constrains
Dispersal of operations
Degree of diversification
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Availability of competent personnel
Nature of functions
Communicative system
The delegator exercise control over the subordinate, but the control may be
delegated to the departmental heads.
Appropriate centralisation
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Open communication
Coordination
Adequate controls
CENTRALISATION
Centralisation implies the concentration of authority at the top level of the organisation
while decentralisation means dispersal of authority throughout the organisation.
ADVANTAGES:
Personal leadership
Uniformity of action
Flexibility
Integration
Handling emergencies
Utilisation of personnel
DISADVANTAGES:
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Problem in decision making
Overburdening
Low morale
DELEGATION
Delegation is a skill of which we have all heard - but which few understand. It can be
used either as an excuse for dumping failure onto the shoulders of subordinates, or as a
dynamic tool for motivating and training your team to realize their full potential.
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OBJECTIVE OF DELEGATION
The objective of delegation is to get the job done by someone else. Not just the simple
tasks of reading instructions and turning a lever, but also the decision making and
changes which depend upon new information. With delegation, the staff have the
authority to react to situations without referring back to the superior all the time.
These all depend upon communicating clearly the nature of the task, the extent of their
discretion, and the sources of relevant information and knowledge.
ELEMENTS OF DELEGATION
PRINCIPLES OF DELEGATION
TYPES OF DELEGATION
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Delegation may assume various forms. For example, it may be:
ADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION
BARRIERS TO DELEGATION
1. Feeling of superiority.
2. Habit pattern.
3. Fear of exposure.
4. Feeling of indispensability.
5. Risk avoidance.
6. Loss of importance.
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Why subordinates do not accept delegation:
The following are the guidelines based on classical principles, to make delegation
effective and productive of the desired results:
SPAN OF CONTROL:
Meaning:
Number of subordinates who report directly to a single manager or supervisor.
THEORY OF GRAICUNAR:
French management consultant.
Mathematical formula for analyzing superior subordinate relationship.
No of subordinates increases arithmetically there is exponential increase in the no
of possible relationship.
3 types of superior subordinate relationship.
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3. CROSS RELATIONSHIPS:
Relationship that arise among the subordinates working under a
common superior.
For e.g. X with Y
Y with X.
FORMULA FOR THIS THREE TYPE IS AS FOLLOWS.
1. Direct group relationship:
n (2^n / 2-1)
2. Cross relationship:
n (n-1 )
3. Total relationship=
n (2 ^ n / 2-1) + n (n-1)
n(2^n/2+n1)
Were N = no of subordinates.
No of subordinates No of relationship
1 1
2 6
3 18
4 44
5 100
6 222
7 490
MERITS:
1. Effective method of finding relationship
2. 6 subordinate 222 relationships
3. Indication to manager to think twice before increase in subordinates.
DEMERITS:
1. Ignore the intensity of relationships
2. Factors which determine span not taken into consideration.
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Staff assistance
Communication technology
Time available for supervision
Geographical dispersion of subordinates.
Historically, the concern over span of control was based on the idea that some optimal
number of manageable subordinates should exist. Researchers in the past, such as Col.
Urwick, stated that the optimal span of control was five or six. This as based on the
assumption that managers have a limited span of attention, energy and time. If a manager
was responsible for more than five or six subordinates, it was felt that the manager would
loose track of what was happening. Although only a small percentage of these
interactions actually occur on a daily basis, the message conveyed is that at some point
the addition of one more subordinate could create some serious problems for the
manager.
Basis that has been used to establish an optimal span of management is through applying
what appears to work for military organizations or very old organizations such as the
Catholic Church. The problem with this method and the other traditional views is that
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they have a tendency to look for a single number answer without considering all the
different factors that contribute to the effective span of control. Examining all these
different factors is very important before determining a proper span of control.
Generally, if workers are involved in work of a trivial or routine nature, the supervisor
will tend to require less application of control than if they perform work of greater
significance or complexity. In addition, spans may be limited by where people are and by
the problems of control and communication over distance. Also, a supervisor can exercise
more effective control over a broader span in a stable situation than under dynamic
conditions.
Competent and well-trained subordinates tend to make fewer mistakes and require less
correction and counseling from their supervisors, thus allowing the span of management
to increase. Furthermore, if the job requires nominal training and all workers know what
to do, spans can be very broad.
Managers who are well-liked and inspire subordinates to work hard should have larger
spans. Likewise, subordinates that respond well to orders will make a larger span of
control possible.
As the immediate goals of subordinates become congruent with the goals of other
subordinates and with the goals of the organization, the span of management may be
increased.
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Since large firms typically face a greater volume of important problems, large firms tend
to have larger spans than medium-size firms. The optimal span will measure the relative
advantages and disadvantages of retaining supervisory responsibility as opposed to
delegation.
Many professional people, such as doctors, lawyers, professors and engineers, perform
work without much supervision, so spans can be very broad. Firms that insist on close
supervision of responsible professionals will tend to lose them since few good
professionals appreciate working in a tightly controlled environment.
The primary advantages of having a narrow span of control are that it should provide
close supervision, close control and fast communication between subordinates and
superiors. The major disadvantages of a narrow span include:
The advantages of having a wide span of management are that superiors are forced to
delegate, clear policies must be made and subordinates must be carefully selected. Some
of the disadvantages of a wide span of control are the tendency of overloaded superiors to
become decision bottlenecks, the danger of a superior's loss of control, and requires
exceptional quality of managers. It should be emphasized that quite frequently the
advantages of flat structures, such as information flow and individual satisfaction, are
offset by the advantages of narrow spans in faster and more effective problem resolution.
There appears to be several positive effects on individual attitudes and behavior when the
span of control is large. Employee morale will improve with a broader span since
subordinates will be subjected to a lesser degree of detailed supervision. In fact, one of
the worst aspects of a narrow span of control is the opportunity it gives a manager to
harass his subordinates. Wider spans will generally entail more responsibility be given to
subordinates, thereby making the job more fulfilling. At the same time, a flatter structure
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will provide more growth for the subordinates and create more reliance and trust from the
supervisor.
UNIT-4
COMMUNICATION
MEANING OF COMMUNICATION:
1. SENDER: The person who sends the message is known as the source. He initiates the
process of communication. The sender may be a speaker, writer or an actor.
FEEDBACK
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3. ENCODING: It is the act of translating the message into words, pictures, symbols,
signs or others.
4. CHANNEL: It is the media through which the message passes from the sender to the
receiver. Channel may be formal or informal.
5. RECEIVER: The person who receives the message is called the receiver. He may be
a listener or observer. Receiver is also known as communicate.
6. DECODING: The receiver interprets the message to draw meaning from it. He
converts symbols, signs or pictures into meaning.
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication is the responsibility of every executive to develop and maintain the
system of communication. Major portion of the time is spent communicating. Without
proper communication no organization can survive.
ADVANTAGES OF SOUND COMMUNICATION:
Improves managerial performances
Communication enables a manager to diagnosis the various problem and
to secure information for the decision making. Helps in logical planning , to
organize systematically , to direct effectively and to control effectively.
Facilitates leadership
The modern concept of the leadership exercise through persuasion rather
than command places a great premium on communication.
Increases job satisfaction
Develops interest and motivation in work by communicating effectively.
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Reduces time and effort
Communication can be done through the reports etc. Such economy in
time and efforts help to ensure efficiency and effectiveness in the organization.
Enhances Co-ordination
Individuals working in the organization perform different duties and
activities. It is necessary to integrate and unify these activities and human efforts.
Help public relations
A business enterprise comes in contact with several social groups, e.g., customers,
shareholders, government and public. It must maintain harmonious relationship with
these groups of external environment.
CHANNEL OF TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
A channel of communication is the path through which messages are
transmitted from the sender to the receiver. Channels of communication may be formal or
informal.
FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Formal communication follows the routes formally laid down in the organization
structure of the enterprise. Formal channels are the paths of communication which are
institutionally determined and which are associated with status and position of the sender
and receiver. The formal channels are deliberately created to regulate the flow of
communication. An attempt is made to make the flow of information orderly so that it
flows smoothly and timely to the points where it is required. The officially prescribed
path of communication is orderly in nature.
Disadvantages in flow of formal communication:
organizational distance
screening at various points
Narrow route
Three forms of formal communications,
Downward(Vertical communication)
Upward(Vertical communication)
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Horizontal
VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
Downward communication:
It refers to the flow of information from the superior to the subordinate (the
orders).It also involves communication of policies procedures and programmes of the
organization.
Upward communication:
Downward Upward
1.From higher to lower levels From lower to higher level
2.Flow is downwards Flow is upwards
3.Directive in nature Non directive in nature
4.Purpose is to get plans implemented Purpose is to provide feedback on results
5.Travels fast Travels slowly
6.Orders, instruction lectures, manuals, Reports, suggestions, grivences, protects,
handbooks etc. are the main examples surveys are the main examples
HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION:
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INFORMAL COMMUNICATION OR GRAPEVINE
Informal communication or grapevine implies communication among people
through informal contacts or relations. It coexists with the formal communication
system. People resort to informal communication when there are barriers in the formal
channels.
Benefits of Informal communication:
Informal communication is easier and faster than formal communication.
It fills in the gaps existing in the formal communication system.
It is a primary means of developing identification with the group and interest in work.
It is the main source of information about the feelings and attitudes of employees.
It also helps to satisfy the information needs of employees.
It is a powerful medium to transmit messages at great speed.
It can transmit confidential information, which is unavailable in formal channels.
Informal channels partially replace and often supplement formal channels.
When formal channels break down, informal channels are the only rescue and
alternative.
Finally, Informal channels prove to be more effective and are more human & homely.
On the other hand, informal communication tends to carry inaccurate and baseless
information. It contains rumours and gossips; the best way to deal with rumour is to
supply true facts in face-to-face contacts. Grapevine has no definite origin and direction.
Distinction between Formal and Informal communication
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4. Oriented towards goals and tasks of the 4. Directed towards goals and need
Enterprise. Satisfaction of individuals.
5. Impersonal. 5. Personal and social.
6. Stable and rigid. 6. Flexible and instable.
7. Slow and structured 7. Fast and unstructured.
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION:
Each of there media may be used either exclusively or in combination with other
media.
ORAL COMMUNICATION:
These days mechanical devices like alarm bell, telephone, intercom system etc.,
are becoming increasingly popular for communicating messages.
MERITS:
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4. Flexibility - Oral Communication is more flexible because the mode of delivery
and the tone can be adjusted according to the type of listener or the audience.
DEMERITS:
1. Lack of record - Oral Communication does not provide an authentic and permanent
record of Communication unless the conversation is tape-recorded.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:
MERITS:
1. Effectiveness - written messages are more carefully formulated than oral messages.
Therefore, Written Communication tends to be a more dear and specific.
2. Lengthy messages - Written Communication is more appropriate when the message
is quite lengthy.
3. Economical - Written Communication is cheaper when the sender and the receiver
are situated at distant places.
4. Repetition - Written Communication can be used again and again.
5. Permanent record - Written Communication provides a reliable record for future
reference.
6. Better response - Response is generally well thought out to this communication
because the receiver gets sufficient time to understand and evaluate the message.
DEMERITS:
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2. Expensive - As it takes long time to convey the message, Written Communication
is more expensive.
3. Inflexibility - A Written message once transmitted cannot be withdrawn, also for
the rent message there is no scope left for making amends for inaccuracy that may
have crept into it.
4. Little secrecy - It is difficult to maintain complete secrecy about written messages.
5. Lake of personal touch - Written Communications tends to be very formal and lack
personal touch.
6. Misunderstanding - If the Written Message is poorly drafted it may create
confusion and conflict.
GESTURAL COMMUNICATION:
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Communication is successful only when the receiver understands the message intended
by the sender. Managers often complain that one of their greatest problems is
communication breakdown. Specialists have made serious studies of this and have
isolated certain factors that cause barriers to effective communication. They are:
NOISE:
Noise is the first and foremost barrier to communication. It means interference that
occurs in a signal and prevents one from hearing sounds properly. Noise does not mean
only this. It also encompasses many other factors that may exist at the end of sender as
well as that of the receiver. The sender may resort to ambiguous or confusing signals.
The receiver may mess up the message owing to inattention or may spoil decoding
because of wrong or unexpected interpretation. The receivers prejudices may also come
in the way of his understanding the message in the right spirit. Some of the sources
contributing to noise are:
Poor Timing - A last moment communication with deadline may put too much
pressure on the receiver and may result in resentment.
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Inappropriate channel - Poor choice of channel of communication can also be
contributory to the misunderstanding of the message.
Network Breakdown - Sometime staff may forget to forward a letter or there
may be professional jealousy resulting in closed channel.
LACK OF PLANNING:
Communication is not a casual affair. Unfortunately many people take it lightly. The
result is that the message to be sent across may not be carefully planned. There are
innumerable examples of people who would give an ill-planned, long-winding lecture
while a short presentation with tables or graphs would be sufficient. Such an event would
turn into one of miscommunication. In the same way some people may not care to choose
a suitable time and place that are so very necessary for effective communication.
SEMANTIC PROBLEMS:
Semantics is the systematic study of meaning. That is why the problems
arising from expression or transmission of meaning in communication are called
semantic problems. Oral or written communication is based on words. And words,
limited in number, may be used in unlimited ways. The meaning is in the mind of the
sender and also in that of the receiver. But it is not always necessary for the meaning in
the mind of the sender to be the same as in the mind of receiver.
CULTURAL BARRIERS:
We live in a culturally diverse world. People will encounter individuals from different
races, religions, and nationalities in their day to day encounters. There is oftenanxiety
surrounding unfamiliar cultures and cultural differences often come up as communication
barriers. The same category of words, phrases, symbols, actions, colours may mean
different things to people of different countries or different cultural backgrounds.
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WRONG ASSUMPTIONS:
Quite often we act on assumptions, without caring to seek clarification for them. We
should make all possible efforts to maintain our goodwill and not act impulsively on
assumptions. If, for example, a customer writes to us that he would like to visit our office
or factory without telling us that he would like to be picked up and we assume that he
will manage to come on his own it may lead to loss of goodwill. So it is necessary to be
circumspect in such matters.
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS:
The attitudes and opinions, place in society and status consciousness arising from ones
position in the hierarchical structure of the organization, ones relations with peers,
seniors, juniors and family background -all these deeply affect ones ability to
communicate both as a sender and receiver. Status consciousness is widely known to be a
serious communication barrier in organizations. It leads to psychological distancing
which further leads to breakdown of communication or miscommunication. Often it is
seen that a man high up in an organization builds up a wall around himself. This restricts
participation of the less powerful in decision making. In the same way ones family
background formulates ones attitude and communication skills.
EMOTIONS:
Emotions play a very important role in our life. Both encoding and decoding of messages
are influenced by our emotions. A message received when we are emotionally worked up
will have a different meaning for us than when we are calm and composed. Anger is the
worst emotion and enemy of communication.
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION:
Perception provides each of us with a unique view of the world a view some times
related to, but not necessarily identical with that held by others. Selective perception
means that the receivers selectively see and hear depending upon their needs,
background, motivations, experience and other personal characteristics.
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While decoding the messages, most of the receivers protect their own interests and
expectations into the process of communication leading to a particular kind of feedback
that may become a communication problem.
FILTERING:
Filtering means that the sender of a message manipulates information in such a way that
it will be seen more favorably by the receiver. A manager, for example, likes to tell his
boss what he feels his boss wants to hear. In this process he is filtering information. The
net result is that the man at the top never gets objective information. In the same way, the
people at the lower levels condense and synthesize information so as to get maximum
benefits for themselves. They hold back or ignore some important part of information.
INFORMATION OVERLOAD:
Unchecked inflow of information very often becomes another barrier to communication.
When people are bogged down with too much information they are likely to make errors.
They may also delay processing or responding to information/message and delay may
become a habit, causing serious communication problems.
FRAME OF REFERENCE:
This is another barrier to clear communication. Every individual has a unique frame of
reference formed by a combination of his experiences, education, culture, attitude and
many other elements, resulting in biases and different experiences in a communication
situation.
POOR RETENTION:
People are also likely to forget messages reaching them. There from arises
the necessity to repeat the message and use more than one medium to communicate the
same message.
POOR LISTENING:
Poor listening may lead to serious communication problems. Too many people are
interested in talking, and mostly talking about themselves. They are so much involved
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with themselves that they do not have patience to listen. The result is that they are not
interested in the speaker whose words go waste. Everybody knows about the importance
of listening, but very few actually practise patient, active and empathic listening. That is
why so many communication problems crop up. Poor listening accounts for incomplete
information and also poor retention. One may simply not get the desired result if this
keeps on happening.
1. CLARITY OF MESSAGE: The message must be clear and free from all ambiguity. It
should be encoded in the direct and simple language which the receiver can
understand easily and quickly.
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4. PROPER TIMINGS: The communication system should ensure that the message
reaches the receiver when it is required. The utility of the message depends upon its
timeliness.
6. EMPATHY: The format, the mode, frequency and the media of communication
should not hurt the feelings of the communicates.
UNIT-V
DEFINITION OF CO-ORDINATION
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Co-ordination is a continuous or an on going process.
PROBLEMS IN CO-ORDINATION
INCREASE IN SIZE AND COMPLEXITY OF OPERATIONS
SPECIALISATION
CLASH OF INTEREST
EMPIRE BUILDING
Some employees tend to over emphasis their own departments and sections. They
try to get maximum possible share of total resources
PERSONAL RIVALRIES
Members from rival groups try to settle personal scores in organisation activities.
Such rivalry is disastrous to teamwork.
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Coordination helps to improve the efficiency of operations by avoiding
overlapping efforts and duplication of work. Quality of coordination determines
the effectiveness of organized efforts.
UNITY OF DIRECTION
Coordination is all inclusive concept and the end result of management process.
Coordination helps in the accomplishment of organizational goals.
TYPES OF COORDINATION
Coordination may be decided on different bases,
On the basis of scope or coverage, coordination can be internal of external on the basis of
flow, it is classified as vertical and horizontal and coordination may also be procedural
and substantive
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL COORDINATION
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Vertical coordination implies coordination between different levels of
organization. Vertical coordination is ensured by top management through
delegation of authority. Coordination between different departments and other
units at the same level of management hierarchy is called horizontal
coordination.
PROCEDURAL AND SUBSTANTIVE COORDINATION
PRINCIPLES OF COORDINATION
Mary Parker Follet has laid down four principles of effective coordination
1) DIRECT PERSONAL CONTACT
Coordination is best achieved through direct personal contact with people. Direct face
to face contact communication is most effective.
2) EARLY BEGINNING
Coordination can be achieved more easily in early stages of planning and policy making.
Plans should be based on mutual participation. Early coordiantin also improves the
quality of plans.
3) RECIPROCITY
It states that all factors in a given situation are interdependent and interrelated. When
People appreciate reciprocity of relations, they avoid unilateral action and
coordination becomes easier.
4) CONTINUITY
TECHNIQUES OF COORDINATION
Main techniques of effective coordination arE
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SOUND PLANNING
Planning is the ideal stage for coordination. Clear cut objectives, harmonized
policies and unified procedures and rules ensure uniformity of action.
SIMPLIFIED ORGANISATION
Effective leadership ensures coordination both at the planning and the execution
stage. Sound leadership can persuade subordinates to have identity of interest and
too adopt a common outlook.
CHAIN OF COMMAND
When every organizational unit appreciates the working of related units and
modifies its own functioning to suet them, there is self coordination. It is possible
in a climate of dedication and mutual cooperation.
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MEANING OF CONTROL
Controlling may be defined as the process of analysing actual operation seeing that actual
performances is guided towards expected performance.
NATURE AND PURPOSE OF CONTROL
Main characteristics of control
1) Essential function of management
2) Ongoing process
3) Forward working
4) Involves measurement
5) The essence of control is action
6) Control is an integrated system
ELEMENTS OF CONTROL
1) Planning
2) Information feedback
3) Delegation of authority
4) Remedial action
NEED FOR CONTROL
Control is an indispensable function of management.
A manager cannot do the complete of managing without any control.
Organizational activities are directed towards the attainment of pre-determined
objectives through control.
Management ensures that resources are obtained and utilized economically and
efficiently for the accomplishment of organizational objectives through control.
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They should be flexible.
They should be measurable.
Desired level of performance should be reasonable and feasible.
It should be in terms of range maximum and minimum so as to maintain
flexibility.
THE CONTROL PROCESS
Meets
standards
Standards Performanc
Operations e
(Planning) (organizing Does not
and meet
directing) standards
Corrective
action
2. Measurement of performance.
After fixation of standards, the actual performance of various individuals,
groups and departments is measured.
It involves setting up the methods of collecting accurate and up-to-date
information on the progress of, work.
Performance should be measured in quantitative terms.
Measurement of performance against standards should be on a future basis so
that deviations are anticipated and necessary corrective actions are taken to
prevent them.
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3. Comparing performance standards:
The actual results are compared with standards to check deviations, if any.
Such comparisons are if the standards and actual performance are expressed in
quantitative terms.
When deviations are beyond permissible limits, an analysis is made to identify the
cause of deviations.
The deviations and their causes are reported to the manager and he will take the
necessary corrective actions.
Only exceptional deviations are reported to the top management.
Reports should be clear.
They should not only show results but also reasons.
4. Correction of deviations:
The final step in the control process involves taking corrective action so that
deviations do not recur.
Corrective action may involve review and revision of goals or standards, change
assignment of tasks, provision for additional resources or new facilities,
improvement in the selection and training of workers or reform in the techniques
of direction.
It requires changes in all other managerial functions.
This shows the unity of the managers job and the integrated nature of
management process
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5. COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS: semantic and other barriers to communication
can distort the information flow.
1. SUITABLE: The control system should be appropriate to the nature, needs, and
circumstances of the enterprise and each level of activity inside it.
3. ECONOMICAL: The control system must be worth its cost and should justify
the expenses involved.
UNIT-VI
TECHNIQUES OF MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE:
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Concept of MBO:
MBO has be defined as a process whereby superior and subordinates jointly identify the
common objectives, set the results that should be achieved by the subordinates, assess the
contributions of each individual in terms of the results expected of him, and integrate
individuals with the organization so a to make best use of organizational resources.
1. Setting Objectives: The first step in installing the MBO system is to establish
verifiable objectives for the organization as a whole and for various positions in
the organization. Under MBO, objectives are established in several stages. First,
top management sets the goals for the total enterprise in certain key areas.
Second, objectives for each department are laid down in consultation with the
department heads. Then this process of goal-setting is repeated at lower levels of
management until goals for each and every individual are established. The
superior must play a supportive role in helping his subordinates to develop
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consistent and feasible objectives for themselves. The goal-setting process is
complete when agreement is reached between superior and subordinates as to
what is to be accomplished and why.
2. Developing action plans: Once the goals are established, responsibility for the
achievement of each goal is specified. Job descriptions for various positions must
define the goals to be attained. Resources required for goals attainment are
identified and allocated. Then the means for the implementation of plans are
decided. Goals and resources must be matched together.
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1.
SETTING OBJECTIVES
4. 2.
APPRAISING DEVELOPING
ANNUAL ACTION
PERFORMANCE PLANS
3.
CONDUCTING
PERIODIC
REVIEWS
MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION:
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It is a management style wherein managers intervene only when their employees fail to
meet their performance standards. If the personnel are performing as expected, the
manager will take no action. The term is also used to describe provision of information to
management in which only significant deviations from budgets or plans are reviewed as
the basis for corrective action. The object is to reduce the quantity of detail contained in
management reports and statistics to date on which action can be taken.
Advantages of MBE:
It saves the time of managers because they deal only with exceptional matters.
It focuses managerial attention on major problems.
It facilitates delegation of authority.
It keeps management alert to opportunities and threats.
It provides better yardstick for judging results.
Limitations of MBE:
Non critical and non exceptional areas may be crucial and may damage the
system before remedial action is taken.
Subordinates may misuse the permissive atmosphere.
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Trends In Management
Quality control method, quality control support system and trend management
program for manufacturing operation
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Brightsizing-new technique in management:
Management trends come and go. They are good or bad depending on many variables:
industry; company culture; education level of workers; existing contracts and laws; etc.
Mostly, however, they are good or bad depending on how well they are applied.
Re-engineering is a solid business management tool, but applied incorrectly it can cause
more harm than good. Downsizing, when done improperly, is appropriately called
dumbsizing.
The latest management buzzword isn't really a trend. It is more a reaction to the last few
trends. The new buzzword is brightsizing. While it provides more opportunity for comic
relief, courtesy of Dilbert, it is no laughing matter. Brightsizing is downright dangerous
and you need to protect your organization from it.
Many companies have policy statements in their employee handbooks that state that in
layoff decisions "among equally qualified candidates preference will be given to the
employee with the greatest seniority."
When faced with decisions that will result in a reduction in staff, make sure you first
evaluate the value of the employee to the organization and THEN look at other mitigating
factors, such as length of time with the company. For example: One company I worked
with kept an individual with them because he was one of their first employees. They kept
finding jobs he could do as the company grew rapidly and outgrew his capabilities.
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Eventually, they made him responsible for picking up dignitaries at the airport and
bringing them to the office.
While I believe in company loyalty and retraining employees, you have to draw the line
somewhere based on performance and value to the company. The driver had gotten old,
was nearly blind, and could not even converse socially with the dignitaries he picked up.
He did not make a good first impression for the company.
This individual, incidentally, became an even greater liability to the company because he
never adjusted to the changing social rules on interpersonal conduct. His remarks and
actions were usually dismissed because "hes just a harmless old man", but the potential
for a harassment lawsuit was significant.
Remember, your first obligation is to the health of your company, not to any individual.
While it is important that you respect your employees as a group, and always treat them
fairly, you can not sacrifice the company for any individual. If the company suffers as a
result of poor personnel decisions on your part, it may result in further downsizing and
more employees would have to be released.
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