pe OLD ICELANDIC An Introductory Course SIGRID VALFELLS. JAMES E, CATHEY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS in association with, andinavian Foundation 1981 the American-srd Unity Pe, Wat Sa, Oued OF 40P ‘do Gg Sew York Teens at By Cals Maas Kah se ene bee Hg Ko oe fr Cn PsN York Sone hy it su ey Smit om ‘evn mechan soci, arn re,” ‘ep pemanon of Sod Unset Pet Deh Livery Caingig m Pb Date "a Lr alo hn ln Monap Tne New Rama by Sees pep) El, ec aoe ed ped Cet a tyr Ord INTRODUCTION ‘Tune are, generally speaking, vo types of stadents of Old Teclndic those who ae interested primal as linguists and those intrested as literary scholars. Old Tela i designed to serve the needs of both. Their needs, however, are—to a degree— incompatible. But the groundwork for either scholar the language itl and Old Fela wll give any stadent a systematic snd thorough introduction to Clasical Old Leland, the language of the thttenth century sagas. Following this comprehensive Introduction to the language the student wll be well prepared for ‘more specialized study, whether in iteratre or linguistics, nits conception and step-by-step progression Old Ielanic i a isan exeption in that it was probably alvays voiceless, even when ‘etwoen vowels. {Q) The vears& and g were palatalzed before front vowels (ee vowel charts in sction 3, above). Thus before the back vowel athe ‘words Aar man’ and gaf“gae’ were pronounced with sounds comparable to Engl fk) andl while ering ‘ld woman, one’ nd gefa to give were [kjering] and [geval The voiced vel, Possibly had one other variant: between two Vowel it may have teen pronounced asthe voiced comtinant[y. Tat is saga 888, tale’ was pronounced [tra ete. (@) Betorek and the pronunciation of n was (9s in English sing (8) Semivowels ‘While was a palatal continuant, was iter bilabial, s English w, or labio-ental, as English (and Modern Icelandic). © Vowets (1) Od Iceland vowels were either long or shot, Both in their phonological vlc and in pronuaciation. Thus the vowels a bar ‘ener and bir they cree difered in quantity (ength) bat notin quality, while the vowels in rd “advice, counsel and rd fer N sg od differed in quality but were equivalet in lngth (@) Sine the titenth century a series of changes has affected the leslandic vowel system and the measurement of quant, both ‘owe! length and syllabic length (ce Lesion Il, IC), 40 tha the Aierenee in pronencinton between long and short vowels is no longer quanitative but qualitative. The long vowels have all been ipthongieed and several shift have also occurred in the pro- hunciation of diphthoags. These are the Modern Leland peo- nunciations of Oi leslandic long vowels and diphthongs PHONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 7 (ld Keane Modern Ilan , Hi ti) & 1 © fs : tow é tom i tes) a ts * = ‘ id Teslandic w has merged with Modern Iilandc fj both in ‘orthography and pronunciation. In the short vowel system o and ¢ have coalesced as Modern Icelandic, while both short and log vowel ystems ys become (fi ‘8, Phonological Rpreseataton, Orthography, ‘and Normalized Texts Phonological representation is of two kinds. Fist there is the ¥ sesderying phonoloiel representation, always shown in parentheses inthe folowing chapters, of the word in ts Basic form ith the sociated grammatical features that characterize a infected form “Thus, for instance, the word or “hall, pale” hae the underying phonological representation (al), whe the nominative singular form of the word is hall The siesed vowel of the form in parentheses i shown aitis nits basic form, before undergoing the ‘umlaut shit of ato. which automatically applies tall ‘nominative singular forms of feminine strong noun tts, while the thematic ++ only surfaces inthe nominative and aoousative pal forms, and this characters a certain clase of nouns. Such al underving phonological representation docs not necessarily cor respond to any actual (urate) form ofthe word, but ian absact formula which represents the basic phonological (and grammatical) features of an infected word. On the otber hand, the surface ‘phonological representation ofan infected word, eg. nominative Singular Fl, oF nominative pial hal, seal the ‘orthographic representation and shows the word ast appears when all the pertinent rules of the phonology have applied to its lnderying form. ‘This representation indicates, although notnecessarily wit total ieityor consistency, the phonetic properties ofthe word, [As already mestioned, there is @ fairly close correspondence between the phonemes of the srlace phological representation of Old Ielandie and its orthographic symbols, Thus = (=1s ord) and 9 (=i) in-noniial postion) are the only ‘orthographic symbole that do not correspond in 2 one-to-one ‘elationship to Old Toland phonemes. The aetual spelling in O1d Icelandic manuscripts is very heterogeneous, as they were writen and copied over @ long priod in Hime, and reflect repional of individual vartanisin pronunciation, ited tradition of tandard- {zaton, a8 well as extensive abbrevatonal conventions. Modern published textsall involve some degre of eiting and normalization OF spelling, that i they usually adopt a single orthographic ‘andard fr disparate material. Sach normalind texts, then fen ‘opt an orthographic sytem that may be more closely pono. Toga thaa the original manuscripts. The texts ths bool are all adapted to a single standard of normalization, although, in Tact, ‘many variant versions exist. Thus, for example, the unstressed ‘vowels of Old Ielandic can be represented a either a,c, 0, oF 8 & ‘eu, sine the actual phonetic values ofthese vowels probably lay somewhere in between the values of the two stems of sessed vowel equivalents. In the texts presented inthis book the latter Solution is consistently, although essentially arbitrarily, adopted, Similanly, for example, the negating preix “an can be speled tithe rd since they both eepresent equally well te phoveme/ Imorpheme which historically sited in pronancation from a Iighvowel to mid-vowel. Heve, again somewhat arbitrarily, the first spelling is adopted in all text 9, Reference Gude: A Summary ofthe ‘Principal PhooologialReles 1 Vowels () Unio (2) Fumtaut:« back vowels fronted if followed by fo only certain sounds cause umlaut) This oocurs particulary inj ‘hemati verb, certain bisylabic nouns, and allets the phonology PHONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION ° of bthematic nouns and augmented stems of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, Fumlaut isa grammatical feature ofthe present singular forms of strong verbs and the ‘ereglar’ noun delensons [Bxampls (ands-+4) + endo "olan compare land's land), (@rauimjj--a) “+ deyma “to dream’ (compare drawn "area (@) womlaut: an unrounded vowel is rounded when fllowed by wor», and in certain grammatiealcontets, Seas a shits To @ fand unstressed a tou whenever followed hy w. Thus (lak-+-um) tien “we take, (onda) —» mud “months (D i ste. Underlying a shits to 9, eto», and to ywhea followed by a» fugment. Thus (Sekkv-+-a)» soba "to sink’ (ing) —ymgva ‘to sing sangy-a- +1) sngvar ones, ee @ Syncope () A vowel in medial position preceded by a short syllable and followed by one consonant and another vowel is dropped, Thit affects particularly biyllabie stems, thematic and 1j-thematic verbs, where syncope apples extensively in pas tense forms, and ‘owes in medal morphems sich asthe comparatine -ar Thus, for example, himin-)~» ou heaven, sky D sa) (i+) lived and (Oki +-ar-+-i)~ lk "ore likey (2) An unsiresed short vowel immediately followed by another unstressed vowel is dropped. Thus (Gal-+-3e-+-u8) fda) ‘counted [2nd person plural past, (hersi-+-ar) > hersar “chit (@) An unstressed oor u immediately preceded bya stresed long low vowel is dropped. Thus (i+-um) =m "rivers D pl (ene) “tum »snam “snow [D pil ete (© Diphihongzaion (Breaking) Undesiying ea before Jor rin certain Class IL strong verbs (wjalia, Bara, ee) (D) Raising Underlying ¢ in the jaugmented present stem of certain strong verbs of Clase V (hii, sia).» ox 1eeLANDIC (©) Lengthening Any stressed vowel slong when it occurs in nal position, Thus, for example, orginal a in the past stem of vega "to slay" © lengthened £04 a the los of final gag ~ ‘lew Somi-Vowels ws (1) j at an augment oF sthematic appeas following a short, sylatie, oF a Tong syllable ending in a velar, before @ or 1 lsowbere the underlying / does not appear. Thus (wari-+-3) vera "defend, (hangrije-a) heme “hane but (landi-+ -a)—lend to ln {@) a8 an adgment or ithemaic i realized a8 & following a long sem-sllable, or @ short syllable ending in g. Thus (hers “+ 2ero) erst [A sg chitin’, (sal zer0) seh IS pred" sy, ee. (@) An thematic is relied asj following & long slable end ina velar and preceding a oF u, asi stem-na of masculine weak declension nouns. Thus, for example, (drykk-i-+-at) = dyhKjar IG sgh “drink (drykii-+-um) > dejan {D pl) “einks' (GefSing-+-31)-+hoinayor “cies, nobles’ “) jis lot before J, a8 when f=) by Fumlaut, Thus (ke + 1) pk (Bd se pres} "blows. @ (A rsugment appears before a or Thus (sekkv-+-2) taki “to sink’, (Gekk¥=4-8) + sobkvd [2nd pl pes) ‘you Sink but (ekko-+-um) slum [Ist pl pres we ink, ek “¥-2) sok [3d sp pres “he snk te (@) Aninitalv disappears before sessed uo, and d. Thus veda “become” has past pl aroun "we became’, past participle ordian “become! ‘G). Metal vi often lost between iia consonant and stressed vowel in forts of koma (past 3g ram) to come’ of (pst 98 "af) to sleep This rule does not apply, ein eld "evening, steel "swallow, te PHONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 4 ML, Consonants (A) Gemination A or-r of an ending attached ta stem terminating ina long stiessod vowel isgeminated. Thus (af-+-1)~ (aft) > aye [acut N few’, (bon) > i) fr fen D sew’ (8) Assinlaton (0) ris esi to a prding fo min 9 long se “or Gs) al N gh orto (ne) inne Nol good. welhmades ets) Coase No Wing (2) asia to «preceding tenting i de, Ths ep ly wast has pat Sr pd, asim toa or (and, oponaly, to pesdig reign Wk) Ts eat athe pst Se ‘asc fyn toh yl ane nd asker ha Sed to ese mero mar’ hs mer ne rk pas neato got al rth ce (3) and ae aimed fo lowing rating int thar Gal) hat) fat fort Ng) cd abe) thar) hat eet N ‘ar eC ow). (3) nn tte (optonal). Ths (man) + made ON sa) stn (ayn) arr (om to, bt me Negi most ce. (Sh kesh 1 (arin). Thos sok Yo se’ hak the stn 5m kata om at rl Bo oe 3, above (© Splifcation [A double consonant is simplified when proceded by a third consonant, Ths (ake) akrt) > akr[N sgl, Git) Gar fart (Neh “ea (age-t-rat) + fagrar fem G 8) a (©) Devoicing In the second principle part of certain Class Il and VI strong ‘verbs a final consonant laser is device (and assimilated): ond2 1p IcELaNDIC tong ky ld > Tas nda Wo bind” bas te past 3d se ‘at, stnga “to sting bas the past ed sg stakk, gala "to pay” has sale gang too, walk has gokk, hala ‘to hol has hel ee (©) Loss of Consonant Incertan unstressed short slabs o is lost tore al ‘Thus (ik) (ll) niki [neu N sg) “reat, (ine + <1)» ont) bi (newt N sg] ‘prepared’ ete, This role does not Sogn fr x a+ ema aN LESSON I 1. Grammar (A) Gender n Nouns and Adjectives Each Old lslandie noun belongs to one of three genders. The scjctives modifying a given noun agree with 1 gender. The tenders are masulite, Teminine, and neuter (8) Number i» Nouns and Adjectives -Exeet for afew abstract nouns which appear inthe singular only, cach Old Icelandic noun can be ether singular or poral. The “jctves modifying «given noun agee with ts oumber. (©) Stems and Endings (Q) Nouns and adjetves: the basi orm of infected words isthe siem, Many nouns ae characterized by a thematic vowel, which follows the base stem: (viking-e) “viking, (ba5--) “arm, sete tment. The thematic vowel i not always apparent in the actual ‘tor, but often moifes the phone shape ofthe baie underlying em, To the nominal and adjectival stems are added ease endings ‘whose form varies with gender and aumber, foreach of the Four ‘ses: nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. "The masculine rngsla nouns that eppea in ths Iessoa, and the adjectives modidying them, take the nominative singular (N sexs nding “7. The feminine singular nouns and adjectives and neuter Singular nouns have no ending (a 270 ending) i the nominative Sngular, while the neuter singular adjectives have the ending ‘when the ending Follows along stressed vows ‘When an ending t added 10-4 stem, 2 modification of the pronounced and writen form ofthe word very often takes place— tile the underlying forms ofthe stm and ending remain constant. ‘Thus, for example, the thematic vowel of « masculine or feminine nou stem never appears in the actual Np forms (neuter stems are" 1“ OLD ICELANDIC thematic), and the masculine N spending is modified in sreral ferent ways. Consider the following correspondences between underving forms and the actual N'sg fons of nouns and adjectives: (base sem (othe) case ending) Mass: Nowne (king) sing ing’ (eset) moda! Mtopee-s-7) fa "it (ayes) er Tam, sedement Ad} fore) mtr Norwein” (intr) ar daring Fem: Nouns Kone 2e) kona "woman, (siete) iebay” Ad) maces) tn handome Neat: Nous (sips seo) ip hp (uma 2e0) sama ‘summer! ‘Aaj. Gio)‘ prepare (Gao) fr, beaut ‘01 po ast in (2) Verbs: the verbs are also formed of stem, whic i often characierzed by a thematic vowel, and an inflectional ending. A ‘eal thematic vowel usally appears inthe actual (surface) form ofthe verb and often modifies the phonetic shape ofthe base stem. ‘The verbal ending =r Indicates the thnd person singular present Indicative Grd sg pres ind) form of the verb, The verb "be" is feregular; ils 3ed sg pes ind form is er Some examples of the mit, (6) nm before 7: the N sg Torm of the stem (mann) ‘man is always. made. This assimilation ‘of mw to 0 before mtr "new’, (hie) eeadt hie (8) Word Order ‘The base structure ofa deslarative sentence i Old Teelandic has the folowing order of constituent: Subject + Verb (+ Adverb) (+ Obie. “The Subject and the Object can bee single noun, or pronoun, or & ‘complex noun-phrase, such as Adjectve+ Noun, of even a co plete clause. The verbal form that cccurs inthe second position in {he order of constituents is alway a nite form (as dstne from the6 on ICELANDIC Infntive and. partcipial forms): “Fagifi Amarson er norskr viking ‘An adverb, or adverbial phrase may replace the Subject inthe first postion, at the head of the sentence the Verb then remains ia ‘ond position and the main order of constituents changes to Adverb + Verb + Subjet (+ Obj) “Thus for example "ar er fg! ok fk “The adjective modifying & noun may either precede o follow it. \When it prsedes the noun tx somewhat more emphatic, oF more ‘bus an atibute of the noun it modifies, Often the poston of acjstves modilying« noun is varied Tor syste purpose, in ordee {avoid a repetitive or monotonous marative sqence: ing er rors vikingr ok mar rikr ok duarfr® "A posssive phase involving a noun and pronoun always has the pronoun following the noun it modifies, uns special emphasis 4s being placed upon the pronoun: "Skip hans er gor’ (When the ‘Pronoun is used emphatically, i precedes the noun) 2, Vocabelary “The basic stem form (root) and tematic vowel arin parentheses All nouns and adjectives ar iste inthe nominative singular frm, adjectives in the masculine Mase: “Ararson (Lesion VL 1A patronymic on of ‘nar a) fa sctlement fk sk fh a. ted ow data (tad) capital cy Tg (ines) ronal me ing Thgal's mab mann) fea “ thing (ing) hing Feminine FrdBeditic(Lson XV, —_patronymi, "auphter of Fre Tal Havel peesona mame oo (one: vonan wie sb) Tate ate) land ana) ship ip) Somer (simar) vat Adecves ‘ine in) Sint (ae) fag tae) fe >) i (@50) enn geen) Erie ald ial) eae (alas) rar tar) Bi (uit) be (05) son (no) air sh) ke Ge) vena ae) Prone i eot N fea! se NS] eae han (6 sa} oa (Ns omar (Da) plocut Na St foe a Verbs ‘rai rae) aces, “Bay of Soke opie Teland ‘ot eland land ip pen eer at, tea ood fo sold many) (et, en toup,slicent Norwegian povee ce andsome wellmade tie im te ise® OLD IcELANDIC {Lesson Xt) & Sine (in) fas Ie ea) follows Jen ei) ands Sie ts ines sili = Adverts an Mewar, the ™ st te ey ia many places br ee Prepac Phases ‘8 Nog fiom Norway ‘sane to ein vente 10 the west ‘pti eth a td a Text Ingo Amarson er norkrvikngr ok marke ok date. Kona hans er Hallveg Frdadéttis. Hon er g60 Kona ok ven. Skip hans ergot le el bait. Hann sg sumar eit fe Novel tl estes ok finn land eit, at er nft land ok engi mate litre, Landit et fart ok ft, Par er fp ok fskenbgr Vata er ar bast eit ok at Grater great of mkt. ng ey Pr ok bre is Marge folk gir honum sidan tl Islands ok bya ar vida. Beet Ingo er kalade Reykjavik. Par er mis hofudstabr Islands 4. Det. ‘Convert the following adjective and soun stems into N sg forms Example: (Gorse) (kinga)=norty ving Masculine (A) (Garé) king) @ Hy Gee LESSON 1 » (© (oonk) Gonmnee) ing ©) Gio)” Gee) ©) Gale) Ghee) me © ae) (ds Stee (G) Gk) Gate) et 0) Ge) Galea Feminie: (Duk) ky oy (Gib) Gees) ew (ip) Goes) Teton cy ewe: (2) (Gage) and) ( fwosk) Gp) (S) bee)” Gumary (0) (eae) tus (P) (G88) nerd) avon (Q) (jp) ipa) weapon (8) ald) Gate) ‘5 Translation ‘Translate the following sentences into Old Island (A) Ing Ararion sil othe wes and nds aan (@) His wie is good and teu () tetand 2 new nda no man es here. {D) Theres ih and fowl enough, geen gas, and Both hot and coldal LESSON II 1. Grammar (A) Nominative Paral of Nouns and Adjectives (1) The nominative pra of noun lange number of mascne and feminine nouns in Old Icelandic are characerizad by a tematic vowel, a+ -F, of at, which appear in certain inflected form between the intl stem syllable (root) and the cae ending. (Nouns without thematic vowels are discussed in Lessons IX, X, XXVI, and XXVIL) One ofthe forms which displays the thematic ‘vowel between the root and the iafeconal ending the nomina- tive plral (N p) For masculine and feminine nuns the N pl ending sr. Tha the 1N pl of king (vikings) i vikingar, where the thematic vowel distinguishes the plurel form from that of the singular. Sialarty (gest “guest is esr nN sand gestr in N pl. For the feminine ‘oun stem (eigar) ‘beverage, brew! the N sg 6 veg and the N pl ‘wigar. The neuter noun sem is not characterized by a thematic ‘vowel, and the neuter N pl ending is ere. Ths his nd skip are ‘ott N singular and plural forms. {@) The nominative plural of adjectives: the nominative plural ings of adjectives, although similar in appearance to the endings ‘on nouns function ina diferent manner, ae adhoc stms are not Sharacteried by thematic vowels The masculine N pend always the feminine N pl ening is always ar, and the neuter N lending is always zero, Thus we have gr vdkingar and dir {esti gar velgr, and gd his for masculine, feminine, and newer ‘ominatve plurals, espectivly. ‘@) The alteration ofa and ¢: the stem vowels a and g alternate in certain feminine and neuter forms of nominative noune and jctives, asin (arg) which smog in fem N wg and neat N for (and) which appears as loadin N pl. Tas alternation will be further dscosed in Lesion II LESSON It 2 (8) The Thi Person Plural Ending of Verbs ‘The thd person plral ending of verbs is, which is added to {he ste form Note again thatthe verb “be” i regular and hs the Form eru in the Sed pl pres ind "they are (© Augmented Sioms Some intl stomllables (rot) have a terminal jor», sch as bers.) ‘hietain’, (eg) “Tamous. (nut) "middle, cena (8) ‘ew’, oF (Ql) ale These are called augmented stems, The Jraugment appears under specie conditions when an aor w diet follows it Thus we have for (mid) N pl masculine mii, feminine iijar, and neuter mid. But in N pl of thesia) hers the fugmeat does not appear, nor does the augment appeat in N 3p snd pl of (gv) ol For a further discussion ofthe agmented noun em, sce Lesson I. (©) Word Order (2) When two phrases or sentences are conjoined, the normal ‘word order prevail. When oth contin the same verb it may Be eked in parallel constructions: “Jerlar komngs er margin, on ‘Frag vingar ere gestir bane” "Hite ira era hitinbrad salir mans sti ‘An important exception tothe rule of normal word order in conjoined constructions occurs in the case of ok ‘and’. When two sentences are conjoined by of, this conjunction is immediatly followed by the verb ofthe second sentence as would be the ese in those constructions begining with an adverbial, that x of has the same syntactic postion ax an adverbial: “Frat vikingar er gest Jans ok fara Pr hon gr jaar is era era htimbrad ok {era sat kamigs srr (For te use of ok as. an adverb, also, sce Lesson VIIL) {@) Certain nouns with a singe or unambiguous referent, such as ‘nouns indicating rank or postion, do. aot normally have the ‘efit atce in Old leslie: kommer “the King’ "the sun’ In ner the definite artic is used much les han a English Tn posesive phrases the head noun is not accompanied by efinte arte: Jarlar Komngs “he earls of the hig, “the king's\ \ 2 ou 1CeLANDIC cats’ while the noun in the genitive case may of may not be ‘efit, depending on the ature ofthe releent:Konamgr Englands ‘the king of England’, Komargr landing "tbe King ofthe county 2, Vocabalary ee (bel) bench dykke phe) ak fst a) fies ei es) Shien isbonade (Sana) ous things Gate) onunge Gonung-2) En langle (0) Tong re ste (as) food igor (mab) fe son VI) ead oro) poy sical) fat room is ex Leo vl sei io gnfa) en ey i, palace eis eine) ergs tre Neve, ord od) table aun (beaut) rene ssl (st) fooe his os) howe eet vet) oe, song still (aie) Pee Sot 6s) oor Sie er) Srord vp (ine) weapon atte) a Abecives fms regi) famous stab (ga) itimbrabe (mrs) oe ptimbeed, high-eingnt ie a Beet (seek) ser te) XXII a (ah ei rir mas N pl) ria (6 reams (en) rea (ek) fru Lesson Xi eee (a>) [+L AD ona (kom) ret ed) Paka bak) (+DI-+ | 4 Abvet wate itu 8 Conerion ok skjglé. Hell Kosungs LESSON 11 a ‘rong we ‘bee anear) [fm N pl fenon ter tee arn ‘ng (someone) (omting) ‘hank Someone} (for sometine) towaty va 3. Text [Notskir vikingar era dart ok sterkr. Vpn ira er ver, spt, cr tim ok salir Komungs store, Bord ok bekkr eru hisbinadr Par, en langeldarbrenna & mia 0 Jarlar Konungs eru mar, fru gesir hans ok era hon godar jar. Mat Pir e ost ok bra, fuglae ok fiskar Miodr ok adear vigar erudrykkir Pei More skald Koma ti! Konangs ok kveda hitt ok vel. Konungr uk beim keds prea ok ali drebka ok eru lai niki besa ok regi vikingu OLD ICELANDIC 4. Dri Convert the following adjective and noun stems into N pl forms Example: (dala) (ek) told bekir A (0H) (ors) (take) (ona) (ware) Gea) ep) (ee (oag) (per) nt) (as) (Konus) fea (his) (©) (ir) (aglay ‘5. Translations ‘Translate the following sentences into Old lelandic (A) Many vkng ar stone (2) His goose good aod daring, (©) These sword re ne {D) Alert are famous snd powefel {) His dank thot and tone (6) Their inde ae power, (G) Many Se an ohare the. {She mous and basa (0) The kings hal is famous (2) weapon om LESSON Ill 1. Grammar (A) The Dative Singlor () Form (@) Nouns to the stem of masculine and neuter nouns (ofthe types seen thus far) an +i added forthe dative singular (D 58) Feminine nouns take the ending, but afer monosyllabic stems this ending frequealy does not appear Ifthe feminine stem Is Disab, the mending generally appears, although there i some variation hee aswell (Sse Lesson 1X for the Teminine (pe represented by gersini ‘weasue") () Adjectives: when mosifying masculine nouns in the D se the adjective ending is -um, while the feminine ending i 1, at the neuter ending is I tbe basic stem ends in along vowel the r of the feminine ending is doubled: (hi) D shri, (1) ni. @) vase (@) Instrumental, eg. supplanting the funtion generally served bythe English preposition ‘with. Examples: bows hin “upped witha helmet ladon gull laden with god’ rekb sir“nlaid with ser (©) Verbal object: many verbs, among them verbs of causation, ke dative object. Examples sil sjra skip "silftecr a ship ana vn “il an enemy’ eda Borg lay waste a Gt (©) Prepostiona objet: certain prepositions, especialy those indicating direction or placement, take dative object. Examples Jr land eo lan at haus" te ata in the sping (8) The Alteration of a: (slau) The change of e+ ¢, othrwise known as (the effect of) w- uma, occurs when the stewed short a of an underlying sem Is followed by a win the next syllable. Thus the D rg adjective endings ‘of masculine and neuter forms, um and cause a base stem form% OLD ICELANDIC with ato show with ein the surface frm. From (skarp) ‘sharp’ we ‘et mase N sg skarpr, but mase D 33 skorpum; the neter Ng is kart, but the neuter D sg. skorpu. The proces of w-umlatt also ‘osu in nominal and verbal forms under the same conditions. As ‘vas mentioned in Lesson Tl, IAS, this alteration can take place fren hen an eal has Ben lost in an ending. This uml of| ‘underlying a 10 ¢ where no overt wend is present takes place in the following cases: nominative and accusative 3g of feminine nouns whose root forms end in a consonant, nominative only of feminine adjectives, nominative and accusaive pl of both ester nouns and adjectives. Examples: From the feminine noun stom Gull.) we have N's hl, D sg ols or hell (se Ala, above); (evar. many" morg in both fem N sp and nest N/A pi Can) “tan hs the N/A pl end (skarp) ‘sharp’ is serpin both fers N seand neat NIA pl (©) Lang ». Short Stoms (1) Short stems are those that end ina stressed Jong vowel or diphthong or ina stesed short vowel followed by one consonant tnd waugments and thematic vowels ae dincounted in measiring {he length of stems), Any consonants preceding the sresed vowel ae immaterial in determining the length of a stem syllable. Some ‘examples of short stems are: (tabi) “town, place, (kip) ship’, (nud) mead’, (id) mile’ hve) “every each’ and (8) ‘new {@) Long stems are those which fle from the description ofthe short stems. They include the flowing ype: {@) a shor vowel with more than one folowing consonant (aga iscounting augmented J of 9) such as (Cage) “al, (83) 10 sal (bk) “bench te @) a long vowel or diptthong and one or more following ‘consonans, a in (pj) ‘spear’ (vpn) weapon’, (B69) ‘good, {Geag) fnous’ Grav) “read ee (©) more than one sable, tke (oki) “iki, (imbrad) The distinction between long and short stems is important in kra. But, when the long sable ster ends in velar, {© or g, as in (ik) ‘dominion, the augment sppears as) before a folowing aor w (compare with shor-sllabl te). Thus the dative pl fom of ek), wth the D pl ending um, is rit (2) In Tong adjective stems the agment never appears except /a 1 scevavorc when it follows stem ending ink Fg, and precedes 2 or ‘Thus (Geng) “famous has masculine N sg (regi-+-1) gr, pl eit) - Jag, but Ds (regan) = region, te. (These long-sylable adjetve stems with aj ssopment ave archaic; in later forms of OM Teelandic the ‘often disappears entirely, hus giving, fr example, the fers N pl form fear) (2) The vaugment ‘The vaugment appears whether the stem is long or short whenever a vowel other than a follows it Thus from the ater oun stem (Qi) ‘ale™we derive the N 5g (ol-+-ze2) + ol, D (elven from the adjective stem gs) brave, vigorous ‘we drive masculine N se (rk. +1) rast, N pl rea i) > rear, feminine N93 (oaks 4 2ro) ras N legs +a) reer, eter NE sk 1) ek De oko) © Word Order (1) As mentioned in Lesson 1, the adjective that precedes the noun is more emphatic oF prominent. But sometimes the position of the adjective may be detenminod by slic consideration of balance and shyt. Puting all adjectives in the same position in a series of sentences and parallel constructions creates a more ‘monotonous effet than wien they are placed sometimes receding, Somtimes folowing the noun ‘Similarly, the adverb at the bead ofthe sentence is brought into eter prominence than when it follows the verb. Buti longer arratve sequences the adverbial, wheter s single word ora longer phrase, may be positioned a the head ofthe sentence interitently fm order to avoid repeive constructions. {@) An apposition or appostive phrase always apres in ease withthe noun ft modify, andi always fllows the noun: "Ham Sig skip sin, rouse ok fora, LESSON Ut 2 Vocabulary eee (masa) sarior ane ele Nig reg) Norwsy ator cb) seal war fia vn) ‘ea Feninioe ‘ore Core) iy, friteation Danoe (ma) Denar fer 8) tip, voyage imi gers) eau se | Sweden England Gand) England lea) a faust ans) fa, ace ata) sister, aby sik} “ominion Siti) siher ‘9 (ute) seu Vata and) France vir (ie) sane Adecines indian (din) laden hs nse) shar, been lang dang) Tone ‘eis (ein) Py Fes (sk) (whinge) axe) (amar) ) Gee) eige) ©) wer) taken) (%) (ip) and) (1) Greg thalls) (00) (uate) (dees) 1S) (aamaly tee (0) (gama) thveds) (Pte) hime) (Gallas) as) 5. Trandatons ‘Translate the following Sentences nto Old Teenie: (a) Summer are short in sorter counen (@) Soramer das are longa Sweden LESSON WW ” (©) Tee weathers mild inthe sume, (©) Nortepan forests ae covere with sow in the wits. (©) Water nla is oth cld sot (@) Fits, hls ard meadows ae grec the ner {G) Dai tien stones and ees in ils (0) There areca, ees, and pat no ta, (1) Ther reales oftheir dealings wih gos sd men. (0) Thee ae lye sf Told sereLESSON V (A) Accusative Singular (0 Form (@) Nouns: for masculine and neuter nouns the accusative singular (A) ending is zero. In fact, for 2euter nouns apd adjectives te accusative is always ideal withthe nominative fa (Oi lesan, For feminine none the A gis formed like the D 3, that is, the ending 1 occurs mostly with bsllatie stems, lthou {ts optional with monosllabje stems, and snumlast takes place ‘winnever possible. Feminine long-semmed augment nouns form the A sg 5 the D sp, with a zero ending “Thus for masculine N sg Birr "Erie we have A sa Ebik, for snascaline N's ford “th we have A se or masculine N se ak “eld we have A sg ak, for mascalie N sp min ky’, A st himin, ete. For feminine Ns giof ei! we have A se gif, for feminine NV sg Danmork "Denmark’, A sg Dutmorku, and for eminine N sg dr ‘heath’ we have A 3g hed, Foe neuter N st land we have A sland, ct 1) Adjectives: here all thee genders have diferent endings. To the adjective stem are added the Ag endings -o for masculine, -2 for feminine, and (ori, see Lesson I, IDS) for neuer. Thus we have: Hawn debt sterkan mjd “He drinks stong mead’; Harn 4efr diva gof "He wives a valuable presen; Hows foe mt land “He ins @ now land” Note that the A masc of kil miki) gratis the iepular form miko instead of the expected ikl. ©) Usage 4a) Diret object: for verbs rect object, that object, appears in the accusative: Homt ver dinfan viking “He slays ‘rave viking; Hann decker sterkavelg ‘He dias strong brew “Hann nom nj Tard He ses ve lad.” (&) With verbs of motion: the accusative is wsed with vers of LESSON » motion 19 describe the path taken: Hom sir langa lei “He sila Tong ways Per gana min ng "They walk anew road's Hon fore ‘amma ferd She takes a shot journey." (@) Absolute accusative of time: here the accusative is not mounted by a verb, but simply appears as an accusative in verbal usage: dag nokkurn “on a ceriain day, one day"; ar Sena tat summer ee “G Prepositinal phrases: many of the prepositions with dative bjt ea aio take an accusative objet. Inthe case of int and ‘on’ the accusative indieates modi to a place, while the dative vray Indiates location ata place. The preponiion vd inthe fenss of "ear (0, against takes the accusative, but takes the dative tnben i wansates as “with, by means of Except when it means “in Front of” with the dative, the prepostion jyir ‘ox’ takes the (8) The Past Parte ‘We have inthis lesson the past partie stems (kala) “alle (acing) named’, and (egie) ‘slun’ These stems take adjectival ‘se eadings and can function as follows (1) With the verb "be'> a past participle stem can oceur in conjunction with the ver nera“be’. The stm then agrees in gender, fae, and number with the subject ofthe verb: thus, for example, ‘nad ernefidr a man i amet ha bot the subject noun and the prcpl for in Ns, the patciple taking the masculine ending (2) Supine: the neuer N sg form ofthe past participle ofa verb ‘occurs in conjunction with a form of the verb fafa "bave™ This function of the neu N 3g form ofthe past participle sell the ‘supine this lesson the stem (vein) occurs with form of haf fd thus takes he eut Nap: "eta haf vei. after having ‘in (©) Word Order Although the busc word order of a declarative sentence can be ssid aways 40. place the verb in second. positon, there are ‘exception to tis rule in the formation of independent classe. (n dependent causes the verb always follows ether subject or ad« ox ICELANDIC verbial) Frequently, in independent clauses, the verb is placed at the head ofthe sentence: “Ge ham lan nape gives that land a name's “Nem han land wd Bsn “He stles land at Ene’s Firh This placing of the vet can oocur in a narrative Sequence, but notin the fst sentenos of acuse or chapter. It is ‘most common when the subject ta single noun or pronoun. AS in the ese of foe choos of word order, the ver puta the bead of the sentence may be paced there Tor empha or gueater prom fazpoe in the narativ, batt may also be plied there for purely lists easons, such asthe wish fo avoid repetvestractres in & longer narrative sequene, of for consdeatcas of rhythm, “The normal word ordee of independent cases may be further inverted by puting the object at the head af the sentence, and consequently producing the order: ‘Object + Verb Subject (+ Advert) sin “Déstr imu pou..° They hada dauglier. Here the reversod order is motivated by considerations of style and balance aswell as of emphasis 2. Vocabalary Marcin tae (20) farm, bomstead Brodie (at-0) ‘ace-ame Broad Fi rege lee), ‘lan as Eva Eire) ermal mame, “Es Esko ard) Baceaase Bae’ Fh! laksa piace name Eric's Stead" yp (ae feonal name Oimgongt Hata (Heater) personal me (and nickname, ‘Dacia Late (Leite reson mie rrr) hs tame “ty ‘Sloane (kone) nepesing person ‘oor fLsson Vt) son Dorin > Personal mime Dorvaldson [Lon VO) tronynis tn of Bore Feninie ab ka) lt (A of du, Lesson Sov Frey (5h) eS dss) jake aha) ‘Graniad (and) aa (ath) YVatasoen (bor) birscsbine (ine) Abc onan nase Ag of marr anna) eta (tiie feimmidier Oe) Bepinn (hep) Te hepa ase A sg inte, ‘ee Lesson IX) bugs (ie) miki (ase A of mit (eu), fn ond) (past parle of win eae rause (ad) i an fas Ns define, se Lewoe IX) set (ek) Sree (3) yea 9.) Prosone “he [mae A pl of omar (nae) So Lesion 31¥) sée Bri D rete so Lenon X0 sit [aut N/A ssc Lesion XI} [IA pl of ham, Ueson XI) bier ‘ut foot N/A pot bor) Drifacut Dap oat Tan bv place-mams, ‘Step Stop! ‘aught etna same my, path ‘seams “Lake's Core’ ‘Sombie, Thor's Head (anjotier oak eat sae ther aly, condemned to outavey Smitiowr ‘babi ers ims ers, hems) Wie est oom) en them, caine By ey at to that anda on ICELANDIC Anil nn in) (mase N/A s, Lesson IX] the ets Si ag past indo ig, a or a ie ‘son XX Gt pl pa do ie, ad {son XX yo (Orda past fbi, Lesson bred xi br ros pe ind of ia, Lesson prepares xt ete edn sind of ef] sve Sata (Leson XIV] fave alla (ait) a em [do re ind of nema ak, sete ‘een fed a pre inf retire, otis ‘geist sar [Seog past ind of eae] mas rb nda past of verde became, was (oe vei opie of vege Gee) shin Ader Prepstone prey sear by seal ad wo [FA a Connon cprat ser ep a has epi ser bing shin ” ste a Tet Mabie nefndr Birks Porvalsson, kalladr i rab Haan 6 vd Breer 4 EiskstgGum hja Vatnshorei, Epa at hata vept Pi Lesson ¥ * yjlf saur ok Hélmgongu-rats ok ara, va hann sehr & Dressing. bat sumar bjr hana skip sitt ok silirlanga Ii | vestr ok finnr njt land ok ibyggt.Gefrhann land pi natn ok Tallar pat Greoland. Nem hana land vi8EirkstjgrO ok ris pola vid Brattahl6.Evikr ati Pjookl, skorang miko, Sone ra var bortenn, efniligr mjok. Dou tu pau, Frey, Kon ‘Norra ok gnmmidga. Annan son ata pa, Lai hupduran ok rong g68an, er mean Kalla Leif inn heppna 4. Deis Convert the following adjective and noun stems into A sg forms Example: a0) (vata pide na 8) Gane} oi @ oH (skp) © amb) (eee) @) Ginmidie) Gow) © dit) (vate) (isp) alls) (©) (ks) (onus) @® any hada) (ees) vines) 1) (oi) (ero) (K) treldos (ki (ane) (3) tea) (0) tw 1B) eam) 1) wen (a) feasd) 8) Ganm) 1) ) eae (eis) (arene)“ Lp 1eBtaNDIC 5. Translations ‘Translate the fllowing sentences into Old Ietandi: (A) Erich homestead at Brod Fith which om) was called Es sua (@) Eric the Red had he) sina man who was med thy By, (C) He mas ootawed ad stervarde be presi ship and sis to {D) He sets new and in Grsland a “B's Fi (6) He esblaies« farmstead, which i caled “Seep Slope with Ties 1) Tao mas an enterpising person, nse had a on, Toes, daughter, Frets and anoter som Lal, with Ei {(@) Tae son Leis pod, vat man (Mea cl him (ha) Le he Lock, LESSON VI 1. Grammar (A) The Accwathe Pal (1) Nominal form (@) Masculine: the A pl of masculine nouns the ill form ofthe stem, including the thematic vowel, i any, while the cae ending is sera. Thus we have N pl vkingar, A pl vkinga, from (viking-®) “viking pl dlr, A pl dal from (dl) “dale, valley’, ee. (©) Feminine: the A'pl of feminine nouns splays the fll stem swith the case ending "and therefore is identical with the N pl form. Thus we have the N/A pl yr “islands from the underlying form (eit), NA pl elt “dstrcs’ from the underlying stem (eve): NIA pl vir “bay” from the underlying form (ik), ee. (©) Neuter: the Ap form of 2 neuter nous is always identical with the N pl form. Tavs (and) has N/A pl nd lands, (ved) fas N/A pl at "poems et. (@) Adjectival form: here all thre genders have diferent end ings To the adjectival stm is added a for A pt masculine, ar for A pl feminine, and zero (with aromiaut) for oeuter A pl. Examples fe: Ham vegr marga dna! ‘He says many enemies; Hann drekkr ‘Bray vigor“ drinks expensive beverages Pir nema fog lend "They settle fae countries (©) Nous with Thematic ‘The phonological history ofthese forms is rather complex. The outcome ofthis history for Old Telandi x such thatthe wstem ‘ategary is realy a mixture of sem types with various cave forme Sowing the influence of sn, =, oF no them. Those cases where ‘uethematc characteris the stem show a-umlaut of a stem vowel 4210 But the Dg and the N pl show the eet of rumlaut (ee Phonological Introduction, 5A), while the genitive sg an pl forms ave no vowel change. Sloms containing the sequence ja show f tnder”eamlaut “conditions instead of the expected Je“ ‘OLD ICELANDIC Furthermore, in some words an historical tess win the sem has since become oi certain ease forms, this giving rite (oan alternation between o and within the paacigm, ‘As examples for wthematic nouns, sich as (alk) “pain’, (Gard) ‘rth’, and (Sona) “son, we list te following Tul para” digms (note tha all wer nouns are masculine in ender) ats) Gabe) (enn) SeN ele) Geetr Soar A ll feo Gar rar ona Dovel” ras mt PIN vellr frie ie A Felln “Gorda sont © vals orto Sona DB vetin —Gordum Sonu ‘Those forms that donot reflect uthematic are alice. "Note that in compounded patronyics the stem (son) docs not show the N sg ending +: Ingfr Aaron, Lift Ehsan, te (©) Word Order (1) An impersonal construction in Old Icelandic can be a subjecless sentence with the word order: Verb (+ Adverb) + Objet ‘A construction of this type is best translated into Eaglsh with 3 passive construction: ‘hal hér nef sua ia (Lit. "Shall bee fame some of them’) corresponds to English “Here some of them Shall be tamed. (For general survey of imperional eontrctons see Lesson XXXIIL) (@) Adjectives indicating degree or direction inthe comparative ‘or superlative function as appostions in Old Teslandic in a manner that essentially coresponds to that of adverbs in English “Landnismas tel Noddod freon haf fad Inland “The book of Setdements considers Naddodir to have four Iceland fs, where both Naddodd and fistan are in the A se since the appesitive adjective always agres in gender, case, and nomber withthe noun it fellows (ee Lesson ID, (G) Asin English, many verbs take complements where the verb LESSON V1 a ofthe complement i inthe infinitive, with or without the infinitive tnarkee atta, Thus, for example, tla “sonsier, assume’ takes a Complement i the ifntive, Dut without ar: “Landnémabi er ‘Naddodd ofa... where the infinitive haf the verbal compe rent of tir (4) A large number of verbs in OI Ielandic form a new semantic unit when associated with an adverbial, soch as tli ‘Count, number», tela upp “enumerate. Although Such verbs a5 tela wp for single semantic and syntactic constituent, they are hot necessarily contiguous in the sentence: “Sia tr [Landhémabik pp marga flirt "Then the Book of Setements numerates many more Since the rule for simple sentences headed ty an adverb is thatthe subject me immediately follow te Bite verb, the subject intervenes in the construction above between ter and wp. 2. Vocabulary Mincatie ‘Auribadris (6e4) Place mame‘oath of Salmon “Trout Rie reson na, Fares Fits" acerame ‘Bore Fu se Bore, stir (ard) Boned iar.) ‘low Briibate (adi) placersme, ‘Broad Stead? dhe (da) fae, wally (so regional ame in * Cerna (rund) esol mame Help lp») enoaal mae Horns (ed) ace-ame, “Crooked Fit Holi: (aug) Deronal mame ram hve) Drange ng) fs hallow als plae-aune) ‘alesamon alo nckasme eal (Kate) penonal mae ‘Shdaimmene (N/A pl of Sle Tandnsadr (aan) Marnie Gat) ular eae, “Ea of Max Gn orm) Nadas (on) penal mame“ on ICELANDIC Range [8 (alla) Rogmal (valu) Stain Ger (Gen) Ali (i) Seong (atmensing Briardrei eh) yaar re) inrnri ib) xdadmabok (bok) enix) Sond tan ofsuand) ors (6 8 rn) eter i) Hefjarsin (inn) hot do) ese (oes) Market a) Sobre (9) Advesnes ‘pita ae i dbp [ette, we pry ei eps Ste (st) sag (ge) mag (ini) sane (um) (a) feat N/A ra (G pL. Leson X} Arie in Gi (fem N ices ‘Crooked River Paint ‘rvonal id akkoame, iceman ‘Main Bay” ‘Sommon ln, alo placename pero e place mn, Edgeil Bay" Foncatn, dome-shaped hil, ‘ho Bice pace-an,Brond Fh Ie? hc,‘ Fath Dist pice nate, Klaas Bay Book of Setements bog ze ein ame in pt sand each (pina name in * lace-tamy, Ball’s River howe, hobo Sekai, He Skt eahen tpl aio place-name ‘aces Christ Heda” ‘Bosom Forest River Fesional ime, "South Headlands ep-ningsd the deminded fist cna, the Tia the LESSON VF Nerale ‘nn i) one Hogar [aca NIA spo fer, our Tesson XXIVI Tyee dae pat ind of Seale sted (Gresip) type ir pl pst ind of yeaa sted (yess) fer ab pat ind of fora (ar) went, journeyed fn nae) apa of ma Tun Gan) et [ed past ind of ger, nade ‘Leon XIV] ti (gin) pine gta (ge)} enone Sum (Sed og pst ind of remake ‘oom faa (l-) ame ‘ale eo Bere sal be named sea (=m) take sete i a) ‘ae, bth ‘al dg pes ind of ka, sal sson XX ‘ei agpreind of ee comers wh) var0 (eg past ind of wrdo beam cere vad rat became the fist ‘i fore ker ere Prepastion ‘a (F6 betes Prpostionl Pre ‘rir innan (+A) in from Compnction Som ssh*” 00 1ceLaxpic 3 Text Landaémabsk te Neddodd, norskan viking estan haf fundit Toland. En IngélieArnarson var fate a nema land ok risa ‘bi, sem dr er ait Nam haan Sadrmes al obo £ Reykjavik Sian ter Landnimabok upp marga fei laadndmsmenn, ok skal hr nein sum pei. Skalla-Grime tam Mircr v8 Borgarfir® ok bj at Borg. AwOr in djipadgs bygg6h Dali fyric onan Brciajarbareyjar ok bj6{ Hamm vid AuriGadrés. Geirmundr Heljrsknn for vest Stand ok nam and; han gerd ar Gest bi, {Ada § Kjransvk,&Almenningum, ok BarSstk. Hels ‘agri nam Eyjafardarsvetr ok bio at Kestes, Marge byget ‘Austoebu. Finn Peira var Hrollaug, sone Rogavaldar Mazajrs Hann nam iad i Homafird ok bj6 at Breidatolsta. Ket ener ‘nam Rangirvelu, ll ond mil yéesir ok Markart, ok bj at Hot, 4. Dats Convert the following adjetve and noun stems into A pl forms, Bram: (tage) hina) fore Mma (a) ale) (vam (Ger) eigas) (© tw) ate) ©) (orem) (vale) © ing) theta) ©) (ep) Gedy) @ (ap) a) (8) Geta © ing) (ans) ©) ry Gokaay (i) and ) Geagi) hall) (gama) bore) (9) Grass) (see) © Gun) ante) ® (ee) thianee) (@ Gir) dni) Gee) Gotu) (5) Gamm) (emir) (tk) Romane LESSON VE st ‘5. Tranlatons ‘Teale the following sentence into Old lela: (A) (Ths) Book of Setementsenuerates many Norwelan men who sed Vs, (@) Ing Arar ook pd and seid «nee farsa. (© (fs) Book of Setement etumerates sme who etd the East Finke {D) One of then was Heol, who wt at ‘Bro Farmstead. (@) Avett taker enough land apd rae many houses tere (Haig the Thin Ook (he) Ie ich Diss and Uived at “Christ HeadandLESSON VII 1. Grammar (A) Genitive Singular (1) Nominal frm: the genitive singulae (Gs) appears a either “or -ar. Masculine stems and all euters add = othe stem, For xample, N's kom, Grse honungs: N's land, G 58 lands, ‘Masculine and watems as wells Teminine a and tem all ake “ar asthe normal G spending. Some examples are: Np dr, Sirdar; Ng ol, Gog wala; N og vei, Om egar:N se heir, G sg heidar; N sp seit, G sp seta, ee Asan exception © this general rule, some masculine Hts (and consonant-stems, see Leson XVII) take genie ~. Among the ‘more common ar, for example, gest) “guest G 98 gest, (a) "dal, valley” © 9p dale, We wil mark such stn forms with: [5 a "Note: the word dir “daughter (a soallid stem noun, se Lesson XXVI) is not subject to this general rl, It has the © 56 form diva. The feminine personal name Bera (Ber), G35 Bers, belongs tothe large class of so-caled weak declesions (se Lessons TK and X). (@) Adjctival forms: thee are two endings for the G sg of adjectives: «forall masculine and neuter fms, and ar for feminine adjectives. Examples ae: dar: mau ‘of a daring maa’, ‘0dr bars fa good chi, for mascsline and neater, ‘Examples for feminine are: gdrarvelgar ofa good beverage’, grammar sieltar “ofa raen dite” (tein Gy gromnar (cet “rar the assimilation ofr to, see Lesson TV, 1B). Whea the ening “rar is added to stem ending in along stressed vowel, the st ris outed. Thus (njj-+-ar) Becomes the G 58 rar ©) Usage (@) The gentv is used to denote aurbution o possesion, ain ‘Hann er nr komangs “He isthe king's enemy Gang sdlar er LESSON vit s skanune& vetrn “The course of the sn ie short in the winter [Egil sr sont Stll-Grins “Egil asthe son of Salla- Grin (©) Some verbs take a genitive objet. This group of verbs is small and not clearly definable by any semantic or syntactic eiteria, “Thus far we have fo [1G] to pet im marrage, gta [+G] 10 mention’, and hefad[+G] to avenge “@) Prepositonal phrases: some preposition always take a peni- tive. Among the most common ari", int’ and mil between (8) Word Order “The verb hafa a8 an auxiliary verb takes the supine (the neuer singular ofthe pat participle) of the main form to form a perfective ‘onstrtion. Typically the parspl follows the Hite verb in the Sentence: "Har aj fngit Boru..." He had got Bera. bat other sequences of ausiiy and mai verb ae posible (6c Lesson xD. 2. Vocabulary Maslin Bilton (Leson Vp patronymic en of By Egil Agi) revonal se erage nai) Psonal ame Keeld-Uison (Lesson VU Prtronymi on of Kol rena iN/A pl of mate (as) en Yagvar agua Peona mame Dore) ponal ame Bea (Ber) ectonal mame BertsKradite [Lesion XXVI] _patronymi“dughte of ‘azn (ase) saga sory Satter ara) pero ame Sunn ons} fee Lesoa IV, psonal ame D} ran (un) sonal ome Newt ter bam) ete Borger (braun) ‘Baceame ‘Lava Fel of Bogi OLD ICELANDIC rip (rp sing taal fa exh nba afoul (xt) plkconame, Harbour Moun Seal ie Places Sa! Ine Prono ‘ined reeive,Leton XI] him, esl, temsten Anil “a fem Ns, Lesion IX) he py the saps Srp [3d 5 pst ind of hepa slew Ge feng engin) pin 0 got in mariage, maried [Gh tenon XX] ‘Gomeots) teu [ed presi gta ge] mentions onething) 1G, bat rd ps ind of, bad eson XIV] ‘eut (ed pastind f Ajea sven (one) teieip1(+G) seve (ed ap pesind of oeio sys cari) staan i ser 251 (hasten sid before Sih dg past ind sigs Gometing) (ah viru (Grd pasind of vera were cee Prepastion ‘pir A tee Prepon! Phrase ‘pi aki-+Gh on acount of for these of 3 Tent ‘Sd Sem 48 sepe nam Skalla-Grimr Mirar alla mili Seals ok Borgarhrauns, suOr tl Hafbarils. Hann var sont Keld-Ulfs ‘Bhllasonar ok Salbjrgur BerDli-KiradStur Skall-Grir haf LESSON Vi s fengit Bru, dotur Vagvars i Fjgr8um, konu godrar ol vennar, Hiann sgid ti Islands yee sar iar mill sin ok Haralds onungs epar fall Pérélis Kyetd-Ulisonar. HefnSi hana drips Dérafs ok drap marga menn Konungs. ra Grims ok Bera viru mora. Gets sagan Poros ok Epis, Porunnar ok Seunnar. 4. Dats ‘Convert the fllowing adjective and noun stems into G sg forms Bample: eu) ih) =r hallo, (&) (ae) imine) @) Gs) Gata) (© (sy duno) (D) Gos) (oerd) (©) (ik) Gouna) (© dingy) honsns=9 (@) tiny dei (2) Gann) (eo) GK) Gia) © Gib) arms (%) Gg) (kh) © Ges) dedja) 0 Gm) Garb) () (83) (Goals) (O) kl) tern) fame 1) (ease) (pe) (Q) ag) mins) (thie) (hin) 9) (go) apa (1) feeamm) (da) (©) Ge)” igneas oul) tha) (Wi) teres) &) Gee) (raha % 2 sk)6 OLD icetanoic ‘5, Translations ‘Translate the following sentences into Old los: (A) ea waste wl f Skala Grim an thea of Vag iate {@) See was a good and bent oman (©) Skall-Grim nat the son of Krell Bao, (D) On account fhe tiling of Thora Koeln he sea ship voleand (@) He avenged Thorlf nile many of the Ling’ men. (0) Stal. Geim sted “Tae Hog’ between Sea let andthe lv eld of Borg south to Harbour Movi, (G) The sgn meions the cle (hr) of Sal-Grim and Bers ‘Thera Es, Thorsm, and Sen. LESSON VIII 1. Grammar (A) Gontive Phat () Form, () Nominal form: the ending forall gender ito. Ax examples, vee have: (mann) "man" G pl manna, (el) “distri” G pl seta, (ey) “land” G plexi, (ver) “sword” G pl sverda, (ky) “dominion G pl rik, et () Adjetval form: the ending forall genders sa, Examples ae: Homer ininr margra manna "He is the enemy of many mea’ {ver er starst ara norrenva borga? "Which i the largest of all rhe Han ii maga nde a 0 (Note that the rin ras assimilated toa preceding n, or doubled, under the same conditions as those described forthe Gag ending var, see Lesson VIL, 1A2) @) Usage (a) Apart from the usage described in Lesson VI fr the genitive singular, the gente pra is also used a apatite, The paitve ens the member(s) of a class in relation to the class a5 & whole ‘An illustration of this usage is the sentence: Kaupmamohgfr er sterst alia borga i Dammerku *Copeahagen is the biggest of all ‘ities in Denmark” (©) Further us of the genitive oocure with prepositions of an adverbial nature which end in -an, These indicate spatial relation ‘sith reference to a point which inlays refereed fo in he genitive, ‘Thus we have, for example, ausan Svipidar “(Wo the) est of ‘Sweden, reson Fereya (othe) west ofthe Faroese ©) The Supine Tn Lesson V we dscused the fact thatthe form ofthe participle ‘ecuring with any form of hafa have is neuter in gender, singulars on IceLaNoIc in number, and is called the supine. In this esson we have an ‘example ofthe supine ofa participle whose stem endsin J: eitad) “Sought tune. When the neuter singular marke is added to a stem ofthis type, we have the Following deseaion: (etd) (eitat-+2) tat) lear (se Lesson, IDI and D3), (©) Moteline -Thematie Nouns Ending ix Vilar In a masculine ‘thematic noun with a longsyllable stem thet nds in either & or the thematic > appear 8 before a following {For « (Compace wth long-lable-agmenied stems ending in & ‘or a disused in Lesson Il, IDI b2.) Thos Ns dry (yk #5 dink’ has N pl ek, but D pl deka, G pl dykkja; N58 bok (Bek) Bene has N pl ekki, D pl hk, Gp Bk ‘The appearing bere isnot an augment, ast doesnot appear asin the A'sg Compare the sg forms of (hers and (Bek), which fare hes and ek, respectively. (This clear distinction between éhematic sms and jaugmented a. stems isnot so easly draw in the ease ofa handful of short Spllable stems which form N pl with --+-r but otherwise behave a8 Javemented stems. Thos mascine bar fam’ has the N pl bir, ‘but Dl baja, G pl bj. The here appears under the conditions that apply to such shortsylable augment stems as (id) ‘middle oF (9) new" (ce Lesson I, IDI a) Such ieegulr stems can be represented as having the underlying stem form (ba), ce) (©) Word Order (1) As mentioned in Lesion IV, the word order of dependent clause paces the verb in second position after he subject or adverb. ‘When the word that introduces the dapendeat clause i «relative ‘pronoun which simultaneously isthe subject f the clause, the ver Immediately follows the relative. Consider, though, a case where the ative pronoun er ‘who, whic, that is followed by a present, orm ofthe ver vera “b's the sequence «er er... which js. that results may be considered undesable for syste reasons. Tis may be avoided by moving anther constitent, an adverbial or modifier, into postion between the two words, Lesson vit * resulting in a sequence such as: “obmgard, er sarster Borgo Dar. Hllmgard, which isthe largest of (he) cities thee. (@) A passive construction in Old Iceland ie formed withthe suslay ver rahe and a past partepe orm ofthe main verb, which agrees jn gender and nomber with the subjct When the beet noun of an active clause, such a Konner vegrmarga men ‘the king slays many men’ is shifed to become the subject noun of corresponding passive: margir mem era vepir af Komang maa ‘men ae aia by the king, then the diect object, which appears in the accusative casein the active sentence, becomes the subject in the nominative case of a passive constriction. However, indrst ‘objects, nthe dative or genitive inactive sentences, also appear in the dative or genitive in corresponding passive constructions, and the participle of the main verb appears ia the supine: margra ‘ukuiga er gett many vikings are mentioned”. (For further discs. ‘ion of pasive conrrutions see Lesion XXXL) {@) The adver of “lo not to be confused with the conjunc: tion of and’ since the former can on oocur after the verb in an independeat clause, or following the eubject when the claus onjined by of ‘and "Vikingar hafa of leat tl annara land? "Vikings have also sought other land’, as distinct from: "ok fafa vikingar of eta tl amara anda"... and vikings bave abo. et 2 Vocabalary Marcie: Homer (ad-+) nce-mams, st Stoagols™ eon Novgorod) aupnads (mane) vrchant Kenvpartr (ge) ‘cose, “Ki Seoophald? ‘Gow Kis) Mitte gta) aca ‘Great Stronghok ‘cow sandal) ering] (ating) Verangans, Noseen who Served in the Inpevil Byantine Gono op 1cELANDIC Pacer eh) Fare Iss Ortoaya 0) Orkoey Ios Storey (ol 0) eb Wands ‘retand asd) Wales, Britain (Gare (ik) Rosie ian Cane) ‘Sheand ands fad (ant) Trend wo) troop, bs Hest) vei Stoied (and) Scouand Sraraba OF) {he Blok Sen Agecaves Taree ie) sian rman Crane) ‘ala siege ee) meaty Soren (nore) ‘Nore notera ent (test) ‘apes Verte ‘yes yeep) stl tie far ar) jure. tt spine of gra (gt))_metones (a eraut thee ae ales of | ean Caste) ay Tei ann oaks os way eta ei) rine fess cy seta medio lag Geng peso of teens gigs] sect [rd oe indo ial npeona ito Gaedipl ser apie er (er een Adverbs ok ste “ ‘at, toward the west Pane ‘ee LESSON vit a ‘stan [+6 cas of San CG) ‘oath ot wean [G} west of Conncion © vic, ha 3 Text Norrtnie mena bygaia Nore, Sib, ok Danmerko. | mergum stu spi af ferBum norrenta Viking margra annarralanda, pilege ok faving. Austan SibjOarliggr CarDariki ok fara tnargir kaupmenn ok vikingar angat, tl Holmgards ok Kenugards, er sczrtareru borg Par | landi. Sian legal sumir pita lei sina padan sudr ol Searahaf,oBa tl MiklagarOs. Br frit margra hraustra vikingn er hafe vert i) Varina bar NNorrerni vikingarhafa ok ett tl annarealanda vestan 8 sunnaa Noregs: tl Islands, Fareyia, Orkney, ok Hialdands, ok fle til Seotlands, Englands, Brelands, Irlands, SuBreya, ok Vallands 4. Deity Convert the following noun and adjective stems into G pl forms. Example Chvase) )6e)hraure pia (@) Gis) Gata (Gea) yk (© Goiiag) Gutta ©) Gee) D4) © Gries) eee) © (uty) @ Gi) 0) Gang) aha () Gk) onan ©) (ib) rene) W& (alles) Gadi) (res) Garon) (00) teak) Gaha on IcELaKDIC Lesson vit o 0) resi) ik) pte himins hess as (0) tgamst) vad) Doge ima hers ane Gas) Galley PUN dar himmar bear svat (Q) tip) thet) A fords ime kena inea, ® (ie) gaan G fds imme hese Save (3) fans) (farbw D fortum imum Rem snem (oon) and) (©) Gers)” Gouna Stems: (aabi) (pte) bak) bag) ) rast) kings) Forms (3) (ka) feed) 2) Gi)” tare) SeN state gute tekkr ar (0) fing) hake) A sab pakke Cabaret ekiar a | Do sabi fest elds S. Trandatons PUN sue genie tekken A sabi esi elds “Translate the following sentences into Old Island: G sade feu Bakken (A) Norte vikings have journeyed (iri) 0 aany lowe and dant ee land eat of Sweden (@) Many vast vikings and merchants journey 19 Novgorod and () Feminine Nowe ie, woh at io Russia. (6) From there they journey to the out tthe Bick Se ad tb, Eafogs Se (eun+ ML demu 7 where (Bare) many have bec iat woop ofthe Vaan s ‘aun {D) Te the south andthe west of Norway a0 Seen the Noreen ae journeyed otto oer nds “South of Norway the Norwegian vikings ai (ea) othe Faroe Peers roan) aan, he Orkney nen the Sblnd Ids, ad Sela Do (ze) ae orm SEN fl ey fra 6, A Survey of Regular Noun Declensios in Lessons I-VITL A Bal) 3G) may (A) Masculine Nouns D fief) G0) gall, PLN gialr eye jar hale Endings: Spr PL themaiowy A flr pr mgiar hale aes) (tense are Go pan gem tale Coe DB Belt Spm efron Stems: (@xb-) Gmina) Geni) amen) (© Newer Nouns Forms ndings: NIA Sg zero PL (eum) SeN gane —hlnian beet . es ca A gi finn” best sur DoF =o on ICELANDIC zassow vm s Steme: (and) (amie) (sk) Co) (©) Fomine Forms Fors dogs N Se Geamin) Fr SeN/A nd amar mr aS > s Jands——samars ness eves oc = = a ae ae PNA ed wma lh Stems: (ten) (Wem) (anal) 51) aah) ro) "ks Sin Beja Bet som 5 fentenSomen Sen Beta ] SEN ek yen somal one Seems: hy) (a9 |e er Forms ee a ea etn” Seon Sami age ake yA MUNA ka weer gmk ar fg Dom Be g |AS MASCULINE FORMS ANA mi @ Oe Se Diem Sm (© Nawer Forms Ending: NA. Spt (eulaw) or te > 3 8 Ee nae ee Stems: (eee) (7) ema) 0) Gems) Cow) Poms (A) Masevine Forms Se N/A —sterkt. —vaent_ —gamalt jt frmgt—rgskt Endings N Sp Br Cts ve mse ames os ee ef FLA sek ven puoal nf eg rok Do g [AS MASCULINE FORMS Siem: (80) (rm) gama) (9) ing) ake) Forms SpN suoke vena gamle fomar_—_ rose Stevan venanfumlan jan fegian roan Stes Vans gumals. ahr fimpr roe Stekim —venum fomium aja epam aku suehie vane gamit feng oair enka vena gamle aja feces ese. Seka vena gumalla aja fap roe Sterim Yenum gomium ajjum ffsphim rum vorz varLESSON IX 1. Grammar (A) Weak Noun Declensons () Weak nouns v, strong nouns: ll nouns in Old Icelandic are clasied as ether “strong” or ‘weak’ dependitg on the form ofthe stem. Those nouns entered in the glosary as having an underlying Stem ending inthe vowel ora, such a8 mascline (ban) “ath, bane’ (bt) “fight feminine (Kona) “woman, wif’ (ges) "ueasue' of neuter (aug) ‘eye, are weak 30un6 and take case nding diferent from tho of the so-aled strong nouns. Almost fll the nouns in Lesions IX are strong nouns, and the great Imajoniyof the maseulines and feminines among the strong nouns ae characterized by 2 thematic vows, such as (kiag-), eig-), (vet, (alu), et, Is important to dsticgush between the N Sg of a weak noun ending in @ oF i which is represented in parentheses as the basic nderying sem form, ad the thematic -o- ‘ori that characteris a stong noun stm, (2) Case endings of weak nouns—singu (@) Masculine: in the masculine gender he weak nouns are characterized by 2 N sg (and undedying ste) form ending i while the other cases, A, G, and D, have a. Thus for (ban) "bane we have 1 ban, A/G/D bona () Feminine: there are two types of weak 20un inthe Feminine singular. The more common of thee is chuacteid by a N a {and stem) ending ina, while te oter cases, AG, and D, have “Ts for (gs) “sags ae” we have IN sg sag, AIGD sou “The second feminine type has a stem ending i, and is ienticl in all case forms. Thus for (het) ‘valour’ we have’ NINIGID Mey. LESSON 1x o “This second class of weak feminines consists of abstract nouns (compare hres valour with the adjective Arast "alan which rarely occu in the plural (6) Neuer: the neuter gender has a weak noun ‘ype charac: terized by a final a. All ass show identical forms in the single, ‘Thus for (aug) aye we have: NIAIGID se aug (©) Phe Define Anite The definite article in Old Teac has the stm Gio shown by the table below, the deinite atl is declined ike a adjective (ce Lesion VIM, 7) in cane, gender, and number: Masculine Feminine evter SEN seske Sian aerk dn teckt = it ‘A serkan ina Seka Sina ert ft Gers for eke iar ers ins D sebum Sint Sek in ck | Hw PUN stake init sear: inar—tetk in A Seka ing Sekar nts de G werk: ine D Note that the of the cas ending is assimilated, whorever possible, to preceding m (sce Leon IV, 1B) In the neice sg N/A Gite) It Note also that the desvation ofthe masculine A si an) inm involves the loss of the unstressed vows (©) The Postponed Article ‘The definite article is normaly suffzed to the-n0un, When the ‘oun ends in @ vowel, the inital of the are i dropped, asin ‘masculine A'sp (hana+inn)-»banann the ban, death” When bisillabic form ofthe article with tw short syllables (ue. ir, nar, ‘uam) issued to poy or biylabic word form, the inital fof the article is ost: (tkingar-+ii) > vkingari (dil + ina) <> delrar et. Moreover the D pending is assimilated to the D pl form ofthe article and Gum tau) mum, an (vkingutn ‘+inum) ~ vikingumam, (dllum-+ ina) + deka,« ox iceLaNic Otherwise the proces of suing th etl is staightforwan: vikiner—ikigrinn; barsbarnsin veigar—elgarimar; bom— Dorn; vkinga—vikinganna;velga—telganna, (D) The Proposed Arle When the noun it modied by an adjective, the definite article frequently precedes both the adjective and te noun: inn hrawst Yikingr "the valiant viking lls ung barn tothe young chil Ina fegru Rrenna ‘of the Beavtfel women’ The aft can, of cours, aso be suixed here: nga Konan, the young wom’. © Weak Actives ‘Asc be sen in D, above, the frm of the wdjctve modifying a dshnite noun difere from the adjective moving an indefiite ‘oun. The dente forms of th adjective belong tothe socalled “weak” delension of adjectival tems, a thee endings are identical vith hose of the weak nouns under A2 (hes forms) above. Thos the weak adjectival endings are Masclne Femiie Deter NeiAGD 2 Ne AGDa NAGS SSome examples are: sterkrvikingr ‘a strong viking’ fo sterkt vikingr ‘the song vikings opr Rona “a beautful woman’ in fgra Iona beatiful woman’; sharp sverd "a sharp sword, skarpa sverd “he sbarp sword; brat sings “a valiant viking’ Ins rau vikings “he valiant viking’ vernar kona ‘a handsome ‘wom nar vanu Kona “the handsome woman's: skorpu stra "ith) a sharp sworn skarpa ser “(wih the sharp sword, "Note: The words all “all, amare ‘ther’ if ‘el’, and sur “some, which thus far have Been clasifed as eects, occur only in the strong forms. They are more propery calyed as indefinite pronouns (se Lesson XXIV). (8) Word Order (1) When transitive verb takes bth a diet object (accusative) ‘and an indirect object (dative), the relative order of the object noun-phrass is governed by various criteria. A dative normally precedes an accusative objet, but the A maybe shifted in front of the D in order to emphasize i, or because itis the simpler and shorter constituent and wil thus not be oo far removed frm the ‘eanstive ver bya long noun phrase in the dative. Thus we have: Harm gefekonurg [D dra sjof(Al “He gives the king a precious Bit but Fost br iegongu [A] Nj of Berra ok kama ok bern [D] Flos offers permission to go out to Njl and Berethore and women and children” {@) The verb verda become is often wed in impersonal con- structions, where its best transla a ‘come about, take place Impersonal constructions wit verde ae esentily parallel to other impersonal constructions and governed by the sane cule of word fonder: “Verdr frat bardagi "First bate takes place.” i Similar in structure to "Skalhér nef. “Here sall be named” (Lesson VD. (See Lesson XXXII for an analysis of Impersonal Constructions) {@) Incertain instances the definite articles postponed when the ‘oun is modified by an adjective. Thus we can have svedennn ni “the young boy? aswell as nn ung svian, seins nga, aswel 35 ins inga sein, ee. Ip such constroctions the adjective is of foment les significance in the noun-phrase than when it re cede the noun, 2 Vocabaary Nome tant (bn) ath bane ‘tarda bardag) wae Beebo (oat) Pac me, ‘Berthors Keo? Brenna (Nhe) Perna nine, ‘Bart Na ‘iremabarsag) nat (6a) eat tid ie Flos (Fas) esonl nase eis Fos Flo and bi men, toe with oe soe 9 sight ‘abu In igh, by Noo0 on IcELAxDIC Gaui (rant) (Gee (Ge) Guna (Gunnar) emamate (man) Kin ka) sai (00) {hain ska mgnnam sta lat) Sharpedion ei enn (in) Solmunde (meme) Doro (bob) Fein rf ( Beeb Gore) (DITA rf a eran ferarey Hele ele) eat rep) hia Oe) sas (ee) late men) ‘(a opt ope) Aavetnes vende (vend) pace of ane (edn [4D] ng (one) "ie Brd Arex, son X “Om feat NA i) ea (er) ita (83) (+A trend [ep past ind of brema (ama) personal none Roca ne Peroni sine Eom lot Take a grat os of men all mia ome esol name penal name eon! mane hike ik (ached) sonal ane oor, opeabe jours Persona ne te ‘l peiion to go ot fr, pte having Gomeone) fora wie sel, era, hems any ffl, umdzgo Gometing) ured ans). LESSON Bx 1” je [Spe indo Stars emg) (sone) (iid) [HDICAT fa Lemon XXI[Al = js Leon XXI) fo, fe [son X1¥) make os oe) ‘oom Kk De pret ind of Komask St, eas ‘dom som undone sets aay, escapes log oe) are ener pre of stands, sande teson 8X). taka ak) take ‘cbr Beda pet ind of vera becomes happens, comes aout ‘oer ves ar) od veunc=vernk Adverbs ‘ont fist a rs tens fora ong tie Be en Prepostions “sat [+] toga with aD) fret +D) saa (+6) ‘nan skamms Wiha shore wie Prepotonl Pres ‘ei ofa +A) stove inn +a) inte 3 Text 1 Brennu-Njils sogu segir fri for Flosa érdarsonar, Gran GGunsarssonar, ok ansara at Brapbrshvli, er heir bread in Skarphebin, Grim, ok Helga, sonu Njals ok Berabiru, ok Kira Solmundarion, er kvandr var Helga Nibldottar. VerOr frst bucdagi ml pera, en beimamenn vera sk vel ok fi beir Flos2 ou IcéLaNDIC rikinn sad & mann. Taks bei i eld ok gra bi rir durum, (ok bea Beir sidan arfasitu, sem send fr cam sin, nmi optit ‘ok lee eli. Ian skaroms taka skilinn ok gl bisa at Log, en Flos. BjOr stggngu Nia, konom, ok beraum. En. Niall’ ok Berabéra kjésa at ganga til ily samt stelninum unga Bord Krasyi, ok verbe pat daubi beira, Njlsynir verosk fngi af ‘ikl bry, em Dida alr bang, en Kart Kamsk undan & Nota, 4. Dats ‘Convert the following adjective and noun stems into N sg. and A se forms, both indeite and definite, Example (ung) (hoon) fons, ana Kom ange Ko, ns wg (A) (ik) (Base (® tae) (ay (©) tir) grime) enn) {) fans) (any (© (goo) (Gane) (tg) (ardas) {) Gin) Gwin (0 (Gren) a (maseuinn) © amb) (ge) (@) Girt)” aa) (0) fouls) Gest) (eine) (1) (goo) Giana hee (oer) S. Tranatons ‘Translate the fllowing Sentences nto Old Ietandic (4) Fos Thorson, Gani Gunnar, and others (ab) ie ie) to Behar Kool (8) Tere Nj sons defend themes wel, and Flos aod ht mes take (8) peat ou af en. (© Inthe house of Na were Skarpbedin, Grin apd Hep tons of Na a Behera, loptet wits Kat Sglmunduscn, who Was maid 10 Helga Nas daughter: (©) Thos ith Flos make «fee tefore the deoropening and eaty 2 used rik to the lata ny ret LESSON DX 3 (© Alte houses ben tak a) bz within a shor tine, nd Fos ‘fers Nl (he) children and) rome permon to go out (F) But Ns and Bergtoratopetir with the young boy Tha Kass son choot tg 0 bed i he Roe and that bac ht death {(G) Those th Flos il all N's sows, but Kar eas ih.LESSON X 1. Grammar (A) Plurals of Weak Nouns (1) Form: to the stems of weak nouns at added the following plural endings PL Masculine Feminine Never & ‘ne ‘Thus we have such forms as mase N pl tappar ‘heroes’ fom hap, see se Com fen ag), Mor hear fom neuter dijarta) (©) Historically the weak nouns are descbed 48 the ‘nstems, but the mthat was characters ofthese nour stems (as Cematic) inthe earliest Germanic has disappeared vitually everywhere in id Teelandic and remains nly inthe G pl ending. Even hee i it ot alvays present. The appearsin almost al feminine and neuter G pl forms, but almost nove n masculines. Thus we have Teminine (sags) G pi sagn, (isa) “verse, stanza’ G pling nevter (jr) G pl arta, ey.) 'earG pl eyrma, bu naling (sk) hall Pl kilo, (kappi) G pl kappa, et. The Gl of (Kona) is Kenna ‘A number of feminine Weak noun-sems have J preceding he final vowel case-marker: hei ‘hero, kirkja ‘euch, bylgja wave, billow, ise housewife. In those stems that end in a velar, ‘korg the is fst before the G pl nz ending: Kk, bylgna, et But thos stems that do not have korg tak the G pl ending and ‘eta tej Thus (hel) has the G pl hej. sega) has the G pl hisrevja, ete. On the other hand, the stemsnal of masculine ‘weak nouns appears as when is preceded by kor ¢and followed by or u; thus (Vasingl) "Varangiaa” has the ap Yeringir D pl ering, te, (Skt) savage’ bas the N pl Skrlingar, G pl ‘Skralingja, et. (compare his with Lesson II, 1D1 bl). LESSON x 1s (In some of the oldest attestations of Nore erature, especially poetry, a more arctic form soften preserved ith min ter case forms besides those of G pl. Thus (gum) "man" (poet) Sometimes has the N pl gurmer, G pl sim, et, wheras in Younger texs we find N pl guar, G pl gma (@) As mentioned in Lesson IX, the feminine weak nouns ofthe type represented by Qhreysti) valour, ete, which are usually burst in meaning, have no plural forms, Nouns with concrete ‘weaning form plurals ike mascaline fois: gersini—ersmar (8) Phas of Weak Adetnes (1) Form: unlike the singular case endings of weak adjectives, which ae the same asthe singular case endings of weak nouns (ee [esson IX, TA and E), the plual endings of weak adjectives difer ‘in three out of four eases from those of weak nouns: PL Mascuioe Feminine Newer NAG e D a ‘Thus we have for example, nr rast kappa, nar gr koma in time bor, na raust king, mun fegram Konum, ee. (©) When the adjective modifies «noun accompaniod by the deine article the weak form of the adjective is obligatory. The ‘weak form is thus definite i meaning. When the adjective modifies {personal name. funetions as an epithet, the role ofthe atl is ‘Supplementary. Thus Eiri rab means “ri the Red” despite the ibsence ofan article. Similarly, we ean have both Helga fara and Helga in fgra “Helen the Fai, Lr happni and Leif ion spot ‘Leif the Lacks’, es (G) In Engin the sperative ofthe adjective mosiying a noun isalways dent, ie always accompanied by ‘the’. In OM lesiandic the superlative can appear in both the indefinite (strong) and eine (veak) forms. The definite form of the superiative sawp ed {(@) when dhe ajctve is mie by a quantifier (or numeral or demonstrative pronoun, since these categories are inherently definite in meaning: “Margar fraps heir Inlendingasagna ere bardagamenn “Many of the most famous herees of the Tslandic Sagas are warriors”16 OLD ICELANDIC () when the adjective indicates the highest degre, but without reference to the group of comparison of atibution in a genitive onstruction: Freyr er inn dgetastt af den ‘Frey is the most ‘excellent of (=ffom among) the gods” ‘When, on the other hand, the superiative adjective occur na possesveconsruction where the group of rerence or comparison '5 defined or retried i occurs inthe indefinite form el orkit ‘margar kod, fragst eta er Hofudlaun’ "Egil composed ‘many poems. the most famous of them is Hofadlo’, or Freyr ‘er dgetasr asa Prey is the most exelent ofthe) gods” (Compare this with other possessive constructions, whi are also indeiite, se Lesion Il, 1D2) (©) Word Onder ‘When two statements are conjoined and be first is affirmative we the hers negative, the negating wore may be moved up to the head of the second clause for stylistic contrast and emphatic effet occupying the position normaly taken by the subject or an faderb. This for example: “Tam var mikh ofstopamadr en engi ar ham gefumair "He was aman of great vehemence, but he Was fot a man of good fortune’, where the indefinite pronoun engi actually modifies the noun gefimar ofthe predicate 2 Vocsbatary Nos Masuli ‘andr (mand) eronal rane retiree) onal ae Gunning dase) enon me Hmondr none evona ae ‘ibare ens) Hac, ‘Siop' En oe een) ronal ae ‘nendigr Onda) Kista pl cape). tamion and ten of Lexida, “Salon River senior) scenes, rope ‘vie (Ontra) enon ane Skrling (Skreig®) rage, bae= Aeris tno kino LESSON x ” sar (sar) oud, haughty woman ila.) agent, fod ‘ipa de) ‘ype of hee poe ep ego) easy {Gates ua) esol mae ‘Gaonhe th) ‘eon mame ext gale) ood Forte Halle (gerd) esol mame ti (ei) he Hodis usa) ‘me of «poem, "Head Ranson vena fiegslar, Gp of ona women ‘oon ‘ita die) oem, bali lau (vs) Sing vee bir Lesion XXVI) moter Ormstunga (ange) Sckname, ‘Serpents Tongue rasa eras) ate slo) 5 8 60) ood Vinend dane) Vian, North America Acs fragt (rast) ouerative of mos famous rst (eee), neste) foprinive of genet ‘ntl as), Lesson xvii ‘ted sp pas indo te, ‘esos XXII] bard ome gps nd of Koma ‘tomy! toned ont Be past ind of sie ‘rklnka) ‘nar ada ® Prepastion wO(-+8l ngage 100k patina baste appears in, bears upon comport hewbere Jet nevetes sist3 Text ‘Margar frags hetjur Islendingsugna ere Araustr kappar ok burdagamenn. Mest Pera var Gretir in sterki Asmundarion, Hann var bedi skld go ok mikil oftoparadr en eng var ann gefumads. Synir Salla-Grims, Dérole ok Egil, virs ok hetjar mklar ok étto margurorrsturi England of annarsstaGar, ea BS viru delur Egil vid Birk Konung bi6doxi ok Gummi, kono ‘nas, fegsar. Ell var mikit kil, ori itu, dripur, ok margar Tausavsu, ok er fregst ira HeFuSlausn. Mirra tragrakveana ‘ok gett | Islendingasogum, ok viru sumar pera svaerar miki Nallgetc kona Gunnars Himundarsonar 4 Hidarenda ok mir GGrana ok Hogna, eda Freydis Firksdtir ins rau, eft | bardaga v8 Skrelingja& Viland. Marga honur vieu ok fregjat Sri sakirfegnbar: Helga in fapra, ex Komr vio Gunnlaugs sau ‘Ormstungu, ok Gudrim Osvitsdocie 1 Laydels sogu ext peira Sepa. 4. Deity (A) Convert the following adjective and novn stems into N pl and 1D pl forms, both indefinite and dente. Example (ne) app) gi appar, ng pp, ange ‘par Bn pn es apn, () (mat) Gripay ©) Giegh) (Geile) (3) teak) toons) (@) tage) ete) (5) (hrs) that) (© Greg) (vary © (aint) ete) @ ing) Convert the following stems into A pl and G pl forms, both Jndfite and definite. Example: (lang) (Dard) tong arcane, nga badges ‘adage oe ado, apo, ee Sargon ©) 5) Gen @ tuk) as ©) Gi) Ghali @ Gang) (ung) (9 ae) own) (© () Gaee) () Groat) one) (©) (Gop) hj) sue bart ‘5. Trandatoas ‘Translate the following sentences into Old Ielandic (a) Some ofthe valiant vikings ato Vind (@) They (fo) with Fred the daughter of Ei the Red engage in atte against he fete (Amero ies, (C) Toe sons of Sall-Crin were peat bors ad vant champions (©) Eel enpnget in fod nt es) wth King En Blood Ane a hin we Gunn (@) Thowalf and Eyl togeber with other (dram) valiant champions rank fara) many long joo to England where (Bar som hy nse in ep great bates. () Ens 2 erat sald who (om) composed sale vere, ballads, and tea pomsLESSON XI 1. Grammar (A) Bndings ofthe Verb: Sogular Present Indatve ‘The verbal stem takes various endings. The finite forms of the vyetb are derived by adding an ending to te verbal sem which indicates the person and number of the verbal subject” For sample, the verbal stem (gly) si” adds the person and rurmber ending to indicate thatthe subjects in the third person singular Gd 5g) in the sentence Hann sill Néregs Heal Norway.” So far we have encountered onl forms with a thd person subject, ether singular or plural, and a vane of iferent ‘Yerba stems "Hawn Ten kip sn’; "Hann fv nt land; Han rom land vid Eviksfjon; ot “Morg skill kom pars Alir Grea"; Margarvattir bia | ibyggbun, et, where the 3d 58 ending ir andthe 3d pl ending =a The vr ‘be’ irregular haere set ru ‘hey ate) ‘The verbal stem takes a personal ending for cach of the thre pesos and two numbers in both present and pest forms. The following are the endings for present singular indicative forms of regular verbs (both ‘strong’ and “weak” sen, see Lessons XI, XV), and the corespending forms of theirs vet (ver) "be" ding stem Se thugse) (ort) Gighip) GL) en) vm” “took” “eu eet RS Ist sero get Horgan Zndisr—ipe—orse—ret Sidr apse one Br pero) Apart from the salle ‘ep and ‘eel’ verb there are a number of seemingly iregular verb the sald pretest rst oe i nd a eh ad Feson gular ending“ (or i aera san ending in owe) and the fist and third perion shear ending’ zo, {Common among thee are the modal verb wl ‘alls nay ‘can and thers. Consequently we have the Yor ek mur LESSON XI " mst, ham mun for Iwi, “you il “he wil, ok skal, i kat Tow sat Torsha’ et, ok ma, id mat, hann ma, for T may’ Personal Pronouns: Singular (0) In Lesson T we encountered the masculine and feminine forms ofthe third person singular pronoun: haw be and hon ‘she Other than these there are the neuter hid singular at‘, the fst person singular of "T, and the second person singular i “you (thos). All hese personal pronouns are desined forthe Four cases fand all are highly irregular. The fllowing are the forms of the Singular pronouns: It an aa masculine feminine newer Nock pi ham bat A bik pk Bann be Gin pin aos emar D mir pi homum hema Bi (2) For all genders, both singular and plural, the reflexive third person pronoun ‘him, her, ise, themselves’ has forms parallel to the first und Second person singular pronouns Ak te Some examples are: Hann ver sik med serdl "He defends hse swith a sword's Hawn reir sr Blood “He builds (for) himself a Farmstead’: Haw sgt fel Nore frie sakir ilar ml in ok onan He sails from Norway because of enmity between himself and the king’ The same forms appear when the subject is inthe third person plural, sin pir veya sk vel They defend themselves well ee, (G) Very often the nominative singular of the second person appears asa sux (encic) onthe modal verbs (Se A, above) and tera "be. When fi is attached tthe verb it rend to -C) Instead of skal i we ean have skal; mantic mats mt ‘matt; er ert, et. A sma encitc use of ek results in mun, ‘skal, mak, oF emt, et, for mune, ee, bat this isnot frequently sed im prose literature, although it is quite usual in. poetic language2 ou iceLanpic (©) Possesne Pronouns (1 The genitive singular ofthe thi person pronoun functions also tsa possessive form, Some examples are SRP han e got ok nts Son hennar er angr; Bk sigh skipi hans. These third. person possessves are not declined By case and number (2) On the other hand, the genitive singular of the fret and second person pronouns forms the sem of the fst and second petion postesive pronouns, respectively. Th same is also true of the gene ofthe third person reflexive possessive pronoun. These three stems are declined in gender, css, and number like strong (indefinite) adjective stems (see Lesion VI). Skip mit "my sip 1s parallel to skip ow, dtc in "your daughter i detnes ike Kona va, ec. Ths we have the following fers of the posesive Ist person pronoun, with the 2ad person stem (in-) and the refleive Se parson stem (sn) declined in parle! manne Stem: (ae) masculine feminine meter $e mnt mnt 5 itm nel hh Stee 5 sin, (Note that the stem vowel is shortened before double consonant, imo tt) “The posesive pronoun (si) refers to the subject of the clase, denoting “his own, her own, their own’, ec. Note, then, the Aierece in meaning beeen the lauses: hav sigh kip sine sais his (wn) ship’ and han igh kp hans bess isthe ater person’) ship. (8) Although possesion is most frequemy indicated by the use ofthe genial forms and the derived possesves described above, tertin forms of so-called “inalienable posession”, such at referring to parts of the body, are indicated by wing the dative of the personal pronoun. The phrse i anda Pir fr your hands, for You sa onstrction of thi kind. LESSON XI 8 (©) Word Order: The Auxiliary Verbs (1) The Principal Auxiliary Verbs: the commonest auxiliary verb in Old Teslndic are vera "be, which forms the pasive voice mith the past parteple ofthe main verb; haa ‘have, hich forms the perfect with the supine of the main verb; and the modal, or ‘preteite-presen’ verbs (Lesson XXID, such a8 mune wl sku ‘Shall’, via want to, and others, which tke the infin ofthe nai verb. Furthermore, several other verb function as auxiliaries in that they can take complements withthe infinitive form. Among. the most common of these are, for example, lira ‘make, cause, Tedaak say of onesel" Hat Ltr sila kip sina “He bas hs ship sled, Haw kre wa fra "He sys that he wants to go ete. A handful of such arias take complements where he intitive of the main verb is accompanied by the marker at "0" atla at fora "intend tog, rd at fara "be compelled to go, et (@) The Relative Onder of Autry and Main Verb (@) Normally the auxiliary verb precedes the main verb Sometimes they are contiguous inthe sentence: eg “Hoskulh hr akit binordHoskald has Brought up 4 proposals “Pi nt gipta mit ombétirsyni "You want 10 marty. me to a bondwoman’s soa” More frequently, though, one oF more con- stteente ofthe sentence stand between the ausiary and the main verb () If an adverb occupies the fist positon in the sentence, the subject must immediatly follow the finite verb (ie. the tuna): “Lit el ek Iugjes! have ile considered (@) When the object isa pronoun or a single noun, it usally stands between the auiary and main verb: “Ll ef ok at Ingfes "I have litle considered i"... ok yf ok ri fet. *...and Lave promise it...° (Leon XI. An adverb of negation stands betneea the auxliary and the ‘main verb, exept in thow cass where itis emphatic and ‘ozupies fist position ia the clase: "ok wl eit life. To not want to live. (Lesson Xil) (4 Other adverbs oF prepsional phrases usually stand be tween ausiary and main verb, especially which specially narrow or modi the meani °cy on 1céLaNbIc verb, a8 inthe cases of aa expect, assume’; Reda upp announce’, te: "Maia sv ti ala, at ok mun framarla 6 horfa.. "You may s0 assume, that T shall Took in 8 prominent place (6) When al the conditions (1-4) apply, the distance between the ssbary and main verb can be consdembl, and ar result ‘he main verb frequently cecupies the Ana posion in the sentence (wile the auiary, the Brite verb form occupis second potion a in: “Pessarar Kom wack ert hand ‘1 bid.’ where tla the auxiliary and bidje the main ‘er; o: “Bn i yr mér ua samme, Wih kr ‘he auxiliary end samn the main verb. (©) Invered order: when the main verb s modified by two allaries such a8 modal+-hafe, kveda+ modi, ete, the relative ‘order of the second auxiliary and the main web i inverted af & rule: “bi man hepsot hafa.."*You will hae thought; “Ell Aevad sie vera sk." "Egi said () should bso. This role is rot without exceptions and both autres may precede the main ver, especially as a slistic variant, when "wo sch sequences fellow ina nartative: ai mane eta eg for haf upp kd en munt hagas hafa.-"*¥ea wil to Sooner have xanounced this than you wil have thought 2 Vocabulary Marule: ‘harbamade (a) dandy fats (Leson XVI ‘ater fi Leson VD a} oy finde (a) sectng Hoar eka) Poet! aane hoe, mata poral eine tendo, incre night, poner Fo Tor you Friend +6) on beta of omen) LESSON x1 ss sangS (eed +) Kinship by mariage Dore eta) ‘noma name Pine ne Adecines alte (bx) fo: Gof) at [net N/A sf ull ‘ak ster (i) ‘Sec (Lesion XXIV] Treg ade cane os fLeson XI {em Nag cores 0, Lesion xxv) pitawotad) FIA pf Lesson XXV] Fesscr fem Nog of ea, Ton XV] fess mise N a, Lesson XX¥] ta facut N/A Sg cotesp to ‘fe are “efnut N/A, Lesson IX] 4 ede pres ind of eg {geeups) Lesion XX esi reine of Ba (85), +c) id 8) +6) Buch mariage fos ack im Gemethns) ‘aking ae talk ater ‘onsdrton,coune sssembly ery best obi wt one (oa gro) ows of he ot famous en that (one) that one) them, ths ons) uss one) this one) sone) as, posses shed for Gometine) sak for6 OL 1ceLaxpic ir ed rein of, ‘son XXt) ‘ede gate 0 fala ‘emu mum Fe tre ek pat of oes, eso XX) pa (gt) (A) sts (et) [26) et (ene i It resin fbf, Leon son XIV] et (ed resin fA, esa XIV] Ie [dg pres in of et, ‘Veon Xi eye (supine of ere eye) toes (hr) & gl pine of haga ‘acl gat (spine of huge (ops) ou id pat ind of ft ‘Geet Tek [i gprs ind of ask ait me (at ag g pes ind ‘of maz (reps), Lasoa xxl san [ed pres ind of mine \eeeepres Lemon XX) smoot dg esi mama ‘oreo mela a) el (Sg past nd of male (wit i ad bj of rhe (red) 8 Bad sab Hof wera, Leon xO) sia ih) ‘out une of bio kj) ‘yi pat inte of ak, ‘eson XX es, det ‘ied, uted appropriate that st Appropriate anerer rich in mariage) (acon) Bs comeing Bein marge five ‘enamel rook coined fed in mid ‘ovat seems (o someone) you may wi al) st (st say tk woul be Sit be octet (ere should LESSON x1 " sara (ar) 194 Beda pst indo ak (ak) (=D ‘ke dp pst ind of take (ake) pp eB pine of kde (ved) sna (ann) ak pup of ej (uk) ‘i nts pre ind of (prep), Lesson XX ‘ek [rdw pe ind ej (oak) lst pres ind of wa (prep), son XXII) id, ed resin fi ‘ssn XI} () si {Lesion XX) ‘er Dd ag ub ver, Lesion XXX) nin a8 Hf wane (geevpe), Lesson XX] [ep i [Si gab) veda (oe) bir Ping at mapdur, ‘bb rir nds pres indo ki tesson XIV) nua (etn) ia fete) Adverts ftmala se a {oak sponded to Something) ino, ref trad ap sed wings up cae swan) tat) were, woul be loved, would ove romeons) Would tecome, woud asrue since in power woul then scr 10 You tous nap by mariage wth on nena Set omnes, among prominent beretaore sere own* 1p reeLanoie set ichaly fm ‘opeher vitae roe dels po at aes vs deve Beyond enna ‘eter hw heer, fetes Prepastions ‘real for um (+A eat rs tat fen sit pow ooeh, own it bat ‘ream 3. Texte ‘The following two selections from the Landes Saga recount the ‘marrage arrangements between Oli, the legitimate son of HoskuldrDala-Kolison andthe Irish save, MeKorka wo was the ‘daughter of King Mirkjarian, and Porgen, tte daughter of Eel ‘Skalla-Grimsson. A proposal of marrige was tally an asrancey ‘ment berneen two families, and a relative, mot eften a father or brother, would act as the epresentatve for cac a the principale Considerations of wealth and bith were of gatet inportncs, but loveless matches were are, snc te women usually Bed foal sy inthe matter: (A) Laxdela Sapo (Chapter 22): Kvdnfang lif: Hoskuldssonar Ott vara: “Lit he ek pat hugs rt. eit ok ei, hae Kona sit, er mér sé mikit happ iat goa, Matta sv til, at ck ‘mun framtla& horfa um kvanfagi, Veit ek ck pat sora, at Bu ‘unt Pett cig fy afa upp kveit en mont gat haf her Dota skal nie koma.” Hosur mal "Rét gr pu, Madr her Egil. Hann er Skala-Grimston. Hann bir at Borg { Borge, Egil str uur, pier Dorgerdr bet, Bessaras hon els ck Der LESSON x1 » A handa at bida, bi at ess Kost er albert i glum orgarins, fk po at vidara var, Er bat ok venn, at fit yt0i bi fing a rmeedum wid ba Miramenn” (B) Laxdela Saga (Chapter 23): Bil ok Porgrdr Hoskuldr vekr nd bonorbit fie hon Otis ok bide Porgear. Hon varok par ingiu. Egil Sk pessumdli vel. Hoskulee malt ‘Bat vi ek, Egil at reir feta 8 turin Ell kvad 9h vere skyida, Egil otk ni tl Fundarw8 Porgeri ok toku pa tal ‘aman, Di mali Epil: Madr ble Olaf ok er Hoskuldson,ok er ‘han fregstrmabr einahverr. Heskuldr, abi hans, bef vat ‘binorDfyrir hond Olas ok bedit hin, Hell ck ui skott mjok ti binna rade, Vi ek vita svor in, en sv lick ss, sem shkum ‘milum sé vel fea var, pv at feta gator ergot Porgerdt Svarar: ‘bat bef ek pik eset mela, at ib ynnir mer mest bana Pinna. En ni bykkir mér pi pat isanna, ef pi wil pea mk ambittarsyn, pote hann sé venn ok mill iburdarmade™ 4. Drs Construct complete sentences with the appropriate forms of the variable as indleated. Give personal, poses, of reflexive forms and the persoa/number endings of verbs: (A) Personal pronoun (N sg)-+ (ih) + obi posse, Example: Ish) aie Se a (0 2nd ih kis (2) Sed fons (aghi)takpr std (9) ded (hp sip 5 es (8 ded mae 6) esi ag em iit has (©) Personal pronoun (N s)+form of vera barn + possessive 1) tt (er) arm ed gfe (2) 3rd mates er bun (3) 2ad ero ate (6) 3rd neuter (er) barn ed mse (6) Seem er) tbo*” on ICELANDIC LESSON xt ot (©) Personal pronoun (N se)-+(g8)+ personal pronoun (D se) (©) Hosa intends oak or Tore or OO hada. “al posse (©) Alte sembly Hos milo lta be told yl dus | hi ih his dager } (©) I+ get) mae el 6 (F) To El ths cc noble macho marriage i &) Snip cfd fem {G) Thorp newer that be sets tor (nto herb ems) to fe [ (3 Sed Sem + (t+ 20d mate ‘et (Jo that he oes an) a te mea len, 4 (0 ed a9 (gee emg nd og (@) Torgeddoveit want to pve ten ia marriage i (8) Uae) +S fm eda fo sendnomans on een hough ese) bande an dandy i (D) Grinr+-possesive+ (veg) “slay"+ personal pronoun (A. sg) “tmed vpn posses ; i (0) Goin ¢ ase + 008) 2+ me vp i 12) Ov saps ep) fms md itp # (2) Gri 3d fom eg) Si gas ed pr 9 mse (Onn 2nd 90) tt med vp 9 fn id (8) Fadirs poss pron-(hefndj}) “avenge’s personal pronoun (Ga). (1) Far ed gfe (hep) + fo i (2) Pads Sed ng muse vee (@) Fai+ 2nd 4+ t)+ 2 (airs st spy) 3 ase () Personal pronoun (N s)+(mun.)+geta mention age 2)+ possessive (1) s+ (oun) get sgpe 208 (@) Se em mun) geo pg He 8 mass (204-0) get gp ed se 5. Translations ‘Translate the following into Old lela: (A) Olt has not considered where that woman vou be (2) whom) be may (meg) ary. (8) Ola says that Hos may (expect athe wl (mai) look for wife ro 4 prominent family (=n promi pl) (©) Heald answers: Eg SkllGrim's ton hat dager, Thor ‘who the yey best match in ll Borg ithLESSON XII 1. Grammar (A) Peronal Endings of the Verb: Plral Present Indie ‘The following are che present indicative paral ending of epular vers andthe corresponding forms of the ver vera (ser) "be" Ending: sem FY usa) ati) “Ginsi) Ga) er “wine “Took mete ‘em hug ferns tomer Gadd hugs horde ra ee a ‘The term plual’ her refers tothe form of the verb as distinct rom the singular, but this verbal form oocare wit subj that may be represented by either the dua or plural personal pronouas (8) The Dua and Plural Forms ofthe Personal Pronouns (Od Ielandic makes the distinction between the dual iw two and vér we (more than «oy and. fit "yeu wo" and. por "you (amore than two)’. The following are the forms of the dual and plural of the Ist and od person pronouns and the ploal of the 3rd etson pronouns (there is no Sed perion dsl) im ana xd ual "plural dual" plural mascuise feminine eater Novi vir pit ber ei aw A kk os yr ye Bera G okiar ir Sekar $8 Pe, bs D okt om yk ote bese (fen personal pronoun, dual or plural, ands with «personal same inthe singular but refers with that name to-a group: vi Birdr "Bird and, i Kirt you (op) and Kr, ef A 3d person pura pronoun can also stand with two oF more pertonal names and LESSON xt ” function as a determiner: per Eq dr viru synir Skalla- Grins Fall an Dirdlfr were the sons of Skll- Grins” Even mote frequently the 3d pura is used with a single persoal name and feria 10a group: fe Pl Fes and is men, hse with Fos’, (© Possessve Pronouns: Plral ‘Asin the singlar, the genitive case ofthe Ist and 2nd person of ‘he dual and plural seres to form the sem for a possessive pronoun that is detined in all genders a a strong adjective. The following are the forms ofthe stems and the N a Stem maine famine seutr Isc dual (okkar) ola okur oka Ets ie) ire wie Qad dost (Ykkar) yar seb aad pl GORE) Yate yan For the fll paradigm ofthe decined posesives inthe dual and plural compare the stems (okkar), (jkkar), and (y8()ar) withthe forms of (ie) below muscu feminine eater SN vier Wie ve Aira virm vrai Do virum viet ara PIN vine vine ie A vie ver tie @ vice D vem [Note however, tha the second vow! ofthe shortened stem (yar) ‘is dropped in trsllabi forms, whereas the fll orm stem (Ova) retains is second syllable everywhere (See the rule for vowel dektion in Lesson IV, ICI). Thus we have masculine dative Singular yorum, but feminine G sg ether rar ot yvarrar, ee “The stems (jkkar-) and (okkar) optionally drop the second vowel in syllabic forms, fe. the stressed syllable ist either long or short Thus both masculine sg obkurum, and oktram,yekrwm occu, ete. The masculine A 9g of (re also ‘optionally shortened to wir instead ofthe regular vdran. Some