The Ancient History of Bengal

Bengal is a 4,000 year old civilization that thrived between the banks of Ganges to
Brahmaputra and sustained itself with the riches of Gangetic Delta. Remnants of earliest
cities in the state date back to the Vedic Period. The oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh
is Mahasthangarh, which dates back to 700 BCE. The culture and ethnicity of Bengal was
different than that of the Vedic people. The latter referred to the people of Bengal as 'dasyus'
or demons.

In ancient times, Bengal consisted of the kingdoms of Pundra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga,
Samatata and Harikela. Under the Mauryas, much of Bengal was conquered except for the far
eastern Bengali kingdoms which continued to exist as tributary states before succumbing to
the Guptas. With the fall of the Gupta Empire, Bengal was united under a single local ruler,
Shashanka, for the first time.
With the collapse of his
kingdom, Bengal split up into
petty kingdoms once more.

With the rise of Gopala, Bengal

was united once more under the
Pala Empire, Chandra dynasty,
Sena dynasty and deva dynasty.
After them, Bengal was ruled
by the Hindu Maharajas of
kingdoms such as Chandradwip
and Cooch Behar except for a short period 14th to 16 th century under the regional power of
Bengal sultanate who appointed various local Muslim officials- followed by the British. The
position of the Prime Minister of Bengal was established in 1937, and served as the
provincial chief executive in the British Raj, until 1947, when Bengal was partitioned,
making West Bengal part of India and the East Bengal part of Pakistan. East Bengal then
became an independent country, Bangladesh, following the Bangladesh Liberation War.

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 The Empires in Bengal

Maurya Dynasty (324 BC - 185 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya unified all Indian provinces, except the North-East, Tamil and
Kalinga. His empire spanned from Bengal to Baluchistan. During his reign, Bengal flourished
with riches and its naval fleet got stronger.

Gauda Empire (590 CE - 626 CE)

After the Mauryan Empire, other kingdoms and dynasties such as the Gupta, Kanvas,
Shungas, and the Mahameghavahanas ascended to the throne of Bengal. But it was during the
rule of King Shashanka that Bengal witnessed another flourishing period. Shashanka was a
strong ruler who developed Bengal's architecture and calendar. He is infamous for oppressing
Buddhist communities and driving them out of Bengal. Shashanka's capital, Karna Suvarna is
now known as Murshidabad.

Malla Dynasty
What we know as Bankura, a western district in modern day West Bengal, was once known
as Mallabhum, the land of the Mallas. The Malla kings ruled the western provinces of Bengal
from the seventh century and their dynasty can be traced to this date. Their last king
KalipadaSingha Thakur became the king of Mallabhum in 1930 and 'ruled' till his death in
1983.

Pala Empire (750 CE - 1200 CE)

Often dubbed as the 'Golden Age' of Bengal, the Pala Empire indeed raised the standards of
Bengal's culture and politics. Followers of Buddhist philosophy, the Pala kings promoted
classical Indian philosophy, literature,
painting and sculpture studies. It was during
this period that the Bengali language was
formed in its entirety. Epics and sagas were
written such as the 'MangalKavyas'. The
Palas were also known for their war elephant
cavalry and strong naval fleet.

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 The Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)

The Mughal Empire

The Mughal (or Mogul) Empire ruled most of India and Pakistan in the 16th and 17th
centuries. It consolidated Islam in South Asia, and spread Muslim (and particularly Persian)
arts and culture as well as the faith. The Mughals were Muslims who ruled a country with a
large Hindu majority. However for much of their empire they allowed Hindus to reach senior
government or military positions.

The Mughals brought many changes to India:

Centralised government that brought together many smaller kingdoms
Delegated government with respect for human rights
Persian art and culture
Persian language mixed with Arabic
and Hindi to create Urdu
Periods of great religious tolerance
A style of architecture (e.g. the Taj
Mahal)
A system of education that took
account of pupils' needs and culture

The Mughal Empire grew out of descendants

of the Mongol Empire who were living in
Turkestan in the 15th century. They had become Muslims and assimilated the culture of the
Middle East, while keeping elements of their Far Eastern roots. They also retained the great
military skill and cunning of their Mongol ancestors, and were among the first Western
military leaders to use guns.

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Babur
Babur the first Mughal Emperor, was a descendent of Genghis Khan and
Tamerlaine.Babursucceeded his father as ruler of the state of Farghana in Turkestan when he
was only 12, although he was swiftly deposed by older relatives.Babur moved into
Afghanistan in 1504, and then moved on to India, apparently at the invitation of some Indian
princes who wanted to dispose of their ruler. Babur disposed of the ruler, and decided to take
over himself.He captured the Turkic Ghur'iat Sultanate of Delhi in 1526, imposing his rule on
most of Northern India.

Babur was followed by his son Humayun who was a bad emperor, a better poet, and a drug
addict. He rapidly lost the empire. He did eventually recover the throne but died soon
afterwards after breaking his neck falling downstairs.While Humayan was certainly
disastrous as a ruler, his love of poetry and culture heavily influenced his son Akbar, and
helped to make the Mughal Empire an artistic power as well as a military one.

Abu Akbar
The third Emperor, Abu Akbar, is regarded as one of the great rulers of all time, regardless of
country. Akbar succeeded to the throne at 13, and started to recapture the remaining territory
lost from Babur's empire. By the time of his death in 1605 he ruled over most of north,
central, and western India.

Akbar worked hard to win over the hearts and minds of the Hindu leaders. While this may
well have been for political reasons - he married a Hindu princess (and is said to have
married several thousand wives for political and diplomatic purposes) - it was also a part of
his philosophy.

Jahangir
Akbar's son, Emperor Jahangir, readopted Islam as the state religion and continued the policy
of religious toleration. His court included large numbers of Indian Hindus, Persian Shi'a and
Sufis and members of local heterodox Islamic sects.

Jahangir also began building the magnificent monuments and gardens by which the Mughals
are chiefly remembered today, importing hundreds of Persian architects to build palaces and
create magnificent gardens.Jahangir's approach was typified by the development of Urdu as

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the official language of Empire. Urdu uses an Arabic script, but Persian vocabulary and Hindi
grammatical structure.

Jahan
The architectural achievements of the Mughals
peaked between 1592 and 1666, during the
reign of Jahangir's successor Jahan.Jahan
commissioned the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal
marks the apex of the Mughal Empire; it
symbolises stability, power and confidence.The
building is a mausoleum built by Jahan for his
wife Mumtaz and it has come to symbolise the
love between two people.

Aurangzeb
Jahan's son Aurangzeb was the last great Mughal Emperor.History's verdict on Aurangzeb
largely depends on who's writing it; Muslim or Hindu.Aurangzeb ruled for nearly 50 years.
He came to the throne after imprisoning his father and having his older brother killed.He was
a strong leader, whose conquests expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest size.Aurangzeb
was a very observant and religious Muslim who ended the policy of religious tolerance
followed by earlier emperors.

The British period (17001947)

During the rule of the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 16581707), the English East India
Company was permitted to establish its base at Calcutta (Kolkata). The British gained
strength in the region as the Mughal empire weakened. In 1757, following a battle in the town
of Plassey between forces led by British soldier Robert Clive and the Mughal nawab
(viceroy) Sirj-ud-Dawlah, the East India Company emerged as the dominant political power
in Suba Bangalah. Under Gov.-Gen. Charles Cornwallis (served 178693), a permanent
settlement system was established in the territorynow called the Bengal Presidency
whereby property rights were granted in perpetuity to local zamindars (landlords). This
property policy indirectly stimulated the growth of a new landed middle classespecially in
Calcuttacalled the bhandralok. Initially, the bhandralok was dominated by upper-caste

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Hindus, but the Muslim presence began to increase toward the end of the 19th century. In
time, this middle class emerged as the most active advocate of Indian self-government.

The province of Bengal was almost impossible to administer, even after Assam was made a
separate province in 1874. In 1905, largely at the initiative of the viceroy George Nathaniel
Curzon, two new provinces
were created, ostensibly on
a geopolitical basis; these
provinces were Western
Bengal, including Bihar and
Orissa, and Eastern Bengal
and Assam. With its capital
at Calcutta, Western Bengal
had a Hindu majority, while
the province of Eastern
Bengal and Assam, with its
capital at Dhaka, was
predominantly Muslim.
Aside from increasing administrative efficiency, Curzons move was intended to position the
Muslims as a counterweight to the Hindus.

The partition elicited vociferous protest in Western Bengal, especially in Calcutta, where the
Indian National Congress (also called the Congress Party; formed in 1885) played a
prominent role. Indian Muslim leaders, however, mostly supported the partition, and in 1906
they gathered at Dhaka under the patronage of NawabSalimullah and set up the All-India
Muslim League. Their efforts secured separate electorates and separate constituencies for the
Muslims under the constitutional reforms of 1909, but they could not save the partition. In
1912 the partition was annulled, Bihar and Orissa were constituted into a new province, and
Assam reverted to its separate status.

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Following the reunification of Bengal, the Congress Party and the Muslim League worked
together for self-government; among the leaders of this effort were NawabSalimullah,
ChittaRanjan Das, Fazlul-Haq, and Sarat Chandra Bose. Communal animosities resurfaced in
the early 1920s, however, in the wake of a failed nonviolent alignment between the Indian
Muslim front known as the Khilafat Movement and the Hindu-led Indian nationalist
Noncooperation Movement under Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi. Consequently,
in order to achieve political goals, it became necessary to adopt coalition tactics that would
transcend communal antagonisms; the politician who proved most adept at this was Fazlul-
Haq, chief minister of Bengal from 1937 to 1943. He set up his own Peasants and Tenants
(KrishakProja) Party and formed a coalition with the Muslim League. In 1940, at the leagues
annual gathering at Lahore, Fazlul-Haq proposed the so-called Pakistan Resolution,
demanding independent states for Muslims. The following year, however, he was expelled
from the Muslim League; he formed a new coalition and continued to serve as chief minister.
In 1942 new rounds of political dialogue commenced, but no agreement could be reached.
With legislative elections in 1946, the Muslim League returned to power under the leadership
of Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy, who subsequently became chief minister of Bengal. In
August of that year an intense Muslim-Hindu communal conflict erupted in Calcutta, and it
eventually spread well beyond the borders of Bengal. This event, combined with protracted
and unfruitful discussions between the various groups, made the partition of India appear
inevitable. Suhrawardy, Sarat Chandra Bose, and several other prominent political leaders
reopened negotiations for a separate, independent, united Bengal.

In March 1947 Louis Mountbatten became the last viceroy of British India, with a mandate to
transfer powers. As plans were being formulated for the partition of India, Mohammed Ali
Jinnah, a leading figure of the Muslim League, advocated for the formation of a united
Bengal; Mountbatten was not against the idea, but Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party
opposed it. When British colonial rule ended in August 1947, two new countriesIndia and
Pakistanwere born, and Bengal was split between them. West Bengal went to India, and
East Bengal formed the eastern wing of Pakistan, which was bisected by a vast tract of
northern India.

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 Partition of Bengal (1947)

The Partition of Bengal in 1947, part of the Partition of India, divided the British Indian
province of Bengal based on the Radcliffe Line between India and Pakistan. Predominantly
Hindu West Bengal
became a province of
India, and
predominantly Muslim
East Bengal (now
Bangladesh) became a
province of Pakistan.

The partition enjoyed

the support of most
Hindu legislators in the
Bengal Legislative
Assembly, who voted for Hindu-majority western Bengal to be a part of India, instead of a
Muslim majority undivided Bengal within Pakistan. Liberal Muslim leaders had earlier
proposed an independent United Bengal, but met opposition from various parties, particularly
Muslim and Hindu conservatives.

The partition, with the power transferred to Pakistan and India on 1415 August 1947, was
done according to what has come to be known as the "3 June Plan" or "Mountbatten Plan".
Indias independence on 15 August 1947 ended over 150 years of British influence in the
Indian subcontinent.

East Bengal, which became a province of Pakistan according to the provisions set forth in the
Mountbatten Plan, later became the independent country of Bangladesh after the 1971
Bangladesh Liberation War.

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 Lahore Resolution

The Lahore Resolution (Qarardad-e-Lahore), commonly known as the Pakistan

Resolution (Qarardad-e-Pakistan) was a political resolution, or statement drafted
between 22nd to 24th March 1940, by the 25-member Working Committee of the All-India
Muslim League, and then formally adopted by the Muslim League membership at its general
session on 23 March 1940, held at Lahore. This resolution asked for greater Muslim
autonomy within British India. However, later on most people thought of this as a call for a
separate Muslim state, Pakistan. The resolution was presented at Minto Park (now renamed
'Iqbal Park'), in Lahore, by MaulviA.K. FazlulHuq on the instructions of the Working
Committee.

In fact, from the declaration made in this resolution in 1940 onwards, the goals of the Muslim
League became increasingly fixed upon achieving an independent nation-state. Today, the
resolution's importance is remembered in Pakistan, by the Minar-e-Pakistan structure that
stands in the Iqbal Park, Lahore.

Independence of Pakistan (1947)

Independence Day (Urdu: ; Yaum-e zd), observed annually on 14 August,

following its first observance on that day in 1947 (the day before the partition of India
officially took effect), is a national holiday in Pakistan. It commemorates the occasion of
Pakistan's creation and was declared a sovereign nation following the partition of India on 15
August 1947. Pakistan came into existence as a result of the Pakistan Movement which aimed
for the creation of a separate Muslim state by partition of the north-western and north-eastern
regions of undivided India. The movement was led by the All-India Muslim League under the
leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. This was facilitated by the British parliament passing
the Indian Independence Act 1947, thereby giving recognition to the new Dominion of
Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan) which comprised West Pakistan (present-
day Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). In the Islamic calendar, the day of
independence coincided with Ramadan 27, the eve of which, being Laylat al-Qadr, is
regarded as sacred by Muslims.

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 Language Movement (1952)

The Bengali Language Movement, additionally referred to as the Language Movement

(Bengali: , Bhasa Andolon), was a political movement in former East
Bengal (today Bangladesh) advocating the popularity of the Bengali language as an official
language of the then-
Dominion of Pakistan so
as to permit its use in
government affairs, the
continuation of its use as a
medium of education, its
use in media, currency and
stamps, and to keep up its
writing within the Bengali
script.

When the Dominion of Pakistan was formed by the partition of India in 1947 The question as
to what would be the state language of Pakistan was raised. Muslim students and leaders
logically believed that Urdu, solely spoken by 7%, ought to be the linguistic communication
as a result of it had gained a reputation as the cultural image of subcontinental Muslims. In
1948, the govt of the Dominion of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language,
sparking in depth protests among the Bangla-speaking majority of East Bengal. Facing rising
sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the govt illegitimate public
conferences and rallies. The scholars of the University of Dhaka and different political
activists defied the law and unionized a protest on 21st February 1952. The movement
reached its climax once police killed student demonstrators on that day. The deaths
aggravated widespread civil unrest. After years of conflict, the central government relented
and granted official standing to the Bangla language in 1956. In 1999, UN agency declared
21st February as International Mother Language Day, in tribute to the Language Movement
and the ethno-linguistic rights of individuals round the world.

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The Language Movement catalyzed the assertion of Bengali national identity in East Bengal
and later east Pakistan, and have become a forerunner to Bengali nationalist movements,
together with the 6-Point Movement and later the East Pakistan Liberation War in 1971.
In East Pakistan, 21st February is ascertained as Language Movement Day, a national
holiday. The Shaheed Minar monument was created close to Dhaka Medical College in
memory of the movement and its victims.

The Election of the United Front (1954)

In March 1954, an election of the last Pakistan Provincial Assembly was held. This election
is commonly known as the United Front election. The opposition political parties, under the
leadership of the mainstream party, Awami League formed the United Front to fight the
electoral battle against the ruling Muslim League. The Front was formally launched in
December 1953 with Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sher-e-Bangla AK FazlulHuq, Maulana
Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as the chief proponents. With
boat as the election symbol, the United Front achieved a landslide victory winning 300 seats
out of 309. The ruling Muslim League got only 9 seats. This electoral win by United Front
marked a watershed in the politics of East Pakistan. The ruling Muslim not only suffered a
crushing defeat, but it was virtually wiped out as a political force from East Bengal as well.
For the Bangalees, it was a revolution through ballot. But the United Front Government led
by FazlulHuq was short-lived. The central Government of Pakistan dissolved it on the 56th
day of its assumption of power. The Bangalees were outraged and infuriated by this nefarious
act on the part of the Pakistani ruling clique.

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 Six point charter

The Six Point Movement was a movement in East Pakistan, spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman, which called for greater autonomy for East Pakistan. The movement's main agenda
was to realize the six demands put forward
by a coalition of Bengali nationalist
political parties in 1966, to end the
perceived exploitation of East Pakistan by
the West Pakistani rulers.

The six points are noted as being:

The Constitution should provide
for a Federation of Pakistan in its
true sense based on the Lahore
Resolution, and the parliamentary
form of government with
supremacy of a Legislature directly
elected on the basis of universal
adult franchise.

The federal government should deal with only two subjects: Defense and Foreign
Affairs, and all other residual subjects should be vested in the federating states.

Two separate, but freely convertible currencies for two wings should be introduced;
or if this is not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but
effective constitutional provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital
from East to West Pakistan. Furthermore, a separate Banking Reserve should be
established and separate fiscal and monetary policy be adopted for East Pakistan.

The power of taxation and revenue collection should be vested in the federating units
and the federal centre would have no such power. The federation would be entitled to
a share in the state taxes to meet its expenditures.

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 There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two
wings; the foreign exchange requirements of the federal government should be met by
the two wings equally or in a ratio to be fixed; indigenous products should move free
of duty between the two wings, and the constitution should empower the units to
establish trade links with foreign countries.

East Pakistan should have a separate military or paramilitary force, and Navy
headquarters should be in East Pakistan.

Mass uprising (1969)

1969 uprising () was a democratic political movement in East

Pakistan (now Bangladesh )
that came about in 1969.The
uprising consisted of a series
of mass demonstrations and
noncontinuous conflicts
between government
defense force and therefore
the demonstrators. Though
the unrest began in 1966
with the six purpose
movement of Awami
League, it got momentum at
the start of 1969 and
culminated within the
resignation of Marshall Ayub Khan, the primary military ruler of Pakistan. The uprising
additionally led to the withdrawal of Agartala Conspiracy Case and final decision of Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman and his colleagues from the case.

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The revolutionary rising of the working masses shook the military regime of Ayub Khan,
who was replaced by General Yahiya Khan in March 1969. The situation was ripe for a
socialist revolution led
by the workers. The
workers, peasants, urban
poor, students, layers of
the urban and rural
middle categories, and
youth showed their
determination, courage
and power and continued
their struggle to
overthrow capitalism and
feudalism. The concepts
of socialism spread like
wildfire. The big general
strike and mass
demonstrations
paralyzed the state
equipment for over a month, in the East and West. Through this movement the Bengali
nations 1st articulated their intentions of identity as an individual nation that was essentially
mirrored within the 1st Constitution of Bangladesh by reflective philosophical system,
socialism and marked by Bengali nationalism. This can be important to mention, this
constitutional statement had been modified through the military rule when 1975 which was
closely associated with the coup makers and their intentions. Political instability and
economic difficulties marked Pakistans history from its formation. In1956, a constitution
was finally adopted, describing the country as an Islamic republic within the
Commonwealth. The political musical chairs continued till the imposition of martial law
in1958 by General Ayub Khan. This was maintained till 1962, once Khan declared himself
president (and field marshal) he stood down in March 1969. Martial law was once more
imposed between 1969, once General Yahiya Khan took over, and 1971. Prolonged military
rule any alienated the Bengali population. Not only did the gulf between wealthy and poor
reach unprecedented levels, aggravating classtensions, however the inequality between West
and East Pakistan also reached new heights.
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 Independence of Bangladesh (1971)

The Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: Muktijuddho), also known as the

Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a
revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self-
determination movement in what was then East Pakistan and the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.
It resulted in the
independence of
the People's
Republic of
Bangladesh. The
war began after
the
Pakistanimilitary
junta based in
West Pakistan
launched
Operation
Searchlight
against the
people of East
Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971. It pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist
Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta
annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime minister-designate Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman.

Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes
to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate.
The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias
the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams to assist it during raids on the local populace.
Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder,
deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of numerous massacres,
including the Dhaka University killings. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to
neighboring India, while 30 million were internally displaced. Sectarian violence broke out

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between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the
atrocities committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide.

The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members

of the MuktiBahini the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary
and civilians. The East Bengal Regiment and the
East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the
resistance. Led by General M. A. G. Osmani and
eleven sector commanders, the Bangladesh
Forces waged a mass guerrilla war against the
Pakistani military. They liberated numerous
towns and cities in the initial months of the
conflict. The Pakistan Army regained
momentum in the monsoon. Bengali guerrillas
carried out widespread sabotage, including
Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy.
The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases. By
November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the
night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside.

The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and
moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military
and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government. Thousands of
Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan.
Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station. The plight of
millions of war-ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian
state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic and military support to
Bangladeshi nationalists. British, Indian and American musicians organised the world's first
benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. Senator Ted Kennedy in
the United States led a congressional campaign for an end to Pakistani military persecution;
while US diplomats in East Pakistan strongly dissented with the Nixon administration's close
ties to the Pakistani military dictator Yahya Khan.

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India joined the war on 3
December 1971, after Pakistan
launched preemptive air strikes
on North India. The subsequent
Indo-Pakistani War witnessed
engagements on two war fronts.
With air supremacy achieved in
the eastern theatre and the rapid
advance of the Allied Forces of
Bangladesh and India, Pakistan
surrendered in Dacca on 16
December 1971.

The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh
as the seventh-most populous country in the world. Due to complex regional alliances, the
war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union
and the People's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations
recognized Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.

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