Pipe Rack Design Philosophy

In this page I will talk about the pipe rack design philosophy. Pipe rack is the main
artery of any plant. This carries the pipes and cable trays (raceways) from one
equipment to another equipment within a process unit (called ISBL pipe-rack) or
carries the pipe and cable trays from one unit to another unit (called OSBL pipe
rack). Sometimes you will also find the AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS on
the pipe rack.

There are different types of pipe rack:

1. Continuous Pipe-racks (conventional pipe rack) system

2. Non-continuous Pipe-racks system
3. Modular Pipe rack

1- Conventional / Continuous Pipe rack

Continuous Pipe-racks (conventional pipe rack) system: This is essentially a

system where multiple 2-dimensional (2D) frame assemblies (commonly called
bents), comprised of two or more columns with transverse beams, are tied together
in the longitudinal direction utilizing beam struts (for support of transverse pipe
and raceway elements and for longitudinal stability of the system) and vertical
bracing to form a 3D space frame arrangement. Pipe-racks supporting equipment
such as air-cooled heat exchangers must utilize the continuous system approach.
Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design:

Due to the fast track nature associated with most of the projects, often the final
piping, raceway, and equipment information is not available at initiation of the
pipe-rack design. Therefore, as a Civil/Structural Engineer, you should coordinate
with the Piping group, Electrical, Control Systems, and Mechanical groups to
obtain as much preliminary information as possible. When received, all design
information should be documented for future reference and verification. In the
initial design, the Engineer should use judgment when applying or allowing for
loads that are not known, justifying them in the design basis under "Design
Philosophy" (a part of your calculation)

The following should be reviewed for design information:

Plot plans and equipment location plans

3D model showing piping layout, cable tray layout, Pipe-rack bent spacing
and elevation of support levels in the transverse direction, Elevation of
longitudinal beam struts and locations of vertical bracing. And location of
pipe bridge, if any.
Piping orthographic drawings.
Vendor prints of equipment located on the rack, e.g., air coolers and
exchangers. The vendor prints should include the equipment layout,
mounting locations and details, access and maintenance requirements, and
the magnitude and direction of loads being transmitted to the pipe-rack.
Electrical and control systems drawings showing the routing and location of
electrical and instrumentation raceways and/or supports.
Underground drawings that show the locations of buried pipes, concrete
structures and foundations, duct banks, etc. in the area of the pipe-rack.
Pipe rack construction material (Steel, Cast-in-situ concrete, Pre-cast
concrete) shall be as per project design criteria.

Please note that, Unless specifically explained in the project design criteria, no
allowance or provisions should be made for future additions for pipe or raceway
space and related loading.
Step-2: Design loads consideration:
Following loads are to be considered for the pipe rack design:

Piping Gravity load (D): In the absence of defined piping loads and locations, an
assumed minimum uniform pipe load of 2.0 kPa should be used for preliminary
design of pipe-racks. This corresponds to an equivalent load of 6 in (150 mm)
lines full of water covered with 2 in (50 mm) thick insulation, and spaced on 12 in
(300 mm) centers. This assumption should be verified based on coordination with
the Piping Group, and concentrated loads should also be applied for any
anticipated large pipes. When the actual loads and locations become known, as the
project develops, the structural design should be checked against these assumed
initial load parameters and revised as required. A concentrated load should then be
added for pipes that are 12 in (300 mm) and larger in diameter. The concentrated
load P should be:

P =(W - s x p x d),
s = Spacing of pipe-rack bent, p = pipe weight considered (kPa),
d = pipe diameter
W = pipe concentrated load.

Where consideration of uplift or system stability due to wind or seismic

occurrences is required, use 60% of the design gravity loads as an "all pipes
empty" load condition.

Loading due to hydrostatic testing of lines should be considered in the design if

applicable. Coordinate the testing plan(s) with Construction, Startup, and/or the
Piping Group as necessary, in order to fully understand how such loads will be
applied to the pipe-rack structure. Under most normal conditions, multiple lines
will not be simultaneously tested. The hydro-test loads do not normally need to be
considered concurrently with the other non-permanent loads, such as live load,
wind, earthquake, and thermal. Typical practice is to permit an overstress of 15%
for the hydro-test condition. Because of these considerations, the hydro-test
condition will not normally govern except for very large diameter pipes.

Electrical Tray and Conduits (D): Electrical and control systems drawings
and/or the project 3D model should be reviewed to determine the approximate
weight and location of electrical trays, conduits, and instrumentation commodities.
Unless the weight of the loaded raceways can be defined, an assumed minimum
uniform load of 1.0 kPa should be used for single tier raceways.
Self-weight of Pipe rack (D): The weight of all structural members, including
fireproofing, should be considered in the design of the pipe-rack.

Weight of Equipment on pipe rack (D): Equipment weights, including erection,

empty, operating, and test (if the equipment is to be hydro-tested on the pipe-rack),
should be obtained from the vendor drawings. The equipment weight should
include the dead weight of all associated platforms, ladders, and walkways, as
applicable. Special Loads: Special consideration should be given to unusual loads,
such as large valves, expansion loops, and unusual piping or electrical
configurations.

Live Load (L): Live load (L) on access platforms and walkways and on
equipment platforms should be considered, as applicable.

Snow Load (S): Snow load to be considered on cable tray and on large dia pipes.
This load shall be calculated per project approved design code and project design
criteria. Generally, you need to consider 100% snow load on top tier and 50% on
other tier of pipe racks.

Wind Load (W): Transverse wind load on structural members, piping, electrical
trays, equipment, platforms, and ladders should be determined in accordance with
project approved design code. Longitudinal wind should typically be applied to
structural framing, cable tray vertical drop (if any), large dia pipes vertical drop (if
any) and equipment only. The effects of longitudinal wind on piping and trays
running parallel to the wind direction should be neglected.

Earthquake Loads (E): Earthquake loads in the vertical, transverse, and

longitudinal directions should be determined in accordance with the project design
criteria. Vertical, transverse, and longitudinal seismic forces generated by the
pipes, raceways, supported equipment, and the pipe-rack structure should be
considered and should be based on their operating weights. Pipes must be
evaluated for seismic loads under both full and empty conditions and then
combined with the corresponding gravity loads.

Friction Loading (Tf): Friction forces caused by hot lines sliding across the pipe
support during startup and shutdown are assumed to be partially resisted through
friction by nearby cold lines. Therefore, in order to provide for a nominal
unbalance of friction forces acting on a pipe support, a resultant longitudinal
friction force equal to 7.5% of the total pipe weight or 30% of any one or more
lines known to act simultaneously in the same direction, whichever is larger, is
assumed for pipe-rack design. Friction between piping and supporting steel should
not be relied upon to resist wind or seismic loads.

Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): Pipe-racks should be checked for anchor and
guide loads as determined by the Pipe Stress Group. It may be necessary to use
horizontal bracing if large anchor forces are encountered. For conventional pipe
rack systems, it is normally preferred to either have the anchors staggered along
the pipe-rack so that each support has only one or two anchors, or to anchor most
pipes on one braced support. For initial design, when anchor and guide loads are
not known, use a longitudinal anchor force of 5.0 kN acting at midspan of each
bent transverse beam (refer project design criteria). Guide loads are usually small
and may be ignored until they are defined by the Pipe Stress Engineer. For non-
continuous pipe rack systems, piping may be transversely guided or anchored at
both cantilever frames and anchor bays. Longitudinal anchors may be located only
at anchor bays.

Please note that, all friction forces and anchor forces with less magnitude, (say ~
5.0 kN), applied to the top flange of the beam, may be considered as resisted by the
total beam section. When anchor loads have large magnitude and are applied to
the top flange of the beam, the effect of torsion must be addressed. If the beam
section is inadequate to take care of this torsional force, alternatives to be
considered, such as provide horizontal bracings at the load locations.
Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack:

You need to create the load combinations per your project design criteria.
However, I have referred here some load combinations.

Please note the following:

Earthquake load is a factored load.

For load combinations that include wind or earthquake loads, use only the
non-friction portion (anchor and guide portion) of the thermal loads, i.e.,
friction loads are not combined with wind or seismic loads. Friction loads
are considered to be self-relieving during wind and earthquake and should
only be combined with anchor and guide loads when wind or earth-quake
loads are not considered.
Hydrostatic test loads need not be combined with wind and earthquake loads
unless there is a reasonable probability of the occurrence of either of these
loads during hydrostatic testing.

For calculation of foundation soil bearing pressures or pile loads, stability checks
against overturning, sliding, and buoyancy, and deflection checks, the following
unfactored load combinations (ACI 318) shall be used:

1. D
2. D + L + SL + Tf + Ta
3. D + Tf + Ta
4. D + 1.3W + Ta
5. D + L + 0.5SL + 1.3W +Ta
6. D + L + S +0.65W + Ta
7. 0.9De + 1.3W + Ta
8. D + E/1.4 + Ta
9. D + 0.2S + E/1.4 + Ta
10. 0.9De + E/1.4 + Ta
Load Combinations for design of foundations (ACI 318):

1. 1.4D
2. 1.4D + 1.7L +1.7S
3. 1.4D + 1.4Tf +1.4Ta
4. 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7S + 1.4Tf + 1.4Ta)
5. 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7S + 1.4Ta) + 1.6W
6. 1.2D + 0.2S + 1.0E + 1.2Ta
7. 0.9De + 1.6W + 1.2Ta
8. 0.9De + 1.0E + 1.2Ta

Steel Design load combinations: (AISC - LRFD)

1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5S + 1.2Tf + 1.2Ta
3. 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5L + 1.2Tf + 1.2Ta
4. 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.8W + 1.2Ta
5. 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5S + 1.2Ta
6. 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S + 1.2Ta
7. 0.9De + 1.6W + 1.2Ta
8. 0.9De + 1.0E + 1.2Ta

De is the minimum dead load on the structure.

FINAL ANCHOR AND GUIDE LOAD CHECK:

Where the design of transverse beams has been based on anchor loads as explained
in step-2,a final check of beams (and other affected members) should be made
when final definition of these loads is available from the Pipe Stress Engineer.
Based on the Engineer's experience and judgment, an overstress in any element (of
up to 10%) can be considered, provided proper justification is given. Where such
overstress cannot be properly justified, modifications should be made to the -able.
Modifications could entail the addition of horizontal bracing to the transverse
beams to resist significant loads from the anchor(s), replacing and/or adding
members, strengthening members (i.e., cover plating, etc.), and/or relocating the
anchor and guide load(s).
ALLOWABLE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DEFLECTION:

Allowable deflections of pipe-rack structures shall be as per project design criteria.

However, you can consider the following as limit of deflection: Lateral deflection
produced by load combinations that include wind or seismic forces: Pipe-racks
supporting equipment: h/100, unless a more stringent requirement is given by the
manufacturer of the equipment. Pipe-racks supporting piping and raceway only:
h/200or as per project design criteria. Lateral deflection produced by sustained
static forces such as pipe and anchor loads: h/200 or as per project design criteria
Vertical deflection of beams due to gravity pipe loads as per project design criteria
h is the total height of the pipe rack structure.

Step-4: Framing of Continuous/Conventional Pipe rack:

Frames
Main pipe-racks are usually designed as moment-resisting frames in the transverse
direction. In the longitudinal direction, there should be at least one continuous
level of beam struts on each side. For pipe-racks with more than one tier, the beam
struts should be located at a level that is usually equal to one-half tier spacing
above or below the bottom tier. Vertical bracing in the longitudinal direction
should be provided to carry the longitudinal forces, transmitted through the beam
struts, to the baseplate / foundation level.

Transverse Beam
Transverse beams must be capable of resisting all forces, moments, and shears
produced by the load combinations. Transverse beams are generally a moment-
resisting frame, modeled and analyzed as part of the frame system. The analysis
model must reflect the appropriate beam end conditions. In the design of beams,
consideration should be given to

Large pipes that are to be hydro-tested.

Anchor and friction load with large magnitude (see step-2, anchor and
friction load)
Central Spine:
For steel pipe-racks with spans of more than 6 m, a center spine consisting of a
system of horizontal braces and struts located at midspan of each level of piping
should be considered . This additional light horizontal framing greatly increases
the capacity of the transverse pipe support beams to resist friction and anchor
forces, and also serves to reduce the unbraced length of the beam compression
flange in flexure and to reduce the unbraced length of the beam about the weak-
axis in axial compression. This concept reduces the required beam sizes
and provides a mechanism for eliminating or minimizing design, fabrication, or
field modifications that could otherwise be required due to late receipt of
unanticipated large pipe anchor forces.

Longitudinal Beam Strut

For typical continuous pipe-rack systems, the longitudinal beam struts should be
designed as axially loaded members that are provided for longitudinal loads and
stability. Additionally, the longitudinal beam struts that support piping or raceway
should be designed for 50% of the gravity loading assumed for the transverse pipe
or raceway support beams, unless unusual loading is encountered. This 50%
gravity loading will account for the usual piping and raceway take-offs. Normally,
the gravity loading carried by the beam struts should not be added to the design
loads for the columns or footings since pipes or raceway contributing to the load
on the beam struts would be relieving an equivalent load on the transverse beams.
Concentrated loads for large pipes may be treated as in step-2.

For any continuous pipe-rack system where the anticipated piping and raceway
take-offs are minimal or none, the 50% loading criteria does not apply. In such
cases, the beam struts should be designed primarily as axially loaded members. Do
not provide beam struts if they are not needed for piping or raceway support, or for
system stability. Conversely, the 3D model should be checked to verify that beam
struts subjected to unusually large loads (such as at expansion loops) have been
given special consideration. All longitudinal beam struts, including connections,
should be designed to resist the axial loads produced by the longitudinal forces.

When designing the longitudinal beam struts for flexural loads, the full length of
the beam should be considered as the unbraced length for the compression flange.
Vertical Bracing
When moment-resisting frame design is not used in the longitudinal direction,
vertical bracing should be used to transmit the longitudinal forces from the beam
struts to the foundations. Knee-bracing or K-bracing is most often used for this
purpose. Unless precluded by equipment arrangement or interferences, bracing
should be placed equidistant between two expansion joints. Design calculations
and drawings must reflect a break in the beam strut continuity between adjacent
braced sections through the use of slotted connections or by eliminating the beam
struts in the bays designated as free bays. The maximum length of a braced section
should be limited to 48m to 50m. If the braced bay is not located equidistant from
the free bays, the maximum distance from the braced bay to a free bay should be
limited such that the maximum total longitudinal growth or shrinkage of the
unrestrained segment does not exceed 40 mm.

Column

the columns must be capable of resisting all loads, moments, and shears produced
by the load combinations. A moment-resisting frame analysis should normally be
used to determine the axial load, moment, and shear at points along the columns.
The frame analysis model should be based on the following:

Consider column base as hinge.

Use 4 bolt connections for safety purpose

For design of steel columns subjected to flexural loads, the distance between the
base and the first transverse beam or the knee brace intersection should be
considered as the compression flange unbraced length.
 2- Non-continuous Pipe-racks system

In this page I will talk about the Non-continuous pipe-rack system. I hope you have
read the Conventional pipe rack system design philosophy. If not, please read that
section before.

Non- Continuous Pipe rack:

This is a system comprised of independent cantilevered, freestanding 2D frames
not dependent on longitudinal beam struts for system stability. This system, where
feasible, should result in lower total installed cost (TIC).

Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design:

Method of Data collections is same as continuous pipe rack. Please look into 3D
model and collect all the data as required.

Step-2: Design loads consideration:

Following loads are to be considered for the non-conventional pipe rack design:

Gravity load (D): For Gravity load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack
system

Wind Load (W): For Wind load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack
system,

Earthquake Loads (E): For Earth quake load calculation, refer Conventional
pipe rack system. Longitudinal seismic will be applied on anchor bay only.

Friction Loading (Tf): Friction forces caused by hot lines sliding across the pipe
support during startup and shutdown do not apply on individual frame, as frame
will deflect along the pipe direction. Therefore, this force will be considered on
anchor bay only.
Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): For Anchor and Guide load calculation,
refer Conventional pipe rack system,

Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack:

For Load combinations and allowable deflection of non-conventional pipe rack,

refer Conventional pipe rack system,

Step - 4: Frames of non-conventional pipe rack:

 3- Modular Pipe-racks system

In this page I will talk about the Modular pipe-rack system. I hope you have read
the Conventional pipe rack system design philosophy. If not, please read that
section before.

Modular Pipe rack

sometimes clients look for modular pipe-rack / modular structure for their plants.
But do you know what a module is? Module is a series of standard units that
function together. Examples are:

Building modules: Structural Frames completely fitted with Miscellaneous

equipment and architectural finishes.
Pipe rack Module: Structural Frames completely fitted with pipes, Cable trays and
miscellaneous equipment.

Now the question is, why do we go for modular structure sometimes? Here are
some reasons:

If the project site is at remote location, then it will be very difficult to get
good local contractor.
Parallel construction activities are possible (foundation and module
fabrication) and gain in time schedule
Controlled construction environment is possible
Controlled quality controlled
In some countries, labor cost at site is more than labor cost at fabrication /
module assembly shop. So, if you fabricate and fit all the pipes, cable trays
etc. at shop, then you can save the project cost.

However, there are some disadvantages also and these are:

Late changes in design have huge effect on structure and module assembly.
Transportation cost from module shop to site may be very high.
Transportation time needs to be considered in total project schedule.
Pipe-rack Module Transportation: Module can be transported by roadways and
waterways. I have some experiences in roadways piperack module transportation.
In Alberta province (Canada) 100 ft (long) x 24 ft (wide) x 29ft-6 in (high from
road surface) PRM can be transported by truck from module yard to site. Please
click here for different module shipping envelope.

Pipe-rack Module Lifting: 4 point lifts are preferred and 8 point lifts are second
preference. 6 and 10 point lifting are difficult and should be avoided. 4 point lifts
reduce rigging cost and associated man-power during setting. 4 point lifts result
higher crane capacity and safer lifts due to shorter boom requirements. Regardless
of the length, typical self-supporting bridge truss style pipe rack modules use 4 lift
points located at the top of the modules columns in the webs. By lifting at the same
location that the module is supported in-situ, the force distribution throughout the
module
is similar to the in-situ design, except that the module columns are in compression
in-stu and reversed to tension during a lift. Please click here for 4-point module
lifting.
Following are some steps to design the Modular pipe rack:

Step-1: Data collection for pipe rack design:

Method of Data collections is same as Conventional pipe rack system. Please look
into 3D model and collect all the data as required.
Step-2: Design loads consideration:

Following loads are to be considered for the non-conventional pipe rack design:

Gravity load (D): For Gravity load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack
system

Wind Load (W): For Wind load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack
system,

Earthquake Loads (E): For Earth quake load calculation, refer Conventional
pipe rack system.

Friction Loading (Tf): For Friction load calculation, refer Conventional pipe rack
system.

Anchor and Guide Loads (Ta): For Anchor and Guide load calculation,
refer Conventional pipe rack system,

Transportation loads: When pipe-rack modules are transported on the road,

different types of horizontal loads are generated. During up-hill or down-hill
movement of the truck, we generally considered a horizontal load of value 30% of
total load (o.30 x dead weight) acts towards the longitudinal direction of the
module. During a truck turn or due to super elevation of the road, a horizontal load
is also generated (centrifugal force) and value of that load is also 0.30 x weight of
module (30% of total dead load) acting transverse direction of modules. But both
the horizontal loads (longitudinal and transverse direction) do not act together.
Other than these horizontal loads, we also consider wind load and vertical impact
load.
Summary of transportation load:

Vertical Impact Load (IV) 50% of (self-weight of structure + Empty

weight of pipe + Cable tray)
Horizontal Impact in Longitudinal direction (IL) 30% of (self-weight of
structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray)
Horizontal Impact in Transverse direction (IT) 30% of (self-weight of
structure + Empty weight of pipe + Cable tray)
Wind load (WLT) Wind load is applied on pipe rack module structure,
pipe and cable tray, in Transverse direction.

You need to check the Factor of safety against overturning during transportation
and value should be more than 1.5.

Erection loads and lifting points: In this case we generally consider a vertical
impact load (load factor = 1.5) on module.
Step - 3: Load Combinations and allowable deflection of pipe rack:

For Load combinations and allowable deflection of Modular pipe rack for in-situ
analysis and design, refer Conventional pipe rack system,

Modular pipe rack to be analyzed for transportation and for lifting also.

Lifting load combinations: LC1 = 2.0 x Total dead load (ultimate load
combinations for member design per Canadian steel code CISC / NBC -95)

Transportation load combinations (ultimate load combinations per CISC-

Canadian steel code / NBC -95 for member design)):

LC1: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x IL

LC2: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x IT
LC3: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.5 x IV + 1.5 x Wind
LC4: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.05 x IV + 1.05 x IT + 1.05 x Wind
LC5: 1.25 x Dead load + 1.05 x IV + 1.05 x IL + 1.05 x Wind

Above load combinations are for reference only. You need to follow your project
design criteria for the pipe-rack analysis and design.

Step - 4: Frames of Modular pipe rack: