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Refrigeration
Back
Coolingusesrefrigerationwhichisaccomplishedusingsubstancesthathaveverylow
boilingpoints.ForexampleAmmonia(NH4)atstandardatmospherictemperature(say
to
between60oFand120oFwhencoolingisrequired)andpressure(14.7psia)isagas.It Course
isarefrigerantbecauseithasaboilingpointof28oFandfreezingpointof254oFat
standardconditions.

Soliquidammoniaat28oFcangiveupit'sheat(boil/evaporateintogas)whenpumped Course
throughthetubesofacoolingcoiltocoolairandwhenpumpedthroughaheat
exchangertocoolwater.Onceithasbecomeagasithastobeconvertedbacktoa
Lessons
liquidsothatitcanbeusedagaintocoolagain.Allrefrigerantsarethereforegasesat
Pipingand
standardtemperatureandpressure.Smallamountsofammoniainitsgaseousstate
Ductwork
willleakfromtherefrigerantpipingsystemandleavestrongodorsinthespaceand
Systems
building.Soitisnotsuitableforairconditioningoccupiedbuildings.Itthereforehas
otherusesinfactoryprocessessinceitisinexpensive. Pumpsand
Fans
RefrigerantssuchR12(dichlorodiflouromethane,CCL2F2),areodorlessandwere
consideredharmlessuntilrecently.Thesearecalledhalogenatedcompounds(CFC) Refrigeration
andtheywerethemainrefrigerantsusedforairconditioningandrefrigerationuntil
recently.Becauseoftheirgreatstabilitytheseproductscontinuetoexistinthe TimeValueof
atmosphereasgasesformanyyearsandeventuallydiffuseintothestratosphere.Once Money
intheupperatmospherethesecompounds(CFCs)breakdownreleasingchlorine
Lighting
destroyingozone(ozonedepletion).Intheloweratmospheretheyabsorbinfrared
radiationwhichmaycontributewarmingoftheearth(globalwarming). (NASA)

DuctSizing
SubstitutionofahydrogenatomforoneormoreofthehalogensinaCFCmolecule
Charts&
greatlyreducesitsatmosphericlifetimeandlessensitsenvironmentalimpact.
Tables
RefrigerantssuchasR22(chlorodiflouromethane,C3H8)arecalledHCFCs.By
internationalconvention/protocolbothCFCsandHCFCshavetobephasedout PipeSizing
becauseoftheharmthattheymightdo.TheproductionofCFCs(ex.R12)in Charts
developedcountrieshasbeenstopped.TheproductionofHCFCs(ex.R22)havetobe Tables
phasedoutoverthenextfewyearsandbannedin2020.
BOILERS
Thenewrefrigerantsthatareconsideredharmlesstodayarecalledhydroflouro
carbonsorHFCs.TheyincludeR32(diflouromethane,CH2F2,methylenefluoride), Centrifugal
R125(pentaflouroethane,CHF2CF3),R134a(tetraflouroethane,CH2FCF3)andR Chiller
143a(triflouroethane,CF3CH3).ThemixturesoftheserefrigerantsincludeR404A(R Fundamentals
12544%R143a52%R134a4%),R407C(R3223%R12525%R134a52%)
Facilities
andR410A(R3250%R12550%).
Management

HEATING
AND

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COOLING
SYSTEM
UPGRADES

HVAC:
Centrifugal
Chillers

ChillerPlant
Design

(/sites/all/files/advancedpages31024/refrigeration1.jpg) PVModeling
ineQUEST
Theprocessofcoolingiscalledrefrigeration.Refrigerationorcoolingcapacityis
Introduction
measuredintons.Itwasestablishedonthebasisoftheheatthatmustbeaddedper
hourto1ton(2000lbs)oficeat32oFtomeltitintowaterat32oFinoneday(24hours). to
Theheatrequiredtomelt1lboficeat32oFtowaterat32oFis144btu. Photovoltaic
Systems
1TonRefrigeration=(2000lbs*144btu/lb)/24hrs/day=12,000btu/hr.
HowSolar
Enthalpyistheenergycontentofasubstance.Itisusuallyexpressedinheatunitsand Electric
inlayman'stermsitisreferredtotheheatcontent.Forexampleairconsistsofdryair Technology
andmoisture(watervapor/steam).InEnglish(IP)unitstheheatcontentoftheairis Works
measuredfrom0oFandtheheatcontentofthewatervaporismeasuredfrom32oF
Basic
whichisthefreezingpointofwateratstandardpressure.Sotheenthalpyofdryair
Photovoltaic
below0oFisanegativevalue.
Principles
andMethods
Theenthalpyofmoisturebelow32oFisalsonegativebutnotafactorsincemostofit
willhavecondensedandthenfrozenoutasicefromtheair.Thereisactuallynosuch Photovoltaic
thingasnegativeheatcontentanditonlyexiststheoreticallybecauseofthearbitrarily (PV)Tutorial
selectedzeropoint.Ifheatcontentwasmeasuredfromabsolutezerotemperature(0oR
or460oF)thenallenthalpyvalues,orheatcontentsofsubstances,wouldbepositive.
Inmetric(SI)unitstheenthalpyofboththedryairandwatervaporismeasuredfrom
0oC.

Example1:Whatistheenthalpyof1lbofsteamat312oF,
measuredfrom0oF,atstandardpressureof14.7psia?SeeFigure?.

Theheatrequiredtomelt1lbofIceat32oFto1lbofWaterat32oFis145btu.

Theheatrequiredtoboilwaterat212oFtoSteamat212oFis970btu.

ThespecificheatofIceis0.47,ofWateris1.0,andSteamis0.45.

H1=Icefrom0oFto32oF=1lbx0.47SpHtx(32oF0oF)=1x0.47x32=15btu.

H2=LatentHeattomeltIceat32oFintoWaterat32oF=1lbx145=145btu.

H3=Waterfrom32oFto212oF=1lbx1.0x(212oF32oF)=1x1.0x180=180btu.

H4=LatentHeattoboilWaterat212oFintoSteamat212oF=1lbx970=970btu.

H5=Steamfrom212oFto312oF=1lbx0.45SpHtx(312oF212oF)=45btu.

Enthalpy(H)=H1+H2+H3+H4+H5=1355btufor1lb.
o o
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Example1a:Whatistheenthalpyof1lbofsteamat312oF,measuredfrom32oF,at
14.7psia?

Enthalpy(H)=H3+H4+H5=1195btu.ThisistheofficialHofsteamat312oF

Example2:Whatistheenthalpyof1lbofairat95oFDBtempand60%relative
humidity(RH)?Thehumidityratio(W)at95oFand60%RH(frompsychrometricchart
ortables)is0.0218lbsofmoistureperlbofdryair.Thespecificheat(SpHt)ofdryair=
0.24,water=1,steam=0.45.H=M*SpHt*(T2T1).Latentheatevaporationwaterto
steamat95oF(14psig)=1040btu/lb.

M(moisture)=0.0218lbs/lbM(dryair)=10.0218=0.9782

H(dryair)=0.9782*0.24*(950)=22.3.

H(water)=0.0218*1*(9532)=1,37.H(watertosteam)=0.0218*1040=22.6.

H(moisture)=1.37+22.6=23.97.

H(dryairandmoisture)=22.3+23.97=46.27btu/lbofair.

Work
Workmeasurementwasestablishedarbitrarilyandbytraditioninthesamewayas
length,weight,time,heat,temperatureandpressure.InIPunitsaunitofworkisdone
when1lbmassisliftedverticallyagainstgravitythroughadistanceof1foot.Theunitis
calledfootpound(ftlb).Similarly,when1kilogrammassisliftedverticallyagainst
gravitythroughadistanceof1meterthentheworkdoneis1kilogrammeter.

1lbweightrestingonasurfaceareaof1squarefootexertsapressureorforceof1lb
persquarefoot.Supposingthesurfaceareaofthesolesofapersonstwofeetis1
squarefoot(eachfootbeing12inchesby6inches)andthepersonweighs100lbsthen
thepersonexertsaforceof100lbs/ft2ontheground.Ifyouliftthispersonoffthe
groundby1footthenyouhavedone100ftlbsofwork.WorkdoneisForcexDistance.

Forceispressureperunitarea.InFigure??force,behindapiston,isappliedtoagas
inacylinder,movingthecylinderacertaindistanceandcompressingthegas.Sowork
hasbeendone.Figure??showsthattheworkdoneistheareaunderthecurvefrom
pressurevolumecondition1topressurevolumecondition2.Theprocessisnotusually
astraightline.

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LawsofThermodynamics
Theprincipalenergylawsarederivedfromtwofamouslawsofthermodynamics.The
twoprincipallawsofthermodynamicsapplyonlytoclosedsystems,thatis,entitieswith
whichtherecanbenoexchangeofenergy,information,ormaterial.Theuniverseinits
totalitymightbeconsideredaclosedsystemofthistypethiswouldallowthetwolaws
tobeappliedtoit.

Thefirstlawofthermodynamicssaysthatthetotalquantityofenergyintheuniverse
remainsconstant.Thisistheprincipleoftheconservationofenergy.Thesecondlawof
thermodynamicsstatesthatthequalityofthisenergyisdegradedirreversibly.Thisisthe
principleofthedegradationofenergy.Thefirstprincipleestablishestheequivalenceof
thedifferentformsofenergy(radiant,chemical,physical,electrical,andthermal),the
possibilityoftransformationfromoneformtoanother.Thisfirstprincipleconsidersheat
andenergyasofthesamephysicalnature

Infactphysical,chemical,andelectricalenergycanbecompletelychangedintoheat.
Butthereverse(heatintophysicalenergy,forexample)cannotbefullyaccomplished
withoutoutsidehelporwithoutaninevitablelossofenergyintheformofirretrievable
heat.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheenergyisdestroyeditmeansthatitbecomes
unavailableforproducingwork.Theirreversibleincreaseofthisnondisposableenergy
intheuniverseismeasuredbytheabstractdimensionthatClausiusin1865called
entropy(fromtheGreekentrope,change).

Entropy
TheASHRAEtablesfromwhichtheinformationinTable?andFigure?wereextracted
alsoshowsthe"entropy"ofwaterandsteamundervaryingtemperaturesand
pressures.Theconceptof"entropy"isveryusefulininvestigatingandunderstanding
heatgainedandlostduringmechanicalandcombustionprocesses.Itcanbeusedto
compareandunderstandtheperformanceofdifferenttypesoffuelsandrefrigerantsin
mechanical(engine)operations.Entropyrelatesheatreceivedandrejectedwith
temperaturechanges.Thesymbolforentropyistheletter'S'.Theareaunderthe
processcurveonatemperatureentropychartrepresentstheheatreceivedorrejected
asshowninthefigurebelow.

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AirSourceHeatPump

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Insummer,anairconditioning(refrigeration)systempicksupheatfromaspacewhere
itisnotneededandrejectsittotheoutdoors.Thespacegivesupitsheattoa
refrigerantsuchasR22(lowboilingpointof41oFatnormalatmosphericconditions)
whichevaporatesfromliquidtogasbyabsorbingtheheatfromtheroomairwhichis
passedoverit.Thegasiscompressedtoapressurewhereit'stemperatureisgreater
thanthehotoutsideairtemperature.Theoutsideairisthenusedtocoolthegasbackto
liquid.Sotherefrigeranttransfersheatfromtheinsidetotheoutside.Expansionofthe
liquidrefrigerantathightemperatureandpressureconvertsitbacktolowtemperature
andpressurewhichcompletesthecycle.

Theprincipleofrefrigerationisthattheboilingpointofliquidsincreaseswithincreasing
pressure.Sohotoutsideaircanbeusedtocooltherefrigerantifthepressureishigh
enough.Work(usingacompressordrivenbyanelectricmotor)hastobedoneto
compressthegasandincreaseit'spressure.Inwintertherefrigerationcyclecanbe
reversed.Coldoutsideairiscooled(fromsay,30oFto10oFinthecondenserwhichnow
becomestheevaporator)andtherejectedheatisusedtoheattheinsideair(fromsay
75oFto95oFintheevaporatorwhichnowbecomesthecondenser).Thepropertiesof
R22issuitablefor"reversecycle"heatingprovidedthewintertemperaturesaremild
(above20oF)andannualheatinghoursaresmall.Electricresistanceheatingismore
efficientthanusingcompressorsdrivenbyelectricmotors.

ChillerPlant

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GroundLoopHeatPump(GLHP)

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GroundSourceHeatPump(GSHP)
ThisissimilartotheGroundLoopHeatPump(GLHP)exceptthatthewaterfromthe
groundispumpedouttocooltherefrigerantinthecondenser.Thegroundwaterleaving
thecondenseristhenrejectedintotheground(discarded).TheGLHPisaclosedloop
circulatingthesamewater(somewaterislostandhastobemadeup)throughthe
pipingsystemandremainsclean.TheGSHPsystemwaterexchangesheatwiththe
groundthroughthepipingsurfaces.Thewaterdoesnotcomeintocontactwiththe
ground.Groundwaterhastobecleaned(strainedandtreatedchemicallyand
biologically)beforeitcanpassthroughthecondenserandpipingsystem.GSHPis
thereforemoreefficientthanGLHPbutthemaintenancecostsarehigher

WaterSourceHeatPumps(WSHP)
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Thewatersourceheatpumpsystemisaheatrecoverysystem.Inwintertheheat
rejectedfrominteriorspacecoolingloadsofanofficebuildingcanbeusedtoheat
perimeterspacesthatrequireheating.Inhotelsandapartmentbuildingswheresome
roomsrequireheatingandothersrequirecooling,theheatrejectedfromthecooling
unitsprovidesheatforroomsrequiringheating.TheWSHPsystemthereforeprovides
simultaneousandflexiblecoolingandheatingtoeachroom

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AbsorptionWaterChillers(basedonTraneliterature)
Bothvaporcompressionandabsorptionrefrigerationcyclesaccomplishcoolingby
absorbingheatfromonefluid(chilledwaterintheevaporator)andtransferringitto
anotherfluid(coolingtowerwaterinthecondenserordirectlytotheambientair).The
fluidthatabsorbsheatintheevaporatoranddischargesitinthecondenseriscalledthe
refrigerant.Bothcyclesalsoincludedevicestoincreaseanddecreasethepressureof
therefrigerant.Bothcyclesincludeanevaporator,condenserandexpansiondevice.
Thecompressorinthevaporcompressionsystemisreplacedbyanabsorber,
generatorandpumpintheabsorptionsystemandthereisasecondaryfluid(besides
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Therefrigerantintheformofliquid(andsomevapor)enterstheevaporatorandabsorbs
heatfromthechilledwater(coolsitsayfrom54oFto42oF)andboilsorevaporates.The
absorptionactionoftheabsorber/absorbentsucksintherefrigerantvapor.Thepump
sucksinthemixtureofabsorbentandrefrigerantandpumps/pushes(actslikea
compressorincreasingthepressureoftherefrigerant)itthroughthegeneratorand
generator.Sotheabsorberintakeisequivalenttothesuctionsideofthecompressor
andgeneratordischargeisequivalenttothecompressordischarge.

Therefrigerantvaporathigherpressureentersthecondenserwhereitiscooledto
liquidbythecondenser(thecondenserwaterabsorbstheheatfromtherefrigerant
increasingit'stemperaturefromsay,85oto95oF).Theliquidrefrigerantthenflows
throughtheexpansionvalvereducingit'spressureandtemperatureanditcanbeused
againtochillthechilledwater.

Therefrigerantcommonlyusedintheabsorptioncycleisdistilledwater.Distilledwater
isstable,lowincost,readilyavailable,environmentallyfriendlyandhasahighheatof
vaporization(approximately1000btuperlbtoconvertitfromwatertosteam).Forthe
watertooperateasarefrigerant,thecyclemustoperateinavacuum,thatisata
pressurebelowatmosphericpressure.

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Theabsorptionrefrigerationcycleusesasecondfluidcalledtheabsorbentsolution.An
exampleofanabsorbentisLithiumBromide(LiBr).LiBrisnontoxic,readilyavailable
andinexpensive.Thissolutionisconfinedtotheabsorberandgeneratorsectionsofthe
cycle.Itisusedtomovetherefrigerant(distilledwater)fromlowpressuretohigh
pressure.

Theabsorbent(LiBr)shouldhaveastrongaffinitytoabsorbtherefrigerant(H2O).The
solutionofabsorbentandrefrigerantshouldhaveaboilingpointthatismuchhigher
thantherefrigerant(water)alone.Thismakesiteasytoseparatetheabsorbentfrom
therefrigerantathightemperatures.Apumpisusedtocirculatetheabsorbent
refrigerantsolutionbetweentheabsorberandgenerator.Thepumpalsoincreasesthe
pressure.

Anothercommonrefrigerantabsorbentcombinationisammoniaastherefrigerantand
waterastheabsorbent.Thiscombinationissometimesusedinsmallresidential
application.ThisdiscussionassumestherefrigerantisDistilledWater(H2O)andthe
absorbentisLithiumBromide(LiBr).
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Thetwofluids,refrigerantandabsorbent,aremixedinsidethechillerinvarious
concentrations.Theterm"dilutesolution"referstoamixturethatishighinrefrigerant
(H2))andlowinabsorbent(LiBr)."Concentratedsolution"referstoamixturethatislow
inH2OandhighinLiBr."Intermediatesolution"issomewhereinbetween.

Thecomponentsoftheabsorptionrefrigerationcyclearetheevaporatorabsorberon

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thelowpressuresideandthegeneratorcondenseronthehighpressureside.The
pressureonthehighpressuresideisabouttentimesthelowpressureside.

TheAbsorptionRefrigerationCycle
Generator:Startingonthehighpressuresideofthecycle,thepurposeofthegenerator
istodelivertherefrigerantvapor(water/steam)throughtherestofthesystemcycle.It
accomplishesthisbyseparatingthewater/steamrefrigerantfromthelithiumbromide
(LiBr)andwater(H2O)solution.Thisisdonebyincreasingthetemperatureofthe
solutionusingasteamorhotwatercoil.Therefrigerantvaporizesandseparatesfrom
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theLiBrwhichremainsaliquidatthishighertemperature.Thesteamisat120oFand
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1.7psia(belowatmosphericpressureof14.67psia).TheconcentratedLiBrisreturned
totheabsorber.

Condenser:Therefrigerant(steam)at120oFand1.7psiaiscondensedtowater
(refrigerant)at120oFand1.7psiausingcondenserwaterthatentersat85oFand
leavesat95oF.Theleavingcondenserwateriscooledbyanevaporativecoolingtower.

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(SimilartoCompressionChillers).

ExpansionValve:Theliquidrefrigerantwaterat120oFand1.7psiaisallowedto
expandthroughanexpansiondevicethatlowersit'spressureto0.122psia.Atthis
pressurethetemperatureofthewateris40oF.(SimilartoCompressionChillers).

Evaporator:Therefrigerant(water)at40oFand0.122psiaisevaporatedtosteam
(refrigerant)at40oFand0.122psiabychilledwaterthatentersat54oF,rejectsit'sheat
totherefrigerant(absorbsheatandboils)andleavesat42oF.Thechilledwaterat42oF
issuppliedtocoolingcoilsthatcoolsthespacesupplyairdownto47oFto55oF.(Similar
toCompressionChillers).

Absorber:Insidetheabsorber,therefrigerantvapor(steam,H2O)at40oFand0.122
psiaisabsorbedbytheconcentratedlithiumbromide(LiBr).Asthevapor(steam)is
absorbedbytheLiBritcondensesfromvaportoliquid(water)andformsadilute
solutionofLiBrandH2O.Absorptioncools,justasinevaporativecoolingwherewarm
airiscooledbyabsorbingmoisturefromasprayofwater.Sosomeoftheheatgained
bytherefrigerantfromthechilledwaterintheevaporatorisrejected.Absorptionofthe
refrigerantbyLiBrcreatesalowpressurewithintheabsorberandthisalsoinducesa
continuousflow(suction)ofrefrigerantfromtheevaporator.Thediluteliquidsolutionof
LiBrandH2Oleavestheabsorberat40oFand0.122psia.

Pump:ThediluteLiBrandH2Oliquidsolutionispumpedtothegenerator.This
increasesthepressurefrom0.122psiato1.7psiaandthecorrespondingtemperatures
atthesepressuresare40oFand120oF.

ApplicationsofAbsorptionChillers
Wherelowcostfossilfuelisavailable.Thefossilfuelusedtocreatesteamthat
separatesthelithiumbromideandwaterat1.7psiaand120oFisnaturalgasordiesel
fuel.

Wheretheelectricratesareveryhighcomparedtothecostofgeneratingsteamfrom
fossilfuel.Forexample,thepeakelectricdemandandenergyratesare3timesmore
comparedtooffpeakratesandthebuildingisoccupiedmainlyduringthepeakrate
hours(9AMto5PM).

Itismorecosteffectivetousethesteamboilerforwinterheatingforsummercooling
also.

Whenwasteheatintheformofsteamfromacogeneration(CoGen)plantisavailable.
Thiswasteheatcanbeupto70%ofthefossilfuelusedtogenerateelectricity.This
happenswhenabuilding(usuallyseveralbuildingsasonauniversitycampus)hasit's
ownelectricitygeneratingplantandthewasteheatisusedtocreatechilledwaterata
centralplantsiteanddistributedtothebuildings.Ifthereisapowerplantnearacity
(NewYork,Boston,Minneapolis)thenthewasteheatisdistributedtothebuildingsin
theformofchilledwater(CHW),steamandhightemperaturehighpressurehotwater
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(HTHW)bythepowercompany.Ifthepowerplantisfarfromthecitythenthecostof
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bringingthesteam,CHWandHTHWusingpipingisprohibitive.

Whenthereisalackofelectricfacilitiesnearthebuildingsiteasinruralareas.An
absorptionchilleronlyusesabout3%ofthepowerbycompressionchillers.Thispower
canbegeneratedbymicrogeneratorssimilartothoseusedforbackupemergency
power.

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Theabsorptionmachinecanbeinstalledinpracticallyanylocationinthebuilding.There
arenoheavymovingvibratingpartsandthenoisegenerationislowcomparedto
compressionchillers

Course2Lesson(/advancedtraining/course2systemsandplants/course2lesson)

AbouttheAuthor

(/content/varkiethomas)

VarkieC.Thomas,Ph.D.,P.E.ResearchProfessor
CollegeofArchitectureIllinoisInstituteofTechnology
Chicago,Illinois,USA

VarkieThomastaughtgraduatecoursesinEnergyEfficientBuildingDesign,Building
EnergyPerformanceAnalysisandadviseddoctoralcandidates(19962008)asan
AdjunctProfessoratIllinoisInstituteofTechnology(IIT)fromSOM.Heiscurrentlya
ResearchProfessorwiththePh.D.programatIIT.HewasamemberoftheUN
TechnicalProgramtoChinain1991andaVisitingProfessorfromPurdueinMalaysiain
1996/97fundedbytheWorldBank.

Academic:B.Sc.(Honors)inMathematicsfromSt.XaviersCollegeBombayUniversity
PostGraduateDiplomainEnvironmentalEngineeringfromLondonSouthBank
UniversityPostGraduateDiploma(withDistinction)andPh.D.inIndustrial
ManagementfromStrathclydeUniversityGlasgow.RegisteredProfessionalEngineer
(P.E.)andCertifiedEnergyManager(CEMAssociation.ofEnergyEngineers).

Instructors(/category/aboutus/instructors)

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