Sedode Joseph - Effects of Small-Scale Coconut Oil Processing Methods On The Quality and Yield of Oil in The Jomoro Distict - 2015

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.
gh
EFFECTS OF SMALL-SCALE COCONUT OIL PROCESSING METHODS ON
THE QUALITY AND YIELD OF OIL IN THE JOMORO DISTICT.
BY:
SEDODE JOSEPH
(10150363)
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN CROP SCIENCE (POST-HARVEST
TECHNOLOGY) DEGREE
COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE
JULY, 2015
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
DECLARATION
This is to certify that, except for the references to other works which have been cited and
duly acknowledged, this thesis is the result of research undertaken by JOSEPH SEDODE
under supervision towards the award of Master of Philosophy Crop Science (Post-Harvest
Technology) degree, Department of Crop Science, University of Ghana. This thesis has
neither in whole nor part been presented for an award of a degree elsewhere.
Sign; .
Date;
Student; SEDODE JOSEPH
Sign; .
Date;
Supervisor; PROF. R. J. BANI
Sign; .
Date;
Co-supervisor; DR. (MRS.) GLORIA ESSILFIE
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My graduate studies and particularly thesis work has been accomplished by the direction
and guidance of almighty God.
I express my deepest appreciation to Prof. R. J. Bani and Dr. Mrs. Gloria Essilfie my
supervisors for their support, guidance and useful suggestions as well as various
contributions made.
I am very grateful to coconut oil producers and staffs of MoFA in the Jomoro district for
their cooperation during the research period. I also thank the staff of GSA, food laboratory,
Accra for their assistance and not forgetting Mr. Samuel Young of Department of Agric.
Engineering, UG for his contribution.
Finally, I appreciate the helps from my colleagues and family members.
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DEDICATION
To the Glory of the almighty God. Also to my lovely son, wife and the entire family.
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ABSTRACT
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is an important cash crop in the economy of the people living
in the coastal belt of Ghana, specifically Jomoro district in the Western region. Coconut oil
is essential for its unique nutritional and economic purposes; which contain medium chain
fatty acid and used for pharmaceutical purposes. The quality of coconut oil produced by
the small-scale processors cannot be ascertained, as quality control measures and oil
recovery cannot be strictly assured. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the
effects of different processing methods on the yield and quality of the coconut oil in the
Jomoro district. The small-scale coconut oil processing industry in the district was studied
to identify the processing methods practised. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to
collect data from 67 respondents. Four coconut oil processing methods were identified;
traditional method with 1 day fermentation (TM1), traditional method with 2 days
fermentation (TM2), traditional method with 3 days fermentation (TM3) and virgin oil
method (VM). Small scale processors practised these traditional and virgin oil methods.
These processing methods were employed to determine the oil yield per 100 nuts. Coconut
oil samples were then taken from the various processing methods to determine the
chemical qualities after processing and after 12 weeks of storage. The traditional method
with 3 days fermentation constitute the major processing method practised (37.3%). This
also recorded the highest oil yield after processing (52.59%) and there was a significant
difference (p<0.001) among the processing methods. Virgin oil method recorded the
lowest values for Moisture Content, Free Fatty Acid, Peroxide Value and Iodine Value
both after processing and storage as compared with the standard limit for coconut oil.
Generally, there was a significant difference (p<0.005) among the processing methods for
oil quality across the parameters. However, all the processing methods recorded high
impurity levels in the oils when compared with the acceptable impurity level of 0.05%.
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Also, all the processing methods Iodine Value fell above the standard range of 6.3-10.6
wijs after storage, which indicated an increase in unsaturated fat content. Therefore, small-
scale coconut oil processors should use proper processing equipment and adopt good
manufacturing practices to improve upon the oil quality, so as to meet the required
standards.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
DEDICATION iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Problem statement 4
1.2. Justification 5
1.3. General objective 6
1.4. Specific objectives 6
1.5. Research hypothesis 6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1. The Coconut 7
2.2. Brief history of coconut industry in Ghana 9
2.3. Coconut Oil 12
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2.4. Characteristics of coconut oil 13
2.5. Biochemical composition of coconut oil 14
2.6. Importance of coconut oil 15
2.7. Global trends in coconut oil trade 16
2.8. Methods of processing coconut oil 18
2.9. Equipment for coconut oil processing 20
2.10.Quality of coconut oil 21
2.11.Factors affecting the quality of coconut oil 22
2.12.Parameters for accessing quality of oil 23
2.12.1. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) 24
2.12.2. Peroxide Value (PV) 25
2.12.3. Moisture content (MC) 26
2.12.4. Impurity Level 27
2.12.5. Iodine value (IV) 27
2.13. The effects of processing methods on yield and quality of oil 27
2.14. Packaging and storage of coconut oil 28
2.15. Standards for oils (Coconut oil) 29
2.15.1. Codex Alimentaruis commission standards for edible oils 29
2.16. Small-scale processing / Agro-processing 33
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS 35
3.1. Introduction 35
3.2. Study area 35
3.3. Materials and methods of social research 37
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3.3.1. Cognizance survey 37
3.3.2 Pre testing 37
3.3.3 Sampling technique 38
3.3.4 Questionnaire administering / data collection 38
3.3.5 Data management 40
3.3.6 Statistical analysis and presentation of result 40
3.4. Materials and method of coconut oil yield assessment 40
3.4.1. Coconut oil processing methods 42
3.4.2. Equipment and materials used for coconut oil processing 44
3.4.3. Statistical analysis and presentation of results 44
3.5. Materials and methods of coconut oil quality test 45
3.5.1. Parameter for oil quality test 45
3.5.2. Parameter test methods 45
3.5.3. Determination of moisture content (MC) 46
3.5.4. Determination of free fatty acid (FFA) 46
3.5.5. Determination of peroxide value (PV) 48
3.5.6. Determination of iodine value (degree of unsaturation) 49
3.5.7. Determination of impurity (dirt) 50
3.5.8. Statistical analysis 52
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. RESULTS 53
4.1. Introduction 53
4.2. The coconut oil processing industry in the Jomoro district 53
4.2.1. Gender and age distribution of coconut oil processors 53
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4.2.2. Educational level of coconut oil processors 55
4.2.3. Number of hired labour for oil processing 55
4.2.4. Presences of coconut oil producers association 56
4.2.5. Coconut oil processing methods practised in the Jomoro district 56
4.2.6. Quality control measure and assessment of quality of coconut oil 57
4.2.7. Methods of measuring quantity of coconut for processing 59
4.2.8. Coconut oil recovery by the processors 59
4.2.9. Processing equipment used by coconut oil processors 59
4.2.10. Packaging and storage of coconut oil 61
4.2.11. Perception of processors on the effect of storage on oil quality 63
4.2.12. Sources of market for coconut oil produced in the Jomoro district 63
4.2.13. Constraints face by coconut oil processors 64
4.2.14. Effect of educational level of coconut oil processors on type of
processing methods practised 65
4.2.15. Effect of gender of coconut oil processors on type of processing
methods practised 66
4.2.16. Effect of age of coconut oil processors on type of processing
4.3. Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield 68
4.4. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after processing 69
4.4.1. Effect of processing methods on moisture content of coconut oil 70
ix
4.4.2. Effect of processing methods on free fatty acid in coconut oil 71
4.4.3. Effect of processing methods on peroxide value of coconut oil 71
4.4.4. Effect of processing methods on iodine value of coconut oil 71
4.4.5. Effect of processing methods on impurity in coconut oil 71
4.5. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after storage 72
4.5.1. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after
storage on moisture content (MC) 73
storage on free fatty acid (FFA) 73
4.5.3. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil
after storage on peroxide value (PV) 73
storage on iodine value (IV) 74
4.5.5. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil
after storage on impurity 74
4.6. Observations of some practices in the small-scale coconut oil industry
in the Jomoro district 75
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. DISCUSSION 76
5.1. Coconut oil processing industry in the Jomoro district 76
5.1.1. Gender, age and educational status of coconut oil processors 76
x
5.1.2. The number of hired labour for coconut oil processing and presences
of coconut oil producers association 77
5.1.3. Coconut oil processing methods practised in the Jomoro district 77
5.1.4. Quality control measures and assessment of quality of coconut oil. 78
5.1.5. Methods of measuring quantity of coconut for processing 79
5.1.6. Coconut oil recovery by the processors 80
5.1.7. Processing equipment used by coconut oil processors 80
5.1.8. Packaging and storage of coconut oil 81
5.1.9. Sources of market for coconut oil produce in the Jomoro district 82
5.1.10. Constraints of coconut oil producers in Jomoro district 83
5.1.11. Effect of educational level of coconut oil processors on type of processing
5.1.13. Effect of age of coconut oil processors on type of processing
5.2. Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield 84
5.3. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil 85
5.3.1. Effect of processing methods on moisture content of coconut oil 85
5.3.2. Effect of processing methods on free fatty acid content in coconut oil 86
5.3.3. Effect of processing methods on peroxide value of coconut oil 87
xi
5.3.4. Effect of processing methods on iodine value of coconut oil 87
5.3.5. Effect of processing methods on impurity level in coconut oil 88
CHAPTER SIX
6.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 90
6.1. Conclusions 90
6.2. Recommendations 90
REFERENCES 92
APPENDICES 96
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1: World Coconut oil production 17
Table 2.2: Quality characteristic and methods of analysis 32
Table 3.1: Number of respondents interviewed in the community 39
Table 3.2: Test methods of the various parameters 45
Table 4.1: Types of processing methods 57
Table 4.2: Quality control measures practise 58
Table 4.3: Forms of assessing quantity of coconut for processing 59
Table 4.4: Coconut oil recovery by the processors 59
Table 4.5: Processing equipment 60
Table 4.6: Market sources for coconut oil in the district 64
Table 4.7: Constraints of coconut oil producers in Jomoro district 65
Table 4.8: Effect of educational level of coconut oil processors on type of processing
Table 4.9: Effect of gender of coconut oil processors on type of processing methods
practised 67
Table 4.10: Effect of age of coconut oil processors on type of processing methods
practised 68
Table 4.11: Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield (%) 69
xiii
Table 4.12: Processing methods effect on quality of coconut oil after processing 70
Table 4.13: Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after 12 weeks
of storage 72
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1: World coconut production the top ten producers: FAO Statistics
(2009) 9
Figure 3.1: Map of western region indicating Jomoro District 36
Figure 3.2: Traditional method of coconut oil processing 42
Figure 3.3: Virgin method of coconut oil processing 43
Figure 4.1: Gender distribution of small-scale coconut oil processors 54
Figure 4.2: Age distribution of small-scale coconut oil processors 54
Figure 4.3: Educational status of coconut oil processors 55
Figure 4.4: Number of workers hired during processing 56
Figure 4.5: Packaging materials used in the district 61
Figure 4.6: Storage places for coconut oils in the district 62
Figure 4.7: Storage periods of coconut oils in the district 62
Figure 4.8: Processors perception of the effect of storage on oil quality 63
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACP .. African, Caribbean and Pacific countries
ANOVA ... Analysis of Variance
BECE .... Basic Education Certificate Examination
CODEX Codex Alimentaruis Commission
COFPMAG .. Coconut Farmers Processors and Marketers
Association of Ghana
CPO .. Crude Palm Oil
CRC .. Coconut Research Centre
CSPWD Cape Saint Paul Wilt Disease
CSDP Coconut Sector Development Project
FAO . Food and Agriculture Organization
FASDEP .. Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy
FFA ... Free Fatty Acid
FNH .. Fermentation without Heat
FRI ... Food Research Institute
FWH . Fermentation with Heat
GAPs Good Agricultural Practices
GMP . Good Manufacturing Practice
GSA . Ghana Standard Authority
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GSS ... Ghana Statistical Service
HACCP . Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography
ISO ... International Organization for Standardization
IUPAC .. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
IV .. Iodine Value
JDA .. Jomoro District Assembly
LCFA ... Long Chain Fatty Acid
LSD . Least Significant Difference
MC Moisture Content
MCFA ... Medium-Chain Fatty Acids
MCT .. Medium Chain Triglycerides
MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture
MSLC Middle School Leaving Certificate
MYD . Malayan Yellow Dwarf
NEMA .. Nzema East Municipal Assembly
OECD ... Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development
PV Peroxide Value
RBD . Refined, Bleached and Deodorized
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RCO . Refined Coconut Oil
RESTOLIFE Restoration of the Livelihood of Coconut Farmers
SGD . Sri Lankan Green Dwarf
SME Small and Medium-size Enterprise
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
SSCE Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination
TM1 . Traditional Method with 1 day Fermentation
TM2 . Traditional Method with 2 days Fermentation
TM3 . Traditional Method with 3 days Fermentation
UNCTAD United Nation Conference on Trade and
Development
USDA .. United States Department of Agriculture
VCO Virgin Coconut Oil
VM .. Virgin oil Method
VTT . Vanuatu Tall
WAT West African Tall
WIAD .. Women in Agricultural Development
xviii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a tree, referred to as The Tree of Life. Early Spanish
explorers called coconut, Coco (monkey face) because of the three indentations (eyes)
on the dehusked coconut fruit which resembles the head and face of a monkey. Nucifera
means "nut-bearing" (CRC, 2004). The people of Nzema in the Jomoro district refer to
coconut as Kukue, the farmers slogan is Kukue, Esuka Bakah (Coconut, the money
tree), this is as a result of its high economic value.
Nearly one third of the world's population depend much on coconut as their source of food
and for their economy (CRC, 2004). On many islands in the world, coconut is a staple in
their diet which supply a nutritious meat, oil, juice and milk that has fed and nourished
population around the globe for generations (CRC, 2004).
Historically, coconut oil is one of the earliest oils to be consumed as a food and for
medicinal purposes (Fife, 2004). People who consume coconut oil or used it as medicine,
enjoy remarkably good health and longevity and studies have shown that people whose
diet are high in coconut oil, are healthier and have fewer incidences of cardiovascular
disease, digestive complaints, cancer and prostate problems (Fife, 2004).
Research and clinical observation have shown that coconut oil contains Medium-chain
Fatty Acids which can prevent and treat a wide range of diseases (Fife, 2004). Coconut oil
can prevent heart diseases, high blood pressure, stroke, support the development of strong
bones and teeth, promote loss of excess weight, protect against kidney diseases and bladder
infections. Furthermore, it prevents liver diseases, protect the body from breast, colon and
other cancers, control dandruff, wrinkles sagging skin and age spots (Fife, 2004; CRC,
2004 and Organic facts, 2014).
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As stated by Coconut Research Centre - CRC (2004), coconut possesses many health
benefits due to its fibre and nutritional content. It was stated that it is the oil that makes it a
truly remarkable food and medicine. Coconut oil was believed to be unhealthy by most
people because of its high saturated fat content, but research indicated that the fats in
coconut oil is unique and different from most other fats (Fife, 2004). Coconut oil saturated
fatty acids content are predominately medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) which is also
known as medium chain triglycerides (MCT) (Fife, 2004).
The best sources of fats are from coconut and palm kernel oils because both the saturated
and unsaturated fat found in kernels, milk, eggs and plants (including most vegetable oils)
are composed of long chain fatty acid (LCFA) (CRC, 2004).
United Nation Conference on Trade and Development - UNCTAD (2012), stated that
coconut oil is used for cooking and in the oleo-chemical industry for making margarine,
soaps and it has the potential for energy generation as a bio fuel; either mixed with diesel
or as a substitute for diesel.
Coconuts are produced in about 92 countries worldwide on about 11.8 million hectares
(29.5 acre) of lands. World production is estimated at 61.7 million tons with an average
yield of 5.2 tons / ha. The top leading producing countries are Indonesia (21,565,700
tons), Philippines (15,667,600 tons), India (10,148,000 tons), Sri Lanka (2,099,000 tons)
and Brazil (1,973,370 tons) (UNCTAD, 2012).
World coconut oil production has been increasing over the past decade. It is now estimated
at 3.5 million tons per annum (UNCTAD, 2012). This accounts for 2.5 % of world
vegetable oil production. Over 70 % of global coconut oil production comes from the
Philippines (1,690,000 MT), Indonesia (968,000 MT), India (447,000 MT), Vietnam
(153,000 MT) and Mexico (145,000 MT). Moreover, the only African, Caribbean and
2
Pacific (ACP) countries in the top ten coconut oil producers was Papua New Guinea
(63,000 MT) and Cte dIvoire (28,000 MT) (UNCTAD, 2012).
In Ghana large scale farms and plantations produce mainly oil palm, rubber and coconut
and to a lesser extent, maize, rice and pineapples (FASDEP II, 2007). According to United
States Department of Agriculture USDA, IndexMundi (2014), the production of coconut
oil in Ghana has reduced drastically by 42.86 % (4,000 MT) in year 2000. However, in
year 2011 it increased by 50 % (6,000 MT) and has remained at that level till 2013.
Exports of Coconut oil have been increasing over the last decade mainly because of the
greater global need for coconut oil (essential characteristics). In 2008, just over 2 million
tonnes of coconut oil were traded on the world market. The Philippines was the largest
exporter of coconut oil in 2008, with 42 % of world exports and the main destination
markets for the oil were USA and Europe (Netherlands, Germany) accounting for 24 %
and 25 % of imports respectively (UNCTAD, 2012).
As stated in Organic facts (2014), primarily there are 6 varieties of coconut oil found on
the world market. The varieties are pure coconut oil, refined coconut oil, virgin coconut
oil, organic coconut oil, organic virgin coconut oil and extra virgin coconut oil. According
to Fife (2004), coconut oil can be divided into two categories; refined, bleached and
deodorized (RBD) coconut oil and virgin coconut oils.
There are a lot of methods for processing coconut into oil that can affect the quality,
appearance, flavour and aroma. The quality of coconut oil depends a lot on the method of
extraction that is practised. Basically, there are two main categories of coconut oil
extraction; the first is Cold Pressing of copra (dried coconut kernels) and the second is
Boiling/heating of fresh coconut milk (Organic facts, 2014). Cold pressing is the preferred
3
method for the extraction of coconut oil since it retains much of oils goodness (Organic
facts, 2014). Coconut contain about 33 % of oil in the nut (Fife, 2004)
1.1. Problem statement
The Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II) document (2007),
indicated that agriculture in Ghana is characterised by a large smallholder sector and a very
small large commercial sector, which comprises of both farming and agro-processing.
Small-scale or micro enterprises contribute significantly to economic growth, social
stability and equity. The goals for micro enterprise are to increase income and assets, to
improve skills and increase productivity (Timpo et al., 2008) as well as to produce new
products or improve on existing products.
Adjei-Nsiah (2010) reveal that major refineries in Ghana do not buy palm oil from the
small-scale processors due to poor quality oil (high FFA, moisture content and impurities),
which unduly increase their cost of production. The coconut oil industry in the Jomoro
District may face issues of high impurities, moisture content and high FFA. Moreover, the
small-scale processors uses scent, taste and colour to determine quality instead of
impurities, moisture content and FFA.
The low availability of coconut oil may not be due to inadequacy of nuts but rather, the
processing methods employed that is not high yielding and without good quality of oil.
Studies have shown that coconut oil is beneficial to the food and pharmaceutical industries
(Fife, 2004). However, coconut oil quality production procedures by the local small-scale
processors cannot be identified and ascertain due to the lack of documentation in Ghana.
4
Personal communication with Quaicoe, 2014 reveals that the demand for coconut oil in the
world market is increasing very fast. However, the Makola Virgin Coconut Oil Ghana, is
unable to meet the demand for its product.
1.2. Justification
The importance of coconut and coconut oil has been realised currently to be beneficial for
consumption and medicinal purposes, which has raised the demand for the oil over other
vegetable oils (Fife, 2004). Moreover, quality is of paramount importance since the
product is being ingested and most production is mainly on small-scale operations
(Bawalan et al., 2006). Therefore, there is the need to research into the local small-scale
coconut oil processing, to identify the processing methods and quality of the oil for future
development and upgrading of the industry.
In addition to the above rationale, because most of the producers of the coconut oils are on
small-scale bases, information relating to their production methods, quality and yield of oil
produced must be documented to serve as a benchmark for improving the industry.
The identification of the processing methods and qualities of the coconut oil would help
boost the marketing of the oil both locally and internationally and some strategies would be
outlined to support the industry to improve on quality.
The world price for coconut oil had increased within the past few years and now cost more
than soya oil and palm oil. Averagely the world market price was US$1,500 / tonne while
the average price paid by ACP countries for coconut oil was estimated at US$1,327/ tonne
based on the value of imports in 2008 (UNCTAD, 2012).
5
Dayrit et al. (2011) stated that with the recently growing interest in virgin coconut oil as a
functional food and cosmetic, it is important that the quality characteristics of virgin
coconut oil be studied and improved.
1.3. General objective
The general objective of the study was to determine the effect of different processing
methods on the yield and quality of coconut oil.
1.4. Specific objectives
The specific objectives of the study were;
1. To identify the various types of coconut oil processing methods being practiced by
small-scale processors in the Jomoro District.
2. To determine and quantify the yield of coconut oil from the processing methods
being used by small scale processors.
3. To determine the quality of coconut oil from the different methods after processing
and after 12 weeks of storage.
1.5. Research hypothesis
The small scale processing methods do not produce the same level of quality and yield of
coconut oil.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. The Coconut
Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), is a tree which belong to the palm family Arecaceae. It
is one of the most important crops of the tropics. It is referred to as The Tree of Life
(CRC, 2004). Early Spanish explorers called it Coco, which means monkey face because
of the three indentations (eyes) on the dehusked nut which resembles the head and face of a
monkey. Nucifera means "nut-bearing" (CRC, 2004, UNCTAD, 2012). Punchihewa et al.
(1999) referred to coconut as the "heavenly tree", "tree of life", "tree of abundance" and
"nature's supermarket" because it is the most important palm. The name coconut refers to
the entire palm, the seed or the fruit (not a biological fruit, but a drupe), (UNCTAD, 2012).
Naturally there are two sub-groups of coconut simply referred to as Tall and Dwarf
cultivars.
Coconut trees are typical single trunked palms which can grow up to 50 - 100 ft. in height.
Coconuts are planted by seed and are usually planted 9 m (25 ft.) apart. Coconut tree can
produce an average of 70 - 150 nuts per year and the tree can remain productive for 50
100 years (Yeboah, 2010; UNCTAD, 2012). The coconuts can tolerate drought but not
cold weather. The plant thrive well in warm and humid climate with temperatures ranging
between 70 80 F (21.1 26.6 C) with a relative humidity above 60% and with rainfall
of 1,500 2,500 mm, which must be evenly distribution throughout the year. They grow
well on light, medium and heavy soils as well as loams and clays soils which are well
drained and can tolerate saline and infertile soils (UNCTAD, 2012).
Wide range of pests and diseases affect coconuts plants. The common pests are boring
insects, rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros and Scapanes australis), red palm mite
7
(Raoiella indica), coconut leaf caterpillars, palm weevil, moth borers and ants (Azteca
spp.). Some of the diseases are Phytoplasmal (fungal) diseases, Bacterial bud rot caused by
Erwinia spp and Lethal yellowing disease which is caused by mycoplasmas (virus disease).
The Lethal yellowing disease is locally referred to as the Cape St Paul Wilt Disease
(CSPWD), which has spread through Caribbean, Central America, West Africa, East
Africa and part of southern India (UNCTAD, 2012). Coconuts fruits fall from the tree
when they are fully mature and are easily picked from the ground. Coconuts intended for
copra or oil production are split open with a cutlass, discarding the water (juice) and
exposing the kernel.
Nearly one third of the world's population depends on coconut as their source of food and
their economy (CRC, 2004). Most people living on islands use coconut as a staple in their
diet which provide them with juice, milk, oil and a nutritious source of meat that has fed
and nourished population around the world (CRC, 2004). As the Jamaicans says coconut
is a health tonic, good for the heart (Fife, 2004). The coconut is a very versatile crop,
which requires little care with many uses such as food, fibre, fuel, water and shelter also
for landscapes and home beautification. In addition, for Agro-forestry uses, it include
coastal stabilization and windbreaks (UNCTAD, 2012).
The coconut palm is widely distributed throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America, the
Caribbean and the Pacific region and it is not grown in Europe and Australia (UNCTAD,
2012). Coconuts are produced in about 92 countries worldwide on about 11.8 million
hectares (29.5m, acre) of lands. World production has been estimated at 61.7 million tons
with an average yield of 5.2 tons / ha. The top leading producing countries as shown in
Fig. 2.1 are Indonesia (21,565,700 mt), Philippines (15,667,600 mt), India (10,148,000
mt), Sri Lanka (2,099,000 mt) and Brazil (1,973,370 mt) (UNCTAD, 2012; Punchihewa et
8
al., 1999). Furthermore, Punchihewa et al., 1999 stated that Papua New Guinea, Tanzania
and Brazil are the leading producers in South Pacific countries, Africa and Latin America
respectively.
About 50 percent of the world production of coconut is processed into copra. While a small
portion is processed into desiccated coconut and other edible products, the rest is
consumed as fresh nuts. Furthermore, the coconut palm also provides a lot of by-products
such as fibre, charcoal, vinegar, alcohol, sugar, handicrafts, furniture, roofing and fuel,
which provide an additional source of income to the farmers (Punchihewa et al., 1999).
Figure 2.1: World coconut production the top ten producers: FAO Statistics (2009)
2.2. Brief history of coconut industry in Ghana
Coconut is an important crop in the economy of the people in coastal areas of Ghana
(Yeboah, 2010). It is believed that coconut was first introduced into West Africa by the
9
Portuguese missionaries in the 16th Century. In Ghana, the missionaries first planted
coconut trees in the Volta Region and when it survived on the beach, which was very poor
to other plants due to its high salinity and porosity of the soil, the then Department of
Agriculture under the colonial administration during the Gold coast, promoted the mass
cultivation of coconut on the coast, westwards to the Western region (Yeboah, 2010).
Apart from the coast, the coconut also grew very well inland in the forest zones. Although
coconut was first introduced in the Volta region, the majority of its production now comes
from the Western Region, particularly the Jomoro District (Yeboah, 2010).
Some of the coconut varieties cultivated are the popular West African Tall (WAT),
Vanuatu Tall (VTT), Sri Lankan Green Dwarf (SGD), the newly hybrids Malayan Yellow
Dwarf crossed Vanuatu Tall (MYD x VTT) and Sri Lankan Green Dwarf crossed Vanuatu
Tall (SGD x VTT) coconuts, established between 1981 and 1983 with the latter in 1995
(Dare et al., 2010).
The West African Tall (WAT) which is a local coconut variety, that is mostly cultivated in
Ghana, is very high-yielding both in quality of the food and oil extraction as well as
quantity of the nut. As a result, many of the people who went into the cultivation of
coconut became very rich (Yeboah, 2010).
The good agronomic characteristics of the SGD x VTT hybrid as coupled with its high
resistance to the Cape Saint Paul Wilt Disease (CSPWD) proved its suitability as
alternative planting material to revamp the coconut industry in Ghana (Dare et al., 2010).
Due to the outbreak of the CSPWD about quarter of the countrys 45,000 hectares coconut
plantation had been wiped off by the disease from the eastern part of the country (Yeboah,
2010). However, the Coconut Sector Development Project (CSDP) in 1999 sought to
reverse the devastation of farms by CSPWD by providing new planting materials,
10
replanting, intensification and improvement of farm management, improvement of small-
scale oil processing and research (N.E.M.A., 2006).
The name of the disease in Ghana was derived from Cape St Paul, a small village near
Woe in the Volta Region, where it was first detected in 1932. Within 10 years of its
detection, it spread to many parts of the Volta Region, specifically Keta. The disease was
confined to the Keta area until 1964 when it showed up again at Cape Three Points in the
Western Region, again wrecking large acres of coconut plantations (Yeboah, 2010).
The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), (2013), maintained and conducted coconut
hybridization nursery fields at Anyinasi where there are 20 ha of Malayan Yellow Dwarf
(MYD) and 10 ha of Sri Lanka Green Dwarf (SGD) varieties fields at Bonsaso. At the
close of the year 2013, 212 hectares had been re-planted for 266 individual farmers in the
Western and Central Regions by the Restoration of the Livelihood of Coconut Farmers
(RESTOLIFE) project (MOFA, 2013). It is aimed at reducing poverty by helping farmers
replant coconut plantations destroyed by the Cape Saint Paul Wilt Disease (CSPWD).
In the production and marketing of coconut products, COFPMAG (2006) identified the
following findings; lack of oil products in Ghana, local consumption of coconut product is
increasing, export of coconut products are increasing and with good prices for the farmers.
However, about 4.2% of the population of Ghanaian depend on coconut for their livelihood
(Adams et al., 1996). In the Western region, it is estimated that only 20 % of the rural
dwellers depend on coconut for their sustenance (Adams et al., 1996).
Coconut marketing in Ghana is shared among the various stakeholders in the value chain.
There are four market situations; the fresh nut (drinking) market, dry nut market, copra oil
market and the husks and shells market (COFPMAG, 2006). The fresh nut are sold by the
farmers themselves, wholesalers and retailers in towns and cities. The dry nuts are sold to
the local coconut oil processors, coconut oil mills and exported to Nigeria. The marketing
11
of dry nuts to Nigerians has evolve very quickly and resulted in significant increase of
income to the coconut farmers (COFPMAG, 2006). The husks and shells were mostly
bought by WIENCO Fibre factory (Jomoro district) for processing.
According to COFPMAG (2006), there are three copra processing factories in Kumasi;
Vester oil mills ltd in Abuontem, A.B. oil mills in Abuakwa and Golden web oil mills in
Boankra. These factories mostly sell the oil to soap factories in Burkina Faso. The local
coconut oil processors produce mainly for local consumption and for the market. Their
produce are mainly marketed in Accra (Abobloshie), Kumasi (Railway station), Tarkwa
and Obuasi, (N.E.M.A.; COFPMAG, 2006). However, due to the inefficient technology
used the oil recovery rate is quite low (N.E.M.A., 2006).
The wholesalers of coconut oil buy the oil from the processors in the villages in drums
(210 litres) and jerrican (62 litres), (MoFA, 2004). The wholesalers and retailers of coconut
oil are organized into associations and for example about thirty wholesalers from Nzema
East District in Accra and fifty in Kumasi and also about one thousand oil retailers in
Accra (COFPMAG, 2006).
2.3. Coconut Oil
Coconut oil is a vegetable oil that is derived from the kernel of coconut (Cocos nucifera,
L) (GSA, 2006, Dayrit et al., 2011). Organic fact (2014), stated that there are primarily six
varieties of coconut oil found on the world market. These are Pure Coconut Oil, Refined
Coconut Oil, Organic Coconut Oil, Virgin Coconut Oil, Organic Virgin Coconut Oil and
Extra Virgin Coconut Oil. Coconut has a high oil content of 33 %. The oil is a major
source of vegetable oil for people in the tropics (Fife, 2004).
12
Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) is a vegetable oil that is obtained from fresh dried coconut
kernel and is processed using physical and natural means (Dayrit et al., 2011). According
to Ghana standard authority (GSA, 2006) virgin oils are extracted without changing the
nature of the oil, by mechanical procedures (expelling or pressing) and with the application
of heat only. VCO may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and
centrifuging. Moreover, no food additive is allow to be added in virgin oil.
Refined Coconut Oil (RCO) is extracted from dried copra and the crude oil obtained is
processed on an industrial scale by washing, bleaching, and deodorization (Dayrit et al.,
2011). Deodorisation of coconut oils removes the volatile odours, flavours as well as
peroxides, that affect the stability of the oil and this is done by heating the oil to a
temperature of 150 - 250 C and contacting with live steam under vacuum conditions
(Punchihewa et al., 1999).
Coconut oil, being an edible oil is of special interest to Asian and Pacific populations
because it contains healing properties and it is highly used in traditional medicine (CRC,
2004).
2.4. Characteristics of Coconut Oil
The saturated fatty acids in coconut oil are mostly medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA)
which is also referred to as medium chain triglycerides (MCT). Both the saturated and
unsaturated fats found in kernels, milks, eggs and plants (most vegetable oils) are made of
long chain fatty acid (LCFA), (CRC, 2004). Therefore, the best sources are from coconut.
Virgin coconut oil is a pure white oil when solidified or crystal clear like water when
liquefied. Whereas, refined, bleached and deodorized coconut oils are generally colourless,
tasteless and odourless, that is why it is preferred for cooking and body-care (Fife, 2004). It
was stated that Cochin coconut oil from India is made from copra which has a yellowish or
13
grey colour because of the mold during nut drying and has a high level of impurities than
other coconut oil and with a relatively short shelf life of about six months (Fife, 2004).
2.5. Biochemical composition of coconut oil
VCO tends to have higher free fatty acids content (FFAs), moisture content as well as
volatile matter and lower peroxide value than RCO. However, the range of values of the
oils overlap and no single standard parameter alone can be used to differentiate between
VCO and RCO (Dayrit et al., 2011).
Dayrit et al. (2011) revealed that based on the processing methods practised, VCO
produced by the fermentation method had higher values for acetic acid and octanoic acid
than expeller and centrifugal methods.
VCO is most susceptible to microbial attack, which leads to the formation of various
organic acids, in particular, lactic acid. However, at moisture levels below 0.06%,
microbial action is significantly lessened (Dayrit et al., 2011). Studies on physicochemical
deterioration of VCO showed that it is stable to chemical and photochemical oxidation and
hydrolysis.
Medium chain fatty acid (MCFA) contained in coconut oil are caprylic acid (8%), capric
acid (7%) lauric acid (48%) and caproic acid (0.5%), (Fife, 2004). These fatty acid
demonstrate antimicrobial properties and have no harmful side effects. Coconut oil is
termed super antimicrobial because it can defeat most notorious disease causing micro-
organisms.
14
2.6. Importance of coconut oil
Coconut is highly nutritious and rich in vitamins, minerals and fibre. It is classified as a
functional food because it serves many health purposes more than its nutritional content
(CRC, 2004). Dayrit et al. (2011), also mentioned that there has been a growing interest in
VCO as a functional food and cosmetic and with that demand, it is important that the
quality characteristics of VCO be studied and improved.
Historically, coconut oil could be one of the earliest oils to be used as a food and as a
pharmaceutical (Fife, 2004). People who use coconut oil in one form or another enjoy
remarkably good health and longevity and studies on people whose diet are high in coconut
oil show that they are healthier and have fewer incidences of cardiovascular disease,
cancer, digestive complaints and prostate problems (Fife, 2004).
Furthermore, research and clinical observation reveals that coconut oil is found to contain
Medium-chain Fatty Acids (MCFA) which may help to prevent and treat a wide range of
diseases, that is, prevent heart diseases, high blood pressure, stroke, support the
development of strong bones and teeth, promote loss of excess weight, protect against
kidney diseases and bladder infections. Moreover, it prevent liver diseases, protect the
body from breast, colon and other cancers, control dandruff, wrinkles sagging skin and age
spots (Fife, CRC, 2004 and Organic facts, 2014).
In addition, VCO improves the nutritional value of food by increasing absorption of
vitamins, minerals and amino acid (Fife, 2004). Dayrit (2003), indicated that VCO is
digested easily without the need for bile and goes directly to the liver for conversion into
energy as well as stimulate the metabolism, boost energy and prevent deposition of fats
thereby preventing obesity.
15
Fife (2004), indicated that coconut oil, palm and palm kernel oils are unique, in that, they
are the best natural sources of medium and short-chain fatty acids; coconut oil contain 64
% MCFA. Due to the MCFA in coconut oil it is broken down and used for energy
production and thus seldom end up as body fat or deposit in arteries which does not
adversely affect cholesterol. Another use of coconut oil is for the removal or control of
intestinal worms (tapeworms) and parasites (lice, giardia) (Fife, 2004).
UNCTAD (2012) stated that coconut oil is used for cooking and in the oleo-chemical
industry for making margarine, soaps and it has the potential for energy generation as a
biofuel; either mixed with diesel or as a substitute for diesel.
2.7. Global trends in coconut oil trade
Coconut oil remains the most important form of consumption of coconuts. World coconut
oil production has been increasing over the past decade. It is now estimated at 3.5 million
tons per annum (UNCTAD, 2012). This accounts for 2.5 % of world vegetable oil
production. Over 70 % of global coconut oil production comes from the Philippines
(1,690,000 MT), Indonesia (968,000 MT), India (447,000 MT), Vietnam (153,000 MT)
and Mexico (145,000 MT) (Table 2.1). The only African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP)
countries in the top ten coconut oil producers, were Papua New Guinea (63,000 MT)
and Cte dIvoire (28,000 MT) (UNCTAD, 2012).
16
Table 2.1: World coconut oil production
Country Production (, 000 MT)
Philippines 1,690
Indonesia 968
India 447
Vietnam 153
Mexico 145
Papua New Guinea 63
Thailand 46
Sri Lanka 38
Malaysia 32
Cote D Ivoire 28
World 3.59
Source: USDA (estimated in 2011)
Coconut oil exports have been increasing over the past decade mainly because of the
greater global demand for the vital characteristics of coconut oil. In 2008, only over 2
million tonnes of coconut oil were traded on the world market (UNCTAD, 2012). The
Philippines was the major exporter of coconut oil in 2008, with 42% of world exports
while, USA and Europe (Netherlands, Germany) were the main destination markets for the
oil which accounted for about 24% and 25% of imports respectively (UNCTAD, 2012).
United States Department of Agriculture USDA, IndexMundi (2014) outlined that,
coconut oil production in Ghana reduced drastically by 42.86 % (4,000 MT) in the year
2000. However, in year the 2011 it increased by 50 % (6,000 MT) and has remained at that
level till 2013.
17
2.8. Methods of processing coconut oil
Traditionally, coconut oil is extracted from either fresh or dried coconut by boiling and or
fermentation. When boiled in water, the oil separates from the meat and float to the surface
where it is scooped out. The juice or coconut milk is squeezed out of the meat and allowed
to ferment for 24 - 36 hours (Fife, 2004). The fermentation process allows the oil and water
to separate out naturally and the crude oil is scooped and heated for some time to evaporate
the moisture. The heat is not harmful because the oil is very stable even under moderately
high temperatures.
The quality of coconut oil depends a lot on the method of its extraction. Basically, there are
two main methods or categories of extraction of coconut oil: The first is Cold Pressing of
copra (dried coconut kernels) and the second is boiling of fresh coconut milk (Punchihewa
et al., 1999; Organic facts, 2014). Cold pressing is one of the preferred methods for the
extraction of coconut oil since it retains much of oils nutritive value.
There are different methods of processing coconut oil that can affect the appearance,
flavour/aroma and nutrients. The two broad categories of coconut oil are refined, bleached
and deodorized (RBD) coconut oils and virgin coconut oils (Fife, 2004). The RBD oils is
typically made from dried coconut (copra). The coconut meat is mostly dried by the sun,
smoking or heating in kiln and preferable the oil obtain from copra is the most common
coconut oil used in the cosmetic and food industries.
However, Dayrit et al. (2011), indicated four common methods of producing virgin
coconut oil (VCO); Expeller method, Centrifuge method, Fermentation with heat (FWH)
and Fermentation without heat (FNH). VCO products prepared using these four methods
could not be differentiated using standard quality parameters but with sensory analysis it
showed that VCO produced by fermentation (with and without heat) could be distinguished
18
from those produced using the expeller and centrifugal methods. VCO is considered as a
traditional product that is produced by small to medium enterprises. The centrifuge and
fermentation methods are wet processes, while the expeller method is a dry process (Dayrit
et al., 2011). Natural fermentation occurs through the action of bacteria that are naturally
present. The term virgin signifies an oil that has been subjected to less intense refining
that is lower temperature and no chemical additions (Fife, 2004).
According to Fife (2004), the virgin coconut oil are made from fresh coconut (not copra)
and the oil is extracted by a lot of methods; boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, mechanical
press or centrifuge. Moreover, during virgin oil production high temperature and chemicals
are not used so the oil is able to retain its natural phytochemicals (plant chemicals), which
makes its produce a distinctive coconut taste and aroma.
Bawalan et al. (2006) also outlined four processing methods for coconut oil extraction that
is, traditional wet or modified kitchen methods, modified natural fermentation methods,
low pressure oil extraction methods and high pressure expeller methods.
The modified kitchen method involves the extraction / preparation of coconut milk and
processing the VCO from the milk. The oil produced from this method is dark yellow in
colour with a short shelf-life, which goes rancid within 3 - 5 days. The Modified natural
fermentation method involves preparation of coconut milk for processing and the oil obtain
is pale yellow. This methods requires the least labour input. For this method settling,
fermentation of coconut milk is done for 36 - 48 hours. Bawalan et al. (2006) stated that
laboratory analyses produced using this method show a high FFA content of 33 38 %
which exceeds the prescribed standard of maximum 0.1 % (Philippines).
The low pressure oil extraction method involves the use of dried coconut kernel of 7 12
% moisture content (MC) which is manually operated to produce oil using bridge press or
direct micro expellers. The oil colour is water-clear with a short shelf-life if not dried by
19
gentle heating after extraction to remove water. High pressure expeller method, the
coconut kernel is converted into copra at MC of 3 4% then milled and the oil extracted
using horizontal/vertical screw type expellers. The copra is produced by sun-drying or
smoke drying. This method is referred to as the fresh dry process.
Cochin coconut oils are oils extracted from sun-dried copra which have undergone less
processing than the RBD oils. They are of poor quality with a strong smell, taste and
slightly discoloured (Fife, 2004). It was also stated that when coconut is dried in the open
air it is common for the copra to become mouldy, however, the mould residue is
considered not harmful because of the heat application during the processing which renders
it sterile. The oil is yellowish/grey due to the mould and has a strong smell and taste.
2.9. Equipment for coconut oil processing
With the motive of increasing production and productivity, the use of tools and equipment
for coconut oil processing is very important. Bawalan et al. (2006) listed the following
equipment that are applicable at micro and small-scale oil processing:
1. De-shelling machine; manually operated with a capacity of 200 250 nuts per
hour base on operator skills.
2. Motorised coconut grater; it is stainless steel blade machine with a processing
capacity of 50 80 nut per hour depending on the skills of the operator.
3. Shredder; a machine that tears the coconut meat into very smaller pieces.
4. Coconut milk presses;
Motorised horizontal screw milk press - It can press about 100 110 kg of
freshly grated or shredded meat per hour.
20
Bridge press - It is manually operated stainless steel vertical screw press type with
perforated holding basket and receptacle trough. It capacity is about 60 80 nut per
hour.
Horizontal screw press - It is manually operated with a continuous feed without
the need of a holding bag. About 47 kg of grated meat per hour can be press.
Hydraulic jack - It is a stainless steel manually operated with a fixed head, having
a perforated holding basket and a circular receptacle. Its processing capacity is 48
60 nut per hour.
5. Wok / Cast iron or stock pots; used for heating the crud coconut oil.
6. Stove; it must have an appropriate housing to fit the wok/cast iron, which can use
gas or coconut husk as its fuel.
7. Fermenting container; should be made of transparent plastic with wide-mouthed
for easy removal of oil and curd. It can be made of stainless steel with a sight glass
to see layers of oil separation.
8. Manual filtering device; this is a gravity filtering type with a capacity of 18 litres.
9. Dryer; used to heat/dry grated coconut for oil extraction. Examples of dryers are
solar dryer, modified copra dryer and forced-draught tray dryer.
2.10. Quality of coconut oil
The method of processing coconut oil does not have effect on the free fatty acid (FFA)
profile. Also, VCO can be distinguished from RCO when using the test for percentage
volatile matter at 120 C, FFA percentage and peroxide value. In most cases, RCO gives
off much fewer volatiles and has lower FFA content and peroxide value when compared to
VCO (Dayrit et al., 2011).
21
VCO contains low amounts of proteins, antioxidants and -tocopherol, while RCO has no
proteins detected in it and antioxidants and -tocopherol are virtually absent in RCO
(Dayrit et al., 2011). 1-Monoglycerides were found to be higher in VCO (ave.: 0.027%)
than RCO (ave.: 0.019%). There were more total diglycerides in RCO (ave.: 4.10%) than
VCO (ave.: 1.55%), (Dayrit et al., 2011).
The deterioration of vegetable oils can occur due to chemical hydrolysis, chemical
oxidation, and microbial action and these can be promoted by enzymes, metals, heat, light,
and air. However, the presence of minor components or additives in the oil, such as
phenols, can increase oil stability. The problem of most coconut oil rancidity has been
attributed to moulds, high moisture content and exposure to light (Dayrit et al., 2011).
Microbial action has been identified as one of the major cause of VCO degradation. The
most important conditions that influence the physicochemical and microbial degradation of
VCO are moisture, temperature, and the presence of microorganisms. This makes the VCO
produced by the fermentation method most susceptible to microbial induced degradation.
However, these degradation processes could be minimized if the moisture level is
maintained below 0.06 % (Dayrit et al., 2011).
Coconut oil that is produced from good quality copra is low in fatty acid, clear and has a
good coconut aroma. However, crude coconut oil from poor quality copra is dark, turbid,
high in free fatty acids (FFA), phosphatides and gums and has an unpleasant odour
(Punchihewa et al., 1999).
2.11. Factors affecting the quality of coconut oil
Particles of coconut grated meat in oil reduces the quality. As stated by Bawalan et al.
(2006) in Low Pressure Oil Extraction Method where the Direct Micro Expeller (DME)
process is used for VCO production, it takes a minimum of seven days to settle and clarify
22
the oil. In addition, the oil is allowed to stand for another seven days (ie. 14 days) before
bottling/shipment to ensure that all fine particles trapped in the oil are removed.
With the Bridge press equipment, dried grated meat is placed in a fine muslin bag when
pressing the oil. This makes the muslin bag act as a pre-filter which considerably reduces
the number of fine particles of meat being transferred to the oil during extraction.
Oxidation may be significantly enhance by the impurity level because as stated by Ngando
et al. (2011) for crude palm oil, the samples suffered higher increases in peroxide value
during the first 4 weeks of storage, probably because of their higher impurity levels.
Codex (2011) reported that contamination of oils may occur from residues of a previous
material handled in the processing equipment (grater), dirt, rain, sea water or through the
accidental addition of a different product, may affect the oil quality.
When oils and fats get in contact with oxygen which is present in the atmosphere, it causes
chemical changes in the product which downgrade the quality. Oxidation proceeds more
rapidly as temperature increases, therefore, each operation should be carried out at the
lowest practicable temperature. Different oils and grades should be kept separate and new
oil into old oil in particular should be avoided for oxidative quality reasons (Codex, 2011).
Hydrolysis is also enhanced by the action of certain micro-organisms. The breakdown of
fats to fatty acids is promoted by the presence of water particularly at higher temperatures
(Codex, 2011).
2.12. Parameters for accessing quality of oil
Oils from the traditional oil processors is highly patronize in our local market, due to it
physical qualities (colour, taste and scent). However, Ngando et al. (2011) outlined that
when some Physico-chemical parameters generally used as indicators for quality for
23
dietary oils and fats regarding food safety were assayed, it was indicated by some authors
that crude palm oil (CPO) samples from traditional oil extraction methods were of lesser
quality compared to CPO from industrial oil mills.
Chemical analyses by Ngando et al. (2011) used moisture content and free fatty acid (FFA)
in addition to peroxide value and impurity level to test the quality of the oil. In addition,
analysing the quality of edible oil, the following parameters can be used; FFA, peroxide
value, moisture content, impurities and iodine value. Quality of cooking oil can be judged
by testing different parameter of cooking oil (Mehmood et al., 2012).
Ghana standards for oils (quality characteristic) state that, the colour, odour and taste of
each product should have the characteristic of the designated product. It should be free
from foreign material and rancid odour and taste (GSA, 2006).
2.12.1. Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
Abdussalam et al. (2013), stated that, FFA is a measure of the extent to which hydrolysis
has liberated fatty acids from their ester linkage with the parent triglyceride molecule. One
of the most frequently measured quality indices during edible oils production, storage and
marketing is FFA content. In addition, Mehmood et al. (2012) stated that FFA value
indicates the quality of raw material used, processing, degree of purity and storage
condition.
Abdussalam et al. (2013) determined free fatty acids (FFA) in palm oil with the flow
injection titrimetric method using salicyladhyde-2, 4-dinitrophenylphenylhydrazone
(SDPH) as a new coloring reagent. This method is recommended for the determination of
oil samples with acidity degree higher than 0.5 a.d.. The FFA content can be determined by
24
titrating the alcoholic solution of the oils with a 0.1N solution of sodium hydroxide using
phenolphthalein and alkaline blue as indicators (Ngando et al., 2011).
Abdussalam et al. (2013), also indicated that, there are many analytical methods used for
FFA determination such as the manual titration official method, standard method based on
the PORIM method, capillary gas chromatography and to a lesser extent, high performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE).
It is stated in Ghana standard - GS 813:2006, (GSA, 2006) that coconut oil/edible oil
acidity is determined with ISO 660:1996 methods of analysis and sampling.
2.12.2. Peroxide Value (PV)
It was reported by Kardash-Strochkova (2001) and Ngando et al. (2011) that Peroxide
value is an important characteristic of the edible oils quality and appears as an indicator of
the lipid oxidation and oil properties deterioration. Also PV is related to hydro peroxides in
terms of milliequivalents per kg of oil, which oxidize potassium iodide under the standard
conditions of the test.
PV is used as to assess the stability / rancidity of fats by measuring the amount of lipids
peroxide and hydroperoxides formed during the initial stages of oxidation and estimate the
extent of spoilage of the oil (Ngando et al., 2011). Secondary oxidation product such as
short chain aldehydes and product bearing ketone, epoxy or alcohol groups are responsible
for the rancid smell and taste of the oil. A second chemical parameter named Anisidine
value is used to provide information on oxidation history of a fat.
Lipid oxidation affects negatively on taste of food, aroma and nutrition. It also causes
health hazard, like biological damage of living tissues and increase the risk of
cardiovascular diseases, diarrhoea and poor growth rate.
25
Standard methods for peroxide value determination in edible oils, which was based on
Potassium Iodine (KI) oxidation by the hydroperoxides and volumetric titration of the
liberated iodine, have been improved using redox-potentiometric iodine determination
without titration (Kardash-Strochkova et al., 2001). This method is simple, non time and
labor consuming and suitable for automation. The volumetric titration method however,
obtained results that are slightly lower than those obtained by the standard method and
detection limit of PV was high.
Ghana standards - GS 813:2006, (GSA, 2006) stated that coconut oil / edible oil PV can be
determined according to AOCS cd 8b-90(03) or ISO 3960:2001 methods of analysis and
sampling.
Codex Alimentarius Commission/FAO/WHO recommended that the maximum peroxide
value of oil should be 10 meq O2/kg, however, PV levels less than 0.5 meq kg-1 should be
guaranteed, in fresh refined oils (Kardash-Strochkova et al., 2001).
2.12.3. Moisture content (MC)
Moisture content was determined by the gravimetric method of air-oven drying to constant
weight at 105 C (Ngando et al., 2011). It was reported by Ngassapa and Othman (2001)
that oil varies in their acid content and this could be due to the variations in the natural
moisture content of the oil.
As stated in Ghana standard - GS 813:2006, (GSA, 2006) coconut oil / edible oil MC and
Volatile matter is determined at 105 C according to ISO 662:1998 methods of analysis
and sampling.
26
2.12.4. Impurity Level
The level of impurities such as mesocarp fibers, insoluble materials, phosphatines, trace
metals, and oxidation products are usually measured and high levels of these substances
are typically prohibited in a regulated production of edible oils (Watanapoon, 2004).
As reported by Ngando et al. (2011) impurity level was assessed by mixing the oil sample
with an excess of hexane then filtrated. Moreover, the residue on the filter was then
washed with hexane and oven dried to constant weight at 105 C.
GSA (2006) stated in Ghana standard - GS 813:2006, that determination of insoluble
impurity level is according to ISO 663:2000 method of analysis and sampling.
2.12.5. Iodine value (IV)

Primarily iodine value of oils is used to identify the type of oil and it is also useful for
determining the unsaturation level of the fatty acids in the oil. Furthermore, oils that are
high in iodine value (128 sunflower oil) suggest that they are rich in unsaturated fatty
acids. However, low iodine value (60 sunflower oil) of oil may contribute to the oil greater
oxidative stability during storage (Ngassapa et al., 2001). Refractive index and iodine
value are both measurements of fatty acid unsaturation.
Iodine value is determined according to IUPAC 2.205 and measured in Wijs, with a
standard range of 6.3-10.6 (GSA, 2006)
2.13. The effects of processing methods on yield and quality of oil
With the Low Pressure Oil Extraction method, oil recovery was 24.5 kg/100 kg of fresh
coconut meat/kernel (Bawalan et al., 2006). The Low Pressure Oil Extraction method
causes very fine particles of dried meat sediment in the oil, so it has to settle before
filtration and if the moisture content is very high after extraction then there is the risk that
27
the oil may start to go rancid during settling (Bawalan et al., 2006). If the moisture content
of the meat is too low no oil will be extracted and when moisture content is too high, the
press will produce turbid oil (mixture of oil and coconut milk) therefore, grated coconut
meat must be dried to optimum MC of 10 - 12 % for good oil recovery and quality
(Bawalan et al., 2006).
Bawalan et al. (2006) reported that the traditional wet or modified kitchen method and the
modified natural fermentation method had almost the same oil recovery of 19 kg and 19.8
kg per 100 kg respectively. For these methods, milk extraction is done using manually
operated press and using ordinary kitchen utensils or in a micro-scale operation. They also
reported that, coconut oil produced will be water-clear to pale yellow in colour and with a
high MC of 0.12 - 0.14 %. In addition laboratory analyses of the modified natural
fermentation method had a high FFA content of 33 38 % which exceed the prescribed
standard in Philippines.
2.14. Packaging and storage of coconut oil
Ministry of Food and Agriculture - MoFA (2013) defines food security as good quality
nutritious food, hygienically packaged and attractively presented, available in sufficient
quantities all year round and located at the appropriate places at affordable prices.
The recommended packaging material for VCO is glass, when it is expected to be on the
shelf for several weeks. Plastic bottles used for mineral water can be used in cases where
the oil will be immediately consumed (Bawalan et al., 2006). Coconut oil can be sold in
different sizes of bottles (14 16 ounce) and gallons (Fife, 2004). Refined and deodorized
oils that are for direct human consumption must be stored in a stainless steel or mild steel
coated with epoxy resin. To avoid hydrolysis, tanks or containers in which the oil is being
28
stored and packaged should always be clean and dry before use and must be inspected
before oil should be loaded (Codex, 2011).
The findings of Ngando et al., (2011) showed that lipid peroxidation and oil acidity
significantly increased in oil sample from small-scale oil mills during the first 4 weeks of
storage, which was stored at room temperature. Both process were enhanced by moisture
and impurity levels of the oils. However, the oil acidity started decreasing after the 4 th
week to the 10th week whiles the peroxide value start decreasing from 4 th and 6th week.
According to Gen et al., (2005) peroxide values of the oil increased significantly over a 52
day experiment at 60 C than that at room temperature of 28 C. As stated in Codex (2011)
coconut oil must be stored at 27 32 C and loading and discharge at 40 45 C but for
warmer climate loading and discharge should be 30 39 C. Furthermore, long term
storage of all soft oils should be at ambient temperature. Perkins (1967) added that
peroxides are unstable and can break down to carbonyl and aldehydic compounds under
conditions of high heat, air and light.
Ngassapa et al., (2001) recommended that in order for the local edible vegetable oils to
keep their characteristic, they should be stored in airtight, non-transparent containers. It is
also recommended that synthetic antioxidants be used during production in order to
enhance storage stability of the oils.
2.15. Standards for oils (Coconut oil)
2.15.1. Codex Alimentaruis commission standards for edible oils:
Edible oils are foodstuffs which are composed of glycerides of fatty acids. They are of
vegetable, animal or marine origin. These oils may contain small amounts of other lipids
29
such as phosphatides, of unsaponifiable constituents and of free fatty acids naturally
present in the oil.
Virgin oils are edible vegetable oils obtained, without altering the nature of the oil, by
mechanical procedures, e.g. expelling or pressing, and the application of heat only. They
may be purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.
Cold pressed oils are edible vegetable fats and oils obtained, without altering the oil, by
mechanical procedures, e.g. expelling or pressing, without the application of heat. They
may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.
It has been stated in Codex (2013), codexstan 19-1981 no additives are permitted in virgin
or cold pressed oils such as colour and flavour. Some colours are permitted for the purpose
of restoring the natural colour lost during the processing or for the purpose of standardizing
colour, as long as the added colour does not deceive or mislead the consumer by
concealing damage or the product being inferior and or by making the product appear to be
of greater value than actual value, example beta-Carotenes (vegetable synthetic).
Codex Alimentarius (2010) codexstan 193-1995, defines a contaminant as follows:
Any substance not intentionally added to food, which is present in such food as a
result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry, animal
husbandry and veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation,
treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of
environmental contamination. The term does not include insect fragments, rodent
hairs and other extraneous matter.
Contaminant levels in food shall be as low as reasonably achievable through best practice
such as Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) following an appropriate risk assessment.
Codex alimentarius commission (2003) CAC/RCP 1-1969 stated some definition on
hygienic practices;
30
Food hygiene - all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability
of food at all stages of the food chain.
Food safety - assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared
and or eaten according to its intended use.
Food suitability - assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to
its intended use.
Hazard - a biological, chemical or physical agent in or condition of food with the potential
to cause an adverse health effect.
HACCP - a system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are significant
for food safety.
Cleaning - the removal of soil, food residue, dirt, grease or other objectionable matter.
Primary food production should not be carried out in areas where the presence of
potentially harmful substances would lead to an unacceptable level of such substances in
food, therefore, identifying any specific points in the activities where a high probability of
contamination may exist and specific measures should be taken to minimize that
probability by using HACCP - based approach and critical control point to assist in the
taking of such measures (Codex, 2003).
In primary production appropriate facilities and procedures should be in place to ensure
that any necessary cleaning and maintenance is carried out effectively and appropriate
degree of personal hygiene must be maintained (Codex, 2003).
As stated in the Codex (2003) standard, equipment and containers (other than once-only
use containers and packaging) coming into contact with the food, should be designed and
constructed to ensure that, where necessary, they can be adequately cleaned, disinfected
and maintained to avoid the contamination of food.
31
An adequate supply of potable water with appropriate facilities for its storage, distribution
and temperature control, should be available whenever necessary to ensure the safety and
suitability of food. Adequate drainage and waste disposal systems and facilities should be
provided. They should be designed and constructed well so that the risk of contaminating
food or the potable water supply is avoided Codex (2003).
Codex standard (2013) has stated the quality characteristic with their maximum levels and
the methods of determination in table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Quality characteristic and methods of analysis
Parameters Max. level Methods of analysis
Colour characteristic of designated product.
Odour and taste characteristic of designated product
and free from foreign and rancid
odour and taste.
Matter volatile at 105 C 0.2 % m/m IUPAC
2.601/ISO 662:1998
Insoluble impurities 0.05 % m/m IUPAC
2.604/ISO 663:1999
Acid value 4.0 mg KOH/g IUPAC
(virgin/cold press oil). 2.201/ISO 660:1996
Peroxide value 15 mq/kg IUPAC
(virgin/ cold press oil). 2.501/ISO 3961:199
Source; Codex allimentaruis (Codex stan 19-1981)
32
2.16. Small-scale processing / Agro-processing
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are non-subsidiary, independent firms which
employ less than a given number of employees. Small firms are generally those with less
than 50 employees, while micro-enterprises have at most 10 or in some cases 5 workers
(OECD, 2005). This number varies across countries.
Small-scale or micro enterprises contribute significantly to economic growth, social
stability and equity. The goals for micro enterprise are to increase income and assets, to
improve skills and increase productivity (Timpo et al., 2008) as well as to produce a new
products or improve on existing products. VCO in the Philippines is considered as a
traditional product that is produced by small to medium enterprises (Dayrit et al., 2011).
Promoting agro-processing to individuals and groups is aimed at adding value to the food
crops which is key to reducing post-harvest losses. In the MOFA Annual Progress Report
(2013), 4062 agro-processors were trained in agro-processing technologies and 83 %
(3,370) of which were females. Data for year 2012 and 2013 shows that more women than
men are into agro-processing (MOFA, 2013). MoFA, through the Women in Agricultural
Development (WIAD), supported households with various agro-processing technologies
through training to enhance small and medium scale mechanical processing of some
priority commodities.
Value chain development is very important in promoting agricultural growth, increasing
incomes and poverty reduction for farmers and other agricultural actors. Good Agricultural
Practices (GAPs) were also promoted by MOFA through trainings. Furthermore, Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) and quality management, and promotion of processing
technologies were also supported through capacity building (MOFA, 2013).
33
One way to create wealth in coconut producing communities is to diversify the coconut
industry by introducing small scale processing technologies to add value to the many
identifiable parts of the coconut for both domestic and export markets (Dare et al., 2010).
However, the meat component of the mature coconut fruit composition is what matters
most to the coconut farmer due to its economic importance (Dare et al., 2010).
Agricultural systems are dynamic and therefore, improved technologies would have to be
developed, disseminated and adopted by farmers, processors and traders to enable them
cope with the changing dynamics. Therefore, processing research projects were completed
in Processing Plantain into High Quality Flour using Solar Dryers and Practical Guide-
Processing Cassava into Chips using Solar Dryers (MOFA, 2013).
Problems faced by agro-processing sectors are; An inconsistent and insufficient supply of
raw material, Seasonality of crops, Poor quality of raw material supply and high losses
during transport from farm to factory, Inappropriate or obsolete processing and ancillary
equipment and Poor and inconsistent quality of processed product. Other problems are;
Sub-optimal use of processing facilities and equipment. Poorly trained personnel and a
lack of qualified food technologists, lack of proper hygiene and sanitation practices,
inappropriate packaging materials and high packaging cost, weak or non-existent market
development, lack of technical support for the agro-industrial sector and absence of good
management of the processing facility once commercialized (Lambert, 2001) .
34
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Introduction
In addition to the materials and methods that was used for this research work, general
information about the study area (Jomoro District) has been presented as well as research
work done by others and literatures on coconut oil has been cited. The research work was
conducted in three sections: (1) social research was conducted on coconut oil processing
industry to identify processing methods and procedures; (2) processing of coconut fruits
into coconut oil using the small-scale processors methods to determine the oil yield; and
(3) laboratory work was done to assess the quality of the coconut oil processed from the
different processing methods.
3.2. Study area
The research was conducted in the Jomoro district of the western region in Ghana, with
Half Assini as the district capital. Jomoro district is located in the south-western part of
western region as shown in figure 3.1. The district shares boundaries with the republic of
Ivory Coast to the west, to the east with Ellembele district, to the north with Aowin district
and to the south with Gulf of Guinea (JDA, 2006). It is bounded on the South by Latitude
4, 80 N and the Atlantic Ocean (Gulf of Guinea). It is bounded in the North by Latitude 5,
21 N. It also lies between Longitude 2, 35 W to the East and 3, 07 W to the West. The
district is endowed with high amount of rainfall, falling in two wet seasons with an annual
average rainfall of 1,732 mm and a uniformly high temperature that characterizes the
35
climate of the district. The district has a land area of about 1,344 sq. km. (JDA, 2006) and
a population of 150,107 (GSS, 2010).
The major crops grown in the district are coconut, cocoa, oil palm, cassava, maize and
recently rubber (MOFA, 2010). Coconut is the main cash crop of the people of Jomoro,
which is grown at every corner of the district. The major agro-processing products are
coconut oil, Gari and palm oil (JDA, 2006). With the availability of coconut fruits, coconut
oil processing is the main business in terms of agro-processing, which are done on small-
scale and employ a lot of women. There are about 70 - 80 processing centres and about 100
coconut oil processors within the district (MOFA, 2010).
The main animal reared throughout the district is pig which depends greatly on the coconut
chaff (by-product) as their source of feed and poultry production on very small-scale.
Figure 3.1: Map of western region indicating Jomoro District
36
3.3. Materials and methods of social research
The coconut oil processing industry was studied, to identify the processing methods
practised by the small-scale processors. The study began with a survey in the study area on
coconut oil processing; small-scale coconut oil processors, the methods of processing
employed, quality assessment and the yield obtained from the processing as well as quality
control measures. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect quantitative and
qualitative data. Exploratory study was the research design employed for the survey.
3.3.1. Cognizance survey
Preliminary tour was conducted in some of the communities in the district to understand
the coconut oil processing industry within the district. This was achieved by the researcher
by interacting with some of the processors to obtain comprehensive information which
enabled good data collection. The communities visited include; Half Assini, Sowodadzim,
Mpataba, Samenye and Compound. This survey was done on the 2nd of October, 2014.
3.3.2. Pre testing
Questionnaire was developed and pre-tested in Menzezor, a community in the Ellembele
district which is a coconut oil processing community and the final questionnaire was
prepared for the data collection. The pre-test was done on the 10th 11th of December,
2014.
Pre-testing of questionnaire was done for the following reasons:
1. To enable the researcher to rephrase and construct sentences without ambiguities.
37
2. To enable the researcher to decide on the need for additional questions on some
topics and or eliminate some questions.
3. To enable the researcher to determine the length of time needed to administer the
questionnaire and possibly the need to shorten it.
3.3.3. Sampling technique
The method of sampling that was used for the survey to identify the processing centres/
communities is known as Snowball technique. That is, at every identified processing
centre/ community, the respondents direct the researcher to the next and closest centre in
the area.
At each processing centre, purposive sampling was used to select the respondents. The
respondents selected for the interview were the coconut oil processor but not the hired
workers or helpers. This helped to know the type of processing methods used, the
procedures, quality control techniques employed and quality characteristics of oil as well
as quantity of oil produced and storage methods.
3.3.4. Questionnaire administering / data collection
The questionnaires were in the form of open and close questions. Coconut oil processors
were interviewed to collect data on coconut oil processing within the district by the
researcher and research assistant.
The questionnaire was in four sections:
Section A: Identification and demographic information about the respondent
Section B: Processing method / technique employed and quantity of oil obtain.
38
Section C: Quality control and quality characteristics of the oil
Section D: Method of storage and equipment used.
The questionnaires were administered to 67 coconut oil processors across the district in 14
communities (Table 3.1.) The questionnaires administering began from 19 th of December,
2014 to 10th of January, 2015. All the instruments for gathering data mentioned above were
employed to gather information to meet the research objectives.
Table 3.1: Number of respondents interviewed in the community
Community Number of respondent
Half Assini 6
Bonyere 6
Tikobo 1 5
Tikobo 2 5
Samenye 6
Mpataba 5
New Nzulezu 4
Compound 4
Sowodadzim 6
Ahwiafutu junction 2
Enzimitianu 6
Nuba 4
Mile 5 4
Ankasa 4
Total 67
39
3.3.5. Data management
The questionnaires were coded before administering to make data analyses easier. The
questionnaires administered was crosschecked at the end of each day to be sure that it was
completed, with accurate answers as well as the answers provided are consistent and
appropriate before analysis. This was done to identify discrepancies and was clarify to
obtain a well answered questionnaire. Observations and personal communications was
recorded. Data was coded and stored using the Statistical Package for Social Scientist
(SPSS) software programme.
3.3.6. Statistical analysis and presentation of result
The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) software
programme (version 16.0) and simple descriptive analysis was run to describe the data
obtain from the software. Chi square test (x) was used to test for significant relationship
between processing methods and demographic data (age, gender and educational level).
Output from the SPSS and findings were presented in pie chart, bar chart and tables. The
result and findings were also discussed and conclusion drawn with recommendations in the
next chapters.
3.4. Materials and method of coconut oil yield assessment
The raw material for coconut oil processing was the dried coconut meat / kernel. The oil
was processed using the most small-scale coconut oil processing methods practiced within
the district.
40
One hundred (100) dried coconuts fruits was used for each processing method for the two
main types of coconut oil identified in the district; traditional coconut oil (Ngolekpale)
and virgin coconut oil processing methods (figure 3.2 & 3.3). For the traditional coconut
oil, processing was done for three different fermentation periods; 1, 2 and 3 days of
fermentation.
The oil yield per 100 nuts of raw materials was calculated by using the formula stated by
Totah (2011);
Oil yield/recovery = Weight of oil produced x 100
Weight of dried coconut meat
The oil yield were replicated three times for the processing methods practiced by the small
scale processors.
41
3.4.1. Coconut oil processing methods
Selection of quality dried coconuts
Cracking coconuts
Removal of coconut meat from shell
Grating coconut meat
Mashing of coconut chaff
Fermentation of coconut milk

(1day, 2days, 3days)
Skimming of crude coconut oil
Heating crude coconut oil
Filtration of oil
Cool & package
Figure 3.2: Traditional method of coconut oil processing (Appendix 2)
42
Selection of quality dried coconut
Cracking and removal of meat from shell
Peeling the back of coconut meat and wash
Grating of coconut meat
Mashing and sieving of coconut chaff
Allow milk to settle

(oil & curd to separate)
Skimming of oil and keep in fridge

(30-40min.)
Allow oil to separate from water (12-24hr)
Skimming of crude coconut oil
Heating of crude coconut oil in boiling

water
Cool, filter & package
Figure 3.3: Virgin method of coconut oil processing
43
3.4.2. Equipment and materials used for coconut oil processing
Cutlass: used for breaking or cracking the coconut fruits.
Scraper: used for removing the coconut kernel from the shell.
Coconut grater: used to mill / grate the coconut kernel.
Basket with net: used to drain the coconut milk during mashing of the chaff.
Drums: to keep the coconut milk during fermentation.
Bucket: for fetching water and coconut milk.
Stove: used to provide fire or source of heat to heat or cook the oil.
Cooking pan: used for heating the raw coconut oil.
Stirring rod: for stirring the coconut oil during heating.
Cloth streamer / filter / cotton cloth: for filtering the heated coconut oil.
Funnel: used for pouring or filling oil package containers.
Plastic bowls / Alluminium pan: used for fetching coconut chaffs, raw coconut oil and
coconut oil.
3.4.3. Statistical analysis and presentation of results
The oil yield were measured and calculated and the results subjected to analysis of
variance (ANOVA) using Genstat to determine the mean and percentage of oil recovery.
The results were presented in tables and discussed.
44
3.5. Materials and methods of coconut oil quality test
The coconut oil quality was assessed by taking samples from the various processing
methods. Eight analyses was conducted; four analysis after oil processing and another four
analysis after storing the oil samples for three months (12 weeks) under room temperature
of 28 C. The quality assessment was conducted at Ghana Standard Authority (GSA) Food
Laboratory.
3.5.1. Parameter for oil quality test
The parameters tested for quality assessment were Moisture content (MC), Free fatty acid
(FFA), Peroxide value (PV), Impurities and Iodine value (IV). These parameters were
replicated three time for the analysis.
3.5.2. Parameter test methods
Table 3.2. Test methods of the various parameters
Parameter tested Unit Methods
Moisture content @ 105 C % ISO 662:1998
Free fatty acids % ISO 660:1996
Peroxide value mEq/kg IUPAC 2.501
Iodine value Wijs IUPAC 2.205
Impurities % ISO 663:2000
45
3.5.3. Determination of moisture content (MC)
Apparatus:
1) Oven
2) Glass moisture dish
3) Desiccator
4) Analytical balance (0.0001 g)
Procedure:
1. Coconut oil sample was mixed thoroughly
2. Moisture dishes was conditioned in oven @ 105 C for 30 minutes and cool in a
desiccator
3. 5 g of test sample was weighed into a moisture dish and spread evenly
4. Moisture dish containing sample was placed into oven for 3 hours
Calculation:
Percent MC = (wt of can + spl(wet) - (wt of can + spl(dry) X 100
Wt of sample taken
3.5.4. Determination of free fatty acid (FFA)
Apparatus:
1) Conical flask
3) Measuring cylinder
46
4) Burette
Reagents:
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) at 0.1 N
Phenolphthalein indicator
Ethanol
Diethyl ether
Procedure:
1. 1.0 g of test sample (coconut oil) was weighed into a conical flask
2. 25 ml each of ethanol and diethyl ether was added
3. Then it was shaked to mix sample
4. Titration against 0.1 N NaOH was done to pink colour (persist for 15 seconds using
phenolphthalein as indicator)
Calculation:
Acid value = (T - B) x 5.61 mg NaOH/g
weight of sample taken
Where; T is titre
B is blank
Percent FFA = 1/2 x Acid value
47
3.5.5. Determination of peroxide value (PV)
Apparatus:
3) Burette
4) Distilled water
Reagent:
Chloroform
Acetic acid
Potassium iodide (KI)
Sodium sulfate (NaSO)
Starch
Procedure:
1. 1.0 g of coconut oil was weighed
2. 10 ml of chloroform and 15 ml glacial acetic acid was added to the weighed sample
3. Saturated KI of 1 ml was added and kept in dark for 5 minutes
4. Titration with 0.01 N NaSO was done after addition of 75 ml distilled water
5. For blank 75 ml distilled water was added followed by starch before titration to
colourless end point
48
Calculation:
PV (mEq/kg) = (T - B) x 1000 x 0.01
weight of sample
3.5.6. Determination of iodine value (degree of unsaturation)
Apparatus:
3) Burette
4) Iodine flask
5) Distilled water
Reagent:
Wijs solution
CCL
Potassium iodide (KI)
Thiosulphate solution
Starch
Procedure:
1. The highest possible iodine value of sample was determined and divided by 20 to
obtain required weight of sample for analysis
2. Weighed the required weight of sample into iodine flask
49
3. 10 ml of CCl solution was added to the sample
4. 20 ml of Wijs solution was added
5. Stopper was inserted and allow to stand in dark room for 30 minutes
6. Added 15 ml of 10% KI solution
7. Then added 100 ml of distilled water, mixed well and titrated with 0.1 M
thiosulphate solution using starch as indicator to colourless end point
Calculation:
Iodine value (wijs) = (B - T) x 1.29
weight of sample
3.5.7. Determination of impurity (dirt)
Apparatus:
1) Oven
4) Beaker
5) Conical flask
6) Petri dish
7) Glass funnel
8) Distilled water
9) Filter paper
10) Desiccator
50
Reagent:
Petroleum spirit
Procedure:
1. The coconut oil sample was thoroughly mixed
2. The filter paper was wet with distilled water and placed in an oven to dry for about
5-10 minutes
3. The filter paper was removed and allow to cool in a desiccator
4. The filter paper was weighed and recorded
5. 5 g of sample was weighed in a beaker
6. Added 50 ml petroleum spirit to dissolve sample
7. Folded and placed filter paper in a glass funnel with a conical flask as receiver
8. Mixture was poured onto the filter paper
9. Then the contents was washed with 50 ml spirit
10. Allowed the contents to drain
11. The filter paper was placed in a petri dish and back into the oven
12. Dried for about 10 - 15 minutes
13. It was allow to Cool and weighed
Calculation:
Impurities (%) = Wt of filter paper with impurities Wt of filter paper only X 100
Wt of sample taken
51
3.5.8. Statistical analysis
The data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat. The processing
methods form the main plots, while the qualities factors (parameters) formed the subplots.
The results are presented in tables and graphs. In addition the results for the various
parameters were compared with both stated local and international standards for coconut
oil or edible oil.
52
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. RESULTS
4.1. Introduction
This chapter deals with the results of the research work conducted, which is in three
sections. The first section is on the social aspects of the research which is to identify the
coconut oil processing methods practised by the small-scale processors and the coconut oil
industry in the Jomoro district. The second section is on the quantity of coconut oil obtain
from the processing methods practised by the small-scale processors. Finally, a quality
assessment of the coconut oil produced from the processing methods by the small-scale
processors as well as the assessment of the shelf-life of the oil.
4.2. The coconut oil processing industry in the Jomoro district
4.2.1. Gender and age distribution of coconut oil processors
Coconut oil is processed predominantly by women in the Jomoro district. Out of the 67
respondents, 55.2% of the coconut oil processors were female while the remaining 44.8%
were male (Figure 4.1). These women mostly engage the support of other workers by
hiring them due to the tedious nature of the processing procedure.
Processors between the ages of 41-50 recorded the highest percentage of 41.8%, followed
by 22.4% for 51-60 years of age and 31-40 years recorded 20.9%. Processors between the
ages of 18-30 as well as 61 and above recorded the same percentage (7.5%) representing
the least processing age group (Figure 4.2).
53
44.8%
55.2%
Male
Female
Figure 4.1: Gender distribution of small-scale coconut oil processors
7.5% 7.5%
22.4% 20.9%
41.8%
18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-above
Figure 4.2: Age distribution of small-scale coconut oil processors
54
4.2.2. Educational level of coconut oil processors
A greater percentage (58.2%) of the coconut oil processors in the district were either
BECE or MSLC graduates. Processors who had completed senior secondary school
recorded 20.9% and 9% had either certificate or diploma education. However, 11.9% had
no formal education (Figure 4.3).
11.9%
9% MSLC/BECE
SSCE
58.2% Cert/Dip
20.9%
None
Figure 4.3: Educational status of coconut oil processors
4.2.3. Number of hired labour for oil processing
Most of the coconut oil processors (74.6%) engaged about 1-5 people for coconut oil
production. Other processors (20.9%) engaged about 6-10 people and 4.5% of the
processors also engaged about 11-15 people (Figure 4.4). No data was recorded for 16
workers and above.
55
4.5%
20.9%
1-5
6-10
11-15
74.6%
Figure 4.4: Number of workers hired during processing
4.2.4. Presences of coconut oil producers association
Majority of the coconut oil processors (76.1%) in the Jomoro district do not belong to any
coconut oil producer association. Only 23.9% of the processors belong to Samenye Virgin
Oil Processors Association and Enzimitianu Virgin Coconut Oil Producers Association.
Those who do not belong to any association stated; lack of unity and do not benefit from
the association.
4.2.5. Coconut oil processing methods practised in the Jomoro district
There is only one category of coconut oil processing in the district. The category practised
is the Milk method of processing coconut oil with 100% respondents in this category.
There are two major processing method identified under the milk method category of
coconut oil processing, that is traditional method and virgin method. Under the traditional
56
methods there are three types; Traditional methods with 1 day fermentation, Traditional
methods with 2 days fermentation and Traditional methods with 3 days fermentation. Out
of the 67 small-scale processors, majority practised the traditional methods. The traditional
methods with 3 days fermentation recorded the highest percentage (37.3%) being practised
by respondents and the traditional methods with 1 day fermentation recorded the lowest
percentage (16.4%) practised (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Types of processing methods
Processing methods Frequency Percentage
Traditional method with 1 day fermentation 11 16.4
Virgin oil method 15 22.4
Total 67 100
4.2.6. Quality control measure and assessment of quality of coconut oil
In the Jomoro district quality of coconut oil is determined only by physical test (colour,
taste and aroma) and not chemical test (FFA, MC and impurity). The processors responded
100% perception for physical test on oil quality.
The coconut oil processors performed about two to six quality control measures during
processing to produce good quality oil. The percentage of respondents who practised the
quality control measures ranges from 1.5% to 26.9% (Table 4.2).
57
Table 4.2: Quality control measures practise
Quality control measures Frequency Percentage
AB 1 1.5
ABC 1 1.5
ABCD 2 3.0
ABCDE 18 26.9
ABCDEF 9 13.4
ABCDF 3 4.5
ABCE 13 19.4
ABCEF 1 1.5
ABDE 1 1.5
ABE 1 1.5
ABEF 1 1.5
ABF 4 6.0
ACDE 1 1.5
ACE 3 4.5
AD 1 1.5
ADE 2 3.0
ADF 1 1.5
AEF 1 1.5
AF 1 1.5
BCDE 1 1.5
BCF 1 1.5
Total 67 100
Key: A selection of dried nut and non-germinated/unspoiled nut, B start processing

immediately after breaking the nut, C ensure good sanitation and personal hygiene, D
cleanse the grater machine before milling, E clean gallons/drums before filling with oil, F
other (washing, peeling of nut).
58
4.2.7. Methods of measuring quantity of coconut for processing
Coconut oil processors in the Jomoro district only measure the quantity of coconuts for
processing by counting of nuts (85.1%) and by volume of kernel (10.9%) as reported in
Table 4.3. They do not measure by weighing of the coconut fruit nor the meat before
processing.
Table 4.3: Forms of assessing quantity of coconut for processing
Measurement Frequency Percentage
Counting of nuts 57 85.1
Measuring by volume (sack, basket) 10 14.9
Total 67 100
4.2.8. Coconut oil recovery by the processors
Table 4.4 shows the quantity of oil in litres obtained by the processors per 300 nuts. The
mean oil obtained is 18.89 litres. The minimum and maximum oil obtained is 9.0 and 27.0
litters respectively.
Table 4.4: Coconut oil recovery by the processors
Minimum (lt) Maximum (lt) Mean (lt) Standard deviation
9.0 27.0 18.89 4.21
4.2.9. Processing equipment used by coconut oil processors
Table 4.5 shows the tools and equipment used by processors. All the respondent used
motorised grater for grating their coconut. The respondents who used basket with net to
59
drain coconut milk recorded 77.6% while those who used polyester recorded 22.4%. The
coconut milk is fermented in plastic container (23.9%) and plastic drum (76.1%). Majority
of the processors use cast iron to heat or fry the oil, and 47.8% use cloth and 52.2% use net
or foam to filter the oil after processing.
Table 4.5: Processing equipment
Processing equipment Frequency Percentage
Grater; motorised grater 67 100
Total 67 100
Milk press/expeller; basket with net 52 77.6
other (polyester) 15 22.4
Total 67 100
Fermentation container; plastic container 16 23.9
plastic drum 51 76.1
Total 67 100
Cooking/frying pan; wok 1 1.5
cast iron 60 89.5
other (aluminium pan) 6 9.0
Total 67 100
Filter; cloth strainer 32 47.8
other (Foam, net) 35 52.2
Total 67 100
60
4.2.10. Packaging and storage of coconut oil
In the Jomoro district, coconut oil processors packaged their product in plastic drums,
gallons, bottles and jerricans for sale or storage. Out of the 67 respondents 52.2% use
plastic drums, 22.4% use gallons, 16.4% use bottles and 9% use jerricans (Figure 4.5).
52.2
Percentage
22.4
16.4
9.0
Bottle Gallon Jerrican Plastic drum

Packaging materials
Figure 4.5: Packaging materials used in the district.
Storage of coconut oil in the district are done at homes (80.6%) and at processing centres
(19.4%) after processing (Figure 4.6).
Coconut oil processors store their oil for at most four weeks after processing. Moreover,
most of the processors (47.8%) store their oil for one week before sales or awaiting market.
Other processors store for two weeks, four weeks and three weeks which recorded 41.8%,
7.5% and 3% respectively (Figure 4.7).
61
19.4%
Home
Processing centre
80.6%
Figure 4.6: Storage places for coconut oils in the district.
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
Percentage
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 4 weeks
Storage period
Figure 4.7: Storage periods of coconut oils in the district.
62
4.2.11. Perception of processors on the effect of storage on oil quality
Figure 4.8 shows the responds of processors, about their perception of the effect of storage
on oil quality. The majority of processors who responded No (62.7%) perceived that
storage does not affect quality and 37.3% processors who responded Yes also perceived
that storage have effect on oil quality.
The respondents who stated No outlined these reasons; coconut oil must be well
cooked/heated, oil must be well package, oil must be kept at a good place, oil must be
prevented from water contact.
Those who responded Yes also outlined the following reasons: coconut oils have short
shelf-life, improper cooking/heating, when oil does not cool before packaging as well as
high and low temperatures.
37.3%
62.7%
Yes No
Figure 4.8: Processors perception of the effect of storage on oil quality
4.2.12. Sources of market for coconut oil produced in the Jomoro district
Coconut oil processed in the district is sold locally in Ghana. The highest quantity of oil is
sold at homes of the processors (34.3%). Other places are Accra Agbogloshie (29.9%),
63
Takoradi (11.9%) and some local market in the district such as Jewi-Wharf (3%), (Table
4.6). The oils are sold to middlemen who send them to the market, however, some of the
processors do send their oil to the market themselves.
Table 4.6: Market sources for coconut oil in the district.
Market places Frequency Percentage
Accra 20 29.9
Home 23 34.3
Jewi-Wharf 2 3.0
Kasoa 5 7.5
Kumasi 2 3.0
Processing centre 6 9.0
Takoradi 8 11.9
Tema 1 1.5
Total 67 100
4.2.13. Constraints faced by coconut oil processors
Coconut oil processors in the Jomoro district outlined a lot of constraints that affected their
business, of which lack of better processing equipment was the major constraint (22.4%).
Some of the constraints include financial support (20.9%), unavailability of nuts (15%),
heat effect from fire (11.9%) and unreliable source of water (1.5%) was the least constraint
(Table 4.7).
64
Table 4.7: Constraints of coconut oil producers in Jomoro district
Constraint Frequency Percentage
Financial support 14 20.9
Fluctuation of oil price 6 9.0
Heat effect from fire 8 11.9
Labour 6 9.0
Processing equipment 15 22.4
Theft of dried coconut 3 4.5
Transportation 4 6.0
Unavailability of nuts 10 15.0
Unreliable source of water 1 1.5
Total 67 100
methods practised
Education has a strong effect on the type of processing methods practised by the small-
scale coconut oil processors in the Jomoro district (Table 4.8). The respondents with
BECE/MSLC education recorded 81.8% of those who practice traditional method with 1
day fermentation (TM1), which has low oil yield. However, both BECE/MSLC and those
with no education had 13.3% each of those who practise the virgin method (VM). The
65
respondents with SSCE and Certificate/Diploma recorded 53.3% and 20% respectively of
those who practice VM, which is of good quality and high demand.
Table 4.8: Effect of educational level of coconut oil processors on type of processing
methods practised
Type of processing methods (%)
Education TM1 TM2 TM3 VM Df Prob.

N=11 N=16 N=25 N=15
24.3 9 0.004
BECE/MSLC 81.8 56.2 76.0 13.3
SSCE 9.1 25.0 4.0 53.3
Cert/Dip. 0.0 12.5 4.0 20.0
None 9.1 6.2 16.0 13.3
Total 100 100 100 100
4.2.15 Effect of gender of coconut oil processors on type of processing methods
practised
In the Jomoro district the gender of the coconut oil processors does not affect the type of
processing method practised. Fifty percent of the male processors practice traditional
method with 2 days of fermentation (TM2) and 33.3% practice virgin method (VM) (Table
4.9). However, 66.7% of the female processors practice VM and 50% practice TM2.
66
Table 4.9: Effect of gender of coconut oil processors on type of processing
methods practised
Gender TM1 TM2 TM3 VM Df Prob.

N=11 N=16 N=25 N=15
1.078 3 0.782
Male 45.5 50 48 33.3
Female 54.5 50 52 66.7
Total 100 100 100 100
4.2.16 Effect of age of coconut oil processors on type of processing methods practised
The ages of the coconut oil processors does not have any influence on the type of
processing methods practised in the district. The age group 41-50 recorded the highest
percentages (63.6%, 44%, and 33.3%) for TM1, TM3 and VM respectively (Table 4.10).
However, 31-40 years and 61 & above age groups recorded zero percent each for TM1 and
VM respectively.
67
Table 4.10: Effect of age group of coconut oil processors on type of processing
methods practised

TM1 TM2 TM3 VM Df Prob.
Age N=11 N=16 N=25 N=15
14.275 12 0.283
18 - 30 9.1 6.2 8.0 6.7
31 - 40 0 12.5 28.0 33.3
41 - 50 63.6 31.2 44 33.3
51 - 60 18.2 43.8 8.0 26.7
61 & above 9.1 6.2 12.0 0
Total 100 100 100 100
4.3. Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield
The processing methods practised affected the yield of oil. The oil yield ranged between
23.53% to 52.59%. The virgin coconut oil method had the least oil yield and the traditional
method with 3 days of fermentation had the highest oil yield (Table 4.11).
There was a high significant differences (p<.001) between the traditional methods of
processing coconut oil at different fermentation days as well as the virgin oil method
(Appendix 12).
68
Table 4.11: Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield (%)
Processing methods Mean oil yield (%)
Traditional method (1 day fermentation) 39.39
Traditional method (2 days fermentation) 42.04
Traditional method (3 days fermentation) 52.59
Virgin coconut oil method 23.53
LSD 3.055
(P 0.05)
4.4. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after processing
The results of the quality assessment indicating the effect of processing methods on the
quality of coconut oil after processing is presented in Table 4.12.
69
Table 4.12: Processing methods effect on quality of coconut oil after processing
Processing Moisture Free Fatty Peroxide Iodine Impurities

Method Content (%) Acid (%) Value (mEq/kg) Value (wijs) (%)
TM 1 0.33 2.51 3.61 8.17 4.65
TM 2 0.16 0.99 3.61 8.34 4.42
TM 3 0.11 0.72 0.97 7.82 3.99
VM 0.02 0.14 0.74 5.88 4.50
LSD 0.03 0.05 0.34 0.05 0.30

(P 0.05)
Standard 0.20 max 4.00 max 10.00 max 6.3 10.60 0.05 max
Value
(GS 525: 2003)
Key: TM 1 Traditional method with 1 day fermentation; TM 2 Traditional method with

2 days fermentation; TM 3 Traditional method with 3 day fermentation & VM Virgin
method.
4.4.1. Effect of processing methods on moisture content of coconut oil
Coconut oil sample from traditional method with 1 day fermentation (TM1) had a mean
moisture content (MC) of 0.33 % which was higher than the specific standard of 0.2% for
coconut oil (Table 4.12). However, samples from traditional method with 2 days and 3
days of fermentation (TM2 and TM3) and virgin method (VM) recorded MC lower than
the specific standard. Moreover, the virgin method had the lowest percentage of MC
(0.02%). There were significant differences (p<.001) in moisture content among the
processing methods (Appendix 13).
70
4.4.2. Effect of processing methods on free fatty acid in coconut oil
All the processing methods recorded means below the specific standard for FFA (4.0 %).
The FFA content of the coconut oils ranged from 0.14% for VM to 2.51% for TM1 (Table
4.12). There was a high significant differences (p<.001) between the processing methods
on FFA (Appendix 14).
4.4.3. Effect of processing methods on peroxide value of coconut oil
All the processing methods fell far below the specific standard for PV (10.0 mEq/kg). TM1
and TM2 had the highest value of 3.61 mEq/kg whiles VM had the lowest value of 0.74
mEq/kg (Table 4.12). This is an indication that the oils are very fresh and that rancidity and
oxidation are very low. Generally, the significant differences was high (p<.001) between
the processing methods on PV (Appendix 15).
4.4.4. Effect of processing methods on iodine value of coconut oil
The iodine value of three processing methods; TM1 (8.17 wijs), TM2 (8.34 wijs) and TM3
(7.82 wijs) fells within the specific standard range of 6.3 10.6 wijs whiles the VM (5.88
wijs) fells below the range for iodine value (Table 4.12). There was a highly significant
differences (p<.001) in iodine value among the processing methods (Appendix 16).
4.4.5. Effect of processing methods on impurity in coconut oil
The results from the processing methods shows higher figures of impurities in the oils as
compared to the specific standards of 0.05% as maximum acceptable level. TM1 had the
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highest impurity level of 4.65% while TM3 had the lowest level of 3.99% (Table 4.12).
The impurity levels of the oils are very high and this can be attributed to the improper tools
or equipment and methods of filtration. There was a highly significant differences
(p<0.005) in impurity level among the processing methods (Appendix 17).
4.5. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after storage
The results of the quality assessment indicating the effect of processing methods on the
shelf-life quality of coconut oil after 12 weeks of storage is presented in Table 4.13. The
coconut oil were stored under room temperature of 25 C 30 C.
Table 4.13: Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after 12 weeks
of storage
Processing Moisture Free Fatty Peroxide Iodine Impurities

Method Content (%) Acid (%) Value (mEq/kg) Value (wijis) (%)
TM1 0.30 2.65 4.50 14.02 5.92
TM2 0.17 1.02 3.77 14.40 3.11
TM3 0.17 0.72 3.86 12.98 5.22
VM 0.12 0.05 0.59 12.99 4.99
LSD 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.31 0.52

(P 0.05)
Standard 0.2 max 4.0 max 10.0 max 6.3 10.6 0.05max
Value
(GS 525:2003)
Key: TM 1 Traditional method with 1 day fermentation; TM 2 Traditional method with

2 days fermentation; TM 3 Traditional method with 3 day fermentation & VM Virgin
method.
72
4.5.1. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after storage on
moisture content (MC)
Coconut oil sample from traditional method with 1 day fermentation (TM1) recorded the
highest MC of 0.30%, which is higher than the specific maximum standard of 0.2% for
coconut oils, while virgin method (VM) had the lowest MC of 0.12% (Table 4.13).
However, samples from traditional method with 2 days and 3 days of fermentation and
virgin method recorded low MC, which is lower than the specific standard. The processing
methods significantly (p<0.001) had effect on the moisture content of the oil (Appendix
19).
4.5.2. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after storage on free
fatty acid (FFA).
For all the processing methods, FFA content fell below the specific standard limit for FFA
(4.0 %) after storage. The FFA content of the coconut oils after storage ranged from 0.05%
for virgin method being the lowest to 2.65% for traditional method with 1 day fermentation
being the highest (Table 4.13). Significantly (p<0.001) the processing methods affected the
FFA content of the oil (Appendix 19).
peroxide value (PV)
The results from all the coconut processing methods recorded low PV which were below
the specific standard of 10.0 mEq/kg. Virgin method had the lowest value of 0.59 mEq/kg
while TM1 had the highest value of 4.50 mEq/kg (Table 4.13). This is an indication that
73
the oils are still fresh and that rancidity and oxidation had not set in. Significantly
(p<0.001) the processing methods affected the PV content of the oil (Appendix 20).
iodine value (IV)
The result on the effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after storage on
iodine value is shown in Table 4.13. The IV of TM1, TM2, TM3 and VM fells far above
the required specified standard of 6.3 10.6 wijs for coconut oil. The VM recorded the
lowest IV of 12.99 wijs and TM2 recorded the highest IV of 14.40 wijs (Table 4.13).
Generally there was a high significant difference (p<.001) between the processing methods
(Appendix 21), however, for TM3 and VM there were no significant difference.
impurity
The results from the processing methods shows higher figures of impurities in the oils as
compared to the specific standards of 0.05% as maximum acceptable level. TM2 had the
lowest impurity level of 3.11% and TM1 had the highest level of 5.92% (Table 4.13). The
high impurity levels of the oils can be attributed to the improper tools or equipment and
methods of filtration. There were significant difference (p<0.001) between the processing
methods for impurities in coconut oils (Appendix 22).
74
4.6. Observations of some practices in the small-scale coconut oil industry in the
Jomoro district
Coconut oil produced from the traditional methods are pale-yellow (Appendix 1a) and has
coconut oil aroma. Coconut oil from the virgin method is water-clear (colourless),
(Appendix 1b). The by-products that were obtained after processing coconut oil are:
Coconut husk with shell; used as fuel by the processors during heating of the oil.
Coconut chaff; used by pig farmers to feed their animals.
Coconut cake; used by poultry farmers to feed their animals.
Some of the processing centres used streams and wells as source of water for mashing
coconut chaffs (Appendix 9). Dried coconut fruits are sorted out to eliminate damage or
germinated nuts before and after cracking (Appendix 10). Rester and Imex were some of
the machine used for grating the coconut meat.
Most of the bags and sacks that were used to package the coconut kernel for grating were
dirty or unclean. The operators of the grating machine step on the coconut kernel during
grating of the kernel (Appendix 11). The grating machines were not mostly washed with
water after a days work. Generally, sanitation at the processing centres was not good,
especially where mashing of the coconut chaff is carried out. Coconut oil is left open to
cool after processing and this can attract dirt/dust into the oil and materials used to filter oil
were not good enough which leads to high impurities in the oils (Appendix 2i; 2h). There
were some impurities/dirt settle under the oil during the 12 weeks of storage (Appendix 7).
75
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. DISCUSSION
5.1. Coconut oil processing industry in the Jomoro district
5.1.1. Gender, age and educational status of coconut oil processors
Decisions to adopt or practise a method or an idea can be influenced by age, sex and or
level of education. Majority of the coconut oil processors in the district were females
(Figure 4.1). The dominance of females in coconut oil production could be as a result of
the act of cooking being seen as a womans job in African culture. MOFA (2013) stated
that there are more women (80%) than men (20%) into agro-processing in Ghana.
Moreover, most of the women into coconut oil processing are wives and relatives of the
coconut farmers in the district, so they get the nuts from their husbands and family
members. Some of the men who engage in coconut oil production could be coconut
farmers, coconut grater operators and pig farmers who needed coconut chaffs to feed their
pigs.
Most of the coconut oil processors were within the age group of 41-50 years (41.8%) and
51-60 years (22.4 %) (Figure 4.2). Most of the processors fell within the labour force age
group since only 7.5% of the respondent were above 61 years, which constituted the least
of processors in the district. It was observed that the youth did not engage much into agro-
processing. This could be attributed to education and urbanization (because processing
communities are in rural areas).
Majority of the coconut oil processors has low level of education (MSLC/BECE) while
11.9% had no formal education (Figure 4.3). The low level of education of the processors
in the district was exhibited by the respondents during the survey on their knowledge on
76
quality control as well as hygienic practices that is to ad-head to Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMP). Bawalan et al., (2006), reported that quality is of paramount importance
since the product is being consumed and most production is from small scale operations.
5.1.2. The number of hired labour for coconut oil processing and presences of coconut
oil producers association
Majority of the coconut oil processors (74.6%) engaged between 1-5 workers for each
processing activity and 20.9% engages 6-10 workers as well as 4.5% engages 11-15
workers (Figure 4.4). Generally, this indicates that the coconut processing industry in the
district are made up of small-scale processors. This is in line with OECD (2005) which
stated that micro-enterprise employ 5-10 employees while small firms have less than 50
employees. It was evident from the survey that those who engage 1-5 workers processed
about 300 nuts per processing. Moreover, those who engage 6-10 and 11-15 workers
processed about 600-1000 nut per processing.
In the district 23.9% of processors who belong to Samenye Virgin Oil Processor
Association and Enzimitianu Virgin Coconut Oil Producers Association were producers of
virgin coconut oils. Those who practice the traditional method of coconut oil processing do
not belong to any coconut oil producer association. The absence of the association is due to
lack of unity and absence of benefit from the association.
5.1.3. Coconut oil processing methods practised in the Jomoro district
In the Jomoro district, the category of method practised is the Milk method of coconut oil
processing. The main types of methods practised were the traditional method and virgin
77
method (22.4%). The Traditional methods are traditional methods with 1 day fermentation
(16.4%), 2 days fermentation (23.9%) and 3 days fermentation (37.3%) (Table 4.1).
The traditional method with 3 days of fermentation (TM3) yielded higher amount of oil as
compared with the other types because more oil is able to separate from the water during
fermentation for 3 days. That is why it is the most practised method. Bawalan et al. (2006)
mention the modified natural fermentation method; which involves the preparation of
coconut milk for processing where the oil obtained is pale yellow as the traditional method
oil. This processing method fermentation and settling of coconut milk is done within 36-48
hours.
Those who practice virgin method (VM) produces virgin coconut oil which was defined by
Codex Alimentaruis Commission (2003) as edible vegetable oils obtained, without altering
the nature of the oil, by mechanical procedures, e.g. expelling or pressing and the
application of heat only. The number of processors who practised the virgin method in the
district was low because it is a new processing method introduced to them and the adoption
has been low.
5.1.4. Quality control measures and assessment of quality of coconut oil
Ngando et al. (2011) used moisture content and free fatty acid (FFA) alongside peroxide
value and impurity level to test for oil quality. However, processors in the Jomoro district
used colour, taste and aroma as their indices for quality assessment of their coconut oil.
The brighter the yellowish colour of the oil, the better the quality according to the
processors for traditional methods of processing coconut oil. For the virgin method it must
be colour-less or clear white. The sweet coconut oil aroma of the oil also means quality.
78
The use of the physical test to determine quality may be as a result of the processors being
small-scale producers as well as their low educational level and financial constraints.
The use of physical test to determine quality of oil by the small-scale processors might not
be totally wrong because Ghana Standard Authority (2006) stated that oil shall be free
from foreign and rancid odour and taste. The colour, odour and taste of each product shall
be characteristic of the designated product.
On quality control measure practices, 26.9% of respondents constituted the majority of the
processors (Table 4.2) who practise five quality control measures in their processing. The
measures practised are: selection of dried nut and non-germinated/unspoiled nut; start
processing immediately after breaking the nut; ensure good sanitation and personal
hygiene; cleanse the grater machine before milling and clean gallons/drums before filling
with oil. Also, 19.4% and 13.4% practise four and six quality control measures
respectively and only 1.5% practised two measures. The small-scale coconut processors
have fair ideas on quality control measures and this reflected on the quality of oil obtained.
However, more need to be done to improve upon the quality of the oil and therefore
advocacy programme must be conducted on quality control.
5.1.5. Methods of measuring quantity of coconut for processing
In the Jomoro district 85.1% of the processors count the coconut fruits before processing
and 14.9% measure the coconut meat by volume (sack and basket) before processing
(Table 4.3). None of the processors do not weigh their coconut before processing, to enable
them estimate the quantity of oil produced. This can be attributed to the lack of knowledge
on the importance of weighing and weighing scale unavailability.
79
5.1.6. Coconut oil recovery by the processors
Bawalan et al. (2006) reported that the traditional wet or modified kitchen method and the
modified natural fermentation method had almost the same oil recovery of 19 kg and 19.8
kg per 100 kg coconut respectively. The result from the survey indicated that 18.89 litters
of coconut oil was obtain from 300 nuts. Moreover, per 300 nuts, the minimum quantity of
oil obtained was 9.0 litters and 27.0 litters as the maximum (Table 4.4). The difference in
the minimum and maximum oil recovery may be due to the processing methods practised
within the district, since the processing methods have different levels of oil recovery.
Furthermore, this can be attributed to the type of coconut used by the processors as well as
the size of the coconut meat. The type of coconut (local or hybrid) may influence the
quantity of oil recovery. Also the size of the coconut may affect the quantity because
smaller sizes may produce less oil as compared to bigger sizes.
5.1.7. Processing equipment used by coconut oil processors
In the Jomoro district some of the tools used are locally made and others are improvised to
serve a particular purpose. Table 4.5 shows that all respondents used motorised grater,
77.6% used basket with net to drain the coconut milk and 76.1% used plastic drum for
fermentation. All the processors use cast iron to heat the crude oil and 52.2% use net and
foam to filter the oil.
The materials used to filter the oil were not the best and that reflected in the quality
analysis test conducted which indicated a high level of impurities in the oil far above the
standard for coconut oil. The materials used for the filtration could not filter all the fine
particles in the oil. The high level of impurities in the oil could have negative effect on the
FFA and PV levels because oxidation may be significantly enhance by the impurity level
80
as stated by Ngando et al. (2011). However, the manual filtering device which is a gravity
filtering type with a capacity of 18 litres could be used (Bawalan et al., 2006).
Bawalan et al. (2006) outlined the following equipment that are applicable to micro and
small-scale processors; Motorised coconut grater, Motorised horizontal screw milk or
Horizontal screw press, Cast iron or stock pots, Stove, Transparent plastic fermenting
container, Manual filtering device and Dryer.
5.1.8. Packaging and storage of coconut oil
The packaging materials used by the coconut oil producers were plastic drums (52.2%),
gallons (22.4%), bottles (16.4%) and jerricans (9%) (Figure 4.5). However, the
recommended packaging material for VCO is glass, when it is expected to be on the shelf
for several weeks. Plastic bottles used for mineral water could also be used in cases where
the oil would be immediately consumed (Bawalan et al., 2006).
Storage of coconut oil in the district are mostly done at homes (80.6%) and at processing
centres (19.4%) after processing (Figure 4.6). This is as a result of lack of storage
structures or rooms at the processing centres. Most of the storage structures available at the
processing centres had collapse. Some of the processors prefer to store at home against
theft and for safe quality keeping of the oil, also because majority sell their oil at home.
Storage of coconut oil is done for four weeks. Majority (47.8%) of the processors store for
one week, 41.8% store for two weeks and others (7.5%, 3%) four weeks and three weeks
respectively (Figure 4.7). Coconut oil storage in the district is mostly done awaiting market
or when market is available. This is the reason why most of them sell within one week.
Ngando et al. (2011) stated that lipid peroxidation and oil acidity significantly increased in
oil sample from small-scale oil mills during the first 4 weeks of storage, which was stored
81
at room temperature. However, Ngassapa et al. (2001) recommended that in order for the
local edible vegetable oils to keep their characteristic, they should be stored in airtight,
non-transparent containers. Codex (2011) indicated that coconut oil could be stored at
27-32 C.
The majority of processors (62.7%) perceive that storage does not affect quality (Figure
4.8) because they cooked/heated the oil very well, package the oil well in drums and
gallons and they keep the oils at a good place which is prevented from water contact.
Whiles, other processors (37.3%) perceive that storage do have effect on oil quality
because the coconut oils has short shelf-life, when oil does not cool before packaging as
well as high and low temperatures.
As reported by Gen et al. (2005), peroxide values of the oil increased significantly at
storage after 52 days at 60 C than at room temperature of 28 C. However, the oil acidity
started decreasing after the 4th week to the 10th week of storage whiles the peroxide value
start decreasing from 4th and 6th week of storage (Ngando et al., 2011). This means that
storage cannot improve oil quality but rather maintain the quality. Oil should be properly
prepared, well package and kept in a store room at the right temperature (27-32 C).
5.1.9. Sources of market for coconut oil produce in the Jomoro district
The coconut oil is sold at most homes of the processors (34.3%), Accra (29.9%), Takoradi
(11.9%) and some local market in the district such as Jewi-Wharf (3%), (Table 4.6). The
processors sell their oils to middlemen because they produce mostly on smaller quantities.
Therefore, the middlemen assemble the oils and send to market outside the district. Some
of the processors who sell their oil outside the district produce in large quantities.
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5.1.10. Constraints of coconut oil producers in Jomoro district
The constraints faced by processors are processing equipment (22.4%), financial support
(20.9%), unavailability of nuts (15%), heat effect from fire (11.9%) and fluctuation of oil
price (9.0%), (Table 4.7). Processing equipment used in the district were mostly old and do
not grate the coconut meat well. Most of the processing centres were not working because
the milling machines do not function. Processors do not benefit from any financial
institution because they are not in any processors association. Also this prevent them from
having a good price for their oil. The unavailability of nuts may be due to the Nigerian
market competing for the nuts and aging of most coconut trees. The processors suffer a lot
from the heat from the fire and oil when heating the crude oil. This can have a serious long
term health effect on the processor later in life.
However, Lambert (2001) outline the following problems faced by agro-processing
sectors; an inconsistent and insufficient supply of raw material, seasonality of crops, poor
quality of raw material supply and high losses during transport from farm to factory,
inappropriate or obsolete processing and ancillary equipment as well as poor and
inconsistent quality of processed product.
methods practised
The educational level of the coconut oil processors have a strong effect on their choice of
processing method practised to produce coconut oil (Table 4.8). None of the Diploma
holders do practise traditional method with 1 day fermentation (TM1) because they might
be aware that it is not high yielding. Furthermore, Diploma and SSCE holders may be
83
aware of the quality and high demand for Virgin coconut oil that is why majority of them
were practising virgin method as compared to other processing methods.
methods practised
The gender status of small-scale coconut oil processors does not affect the type of
processing methods practise (Table 4.9). Even though the processing industry is dominated
by females a lot of males are also into coconut processing. Due to the tedious nature of
coconut oil processing both sexes engage in it.
5.1.13. Effect of age of coconut oil processors on type of processing methods practised
In the Jomoro district, age of coconut oil processors does not influence the type of
processing methods practised. Majority of the age groups practice most of the processing
methods (Table 4.10). This could be that the processing methods are easy to practise by
most of the age groups.
5.2. Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield
The oil yield from the small-scale coconut oil processing methods in the Jomoro district
indicated that the traditional method with 3 days of fermentation produced the highest
quantity of oil (52.59%) followed by traditional method with 2 days of fermentation
(42.04%) and the virgin oil method with the least oil quantity of 23.53% (Table 4.8). There
were significant difference (p<0.001) between the small-scale processing methods in the
84
district, however, the traditional method with 2 days of fermentation was not significantly
different from traditional method with 1 day fermentation.
The high oil yield from the traditional method with 3 days fermentation (TM3) is as a
result of the number of fermentation days, that is, the higher the fermentation days the
more the oil yield. This is because on the third day of fermentation the crude oil in the
coconut milk is able to separate very well from the water/curd, therefore more oil settled
on top of the water/curd which is skimmed for heating. However, other processing
methods mentioned by Bawalan et al. (2006) and Fife (2004), fermentation of coconut
milk is done for 36 48 hours (2 days) and 24 - 36 hours (1 day) respectively to allow
the oil and water to separate out naturally and the crude oil is scooped and heated slightly
for a short time to evaporate the moisture.
The high oil yield in the traditional methods could also be attributed to the amount of water
used to produce the coconut milk as compared to the virgin method. The traditional
method require more water to produce the milk for fermentation than virgin method and
this might cause more oil from the coconut chaff, therefore obtaining more oil during
fermentation.
5.3. Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil
5.3.1. Effect of processing methods on moisture content of coconut oil
Oil varies in their acid content and this could be due to the variations in the natural
moisture content of the oil (Ngassapa et al., 2001). Coconut oil from the traditional method
with 1 day fermentation (TM 1) had the highest moisture content (MC) of 0.33% and
virgin method (VM) had the lowest MC of 0.02% (Table 4.12). The standard value for MC
in coconut oil is 0.2% maximum (GSA, 2003; Codex, 2013). The traditional method with 2
85
days and 3 days of fermentation and VM moisture content fell below the standard value of
0.2% max.
The high moisture content in the TM1 could be attributed to the 1 day of fermentation,
since most of the crude oil could not separate well from the water during fermentation.
Thus, there was much water in the oil. The MC in TM1 could also be due to inadequate
heating of the oil to evaporate the moisture. The low MC of VM could be due to the small
quantity of water used to produce coconut milk which separate fast from the oil.
After 12 weeks of storage of coconut oil sample, TM1 still had the highest MC of 0.30%
and VM had the lowest MC of 0.12% (Table 4.13). There were significant differences
(p<0.001) among the processing methods both after processing and after storage on
moisture content. Therefore, TM2, TM3 and VM produce quality oil in terms of MC
because high MC can accelerate rancidity.
5.3.2. Effect of processing methods on free fatty acid content in coconut oil
The effect of processing methods significantly (p<0.001) affected the free fatty acid (FFA)
content of the coconut oil. The FFA content of the coconut oil ranged from 2.51% for TM1
to 0.14% for VM (Table 4.12). Moreover, after storage there was high significant
difference (p<0.001) among the processing methods on FFA. The FFA ranged from 2.65%
for TM1 to 0.05% for VM (Table 4.13). Abdussalam et al. (2013), stated that, FFA content
is one of the most frequently determined quality indices of edible oils production, storage
and marketing. All the FFA results recorded in table 4.12 and table 4.13 fell far below the
standard value of 4.0% as maximum limits.
86
This indicates that the rancidity or oxidation of the oil is low. Low FFA also indicate the
use of good quality raw material, processing method practised, degree of oil purity and
good storage conditions (Mehmood et al., 2012).
5.3.3. Effect of processing methods on peroxide value of coconut oil
Kardash-Strochkova (2001) and Ngando et al. (2011) reported that Peroxide value is an
important characteristic of edible oils quality and appears as an indicator of the lipid
oxidation and oil properties deterioration.
The effect of the processing methods significantly (p<.001) affected the peroxide value
(PV) of the coconut oil. The peroxide value of the coconut oil ranges from 0.74 mEq/kg for
VM to 3.61 mEq/kg for TM1 and TM2 (Table 4.12). Moreover, after storage there were
significant difference (p<0.001) among the processing methods on the PV of the coconut
oil. The PV ranges from 0.59 mEq/kg for VM to 4.50 mEq/kg for TM1 (Table 4.13). All
the PV results from table 4.12 and table 4.13 fell far below the standard value of 10.0
mEq/kg as maximum limits. Ngando et al. (2011) used PV to assess the stability or
rancidity of fats by measuring the amount of lipids peroxide and hydroperoxides formed
during the initial stages of oxidation and used it to estimate the extent of spoilage of the oil.
Therefore, the results obtained indicate that the oil is fresh and would have a long shelf-life
when stored at ambient temperature.
5.3.4. Effect of processing methods on iodine value of coconut oil
Iodine value is useful for determining the unsaturation level of the fatty acids in the oil
(Ngassapa et al., 2001). Coconut oil from the traditional method with 2 days fermentation
87
(TM2) had the highest iodine value (IV) of 8.34 wijs and virgin method (VM) had the
lowest IV of 5.88 wijs (Table 4.12). All the processing methods IV fell within the
acceptable standard value of 6.3-10.6 wijs, except VM which was below the range. Low
iodine value of oil may contribute to the oil greater oxidative stability during storage as
stated by Ngassapa et al. (2001). This was evident in the low values for FFA and PV in
Table 4.13 of the oils after 12 weeks of storage. There were significant difference
(p<0.001) among the processing methods for IV in the coconut oil.
However, after storage, the results showed that all the processing methods had a high IV
which fell above the standard range of 6.3-10.6 wijs (Table 4.13). Traditional method with
2 days of fermentation had the highest IV of 14.40 wijs and virgin method had the lowest
value of 12.99 wijs. This means that at 12 weeks of storage the unsaturated fatty acid level
of the oil had increased. This was reported by Ngassapa et al. (2001) that oils that are high
in iodine value are rich in unsaturated fatty acids.
5.3.5. Effect of processing methods on impurity level in coconut oil
The effect of processing methods significantly (p<.005) affected the impurities levels in
the coconut oil. The impurity content in the coconut oil ranges from 3.99% for TM3 to
4.65% for TM1 (Table 4.12). After storage, the results revealed that there was significant
difference (p<0.001) among the processing methods for impurity content. The impurity
level in the coconut oil after storage ranges from 3.11% for TM2 to 5.92% for TM1 (Table
4.13).
The impurity levels in the coconut oil from all the processing methods were above the
standard value limit of 0.05% after processing and after storage. The level of impurity in
the oil means, the amount of dirt or particles in the oil. This could be attributed to the
88
improper tools used to sieve the coconut milk and improper method of filtration of the oil.
Bawalan et al. (2006) reported that in Low Pressure Oil Extraction Method, it takes a
minimum of seven days to settle and clarify the oil and the oil is allowed to stand for
another seven days before bottling or shipment to ensure that all fine particles trapped in
the oil are removed.
Also the oil can attract dust when left open to cool after processing before packaging. The
impurity content of the oil can be a factor to increase the oxidation of the oil which lead to
an increase in peroxide value during storage (Ngando et al., 2011).
89
CHAPTER SIX
6.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Conclusions
It has been established from the study that coconut oil processors in the Jomoro district
practised the traditional methods of coconut oil processing than the virgin coconut oil
method (VM). The traditional method with 3 days of fermentation (TM3) was the most
practised method as it produces more quantity of coconut oil than TM1, TM2 and VM.
The oil obtained from virgin method is better in terms of quality (MC, FFA, and PV) than
the traditional methods, even though, it has a high impurity level which can be address
with the use of proper processing equipment for filtration.
The small-scale coconut oil processors in the Jomoro District are producing good quality
coconut oil as compared to the standards, in that the parameters for measuring oxidation
and rancidity were low for most of the oils from the processing methods. Given that
coconut oil is becoming one of the main household ingredient, production of quality oil
must be improved.
6.2. Recommendations
The small-scale coconut oil processors in the Jomoro district should be trained in Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP) by Food Research Institute, Food and Drug Authority, Oil
Palm Research Institute and Ministry of Food and Agriculture to improve upon coconut oil
quality and production, in order to meet all standards requirements for local and
international markets.
90
Even though, the oil quality is good but not the best, processors should use proper filtration
tools and maintain a high level of hygiene and good sanitation. Institutions such as
Environmental Health should enforce good sanitation practises at the processing centres.
The coconut oil processors in the district should form an association to enable them assess
trainings and supports from the district assembly and other government agencies for
processing equipments, build wells/bore holes for good source of water for processing as
well as get good market for their products.
91
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Adjei-Nsiah, S. (2010). Oil palm development in Ghana. Unpublished
Bawalan, D. D. & Chapman, K. R. (2006). Virgin Coconut Oil production manual for
micro and village-scale processing. Bangkok, Thammada press co. ltd.
http://www.fao.org/world/regional/rap/highlights.asp
Coconut Research Centre (CRC), (2004). Coconut. Newsletter. Accessed on September
24, 2014 from: http://www.coconutresearchcentre.org
Codex Aimentarius Commission (2003). Standard for Name Vegetable Oils: Stan 201.
FAO/WHO. http://www.codexalimentarius.net
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2011). Recommended International Code of Practice
for The Storage and Transport of Edible Fats and Oils in Bulk: CAC/RCP 36-1987.
FAO/WHO. http://www.codexalimentarius.net
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2013). Codex standard for edible fats and oils not
covered by individual standards: Codexstan 19-1981. FAO/WHO.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2010). Codex general standard for contaminants and
toxins in food and feed: Codexstan 193-1995. FAO/WHO.
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Codex Alimentarius Commission (2003). General principles of food hygiene: CAC/RCP
1- 1969. FAO/WHO.
COFPMAG (2006). Coconut marketing in Ghana, Training workshop report. Nawuley,
Ghana. Unpublished.
Dare, D., Andoh-Mensah, E., Owusu-Nipah, J., Yankey, N., Quaicoe, R. N., Nkansah-
Poku, J. & Dery, S. K. (2010). Evaluation of Some Basic Traits of a Promising
Coconut Hybrid: Sri Lankan Green Dwarf Crossed to Vanuatu Tall (Sgd X Vtt).
Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp 9.
Dayrit, C. S. (2003). Coconut for better health. Symposium lecture on coconut. Quezon
city, Philippines.
Dayrit, F. M., Dimzon, I. K. D., Valde, M. F., Santos, J. E. R., Garrovillas, M. J. M. &
Villarino, B. J. (2011). Quality characteristics of virgin coconut oil: Comparisons
with refined coconut oil. Pure Appl. Chem., Vol.83, No 9, 1789-1799
Fife, B. (2004). The Coconut Oil Miracle (4th Ed.), New York. (Piccadilly books Ltd.)
Penguin group Inc. 7-9, 56-143.
Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II), (2007). Ministry of
Food and Agriculture, Ghana.
Gen, H. L., Che Man, Y. B., Nor Aini, I. & Nazimah, S. A. H. (2005). Monitoring the
storage stability of RDB palm olein using the electronic nose. Food chemistry 89,
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GSA (2006). Animal and vegetable fats and oils Specification for fortified named
vegetable oil: Ghana Standard (GS 813:2006), ICS 67.200.10.
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JDA (2006). District profile. Jomoro District Assembly, Ghana.
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Kardash-Strochkova, E., Turyan Ya, I. & Kuselman, I. (2001). Redox-potentiometric
determination of peroxide value in edible oils without titration. National Physical
Laboratory of Isreal, Givat Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Isreal.
Lambert, I. (2001). Problem and constraints to the development of the agro-processing
sector. www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/dominica/conference/paper/lambert.html
Mehmood, T., Ahmad, A., Ahmed, A. & Khalid, N. (2012). Quality Evaluation and
Safety Assessment of Different Cooking Oils Available in Pakistan. J. Chem. Soc.
Pak., Vol. 34, No. 3, Pakistan.
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Republic of Ghana.
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Monthly Report, March 2004. Sekondi, Ghana. Unpublished.
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Ngando, E. G. F., Mpondo, M. E. A., Dikotto, E. E. L. & Koona, P. (2011). Assessment
of crude palm oil from small holders in Cameroon. Journal of Stored Products and
Postharvest research, Vol. 2(3). 52-58. http://www.academicjournals.org/JSPPR
Ngassapa, F. N. & Othman, O. C. (2001). Physic-chemical characteristics of some
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locally manufactured edible vegetable oils marketed in Dares salam. J.Sci Vol. 27
Tanzania.
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Entrepreneurship Outlook: 2005. OECD, Paris, page 17
Organic facts (2014). Health benefits of coconut oil. Accessed on June 4, 2014 from:
http://www.organicfact.net/coconut
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and oil. Food technology, (21): 125-130
Poku, K. (2002). Small-scale palm oil processing in Africa, (FAO Agricultural service
Bulletin, 148). Rome, Italy.
Punchihewa, P. G. & Arancon R. N. (1999). Coconut postharvest operations. Asian and
Pacific coconut community (APCC). http://www.apcc.org.sg
Quaicoe, R. N. (2014). Personal communication. Oil Palm Research, Sekondi
Timpo, S. E. & Egyir, I. S. (2008). Micro enterprise development and management. In:
Cornelius, E. W. & Obeng-Ofori, D. (Editors), (2008). Postharvest science and
technology. Smartline publishing ltd. Ghana. 375-430.
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Recovery and percent yield. http://chemistry.syr.edu/totah/che276/support/
6a1.handout
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September 24, 2014 from: http://www.indexmundi/ghanacoconutoil production
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UNsystemwebsite:https://www.unctad.info/en/infocomm/AAACP-Product/
commodity-profile- coconut
Watanapoon, S. (2004). Improvement of physicochemical properties of palm Oilein
Blended with rice bran oil. PhD thesis. Silpakorn University. Thailand.
Yeboah, K. (2010). Coconut the wonderful crop. http://www.blogs pot.com
96
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Coconut oil produced from traditional method (a) & virgin method (b)
a. b.
Appendix 2: Traditional method of coconut oil processing
a. Selection and cracking of nuts b. Removal of coconut meat
97
c. grating of coconut meat d. mashing of coconut chaff & draining of

milk
e. fermentation of coconut milk f. skimming of crude coconut oil
g. heating of crude coconut oil h. filtration
98
i. coconut oil lift to cool
Appendix 3: Peeled & washed coconut meat for virgin oil processing
Appendix 4: Sieving of coconut milk after mashing for virgin oil
99
Appendix 5: Separation of oil (top) and water/curd (down)
a. Initial separation b. Final separation
Appendix 6: Heating (a) & filtration and packaging (b) of virgin coconut oil
a. b.
100
Appendix 7: Impurities deposit at bottom of oil during storage
Appendix 8: By-products obtained during coconut oil processing
a. coconut husk with the shell b. coconut chaff
c. coconut cake
101
Appendix 9: Source of water for processing (Good practise)
Appendix 10: Decayed/spoilt coconut rejected for processing (Good practise)
Appendix 11: Operator stepping on the coconut kernel during grating (Bad practise)
102
Appendix 12: Effect of processing methods on coconut oil yield
Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.
Processing methods 3 1298.406 432.802 164.45 <.001
Residual 8 21.055 2.632
Total 11 1319.461
Appendix 13: Effect of processing methods on Moisture content of coconut oil
Processing Methods 3 0.1468080 0.0489360 171.69 <.001
Residual 8 0.0022802 0.0002850
Total 11 0.1490882
Appendix 14: Effect of processing methods on Free fatty acid of coconut oil
Residual 8 0.0063160 0.0007895
Total 11 9.1927154
Appendix 15: Effect of processing methods on Peroxide value of coconut oil
Residual 8 0.26049 0.03256
Total 11 23.06038
103
Appendix 16: Effect of processing methods on Iodine value of coconut oil
Residual 8 0.0061246 0.0007656
Total 11 11.6309646
Appendix 17: Effect of processing methods on impurity in coconut oil
Processing Methods 3 0.70961 0.23654 9.40 0.005
Residual 8 0.20137 0.02517
Total 11 0.91098
Appendix 18: Effect of processing methods on the quality of coconut oil after storage
on Moisture content (MC)
Residual 8 0.0023720 0.0002965
Total 11 0.0590983
on Free fatty acid (FFA)
Residual 8 0.008307 0.001038
Total 11 10.972148
104
on Peroxide value (PV)
Residual 8 0.023286 0.002911
Total 11 27.802451
on Iodine value (IV)
Residual 8 0.22368 0.02796
Total 11 5.33339
on impurity
Residual 8 0.61676 0.07710
Total 11 13.55557
105
Appendix 23: Questionnaire used for survey work
Community (specific location) .. Quest. No. .
RESEARCH QUESTIONNIARE
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON
TOPIC: EFFECTS OF SMALL-SCALE COCONUT OIL PROCESSING METHODS ON

THE QUALITY AND YIELD OF OIL IN THE JOMORO DISTRICT.
This research work is being conducted to identify coconut processing methods practice, quality
assessment and quality control measures, oil recovery (yield) and storage methods used by the
small-scale coconut oil processors.
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA. (Please tick or fill in as appropriate)
Q1. Age: a)18-30 , b) 31-40 , c) 41-50 , d) 51-60 , e) 61 and Above
Q2. Gender: a) Male b) Female
Q3. Level of Education: a) MCLCE/BECE , b) SSCE , c) Cert./Diploma ,
d) 1st Degree , e) None
Q4. Main Occupation: a) Coconut oil processor , b) Coconut machine operator ,
c) Trader , d) Farmer , e) Civil servant , f) Others
Q5. How many years have you been producing coconut oil? a) 1-5 yr , b) 6-10 yr ,
c) 11-15 yr , d) 16-20 yr , e) 21-25 yr , f) 26 and Above .
Q6. Number of workers you are working with? a) 1-5 , b) 6-10 , c) 11-15 ,
d) 16-20 , e) 21-25 , f) 26 and Above .
Q7. Membership of any Cooperative? a) Yes b) No
If Yes name of cooperative/association/FBO .
106
SEECTION B: PROCESSING METHODS (Please tick and fill in as appropriate)
Q8. Which category of processing method do you practice?

a) Milk method of processing (fresh dried nut) [ ],
b) Copra method of processing (copra nut) [ ]
c) Both milk and copra methods of processing [ ]
Q9. Please describe briefly the steps or stages of the method practiced, mentioned in (Q8)?
107
SECTION C: QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT
Q10. What do you do to ensure a good quality coconut oil? (choose as many as possible)
a) Selection of matured dried nut and non-germinated/unspoiled nut [ ]
b) Start processing immediately after breaking the nut [ ]
c) Ensure good sanitation and personal hygiene [ ]
d) Cleanse the grater/machine before milling [ ]
e) Clean gallons/drums before filling with oil [ ]
f) Others (specify) .
Q11. What do you use to identify a good quality oil?
a) Sensory/Physical test (Colour, Taste, Aroma) [ ], b) Chemical test (FFA, MC, Impurity) [ ]
Q12. Which grade of coconut oil do you produce?
a) Grade A (cooking/food) [ ], b) Grade B (soap/other purpose) [ ] c) Both grade A & B [ ]
SECTION D: OIL RECOVERY AND PROCESSING EQUIPMENT USED. (Please tick or

fill in as appropriate)
Q13. How do you assess the quantity of coconut meat before processing?
a) Counting of nut [ ], b) Measurement of nut by volume (sack, basket) [ ],
c) Weighing of coconut meat [ ], d) Weighing of coconut fruits [ ],
e) No form of assessment [ ]
Q14. How do you measure the oil produce after processing?

a) Volume (bottle/gallon/drum) [ ], b) Weight [ ]
Q15. From the above (Q13 & Q14) using the unit, state the quantity of coconut used for processing
and the quantity of oil recovery:
.... = ......
Quantity of raw material (coconut) Quantity of coconut oil recovery
108
Q16. Which of the following Processing equipment do you use?
a) Coconut Grater = I. Motorised grater [ ], II. Manual grate [ ], III. Shredder [ ],
IV. Others (specify) .
b) Milk Presses/Expeller = I. Motorised Screw press [ ], II. Manual screw press [ ],
III. Hydraulic jack press [ ], IV. Basket [ ], V. Others (specify) .
c) Fermentation container = I. Stainless steel tank [ ], II. Plastic containers [ ],
III. Plastic drum [ ], IV. Others (specify)
d) Cooking pot/Frying pan = I. Wok [ ], II. Cast iron [ ], III. Others (specify)..
e) Filter = I. Small gravity filter [ ], II. Cloth strainer [ ], III. Others (specify) .
SECTION E: PACKAGING AND STORAGE (Please tick or fill in as appropriate)
Q17. What do you use to keep/package the oil after processing? ..
Q18. How do you package the oil for marketing? .
Q19. Where do you store the oil after processing? .
Q20. How long do you store the oil before sales? .
Q21. Does storage have effect on oil quality? I. Yes [ ], II. No [ ]
Give reason
Q22. Where do you sell your oil? ..
SECTION F: PROCESSING CONSTRAINTS
Q23. Please state if you have any constraint(s);

....
....
THANK YOU
Name of respondent: ....................................................................................................
109

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University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.

EFFECTS OF SMALL-SCALE COCONUT OIL PROCESSING METHODS ON

THE QUALITY AND YIELD OF OIL IN THE JOMORO DISTICT.

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN CROP SCIENCE (POST-HARVEST

COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE

Student; SEDODE JOSEPH

Supervisor; PROF. R. J. BANI

Co-supervisor; DR. (MRS.) GLORIA ESSILFIE

and guidance of almighty God.

Engineering, UG for his contribution.

Finally, I appreciate the helps from my colleagues and family members.

to identify the processing methods practised. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

1.1. Problem statement 4

1.3. General objective 6

1.4. Specific objectives 6

1.5. Research hypothesis 6

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1. The Coconut 7

2.2. Brief history of coconut industry in Ghana 9

2.3. Coconut Oil 12

2.4. Characteristics of coconut oil 13

2.5. Biochemical composition of coconut oil 14

2.6. Importance of coconut oil 15

2.7. Global trends in coconut oil trade 16

2.8. Methods of processing coconut oil 18

2.9. Equipment for coconut oil processing 20

2.10.Quality of coconut oil 21

2.11.Factors affecting the quality of coconut oil 22

2.12.Parameters for accessing quality of oil 23

2.12.1. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) 24

2.12.2. Peroxide Value (PV) 25

2.12.3. Moisture content (MC) 26

2.12.4. Impurity Level 27

2.12.5. Iodine value (IV) 27

2.13. The effects of processing methods on yield and quality of oil 27

2.14. Packaging and storage of coconut oil 28

2.15. Standards for oils (Coconut oil) 29

2.15.1. Codex Alimentaruis commission standards for edible oils 29

2.16. Small-scale processing / Agro-processing 33

3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS 35

3.2. Study area 35

3.3. Materials and methods of social research 37

3.3.1. Cognizance survey 37

3.3.2 Pre testing 37

3.3.3 Sampling technique 38

3.3.4 Questionnaire administering / data collection 38

3.3.5 Data management 40

3.3.6 Statistical analysis and presentation of result 40

3.4. Materials and method of coconut oil yield assessment 40

3.4.1. Coconut oil processing methods 42

3.4.2. Equipment and materials used for coconut oil processing 44

3.4.3. Statistical analysis and presentation of results 44

3.5. Materials and methods of coconut oil quality test 45

3.5.1. Parameter for oil quality test 45

3.5.2. Parameter test methods 45

3.5.3. Determination of moisture content (MC) 46

3.5.4. Determination of free fatty acid (FFA) 46

3.5.5. Determination of peroxide value (PV) 48