Geography for IAS Akshay Hajare

Contents
Part 1 Applied Geomorphology
Part 2 Economic Geology And Environment
Part 3 Geohydrology

Part 1 Applied Geomorphology

Geomorphology has traditionally focused on the study of landforms and on the processes
involved in their formation. Applied geomorphology is the practical application of this study
to a range of environmental issues, both in terms of current problems and of future prediction.
Applied geomorphology provides a strategic tool for informed decision-making in public
policy development and in environmental resource management. Key areas of application
include specific environmental settings, such as the coastal zone or dry-land environments; the
impacts of land use and management practice on Earth surface processes; and areas
susceptible to natural hazards.

The main theme of applied geomorphology is to investigate the impact and changes brought
in natural environment systems and economic activities, problems arising from the same
and to suggest suitable remedial measures thereof; to study the impact of geomorphological
processes/ environmental processes on different aspects of human society and human
activities; and to attend problems of resource management and monitor changes in geomorphic
/environmental systems including both landscape characteristics and landform processes
consequent upon human economic activities

Definition: Applied geomorphology may be defined as the application of geomorphologic

understanding to the analysis of solution of problems concerning land occupancy, resource
exploitation, environmental management and planning - D.K.C Jones (1980)

The aims of Applied Geomorphology are

to assist in the efficient discovery, assessment and wise management of the earth's
finite resources,
to prevent environmental deterioration and
to avoid or prevent natural hazards.

Application of geomorphology can be divided into two categories (R.J.Chorley)

I) Man as geomorphic agent, in terms of this inadvertent and planned effects on
geomorphic processes and forms.
II) Geomorphology as an aid to resource evaluation, engineering, construction and
planning.

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Early Works in AG

Thornbury (Principles of Geomorphology, 1950) stressed the need for applying

geomorphology to mineral and oil exploration, hydrological studies and engineering projects.

International Geographical Union(IGU)

Appointed a commission on Applied Geomorphology in 1956.
Appointed commissions on 1) Man and Environment, 2) Geomorphological Survey
and Mapping, 3) Present day geomorphological processes and experiments in
geomorphology in 1968.

UNESCO
In its concern for man and environment has acknowledged the importance of applied
geomorphology in its quarterly publication Nature and Resources, being published since 1965
as well as in the publications of the International Hydrological Decade (IHD)

Some Prominent Areas of Applied Geomorphology

Hazard and Risk

Natural hazards such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and mudflows present a

significant risk to the population of the surrounding area. Geomorphological
mapping can be used to assess the present condition of the landscape and provide
a hazard map. The expression of a disaster may result in one settlement having
significantly different risk assessment. For example, a volcanic eruption may pose
a threat from volcanic ash and lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and bombardment from
superheated volcanic bombs or associated hazards such as mudflows, depending on
topography, soil cover, type of eruption, and predominant wind direction. This
application of geomorphological analysis is of significant interest to the emergency
services and the insurance industry.

Coastal Landforms

Over 60 per cent of the world's population live in the coastal zone in environments
ranging from coral atolls, reclaimed or natural wetlands, dune-backed beaches, and
barrier islands to cliff tops. Settlements under threat from coastal erosion and flooding
from storm events, sea surges, and rising sea level lobby for protective engineering
measures to prevent loss of property, livelihood, and life. Geomorphology has several
applications in settings of this type. An understanding of coastal landforms and the
processes acting upon them can be used to map areas at risk from cliff failure, beach
erosion, and flooding. This approach is of interest to potential developers and the
insurance industry and is an important tool in environmental impact assessment
(EIA). An understanding of the geomorphology of the coastal zone can also be used to

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predict the effects of modifying the coastal system. The installation of groynes,
breakwaters, or protective sea walls has knock-on effects on the natural circulation of
water and sediment in the near-shore environment. Artificially stabilizing cliffs to
prevent erosion may seem the obvious solution for cliff-top dwellers, but a
geomorphological evaluation might predict that this approach could starve beaches of
the sediment provided by natural cliff fall, with a consequent impact on longshore drift
of sediment, and would relocate the focus of erosion further along the coast. The nature
of the problem may thus change from cliff failure at one site to beach erosion and
subsequent flooding at another. An understanding of the nature and complexity of
coastal dynamics is thus an essential component of a coastal-zone management strategy
and is important in predicting the future effects on coastal landforms of a rise in sea
level.

River Management Strategies

River-management strategies for flood alleviation have often adopted engineering

solutions concentrated in particular river reaches, which are usually in areas of urban
development. Reach-specific intervention measures include lining the natural channel
with concrete to prevent erosion and bank instability, channel straightening to force
flood water to flow rapidly through particular reaches, and flow-control structures such
as sluice gates and reservoirs to control water level. These artificial measures are not
always successful in preventing flooding and erosion within the river catchment, and
natural sections further downstream may be overwhelmed by the river at peak flood.
The engineered reaches of rivers often become a sterile landscape because fast-flowing
water in a concrete-lined channel, with minimal variation in water depth and channel
cross-section, provides a poor habitat for wetland flora and fauna. Geomorphology has
been applied to river restoration to recreate an integrated river management strategy
within artificially created river systems, maximizing biodiversity while controlling
river-flow conditions. Applied geomorphology uses a holistic approach to river
response at a catchment-wide scale; the basis here is an understanding of the
relationships between river form and process, sediment transport, and the important
role of river-bank (riparian) vegetation.

Applied Geomorphology has several branches and it is related with various science, thus it is
multi disciplinary by itself. Recently sub-branches have been recognized: 1. Economic
Geology, 2. Geohydrology, 3. Environment etc.

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Part 2 Economic Geology And Environment

The theme of economic geology includes application of various geomorphic principles to

obtain economic benefits for the purpose of development, without negatively affecting the
environment. Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for
economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals,
nonmetallic minerals, construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals, coal, and water.

The lithology and the regional structure of the rocks are reflective of the possibilities of
economic minerals present in them and provide an opportunity for their exploitation.

Mineral resources are concentrations of minerals significant for current and future societal
needs. Ore is classified as mineralization economically and technically feasible for extraction.
Some ores have direct surface expression either as relief features or as outcrops of ore or
residual minerals. If the geomorphological expression of a specific ore body can be identified
for a particular area, it may become relatively easy to locate similar ore bodies.

Either directly or indirectly rocks have great economic value. On the nature of bedrock
depends to a large extent, the soil which is produced by weathering process. The whole
question of man's vital water supply is bound up with the nature of the rocks. From rocks
many substances of great importance are derived, these include fuel like coal and mineral oil,
building materials, rock-salt etc.

Sr No Mineral Lithology/Rock Structure Region Examples

1 Tin Mining Placer/ Malaya plateau (Kinta & Kelang)
Paleozoic Plateau Bolivian plateau (Potosi & Oruro)
2 Gold Veins of Magma/Pre South African Plateau (hard rock)
Cambrian deposits River Valley(Placer)
Placer Suwarnarekha, Son
3 Bauxite Laterite Deposits Cape York, Arnhem (Australia)
Gondwana Shield Rocks Orissa Hills
Note:Bauxite in area of
high leeching in tropics
4 Hematite Pre Cambrian Sedimentary Dharwar rocks- Singhbhum,
rocks Mayurbhanj
Iron Ore Range(USA)
5 Ilmenite(titanium) Sand ore deposits Malabar Coast

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6 Monazite(thorium Sea/wave built platform Malabar Coast

) Placer deposits
7 Petrolium Folded sedimentary rocks Persian Gulf (geosyncline)
under sub-marine
conditions
8 Lead, Silver, Zinc Veins of pre-cambrian Udaipur
magma and pre-cambrian Ozark Plateau(USA)
sedimentary deposits
9 Limestone + Cretaceous rock formation Karst region Yugoslavia
Dolomite Note: In latin creta Alsace(France)
means chalk Scotland
10 Uranium Pre-cambrian rocks Pre-Cambrian: Tummalapalle
Exumed surfaces/Uplifted (Kadapa dist, AP)
Peneplanes Uplifted Pene: Chota Ngp Plateau

Mineral Ores

Metals are found usually in the form of a metal-liberous mineral known as ore. Many mineral
ores are associated with former igneous activity so that the occur as veins occupying fissures
and cavities in the rocks.
Sometimes the various agents of erosion, working on the parent deposits, may wash
out an deposit elsewhere either the metallic ores or even the parent material. Owing to their
high density, stream actions sometimes sorts and concentrates the metals in beds of gravel or
in alluvial flats, known as placers; gold, tin and platinum may occur in this way.

Figure: Gold Placer Deposits

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Understanding of geomorphic principles and history is needed for :

Highways, railways and airports

Topography obviously plays important role in determining the most feasible highway
route. Eg The Srinagar Leh highway makes full use of the physiographic corridor
provided by the valleys of the Jhelum.

A karst terrain is marked by near-waterless surface with sinks and underground

caverns. The sink holes, however, are liable to flooding during heavy rains. A route
over karst plain therefore requires repeated fill.

Multipurpose dams and reservoirs for water supply, irrigation power and flood
control

Dam construction in a limestone terrain is likely to result in leakages and water is

likely to seep into solution channels and emerge as seepages below the dam. On the
other hand, impervious bed-rock will provide a dependable and adequate reservoir.

In planning a multipurpose project many major factors have to be considered including

the geomorphology and geology of the area, its hydrological characteristics, ways of
integration and co-ordination of all various uses of water, such as for irrigation and
flood control, hydel power, navigation, domestic and international water supply,
recreation, fishing and wild life etc.

Dykes, sea-walls etc, built to protect home sites, industrial structures, harbors etc

In many cases the effects of human structures and developments at the coast have been
historically integrated into our understanding of coastal geomorphology.
Eg. Sea-walls being constructed in a fashion that coastal marshes provide them
protection form storm and wave erosion.

Regional Planning

Planning requires suitable planning unit in terms of spatial unit, which poses a great
problem before the planners and decision makers. Administrative unit cuts across the
physiographic unit and therefore the continuity of natural resources is broken. Even if
the regional planning is attempted be selecting administrative units as planning units,
information of topographic details, soils, natural resources etc may be helpful for the
purpose.

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Hazard Management

Geomorphic knowledge helps in the identification, prediction and assessment of

probable effects and management of natural geomorphic hazards. Constant
measurement of temperature of crater lakes, monitoring of gases coming out of craters,
monitoring of changes in the configuration of dormant or extinct volcanoes by lasers,
measurement of local gravity and magnetic fields and their trends etc. help in making
predictions of possible eruptions in the areas having past case histories of volcanism.

Channel geometry, channel morphology and channel pattern river metamorphosis, bank
morphology etc may help in controlling river floods through several flood control
measures.

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Part 3 Geohydrology
It is a special branch of study which combines geology and hydrology and it studies all
surfacial and sub-surfacial water and hydrological system including their movement,
circulation and their impact

Water Table

Geohydrological water includes 1. Fossil water, 2. Hygroscopic water, 3. Capillary water,

4. Vadose zone and 5. Phreatic Zone

1. Fossil water: Water which is trapped in magma or igneous rocks and cannot be
utilized.

2. Hygroscopic: Microscopic water which binds/holds the soil. This cannot be used by
the plants it just provides structure to the soil.

3. Capillary water: It is found in veins of sedimentary rocks. Important for soil moisture,
agriculture and plant growth.

4. Vadose: It is seasonal in nature, found in the zone of intermittent saturation, which is

zone of water filled during rainy season but air filled during the dry season. It is also
called the unsaturated zone.

5. Phreatic: It is zone of permanent saturation where throughout the year aquifer is water
filled. This surface normally coincides with the water table.

Figure: Cross-section of a hill slope depicting the aquifer and the water table

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Geohydrology is concerned with the movement of water and the related processes and
associated features. In the zone of limestone they create a unique topographical landform
termed as karst region.

Karst Region

Generally karst region have a bleak landscape, occasionally broken by precipitous slopes.
There is general absence of surface drainage as most of the surface water has gone
underground. Streams rising on other rocks only flow over limestone for a short distance and
then disappear underground. For the greater part of their course, they cut their way along the
joints and fissures of the rock wearing out a system of underground channels. When water
penetrates to the base of limestone and meets non-porous rocks it re-emerges onto the surface
as a spring or resurgence.
Limestones are well jointed and it is through these joints and cracks that rainwater
finds its way into the underlying rock. Progressive widening by solution (limestone + carbon
dioxide in water) enlarges the cracks and limestone pavement is developed. The limestone
pavements may have been formed beneath the soil and are now exposed by the removal of the
soil cover.
On surface of limestones are numerous swallow holes small depressions carved out
by solution where rain-water sinks into the limestone at a point of weakness. They are also
know as sink holes. Once water has sunk into the limestone it etches out caverns and passages
along joints or bedding planes.
When subterranean streams descend through swallow holes to underground passages,
the region may be honeycombed with caves and caverns, some containing ponds and lakes.
The most spectacular underground features that adorn the limestone caves are stalactites,
stalagmites and pillars.
Stalactites are sharp, slender, down-ward growing pinnacles that hang form the cave roofs.
The ware carries calcium in solution and when this lime-charged water evaporates, it leaves
behind the solidified crystalline calcium carbonate. As moisture drips from the roof it trickles
down the stalactite and drops on the floor where calcium is deposited to form stalagmites.
They are shorter, fatter and more rounded. Over a long period, the stalactite hanging from the
roof is eventually joined to the stalagmite growing from the floor to form a pillar. Eg are Batu
caves, Kuala Lumpur; Postojna caves, Yugoslavia etc.

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Figure:Karst Region

Application of Geohydrology

1. Urbanization
2. Agriculture
3. Construction Engineering
4. Geohydrology and Afforestation
5. Geohydrology and Reclamation of land
6. Geohydrology and Mineralogy (Petroleum etc)

References
Alok Ranjan's Notes & Booklet
Wikipedia
GC Leong
Other Internet Sources

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