@

PILEFOUNDATION
@

Preparedby:

SWREAMEERHASSAN
CivilENG.
RPQS










@bm@aq@na@m@@bq@a@i@@bq
N@N@N@na@q@@n

@i@bb@m@@@bn@a@bi@bq
N@N@N@bbq@@@q@

@@@b@@ai@bnb@@@i@@bq
@N@N@@@oa@i@

y@@@ @





PILEFOUNDATION

Apileisaslender,structuralmemberinstalledinthegroundto
transferthestructuralloadstosoilsatsomesignificantdepthbelowthe
baseofthestructure.Structuralloadsincludeaxialloads,lateralloads
andmoments.

PILEFOUNDATIONAREUSEDWHEN:

The soil near the surface does not have sufficient bearing capacity
tosupportthestructuralloads.
The estimated settlement of the soil exceeds tolerable limits ( i.e.,
settlementgreaterthantheserviceabilitylimitstate).
Differential settlement due to soil variability or non uniform
structuralloadsisexcessive.
Thestructuralloadsconsistoflateralloadsand/orupliftforces.
Excavations to construct a shallow foundation on a firm soil layer
aredifficultorexpensive.

The ultimate object of the designer of piled foundations is the
determinationofthesafeloadswhichcanbecarriedbyindividualpilesor
bygroupsofpiles.Thetotalloadtobesupportedmustbecarriedinsuch
awaythatthedistributionofloadovertheareaofsubsoilisregulatedto
suitthepropertiesofthesupportingstratum.Suchestimation,thoughof
necessity based on empirical findings , is considerably assisted by
applicationoftheprinciplesofsoilmechanics

SITEINVESTIGATION

Before the correct type of foundation can be determined a full and

careful investigation of the site should be made . Tests on soil samples

and careful mapping of surface and under ground conditions show
whetherapiledfoundationisreallynecessary,orwhethertheproperties
of the various strata permit of a more economic solution by the use of
rafts or isolated footings . Such a decision is usually made after
examinationofsoilmechanics.

TYPEOFPILES

Pilesaremadefromconcreteorsteelortimber.Theselectionofthe
type of pile required for a project depends on what type is readily
available , the magnitude of the loading , the soil type , and the
environmentinwhichthepilewillbeinstalled,forexample,acorrosive
environmentoramarineenvironment.

 . CONCRETEPILE:

Thereareseveraltypesofconcretepilesthatarecommonlyused.
These include castinplace concrete piles , precast concrete piles , and
drilled shafts . Castinplace concrete piles are formed by driving a
cylindricalsteelshellintothegroundtothedesireddepthandthenfilling
thecavityoftheshellwithfluidconcrete.

Precast concrete piles usually have square or circular or octagonal

cross sections and are fabricated in a construction yard from reinforced
orprestressedconcrete.Averypopulartypeofprecastconcretepileis
theRaymondcylindricalprestressedpile.

. STEELPILES:

Steelpilescomeinvariousshapesandsizesandincludecylindrical,
tapered , and Hpiles . Steel H piles are rolled steel sections and are
called non displacement piles . Steel pipe piles are seamless pipes that
canbeweldedtoyieldlengthsuptom.Theyareusuallydrivenwith
openendsintothesoil.

. TIMBERPILES:

Timberpileshavebeenusedsinceancienttimes.Thelengthsoftimber
pilesdependonthetypesoftreesusedtoharvestthepiles,butcommon

length areaboutm.

PILEINSTALLATION

Pilecaneitherbedrivenintotheground(drivenpiles)orbeinstalled
in a predrilled hole ( bored piles or drilled shafts ) . A variety of driving
equipmentisusedinpileinstallations.Thekeycomponentsaretheleads
and thehammer. The leads are used to align thehammer to strikethe
pilesquarely.Hammerscanbesimpledrophammersofweightsbetween
.andKNormodernsteam/pneumatichammers.

Therearetwopopulartypesofhammer:

Singleactinghammerutilizessteamorairtolifttheramandits
accessories(cushion,drivecaps,etc.).
Doubleactinghammerisusedtoincreasethenumberofblows/
minuteandutilizessteam/airtolifttheramandforceitdown.

PILEDRIVINGFORMUL

Theloadwhichcanbesafelyimposedonasinglepileisoftencalculated
from pile driving formulae or from the results of test loadings . The
numerousattemptswhichhavebeenmadetoreducetoorderthewidely
varying conditions encountered in constructing pile foundations have
resultedintheproductionofmanyempiricalexpressions.

These have usually been constructed by equating the energy applied in

drivingthepiletotheworkdoneincausingpenetration.Allowancesare
made for the losses of energy which are known to occur but whose
magnitudecanonlybeestimated.Suchexpressionsarecalled(DYNAMIC
FORMUL ) , inwhich the properties of the soil are quiteinadequately
represented by the measured penetration or set of the pile under the
hammerblow.

A"complete"formulaisoftheform:

Appliedenergy=Usefulwork+Lossinimpact+Lossinpilecap+Lossin
pile+Lossinsoil



When the properties of the various foundation strata are examined by
the methods of soil mechanics or used in an estimation of the possible
resistance of a pile to long continued static loading , the expressions
whichresultareknownas(STATICFORMUL).

Thebearingcapacityofthepilecanthusberepresentedbytheequation;

Rd=rpA+fL

Where:

Rd=bearingcapacityofpile

Rp=intensityofappliedloadingatleveloftipsofpiles

A=crosssectionalareaofpile

f=frictionalorcohesiveresistanceperunitarea

L=lengthofpile

p=perimeterofpile

Itcannotbesaidthateitherofthesemethodsisadequateorconsistentin
estimating the possible loading on a pile : wide variations and much
uncertaintyoccur.Aconfirmationorcheckcanbeobtainedfromadirect
loading test ona typical pile amethod which appears to give a sound
answertotheproblem.Eventheresultsofsuchatestmust,however,
be treated with caution and experience , especially in extrapolation to
groupsofpilesandinapplicationtocohesivefoundationmaterial.

LOADINGTESTS

Thepurposesofapileloadtestare:

Todeterminetheaxialloadcapacityofasinglepile
Todeterminethesettlementofasinglepileatworkingloads.
Toverifyestimatedaxialloadcapacity
To obtain information on load transfer in skin friction and end
bearing.

In a typical pile load test , the test pile is driven to the desired depth ,
loads are applied incrementally , and the settlement of the pile is
recorded . The axial loads can be applied by stacking sand bags on a
loadingframeattachedtothepileor,morepopularly,byjackingagainst
a reaction beam and reaction piles (shown in fig. ) . If load transfer
informationisrequired,thepilemustbeinstrumentedto ascertainthe
internalloadofthepileshaft.

Theinterpretationoftheloadcapacitydependsonthemethodofthe
loading.Twoloadingmethodsarepopular.Inonemethod,calledthe
constantrateofpenetration(CRP)test,theloadisappliedataconstant
rateofpenetrationof.mm/mininfinegrainedsoilsand.
mm/minincoarsegrainedsoils.Intheothermethod,calledthequick
maintainedload(QML),incrementsofload,about%ofthedesign
load,areappliedatintervalsofabout.min.Attheendofeachload
increment,theloadandsettlementarerecorded.Schematicvariations

ofpileloadtestplotsareshownin(fig.).

Theultimateloadisnotalwayswelldefined.Loadsettlementcurve(a)
in(fig.)showsawelldefinedultimateloadwhilecurve(b)doesnot.
Toobtaintheultimateloadfromcurve(b)variousempiricalprocedures
have been suggested . One simple method is to find the intersection of
thetangentsofthetwopartsofthecurve.Thevalueattheordinateof
theintersection(cinfig.)isQult.Theallowableloadcapacityisfoundby
dividingtheultimateloadbyafactorofsafety,usually.Analternative
criterion is to determine the allowable pile load capacity for a desired
serviceability limit state , for example , a settlement of % of the pile
diameter . The settlement at the allowable ( working ) load capacity is
readilydeterminedfromtheloadsettlementplot(fig.)

PILEGROUPS

In most practical situations , piles are used in groups . They are

arranged in geometric patterns ( squares , rectangles , circles , and
octagons)ataspacing,s(centertocenterdistance),notlessthanD(
whereDisthediameterorwidthofthepile).Thepilesareconnectedat
theirheadsbyaconcretepilecap,whichmayormaynotbeincontact
withtheground(fig.).Ifthepilecapisincontactwiththeground,part
oftheloadwillbetransferreddirectlytothesoil.

Theloadcapacityforapilegroupisnotnecessarilytheloadcapacityofa
singlepilemultipliedbythenumberofpiles.Infinegrainedsoils,the
outer piles tend to carry more leads than the piles in the center of the
group.Incoarsegrainedsoils,thepilesinthecentertakemoreloads
thantheouterpiles.

Theratiooftheloadcapacityofapilegroup,(Qult)g,tothetotalload
capacity of the piles acting as individual piles ( n Qult ) is called the
efficiencyfactor,ne;thatis,

(Qult)g

ne=

nQult

Where(n)isthenumberofpilesinthegroupand(Qult)istheultimate
loadcapacityofasinglepile.theefficiencyfactorisusuallylessthan.
However,pilesdrivenintoaloose,coarsegrainedsoiltendtodensify
thesoilaroundthepilesandnecouldexceed.

Twomodesofsoilfailurearenormallyinvestigatedtodeterminetheload
capacityofapilegroup.Onemode,calledblockfailure(showninfig.),
mayoccurwhenthespacingofthepilesissmallenoughtocausethepile
grouptofailasaunit.Thegrouploadcapacityforblockfailuremodeis

ESA

1 1

TSA

 Su

Wherethesubscript(gb)denotesblockmodeoffailureforthegroup.

Tootherfailuremodeisfailureofindividualpilescalledsinglepilefailure
mode or punching failure mode . The key assumption in the single pile
failuremodeisthateachpilemobilizesitsfullloadcapacity(efficiency=
).Thus,thegrouploadcapacityis

(Qult)g=nQult

Thegroupefficiencyinfinegrainedsoilsisdefinedas

e=(Qult)gb[(Qult)gb+(nQult)]-/

Thevaluesof(p)touseindeterminingNqinJanbu,sequationonthes/D
ratioandthefrictionangle.Janbu()showedthat

s/D=+sinP(tan'++tan')exp(ptan')

Thevalueof(p)isnotsignificantlyaffectedbys/D..





PILESSUBJECTEDTONEGATIVESKINFRICTION

Pileslocatedinsettingsoillayers(e.g.,softclaysorfills)aresubjected
tonegativeskinfrictioncalleddowndrag(showninfig.).Thesettlement
ofthesoillayercausesthefrictionforcestoactinthesamedirectionas
the loading on the pile . Rather than providing resistance , the negative
friction imposes additional loads on the pile . The net effect is that the
pile load capacity is reduced and pile settlement increases . The
allowableloadcapacityisgiven,withreferenceto(showninfig.),as

Qnf

Forasoft,normallyconsolidatedsoil,thenegativeskinfrictionisusually
calculatedoveronehalfitsthickness.Negativeskinfrictionshouldbe
computedforlongtermcondition;thatis,youshoulduseanESA.

LATERALLYLOADEDPILES

Structures founded on piles are often subjected to lateral loads and

momentsinadditiontoverticalloads.Lateralloadsmaycomefromwind
,traffic,seismicevents,waves,dockingships,andearthpressures.

Momentsmaycomefromtheeccentricityoftheverticalforce,fixityof
thesuperstructuretothepiles,andthelocationofthelateralforceson
thepilewithreferencetothegroundsurface.

Whenapileissubjectedtolateralforcesandmoments,thepiletendsto
bendordeflect.Thedeflectionofthepilecausesstrainsinthesoilmass.
Tosatisfyequilibrium,thesoilmustprovidereactionsalongthelengthof
thepiletobalancetheappliedloadsandmoments.

Because soil is a nonlinear material , the soil reaction is not linearly

related to the pile deflection . Consequently at every point along the
length of the pile , a nonlinear relationship between soil resistance and
piledeflection.

Indesigninglaterallyloadedpiles,weneedtoknowthepiledeflection,
tosatisfyserviceabilityrequirementandthebendingmomentsforsizing
thepile.Thepileheaddeflectiondependsonsoiltype,pileinstallation,
pileflexibility(orpilestiffness),loadingcondition,andonhowthepile
isattachedtothesuperstructureandpilecap.Apilethatisattachedto
thepilecapsuchthatnorotationoccursiscalledafixedheadpile.Apile
thatisattachedtothepilecapsuchthatrotationisunrestrictediscalled
afreeheadpile.


The mechanism of failure depends on the length to diameter or width
ratio,soiltype,andthefixityofthepilehead.

Free head piles tend to fail by rotation . Lateral loads and moments
applied to a free head pile are initially resisted by the soil near ground
level.Forverysmallpiledeflections,thesoilbehaveselasticallyandas
the deflection increases the soil yields and then permanent soil
displacement occurs . The soil resistance is shifted to the lower part of
thepileasyieldingprogressivelyoccursfromthetoptothebottomofthe
pile . Fixed head piles tend to fail by translation . Piles in general are
neither fixed head nor free head . They have undermined fixity
somewherebetweenfreeheadandfixedheadconditions.Youcanview
fixed head and free head as two limiting conditions in which piles in
practicewillrespondsomewherewithintheselimits.

Laterally loaded piles , particularly group piles , are difficult to analyze

mainlybecauseofthecomplexityofthesoilstructure(pile)interaction
. The displacements and rotations are in the directions of the resultant
lateralloadandresultantmoment.Outerpilesinagrouparesubjected
to uplift ( pull ) and compressive ( push ) forces while the piles in the
center translate at the level of the super structure connection . The
responseofapilegrouptolateralloadsandmomentsisinfluencedby

 Geometryofthepile
Pilesoilinteraction
Stiffnessorflexibilityofthepiles
Loadconditions
Individualpileresponse
Pilegroupresponseresultingfromindividualpileresponses

 Summary

Pilesareusedtosupportstructuralloadsthatcannotbesupported
onshallowfoundations.Thepredominanttypesofpilematerialaresteel
,concrete,andtimber.Theselectionofaparticulartypeofpiledepends
onavailability,environmentalconditions,pileinstallationmethods,and
cost . Pile load capacity can not be determined accurately because the
methodofinstallationinvariablychangesthesoilpropertiesnearthepile
. We do not know the extent of these changes . The equations for pile
loadcapacitiesandsettlementare,atbest,estimates.Loadcapacities
frompileloadtestsarepreferredbutthesetestsareexpensiveandmay
onlybecosteffectiveforlargeprojects.

References:

SoilMechanicsandFoundation/ndEdition/MUNIBUDHU

TheMechanicsofEngineeringSoils/Fourth,Revisededition/P.
LeonardCapperandW.FisherCassie

SoilsandGeology/ProceduresForFoundationdesignofBuildings
andOtherStructures(ExceptHydraulicStructures)