Zionism's Internal Others: Israel and the Oriental Jews

Author(s): Joseph Massad

Source: Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Summer, 1996), pp. 53-68
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Institute for Palestine Studies
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 ZIONISM'S INTERNAL
OTHERS: ISRAEL AND
THE ORIENTAL JEWS
JOSEPH MASSAD

The creationof theStateof Israelby EuropeanJewswas predicated

upon reconfiguring EuropeanZionistleadersasserted
Jewishidentities.
thatthecreationofa Jewishstatewould normalizetheabnormalsitua-
tion of EuropeanJewryinsofaras it would givethem,like Christian
Europeans,a stateoftheirown.In additionto defendirngEuropeanJews
againstanti-Semiticattacks,Zionismwas also goingto make possible
activitydenied to themin Europe,especiallyin agricultureand sol-
diery.Hence,the objectiveof theZionistmovement was not simplyto
transplantEuropeanJewsin a new area,but to transform theveryna-
tureof theirsocietyas it had existedin theDiaspora untilthen.
The typeofjewish culturethatZionismwantedto createhad nothing
of oppressedJew-
to do withDiaspora culture,seen as a manifestation
ishness.Yiddish,stigmatizedas a productof thatculture,was and is
activelydiscouragedin favorofHebrew,whiletheArabicofArabJews
becamethecontemptible languageoftheenemy.In sum,Israelcreated
a new Israeliidentityand culturealien to DiasporaJews.' Zionism's
commitment to cosmopolitanEuropean gentilecultureas the iden-
titarianbasis forthe New Jewled GeorgesFriedmannto assert that

JosephMassad is a doctoralcandidatein politicalscienceat Columbia

University.He would like to thankLisa Anderson,NevilleHoad, and
especiallyElla Shohatforreadingand commenting on an earlier,longer
versionof thispaper.

Journal
ofPalestine
Studies
XXV,no. 4 (Summer 1996), pp. 53-68.

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54 JOURNAL OF PALESTINE STUDIES

a newkindofassimilationliableto produce'genera-
Israel"constitutes
tionsof Hebrew-speaking Gentiles.'"2
Thus, thecreationofIsraelwas to havefar-reaching not only
effects
forPalestinianArabsbut also on the identity both of EuropeanJewGs
and ofAsianand AfricanJews. Whereasnon-European Jewswereclassi-
fied as Sephardim(Spaniards)and laterMizrahim3(Easterners)and
werejuxtaposedto theYiddish-speaking JewswhoseAshkenaziidentity
precededZionism,Palestinians weredividedintoDruze,Bedouin,and
Christianand MuslimArabs.Israel,consequently, was based on a com-
pleteoverhaulingoftheethnicidentities ofthepopulationoverwhomit
was to havejurisdiction.The ironyabout theMizrahiidentitycreated
by theAshkenaziestablishment is thatit cameto be internalized
bythe
Mizrahimthemselves, who launchedethnicprotestsbased on it.

FirstEncounters
The Zionistmovement's Europeanidentity was assertedfromtheout-
set in its classic texts.4TheodorHerzl declaredthattheJewishstate
would serveas "theportionof therampartofEurope againstAsia, an
outpostof civilizationas opposed to barbarism."'When discussing
Jewishimmigration, he spoke onlyof EuropeanJews(who forhimin-
cludedAlgerianJews).6As Sami Chetritdemonstrates, Herzl'sanalysis
of "theJewishQuestion"is in factan analysisof the EuropeanJewish
Questionwithoutanymentionof "Oriental"Jews.
The firstnon-European Jewsrecruited to Palestineweretwothousand
YemeniJewsbetween1910 and 1914; theirimmigration was proposed
in 1907 in the debateoverthe use of Arablabor in Ashkenazisettle-
ments.Self-described "socialist"Zionistsstressedtheprincipleofexclu-
sive Avodah'Ivrit(Hebrewlabor) as the conditionforthe economic
"normalization" of theJewishpeople,and the cheap Palestinianlabor
employedin manyearlysettlements was seen as corruptingZionistide-
als. It was in the contextof this debate thatthe AshkenaziZionist
Shmu'elYavne'elistatedthatYemeniJewishlabor"can taketheplace of
theArabs."7ButYemeniswerefoundtobe unsuitableworkersand were
expelled frommanysettlements; some werelaterallowedto workin
settlements in the southprovidedtheybuilttheirdwellingsoutside.8
The presenceofYemeniJewswas so disturbing to theAshkenazileader-
ship thatevenAhad Ha'Am,the renownedZionisthumanist,worried
that"Yemenite immigration affectsthenatureofthe Zionistsettlement
by dintof theirdifferent cultureand mentality."9
As Ella Shohathas shown,10 thisracializedviewofJewswithinZion-
ist discoursewas so strongthatit spannedall politicalcurrentsirre-
spectiveofideology.The revisionist ZionistleaderVladimirJabotinsky,
forexample,at the oppositeend of thepoliticalspectrumfromAhad
Ha'Am,was also waryof any connectionbetweenEuropeanJewsand

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ZIONISM'S INTERNALOTHERS 55

the Orient.In 1926, he statedthatthe"Jews, thankGod, have nothing

in commonwiththeEast.We mustput an end to anytraceoftheOri-
entalspiritin the[native]JewsofPalestine.""1In an earlierarticleenti-
tled"JewsoftheEast,"he opposedmixedmarriageswithnon-European
Jewsand thecreationof a singleJewishpeople on thegroundsthathe
did not knowwhetherthiswould resultin "a brilliantpeople or a dull
race."He also insistedthatAshkenasiJewshad to preservetheirmajor-
itystatusinJewishsocietyin Palestine.12Rejectingthesuggestionthat,
as a Semiticlanguage,Hebrewshouldbe pronouncedcloserto Arabic,
Jabotinsky insistedthat"We are Europeanand our musicaltasteis Eu-
ropean,the tasteof Rubinstein, Mendelssohn,and Bizet." 13
This commitment to WestEuropeancultureon thepart of Zionism
denies the actual originsof most EuropeanJews.The cultureof the
rural,poor,and squalid shtetlsofEasternEuropeis replacedsubtextu-
ally in Zionistdiscourseby the cosmopolitanculturesof Berlinand
Parisfromwhererelatively fewJewsoriginated.14 Itwas by assuminga
European "gentile"or assimilated identity
thatZionismcould marketitscolonialen-
deavoras one ofspreadingEuropeangen- By assuminga European
tile culturewith European Jews as its "gentile"identity, Zionism
carriers.In so doing,it engagedin a self- could marketits colonial
otheringprojectthat transformed Euro- endeavoras one of
pean Jewish identity in ways never spreadingEuropeangentile
thoughtpossible.Viewsthatused to be at- culture.
tributedto assimilatedGerman.Jews about
East European Jews and their"backward"culturewere now used
against"Europe'sothers"in general,whether Jewishor gentile.
The Mizrahipopulationwas to increaseslightlyduringthe British
Mandate. In additionto the Yemeniand the PalestinianJews,a few
thousandKurdishand PersianJewswere broughtin to workin the
quarriesand do othermenialjobs.15 By the timestatehoodwas pro-
claimed,Asian and AfricanJewsconstituted 20-25 percentof theJew-
ish population.16

The EarlyState Period

It was not untilthe slaughterof six million(mostlyEuropean)Jews
duringWorldWar II thattheAshkenaziZionistleadershipdecided to
recruitJewsmassivelyfromAsia and Africa.This recruitment intensi-
fiedwhen it became clear thatJewsfromthe Easternbloc were no
longerallowedto immigrate to Israel.17From1948 to 1956, a totalof
450,000 Jews arrivedin Israel fromAsia and Africa,comparedto
360,000JewsfromEuropeand America.'8It was thisperiod thatirre-
versiblycreatedwhatcameeuphemistically to be calledthesocial "gap"
betweentheAshkenaziand Mizrahicommunities.19

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56 JOURNALOF PALESTINESTUDIES

The firstMizrahiencounterwithIsraelistateracism dates to their

recruitment in theirhomecountries, wheretheconditionsofthecamps
in whichtheywereplaced beforebeingtransported to Israel,forexam-
ple,wereextremely poor.20Wheninformation ofanti-Mizrahi discrimi-
nationin IsraelbecameknownamongNorthAfrican Jews,immigration
declined.AJewishAgencyemissarynotedthatthe"firstthingone no-
ticesnow is theobviousreluctanceto go to Israel"and that"thepeople
virtuallyhave to be takenaboard the ships by force."'21
Ben-Gurionhimselfvented the already common views on the
Mizrahimat a meetingwithwritersand intellectuals in 1949, stating
that"eventhe immigrant fromNorthAfrica,who looks like a savage,
who has neverread a book in his life,not evena religiousone, and
doesn'teven know how to say his prayers,eitherwittingly or unwit-
tinglyhas behindhima spiritualheritageof thousandsofyears."22 In
an articlethathe wrotethe same yearforthe IsraeliYearBook,Ben-
GurionstatedthattheJewsofEuropewere"theleadingcandidatesfor
citizenshipin the State of Israel."23He explainedthe meaningof the
Holocaustas follows:
ButmorethanHitlerhurttheJewishpeople,whomhe knewand
hated,heinjured theJewish Statewhichheneveranticipated.
He had
annihilatedthecarrierandthemainandcentral constructivepower
oftheJewishState.The statewas established and thepeoplewho
longedforitwerenotthere.24
In theabsence of EuropeanJews,JewsfromArabcountrieshad to do.
Ben-Gurioncomparedthemwiththe Africanswho were broughtas
slavestoAmerica.25 OtherZionistleaderslikeYaakovZrubavel,head of
theMiddleEast Department oftheJewishAgency,statedthat"perhaps
theseare not theJewswe would like to see cominghere,but we can
hardlytellthemnotto come...."26 MosheSharett, Israel'sforeignmin-
ister,speakingto SovietDeputyForeignMinisterVishinsky,stated:
Therearecountries-and I wasreferring
toNorthAfrica-from which
It is nota questionofquantity
notall theJewsneed to emigrate. as of
quality....WeareveryanxioustobringtheJewsofMoroccoover...
butwe cannotcounton theJewsofMoroccotobuildthecountry,
because theyhave notbeen educatedforthis.... For thepurposeof
building up ourcountry,I wouldsay thattheJewsofEasternEuropeare
thesalt oftheearth....27
Upon arrivalin Israel,Mizrahiimmigrants weresprayedwithDDT to
"disinfect" and "delouse"them.28One of the cruelerchaptersof that
period-whichcontinuesto resonateamongMizrahimto thisday-in-
volvedthe kidnappingof hundredsof Yemenichildrenfromtransit
camps in Israel and givingthemto childlessAshkenazicouples for
adoption.29SickYemenichildrenweretakenfromtheirparentsto hos-
pitals; the parents,preventedfromvisiting,werelatertold thattheir
childrenhad died. Petitions
sentto thepoliceinquiringaboutthemiss-
ing childrenwerenot answered.Twenty yearslater,in March1968, an

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ZIONISM'S INTERNAL OTHERS 57

investigation was launchedby the Knessetafterthe DefenseMinistry

sentdraftnoticesto theaddressesoftheparentsofthesechildren,but
no satisfactory answerswerefound.30In 1986, a massivepublic rally
organizedby the Public Committeeforthe Discoveryof the Missing
YemeniChildrenwas virtuallyignoredby
theIsraelimedia,butseveralmonthslater
an Israeli televisiondocumentary on the The taskforEuropean
subjectblamedthe bureaucraticchaos of Zionismwas to "raise"the
the period forunfortunate "rumors,"and culturallevelsofnon-
perpetuated themyththatMizrahiparents EuropeanJewsto European
are irresponsiblebreeders.31As recently standards,withoutbeing
as 1994, a forceof eighthundredIsraeli "brought down"to their
police laid a five-week
siegeto thehomeof "primitive" levels.
theYemeni-born RabbiUzi Meshulemand
severaldozen followerswho had been demandinginformation about
the kidnappedchildren.During the police assault on the group (re-
portedby the Israelipolice and media to be a heavilyarmedcultlike
sect a la theBranchDavidiansin theUnitedStates),one memberwas
killedand eighteenothers,includingRabbi Meshulem,werearrested.
Anothergovernment committee was formedto look intothematter, the
last havingbeen set up in 1988.32
The task forEuropeanZionismas it was discursively describedwas
to "raise"the culturallevelsof non-European Jewsto Europeanstan-
dards,withoutbeing "broughtdown" to their"primitive" levels.Ben
Gurion,forexample,statedthat
thoseUews]fromMoroccohad no education.Theircustomsare
thoseofArabs.... Theculture ofMoroccoI wouldnotliketohave
here.AndI don'tseewhatcontribution present
Uewish]Persianshave
tomake.... Wedo notwantIsraelistobecomeArabs.Weareinduty
boundtofight thespiritoftheLevant,
against individ-
whichcorrupts
and preserve
uals and societies, Jewish
theauthentic valuesas they
in the[European]
crystallized Diaspora.33
This discourseassignsEuropeanstheroleof adultswho haveattained
developmentafterhavingendureda difficult childhood,and who are
now in a positionto "help"thirdworldchildrenreach European-style
the set telosof the maturation
civilization, process.
In 1949, withcontinuingmassiveMizrahiimmigration to Israel,the
AshkenazijournalistAryeGelblumwrotein Israel'sliberalnewspaper
Ha'Aretzthat
We aredealingwithpeoplewhoseprimitivism is at a peak,whose
levelofknowledge absoluteignorance,
is one ofvirtually andworse
whohavelittletalentforunderstanding anything Gener-
intellectual.
ally,theyareonlyslightly thanthegeneralleveloftheArabs,
better
Negroes andBerbers in thesameregions.In anycase,theyareat an
evenlowerlevelthanwhatweknewwithregard totheformer Arabsof

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58 JOURNALOF PALESTINESTUDIES

EretzYisrael.. . . TheseJewsalso lack rootsinJudaism,as theyare

totallysubordinatedto theplayofsavageand primitive
instincts....34
In contrastto the transitcamps intowhichthe MizrahiJewswere
crammedon theirarrivalin Israel,Ashkenaziimmigrants were given
homes of the displacedPalestinianpopulation.Numerousdemonstra-
tionsin the camps protesteddiscrimination, foodshortages,and lack
ofmedicalcare.35The transitcampswereconveniently erectednextto
largecitiesand Ashkenazisettlements, and aftertheinitialprovisionof
rationsand social servicesthegovernment informed thecampresidents
that they needed to provide for themselvesthroughwork in the
Ashkenazisettlements; Lack of opportunities forcedmanyMizrahim,
regardlessof educationalor skilllevels,to takeup menialjobs.36
Demonstrations throughout thecountryin 1949 protestedthissitua-
tion.In Ashkelon(formerly Askalan),thousandsof Mizrahimin April
marchedagainstethnicdiscrimination, whilethreehundredMizrahim
fromRamlehstageda "noisy"demonstration in AllenbyStreetdemand-
ing "breadand work"and triedto stormtheold Knessetbuildinguntil
theywereforcedbackbytheIsraelipolice.37Twoweekslater,Mizrahim
stormedtheJewishAgencybuildingin Haifaand wenton a rampagein
the Departmentof Absorptiondemanding"workand housing";police
reinforcements had to be broughtin, and therewere injuriesand ar-
rests.38In Julyof the same year,Mizrahidemonstrators fromJaffaat-
tackedtheformer parliamentbuildingin Tel Aviv.39
In 1952, thegovernment decidedto send Mizrahiimmigrants, partic-
ularlyMoroccans,to Development Towns(AyarotPituah) set up exclu-
sivelyforthe developmentor modernizationof the Mizrahim.Upon
arrivalin Israel,Mizrahisweretakento remoteareas of theNegevand
frontierareas40wheremost of the DevelopmentTownswere located
and which,predictably, became the targetof Arab militaryattacks.4'
Most of theseDevelopmentTownsdepend on a singlefactory thatis
owned by the state,the Histadrut,or Ashkenazibusinesses.Over 85
percentof thefactory managersare Ashkenazi(who do notlivein the
towns).42Wages in theDevelopment Townsaremuchlowerthanin the
restofthecountry, evenwithinthesameindustry. In fact,thetownsare
highly"undeveloped,"with high levels of unemployment and poor
healthand educationalservices.43
Those Mizrahimwho werenot settledin DevelopmentTownswere
settledin Moshavimor CooperativeVillageslikewiselocatedin border
and remoteareas.44These Moshavimare to be distinguished fromthe
old AshkenaziMoshavimantedatingIsrael's creation.The Ashkenazi
Moshavim(whichtodayform65 out ofthetotalof402 Moshavim)are
richsettlements withgood land,machinery, and livestock.The Mizrahi
Moshavimweregivensome of theworstland. Fifty-four percentof all
fundsinvestedin agriculture wentto the (Ashkenazi)Kibbutzim,with
37 percentgoingto theMoshavim,despitethefactthattheKibbutzim

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ZIONISM'S INTERNAL OTHERS 59

constitute12 percent of Israel's agriculturalsettlementand the

Moshavimconstitute 66 percent.Moreover, theAshkenazisettlements,
in contrastto thepost-1948Moshavim,werebuiltin the centerofthe
country,facilitatingmarketingand maximizingprofits.As for the
Mizrahimofthebig citiessuch as Tel Aviv,Jerusalem, Haifa,and Beer-
sheba, most ended up in the slums. Contrastingthe Development
Townsand slums,GideonGiladinotesthattheformer "lie in thecoun-
tryand supplytheAshkenazisettlements withcheaplabor,whereasthe
slum areas forma belt aroundthe largetownsand supplyAshkenazi
capitalwithcheap labor."45
Withthemass arrivalof theMizrahimin theyears1948-51, Israel's
Ashkenazipartiesrushed to the scene to recruitsupportersamong
them;theparties'controlovertheallocationof resourcesto theimmi-
grantsmadepartymembership seembeneficial.The rulingpartyMapai
enjoyedwide controloverthepoliticaland economicsystem, including
theLaborExchange,theSickFund,and housingcompanies;46itsprac-
tice of favoritismin deliveringservicesto its memberswas wide-
spread.47 This patronage system suffused Israeli state-society
relations.48In 1951, G. Yosephtal,thechairmanoftheAbsorptionDe-
partment of theJewishAgencyand a centralfigurein Mapai, wrotein
his diarythat"in the period of the electionswe createdhavoc in the
cooperative immigrant villagesand in thetransitcampsbymeaningless
promisesand by thebase systemofvotebuying."49
Fromthe outset,the Mizrahiimmigrants of the transitcamps were
notable to electtheirown leadersdue to theirclassification as "tempo-
raryresidents";whentheytriedto do so, contravening theauthorities,
thoseelectedwererejectedbytheinterior ministry on thegroundsthat
thelocal state-appointed authorities
weretheonlyones recognized.In
the new immigrant townswhichwere able to electtheirgovernment,
special regulationsthatdid not existin Ashkenazitownswerepassed
restricting In fact,the firstlocal councilin a
the councils'authority.50
new settlement was nominatedby theministerof interiorratherthan
elected.In general,the Mapai-controlled government bypassedthe lo-
callyelectedMizrahileadershipand recruited itsownMizrahiagentsin
thecamps as wellas in thetowns.

The Wadi Salib Uprising

It was in Wadi Salib,a formerlyArabpartof downtownHaifa,that
Mizrahiresistanceto Ashkenazidiscrimination firsteruptedon a large
scale in the summerof 1959. Afterthe Palestiniansfledor had been
drivenfromHaifa by advancingZionisttroopsin 1948, Wadi Salib's
emptyhouses had been givento new immigrants and soon became
overpopulated slums.By theend ofthe 1950s, mostoftheinhabitants
wereMizrahim,specifically Moroccans.51

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 60 JOURNALOF PALESTINESTFUDIES

The immediatecause oftheuprisingwas thegranting ofcomfortable

housingto immigrants fromPolandwhenthousandsofMizrahimwere
stilllivingin slumconditions.Moreover, theIsraeligovernment bought
additionalapartments fromprivatecompaniesfortheAshkenaziimmi-
grantsand at thelast minutegavethemapartments builtforMizrahim.
The sparkfortheprotesttookplace on 8 July,when rumors(false)
sweptthroughtheneighborhood thata Moroccanshotby police in the
streethad died of his wounds.The nextday,theUnion of NorthAfri-
can Immigrants, a small organizationheaded by David Ben Haroush
and establisheda fewmonthsearlierto deal withthe problemscon-
fronting Wadi Salib's NorthAfricans, led a marchto police headquar-
terscarrying black flagsand chantingslogansagainstthe police. The
police metwitha delegationof demonstrators, promisedto look into
the affair,and dispersedthe crowd.Despitethis,riotingbegan,with
residentsthrowingstonesat police; injuriesand arrestsfollowed.
Threeweekslater,eventsreacheda crisiswhen Mapai held an elec-
tionrallyon theoutskirts oftheneighborhood. The day oftherally,all
trafficinto Haifa fromWadi Salib was stoppedand largepolice rein-
forcements werebroughtin, includingborderguardunits.Duringthe
rally,shoutingled toviolentclasheswiththepolice,who behaved"as if
theywereputtingdownan incipientrevolution, causingseriouscausal-
itiesamongstwomenand old men."52The leadersof the uprising,in-
cludingBen Haroush,werearrestedafteran exchangeof fire.
Riotingspread to otherparts of the country,especially Mizrahi
camps. Spontaneousdemonstrations includedacts ofsabotageagainst
government buildings,causingmillionsofdollarsofdamage.Branches
of theUnionwereestablishedin variousregions,evenwithoutorgani-
zationalcontactwiththeHaifaleaders.An attemptwas made to estab-
lish a politicalpartyheadedby Ben Haroush(who was stillin prison)
to runin theupcomingelections.The party'splatform called foran end
to Ashkenazidiscriminationand called on Mizrahimto leave the
Ashkenazipartiesand their"Orientallackeys"and turnto the new
partywhichrepresented their"realinterests."53The partywas a failure
evenin Wadi Salib,whereMapai gainedmorevotesthantheneighbor-
hood list.
In additionto arrestsand detentions(fourUnion leadersweregiven
six-monthprison terms),the government respondedto the uprising
withideologicaldelegitimation. Threedaysaftertheprotest,forexam-
ple, the labor ministerdeclaredthat"onlya confirmedenemyof the
JewishPeoplecould haveinvented thistreacherous and corruptingdeed
of inflaming group againstgroup,"but cautionedagainstidentifying
"theentireNorthAfricancommunity ... witha limitednumberofriot-
ers and hooligans."54Rumorswere spread that the still-imprisoned
leadershad been boughtoff;frequentcases of co-optationmade such

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ZIONISM'S INTERNAL OTHERS 61

rumorseasy to believeand indeed,some of the leaderswerelaterco-

opted,includingBen Haroush,who was givena new flatand a job.55
Meanwhile, the governmentformed an investigativecommittee
headed by a memberof the IsraeliHigh Courtto look intothe police
shootingthathad triggered theuprising.Butwhilethepublishedreport
accuratelydescribedtheevents,itinsistedthat"no consciousdiscrimi-
nationexistson thepartof thestateinstitutions."56 The leadersofthe
uprisingwere portrayedas agitators,and the report,by implication,
blamedtheimmigrants themselves fortheirpredicament:
Theuprooting ofthecommunity froman established oflife
pattern
broughtwithit,forsomesections ofthisethnic
group,a deterioration
ofvaluesand socialframeworks. perioduntilthefor-
The transition
mulationand consolidation of new patterns,containsinevitably,
gravedangers....Anadditional factorwhichenhanced thedifficulty
ofintegration
oftheseimmigrants was thelargesize ofthefamilies
whichincreasedproblems ofintegration,
housingand income....
Variouspublicorganizationsandassociations
from within theethnic
groupandoutsideitreinforced thefeeling
ofseparationanddiscrimi-
nation.Theybuilttheirfuture,noton constructive
workfortheim-
provement of the social,economicand culturalstandardsof the
community, buton thecultivationofthefeelingofdeprivation.57
As forlong-term measures,thegovernment took two steps.First,it
movedresidents, many of them forcibly, housingestatesratherthan
to
rehabilitate
theneighborhood.(The desertedarea was renovatedbythe
government in 1984 as part of Haifa's commercialand business dis-
Second,thenumberofMizrahimamongMapai's Knessetmem-
trict.58)
bers was raised in the 1959 elections.But since the new Knesset
memberswere Ashkenazi-appointed functionaries,this hardly in-
creased Mizrahi representation. Four years later,in 1963, when a
numberofMizrahimfoundedthesecret"FrontforNationalEquality,"
it was immediately eliminatedby Shin Bet,Israel'ssecretpolice.59

TheBlackPanthers
The "gap"betweentheAshkenazimand Mizrahim,whichIsraelioffi-
cials and academicshad predictedwould close as theMizrahimbenefit-
ted from Ashkenazi-inducedmodernization,showed no sign of
diminishing duringthe 1960s. On thecontrary,it becamemorevisible
as a resultoftheunprecedented economicboom thatfollowedthe1967
Arab-Israeli war, witheconomicbenefitsaccruingoverwhelmingly to
theAshkenazim.
Tensionswereexacerbatedwiththewelcomeextendedto the Soviet
immigrants arrivingduring1969-70. In sharpcontrastto theMizrahi's
DDT receptiontwentyyearsearlier,the SovietJewswerewelcomedby
PrimeMinisterGolda Meir herself,who greetedthe new arrivalsday
afterday at the airportwithsuch statementsas: "Youare therealJews.
We havebeen waitingforyou fortwenty-five years.You speak Yiddish!

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 62 JOURNALOF PALESTINESTUDIES

. . . EveryloyalJewmustspeak Yiddish,for he who does not knowYiddish

is nota Jew.Youare a superiorbreed-you willprovideus withheroes."60
Theyalso receivedspecial benefitsthegovernment offerednew immi-
grantsas of the mid-1960sto encourageimmigration, primarilyfrom
theWest.61Resentments werefueledby theattitudesof thenew Soviet
immigrants themselves,who sentpetitionsto the Tel AvivTownHall
complainingabout havingto livenext to
"Black"Jewsand threatening to leave the
NewSovietimmigrants sent countryunless the government satisfied
petitionsto theTel Aviv their demands.62 The governmentre-
TownHall complaining sponded by removingMizrahi children
abouthavingto livenextto fromAshkenazischools and youthclubs
'Black"Jews. and in some places keptthemout oflocal
swimmingpools. There were incidents
whereMizrahislum residentsstonedRussianimmigrants.63
It was againstthisbackgroundthatthePanterim Sh'horim,or Black
Panthers, wereformedat the end of 1970.64Mizrahiparticipationin
theJune1967 war,whichlegitimated theirIsraeliidentity longdoubted
bytheAshkenazimwho had foughtthe"WarofIndependence," had an
emboldeningeffect.At the same time,the 1970 cease-fireagreement
withEgyptendingthewar of attrition removedtheexternalthreatfac-
torwhichhad untilthenkeptthelid on internalproblems.
The Black Panthers,whose name was borrowedfromtheAfrican-
Americanorganizationnot only forits reference to an ethnicallydi-
videdsocietybutalso to denotea parallelcondition,65 beganas a youth
movement in theJerusalemslumofMusrara.Musrara,originally a Pal-
estinianneighborhoodnear the 1948 armisticeline, acquiredsudden
strategic importancefollowingtheIsraelioccupationof EastJerusalem
in 1967. When the government moved to raze the old Palestinian
houses now inhabitedby Mizrahimand build luxuryhousingfornew
Ashkenaziimmigrants, Mizrahiangerswelled.66
The firstmassivedemonstration led bytheBlackPantherstookplace
on 3 March 1971 in frontofJerusalemCityHall.67Demonstrations
continuedthroughAugust,sometimesdrawingbetweenfiveand ten
thousandpeople.68Some of the demonstrators shouted"Golda,teach
us Yiddish."69 Demandsincludedtheelimination of slums,freeeduca-
tion and housingforthe needy,the eliminationof "reform schools"
(wherea numberofPantherleadershad servedtime),higherwagesfor
thosesupporting largefamilies,and fullrepresentation ofMizrahimin
all institutions.70Demonstrations,markedby clashes withthepolice,
spreadto otherslumareas,especiallyin Hatikvahin Tel Avivand con-
tinuedintothespringof 1972.
As in thecase oftheWadi Salib uprising,thegovernment, in addition
tousingcoerciontoputdownthedemonstrations, triedto delegitimize
thePanthers,emphasizingconnectionsto theanti-Zionist Left(anath-

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ZIONISM'S INTERNAL OTHERS 63

ema in Israel) and the "violentmeans" employedby the movement

(whenin factpeacefuldemonstrations had outnumbered violentones).
And while the movement'sleaders were stigmatizedas "hardened
criminals,"thegovernment also tried,withsomesuccess,to cooptthem
by offering"individualsolutions"such as jobs and betterhousing.
Again as in the case of Wadi Salib, the government recognizedthe
legitimacyof some of the protesters'concerns.Indeed, afterthe first
demonstrations, thePanthershad been approachedby severalKnesset
membersrepresenting variouspartiesand had metwithseniorminis-
ters,membersof theHistadrut,and theJewishAgency,as well as the
primeminister herself.Althoughestablishment interestdroppedsignif-
icantlywiththe decreasingturnoutat Panther-sponsored demonstra-
tions,thegovernment did setup a commissionofinquiry,theHorovitz
Committee,to look into the "problems."But the committee'sconclu-
sions differed
fromtheofficial government positionthatthe"loweredu-
cationallevel of the Sephardimhas caused themto be discriminated
against."To the contrary,it foundthat"as theeducationallevelof the
Sephardimis raised,theymeetmorediscrimination." The committee
added thatthe Mizrahistandardof livinghad actuallydeclinedbe-
tween 1959 and 1969.71
The Panthersattempted to counteractthe decliningsupportevinced
by dwindlingdemonstrations by establishingthemselvesas a political
party,the "Black Panthers-Israeli Democrats,"througha mergerwith
the IsraeliDemocratsled by MizrahiMK Shalom Cohen. But in the
December 1973 electionsfollowingthe 1973 Arab-Israeliwar, they
failedto get a singlecandidateeitherin the Knessetor in any of the
twenty-sixlocal councilsforwhichtheyran.72The electoralfailureled
to internaldisagreements-including overthe issue of solidaritywith
the Palestinians-which in turnled to the splinteringof themovement
and its co-optationby leftistestablishmentand/orAshkenazi-domi-
natedparties.
Sincethen,themovement has continuedto surfacefromtimeto time,
as in December1982 whenmassivedemonstrations wereorganizedaf-
tera youngYemeniJewwas shotto deathby police whileresistingat-
temptsto demolishan unlicensedadditionto his home.Bloodyclashes
also occurredtwo yearslater,when the government demolishedone
hundredbuildingsin KfarShalem.Duringthesedemonstrations, the
epithet"Ashke-Nazi" was frequently hurledat police.73The Panthers
werealso theclearinspirationfortheactivitiesoftheMa'atz Organiza-
tion,which launched arson and sabotage operationsagainst Israeli
stateand economicinstitutions between1975 and 1978.
Thereare a numberofreasonsfortheBlackPanthers'sfailureto mo-
bilizelargesectorsoftheMizrahicommunity. Somehaveto do withthe
Panthersthemselves: theirlackofeconomicbase,mostoftheirsupport-
ers being eitherstudentsor impoverished;74 theirconcentrationin

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64 JOURNALOF PALESTINESTUDIES

slumareas,whereasmostMizrahimlivein theDevelopment Townsand

theMoshavim;and themarginality and lack ofeducationoftheleader-
ship,whichpreventedthemfromestablishingcontactwiththe trade
unions, professionals,and the small Mizrahibusiness class.75Most
prominentamongthe factorsbeyondthePanthers'scontrolis the he-
gemonyofZionistdiscoursein all aspectsofIsraelilife-through educa-
tionalinstitutions,cultural
production, themedia, and official
policy-
whichgivesgreaterresonanceto appeals to "unity"in statebuilding
and againstexternalenemiesand whichfacilitates thedelegitimationof
Jewish dissident groups. More concrete were government repression
and fearof loss ofjobs and livelihood.
While the BlackPanthers'sprominenceon theIsraelipoliticalscene
was short-lived,theirimpactwas far-reaching.UnliketheNorthAfrican-
based uprisingin Wadi Salib, the Panthers'sstrugglewas organized
arounda self-conscious identityencompassingall Mizrahim.It was af-
terthe rise of the movement thatMizrahimbegan openlydemanding
culturalrights.Amongthe organizationsfoundedin the 1980s repre-
sentingdiverseMizrahiinterests(betterhousing,increasedemploy-
ment,enhancedculturalrights,politicalrepresentation, and solidarity
withthe Palestinians)are Ohalim (tents),Oded, the Black BeltMove-
ment,East forPeace,and Ma'avak'85 (Struggle85).76

withintheSystem
Protest
Withtherealizationon thepartofmanyMizrahimthatextrasystemic
movements like the Black Panthersweredoomedto fail,therewas in-
creasingrecourseto solutionswithinthesystem. Butwhilethemajority
ofMizrahimremainedwithinthefoldofIsraeli(Ashkenazi)society,at
the same timetheirculturalidentitygrewstronger.Politicalactivism
tookmorepragmaticforms.Groupsfocussedon issues such as educa-
tionaldiscrimination againstSephardim(and the Palestinians);exam-
ples include HILA (the Israel Committeeon Education in Oriental
Neighborhoodsand DevelopmentTowns) establishedin 198777 and
Kedma,which set up two alternative schools forMizrahichildrento
shieldthemfromAshkenaziracism.78Othermorerecentorganizations
includethe MizrahiWomenForum,foundedin 1994, whichheld its
firstconferencein May 1996 in Natanya.79
An interestingdevelopment ofthe 1980s was a growingtrendtoward
solidaritywiththe Palestinians;Mizrahimspanningthe entiresocial
spectrumlinkeddiscrimination practicedagainstthemwiththatused
againstthe Palestinians.Mizrahimwereprominentin the Committee
forIsraeli-Palestinian
Dialogue formedin 1986, whose meetingswith
Palestinianspromptedthe government to issue, in August1986, its
"Counter-Terrorism Act"banningcontactwiththePalestineLiberation
Organization(PLO). FormerBlack PanthersKochavi Shemesh and

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ZIONISM'S INTERNAL OTHERS 65

Sa'adya Marciano,who had launchedtheirEastern(Mizrahi)Frontin

supportof the Palestiniansin 1986, were in the forefront of Israeli
groupsprotesting Israelirepressionduringtheintifada.80 Otherorgani-
zationsincludetheWorldOrganizationofJewsfromIslamicCountries,
a NewYork-based memberoftheUnitedNationsNongovernmental Or-
ganizationson theQuestionof Palestine.
In defianceof the Counter-Terrorism Act,the Dialogue Committee,
whichalso includedAshkenazim, metwithPLO officials in Romaniain
November1986 and in BudapestinJune1987. A specificallyMizrahi-
Palestiniandialoguewas soon established,which,withthe supportof
theParis-basedPerspectives Judeo-Arabes, held a historicmeetingin To-
ledo, Spain,in July1989 attendedby thirty-eight Mizrahiintellectuals
and a large PalestiniandelegationincludingMahmud Abbas (Abu
Mazin) and thepoet MahmudDarwish.ManyoftheMizrahidelegates
addressedthe meetingin theirnativetongue,Arabic.81
In politicalterms,perhapsthemostsignificant development during
the last two decades has been the rechannelling of Mizrahigrievance
intoa successfulprotestvotein supportof theLikud,whichdespitea
less thansterlingrecordon theMizrahimrepresented the mostviable
oppositionto the rulingLabor,perceivedas the Ashkenazipartypar
excellence.The Mizrahivotewas a crucialfactorin bringingtheLikud
coalitionto powerin 1977.82 Hopes fora broad-basedMizrahiparty
were raised in June 1995 when the Moroccan-born David Levy,the
mostimportant Mizrahipersonality to emergewithintheIsraelimain-
streamin thelast fewyears,brokeawayfromtheLikud.Some Mizrahi
evenanti-Zionists,
intellectuals, wereenthusiastic despiteLevy'swishy-
washypositions;83Sami Chetrit,forexample,helped Levy writehis
platform. But,in March1996 Levywas cooptedback intoLikud'sfold
by his formerenemy,BenjaminNetanyahu, withpromisesof a senior
post in a futurecabinet.84
Overtheyears,Mizrahiresistancehas rangedfromoutright revoltto
peacefuldemonstrations and politicalorganization. In thisera ofPLO-
Israeli(readAshkenazi)"peace,"theplace oftheMizrahimremainsun-
clear.What is certain,however, is thatIsrael(withinits 1967 borders)
is stillcontrolledbyEuropeansconstituting one-fifthofthepopulation
who rule overan Asianand AfricanpopulationofJews,Muslims,and
Christiansoutnumbering themfourto one. It is in thiscontextthatthe
SouthAfricanapartheidanalogy,made by many,can be appropriately
applied,mutatismutandis, to Israel.

NOTES

1. On the transforrnation
of Jews fromtheir impacton Palestinians, see my"Palestinians
and
Diasporiccondition
to thestatecondition
and its theLimitsofRacialized
Discourse,"
SocialText,
no.

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66 JOURNAL OF PALESTINE STUDIES

34 (Spring1993),94-114. Alsosee my"The'Post- 10. See EllaShohat,"Sephardim in Israel:Zionism

Colonial'Colony:Time,SpaceandBodiesin Pales- fromtheStandpoint of itsJewish Victims," Social
tine Israel,"forthcoming in Dimensions of (So- Text19-20(Fall1988),1-35.
Jabotinsky,
Studies,editedby Fawzia Afzal- 11. Vladimir
Called) Post-Colonial 'The East,"publishedin
Khan and Klapana Seshardi-Crooks (Durham: 1926,citedbyGiladi,Discord,p. 209.
DukeUniversity Press,1996). (Ze'ev)Jabotinsky,
12. Vladimir 'JewsoftheEast,"
2. Georges Friedmann,The End of theJewishPeo- (1919),quotedin Ha'Aretz,22 July1983.
ple?(NewYork:Doubleday, 1967),pp.243-45.On 13. Vladimir Jabotinsky, The HebrewAccent (Tel
Jewish identityin Israel,see AkivaOrr,TheUnjew- Aviv:HaSefer,1930),pp. 4-9, citedbyShohat,Is-
ish State: The Politicsof JewishIdentityin Israel raeli Cinema,p. 55.
(London:IthacaPress,1983). 14. Duringthe Mandate,the Britishauthorities
3. Sephardireferred initiallyto Ladino-speakinghelpedthe Ashkenazi Zioniststo undermine the
Spanish JewsexiledfromSpainin 1492as wellas powerofthenative PalestinianJewish leadership by
tothespecific religious customs ofLadino-speakingnotincluding Palestinian Jewsin thegovernment,
andsomeArabic- andPersian-speakingJews, whose whichincludedAshkenazi colonialsettlers.More
religiouscustomsdiffered fromYiddish-speakingimportant, theMandatory authorities weakened the
Jewsand oftenamongthemselves. See Harvey position ofthePalestinian chiefrabbibyappointing
Goldberg, 'Introduction: Cultureand Ethnicity in an Ashkenazichiefrabbias wellas a rabbinical
theStudyofIsraeliSociety," Ethnic Groups1 (Feb- committee madeup ofequalnumbers ofAshkenazi
ruary1977),pp. 164-65.ThetermMizrahim came andPalestinianJews. See Giladi'sdiscussion ofPal-
intowideusageonlyin the1980s. estinianJewish resistance toAshkenazi settlement,
4. On Zionism'sEuropeancharacter, see Raphael Discord,chs.2 and3.
Shapiro,"Zionismand Its OrientalSubjects:The 15. Ibid.58.
Oriental Jewsin Zionism'sDialecticalContradic- 16. D. Horowitz and M. Lissak,The Originsof Is-
tions,"Khamsin5 (1978), 5-26. Alsosee thepio- raeliSociety(TelAviv:AmOved,1977),p. 155 [in
neering bookofMichaelSelzer,TheAryanization of Hebrew], citedin DeborahBernstein, 'PoliticalPar-
theJewish State(NewYork:Blackstar Publishing, ticipation: NewImmigrants and Veteran Partiesin
1967). On the European and anti-Mizrahi IsraeliSociety," PluralSocieties15,no. 1 (February
Ashkenazi Zionistcultural and artistic production, 1984),p. 15.
see Ella Shohat, Israeli Cinema: East/Westand the 17. From1948to 1950,SovietandEastEuropean
Politicsof Representation(Austin: Universityof Jewswereallowedto emigrate to Israelunderthe
TexasPress,1989). coverof 'reuniting families,"but only a small
5. Theodor Herzl,TheJewishState:AnAttempt at a number (especially fromEastern Europe)did.Emi-
ModernSolutionto theJewish Question(London: H. gration washaltedintheSovietUnionin 1950(but
Porders, 1972),p. 30. notfromEastern Europeas evidenced bytheimmi-
6. Ibid.22. On thequestionofOriental Jewsand gration ofRomanian and PolishJews in theearlyto
Herzl,see SamiChetrit, "NewState,Old Land,the mid-1950s) as a resultofdeteriorating Soviet-Israeli
EastandtheEasterners in TheJewish StateofTheo- relations. See IlanHalevi,A Historyof theJews,An-
dorHerzl"(Unpublished paper,ColumbiaUniver- cientand Modern(London:Zed Press,1988),pp.
sity,1992). 196-97.
Algerian Jewsat thetimeformed twocommuni- 18. StatisticalAbstractof Israel 1978 (Jerusalem:
ties,theArabJewish community, andtheEuropean IsraelCentralBureauof Statistics, 1979),p. 137,
FrenchJewswho had immigrated fromFrance citedin ShlomoSwirski,'The OrientalJewsin
alongwithFrenchChristians as colonialsettlers. Israel,"Dissent 30 (Winter1984),p. 79. It should
In 1870,priortoHerzl'swritings, allAlgerian Jews be notedthatofficial Israelifiguresassumethatall
weregranted French citizenship bytheFrenchcolo- theEuropeanimmigrants wereAshkenazi, whereas
nialgovernment as partofitspolicyofdivideetim- somewereEuropean Sephardi.
pera,thusrendering AlgerianJews Europeans as far 19. On theintegration of Mizrahiimmigrants in
as Herzlwas concerned.It mustbe notedthat Israel,see Avraham ShamaandMarkIris,Immigra-
throughout the period of Frenchcolonization, tion WithoutIntegration, ThirdWorldJewsin Israel
manyAlgerian ArabJewswerein theforefront of (Cambridge:SchenkmanPublishingCompany,
theAlgerian struggle forindependence. 1977).
7. Quotedin MeirYosef,Beyond theDesert(West 20. TomSegev,1949 The FirstIsraelis (NewYork:
Jerusalem: Ministry ofDefensePress,1973),p. 48 TheFreePress,1986),p. 169.
[inHebrew], citedbyChetrit, "NewState,"p. 19. 21. EliPeleg'sReport, 24July1949,Central Zionist
8. Yehuda Nini,AliyotYehudeTemanle-EretzYisrael Archives, S20/562,citedin Segev,1949,p. 171.
(Theimnmigration oftheJewsofYemento theland 22. David Ben-Gurion's meeting withwriters, 11
ofIsrael)(Ph.D.diss.,University ofTelAviv,1976) October1949,DivreiSofrim, StateArchives, cited
and "Ole Teman1882-1914"(Immigrants from in Segev,1949, p. 156.
Yemen1882-1914),citedin Giladi,Discord, p. 364. 23. DavidBen-Gurion, Vaad HapoelHatzioni(Meet-
Cathedra, (October1977). ingsof theGeneralCounciloftheZionistmove-
9. Ahad Ha'Am, Kol Kitve Ahad Ha'Am (All the ment)(WestJerusalem: ZionistExecutive, 1949),p.
writings ofAhadHa'Am)(TelAviv:DvirPublicadon 181,citedin Segev,1949, p. 157.
House,1947),p. 426 [inHebrew], citedbyG.N.Gi- 24. Ben-Gurion, NetsahYeisrael,p. 37,citedin Che-
ladi, Discord in Zion: ConflictbetweenAzhkenazi tit, "NewState," p. 3. Alsosee Segev,1949,p. 157.
and SephardiJewsin Israel (London: Scorpion Pub- 25. Ben-Gurion, Netsah Yeisrael,p. 23, citedin
lishing Ltd.,1990),p. 47. Emphasis added. Segev,1949,p. 157.

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ZIONISM'S INTERNAL OTHERS 67

26. ZionistExecutive,5 June1949,citedin Segev, theNorthAfrican

community in Israel,see Dima
1949, p. 156. Abdul-Rahim,
"Yahudal-Maghrib al-ArabifiIsra'il,"
no. 120 (November
27. Sharett Report, 12 December1948, State Shu'un Filastiniyya, 1981),pp.
Archives, Foreign Ministry, 130.11/2502/8, citedin 62-73.
Segev,1949, p. 173. Emphasisadded. 52. Giladi,Discord,p. 254.
28. See Giladi,Discord, p. 103. Also see Segev, 53. Bernstein, "Political,"p. 30.
1949, p. 119. 54. Davar, 12July1959.
29. Segev,1949, pp. 191-93 55. Giladi,Discord,p. 254.
30. Dov Levitan, "TheAliyah ofthe'MagicCarpet' 56. Reportof theWadiSalib InquiryCommittee, Je-
as a Historical Continuation oftheEarlierYemeni rusalem,1959,p. 16.
Aliyahs" (MA thesisin politicalscience,Bar Ilan 57. Reportof theWadiSalib InquiryCommittee, pp.
University, 1983) [inHebrew], citedbyEllaShohat, 16, 17, and 19,respectively.
"Sephardim," p. 17. Alsosee Segev,1949, p. 193. 58. Bernstein, "Political,"p. 31.
31. Shohat,'Sephardim," pp. 17-18. 59. Giladi,Discord,p. 254.
32. See "IsraeliCops TradeFirewithRabbi'sFol- 60. Ibid.255. Emphasisadded.Forsimilarquotes,
lowers," ChicagoTribune,11 May1994. see MarionWoolfson, Prophetsin Babylon:Jewsin
33. Citedin SammySmooha,Israel,Pluralismand theArab World(London:Faberand Faber,1980),
Conflict(Berkeley: University of California Press, pp.267-68.Meir'sstatements reflect thedoubleva-
1978),pp.86-88. lencethatYiddishholdsin Zionistdiscourse: Euro-
34. Ha'Aretz, 22 April 1949. Emphasisadded, peanJewswhospokeYiddishin theDiasporaare
citedinShohat, "Sephardim", p. 4; andSegev,1949, valorized as Zionism's clientsandas Israelicitizens,
p. 160. whiletheirDiasporicJewishcultureis refusedin
35. Yosephtal toLocker, 9 June1949,CentralZion- favorofan assimilated cosmopolitan gentile-based
istArchives,S 41/2471,citedin Giladi,Discord,p. culturein Israel.
104. 61. Fora detailedlistofall thebenefits received by
36. On theconditions oftheMa'abarot, see Giladi, Russianimmigrants, seeGiladi,Discord,p. 255. See
Discord,pp. 115-29. also ErikCohen,"TheBlackPanthers and Israeli
37. Ha'Aretz,26 April1949,citedin Giladi,Dis- Society," JewishJournalof Sociology 14 (1972), p.
cord,pp. 252-53. 99.
38. Ha'Aretz,9 May1949,citedin Giladi,Discord, 62. Ha'Aretz,22 March1971,PAGE???. The Rus-
p. 253. sian petitionpublished in Ha'Aretzis partlyrepro-
39. KnessetMinutes, 26July1949,citedin Giladi, ducedin Woolfson, Prophets,p. 268.
Discord,p. 253. 63. ISRACA # 17, 18; and Woolfson, Prophets,p.
40. SeeGiladi,Discord,pp. 129-36.Giladirefers to 268. On RussianJewish racism,see CharlieBiton,
the townsas "cheap labour camps."Also, see "TheUglyRussian," The Black Panther,11 Novem-
DeborahBernstein and ShlomoSwirski,"Rapid ber 1972,reproduced in Englishin UriDavisand
EconomicDevelopment of Israeland the Emer- MortonMezvinsky, eds., Documentsfrom Israel
genceof the EthnicDivisionof Labour,"British 1967-73: Readings for a Critique of Zionism
Journalof Sociology 2, no. 1 (March1982), pp. (London:IthacaPress,1975),pp. 117-18.
64-52; Shohat, "Sephardim", pp. 18-19; and 64. On thehistory and development of theBlack
Shlomo Swirski,Israel: The Oriental Majority Panthers, see MosheAter, "TheBlackPanthers and
(London:Zed Press,1990),pp. 31-43. theEconomy," The JerusalemPost, 27 May 1971;
41. Between 1954and 1956,42 percent oftheim- Micah Bar-Amand Sammy Smooha, "Black
migrants weretakentotheNegev, 42 percent tothe Panthers ofIsrael," Society 9, no. 7 (May1972),pp.
Galilee,8 percent totheJerusalem area,and8 per- 40-44;DeborahBernstein, "Conflict and Protest in
centtothecoastalareas.Giladi,Discord,p. 129. IsraeliSociety:The Case of theBlackPanthers of
42. Swirski, Israel, p. 33. Israel,"Youthand Society 16, no. 2 (December
43. Ibid.34-43. 1984), pp. 129-52; Erik Cohen, "The Black
44. See Giladi'sdiscussion oftheMoshavim inDis- Panthers," pp.93-109;ShalomCohenand Kokhavi
cord,pp. 142-48. Shemesh,"The Originand Development of theIs-
45. Ibid.149. raeliBlackPanther Movement," MERIP, no.49 (July
46. AsherArian, IdeologicalChangein Israel(Cleve- 1976), pp. 19-22;"EntreLa Revolteet L'Autisme
land: Case WesternReserveUniversity, 1968),p. (Entretien aveclesPantheres Noiresd'Isradl)," in Le
173. SecondIsrael,a specialissueofLes TempsModernes,
47. Bernstein, 'Political,"
p. 19. pp. 327-42;Giladi,Discord,pp. 254-68;MarkIris
48. Files of the Absorption Department, and Avraham Shama,"BlackPanthers: The Move-
1951-1956,Mapai Archive, cited by Bernstein, ment,"Society9, no. 7 (May,1972), pp. 37-39;
"Political,"p. 19. ShlomoMalka,"Les Pantheres Noires,Historique
49. G. Yosephtal, His Life and Works (Tel Aviv: d'uneRevolte," in Le SecondIsrael,(May1979),pp.
MapaiPublication, 1963),p. 148 [inHebrew], cited 315-26; SammySmooha,"Israel and Its Third
in Bernstein, "Political,"p. 19. WorldJews,BlackPanthers: The EthnicDilemma,"
50. D. Rosen,MunicipalSurvey:Municipalitiesand Society9, no. 7 (May1972),pp. 31-36.
Local Authorities(Jerusalem:Ministry of Interior, 65. Mizrahim are oftenreferred to as "Black"by
1973),p. 519 [inHebrew]. Ashkenaziracists,a commonAshkenaziracist
51. Bernstein, "Political,"
p. 28. The following ac- epithetagainstMizrahim is 'ShwartzeChayis"or
countof eventsis based on Bernstein, "Political," "Blackanimal," see Shohat,"Sephardim," p. 6.
pp.28-31andGiladi,Discord,pp. 253-54.Alsoon 66. Giladi,Discord,p. 256.

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68 JOURNAL OF PALESTINE STUDIES

67. Bernstein,
"Conflict,"
p. 134;Giladi,Discord,p. 78. PersonalCommunication withSami Chetrit,
259. August1995.
68. Bernstein, "Conflict,"p. 136. Also see Cohen 79. On theMizrahifeminist movement and itsor-
and Shemesh, "TheOrigin," p. 19. Cohengivesthe ganization, see Ella Shohat,"MizrahiFeminism:
numbersof the demonstrators to be 10,000- The Politicsof Gender,Race,and Multicultural-
15,000. ism,"NewsFromWithin12,no.5 (May1996).News
69. Cohen,'The BlackPanthers," p. 100. FromWithinis published bytheAlternative Infor-
70. Bernstein, "Conflict,"p. 140. On thegeneral mationCenterinJerusalem and Bethlehem.
politicalviewsof theBlackPanthers, also see Gi- 80. Seetheir interview inFilastinal-Thawra,11 Oc-
ladi,Discord,pp. 261-66;and Cohen,"TheBlack tober1986.
Panthers."See also "Entre La Revolte etL'Autisme," aboutthesemeetings,
and Smooha,'Israel." 81. For moreinformation
see Giladi,Discord,pp.316-26.I wouldalso liketo
71. Shapiro,"Zionism," p. 24; and Israleft,20 No- thankEllaShohat,oneoftheSephardi delegates to
vember1972. theToledoconference, forsharing herobservations
72. Bernstein, "Conflict,"p. 147-49. withme.
73. Thepractice ofdemolishing unlicensed houses
or roomsis commonly used againstPalestinians 82. Foran analysisofMizrahi voting behavior, see
butnotAshkenazim, whoin anycase do notneed Avishai Ehrlich, "TheOriental Support forBegin-A
to resorttoillegalconstruction, as thePalestinians Critiqueof Farjoun,"Khamsin 10 (1983), pp.
frequently and theMizrahim sometimes need to. 40-46; Emmanuel Farjoun,"ClassDivisionsin Is-
Forthedemonstrations, seeGiladi,Discord,p. 290; raeliSociety," Khamsin10 (1983),pp.29-39;Giora
Ha'Aretz,28 December1984;InternationalHerald Goldberg and Efraim Ben Zadok,"Voting Patterns
Tribune,31 December1982;and Zu Haderekh,29 ofOrientalJews in Development Towns,"Jerusalem
December1982. Quarterly32 (Summer 1984),pp. 16-27;A.Hoder,
74. MostIsraelipartieshavean economicbase; "OrientalJews in Israel-CollectiveSchizophrenia,"
Mapaihas theHistadrut andHistadrut-owned cor- Khamsin 5 (1978), pp. 35-40; MauriceRoumani,
porations, Mapamthe Kibbutzim, Herut,private "TheSephardi Factor in IsraeliPolitics,"
MiddleEast
capital,and so on. Journal 42, no. 3 (Summer1988), pp. 423-35;
75. Ashkenazi-dominated Israelitradeunionsand IsraelShahak,"TheOriental Jewsin IsraeliPoli-
leftistparties (includingRakah) supportthe tics,"MiddleEast International,no. 227 (15 June
Mizrahimas individualworkers, not as an op- 1984),pp. 15-16;SammySmooha,"Internal Divi-
pressedethnicgroup. sionsin Israelat Forty," MiddleEast Review20, no.
76. On Ma'avak'85, see "Dissent:Ma'avak'85 4 (Summer 1988),pp.26-36;ShlomoSwirski, "The
(Struggle '85)," New Outlook28 (February-MarchOriental Jewsin Israel:VVhy ManyTiltedToward
1985),pp.36-37.On EastForPeace,see "TheOri- Begin,"Dissent 31 (Winter1984),pp. 77-91.For
entalJewish PeaceMovements-A RayofHope,"The conservative Ashkenazi-centric analysesof the
OtherIsrael,Newsletter oftheIsraeliCouncilforIs- Mizrahivote,see OfiraSeliktar, "EthnicStratifica-
raeli-PalestinianPeace,no.26 (June1987),pp.7-9. tionand Foreign Policyin Israel:TheAttitudes of
On Ohalim, see ShlomoHassan,"TheEmergence of Oriental JewsTowardstheArabsand theArab-Is-
an UrbanSocial Movement in IsraeliSociety-An raeliConflict," Middle East Journal 28, no. 1 (Win-
Integrated Approach," International Journalof Ur- ter1984),pp. 34-50; Ken Shachter, "TheEthnic
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