Unit3 Phpapp01

Unit 3
Unit3
DigitalModulation
Prof A K Ni am
ProfAKNigam
Syllabus
AmplitudeShiftKeying(ASK)
FrequencyShiftKeying(FSK),FSKDetectionUsingPLL
BinaryPhaseShiftKeying(PSK) Transmitters,Coherentand
noncoherentdetection,BitandBaudRate,Bandwidthand
Frequency Spectrum BER and Probability of Error
FrequencySpectrum.BERandProbabilityofError.
Quadrature PhaseShiftKeying(QPSK),QPSKDemodulator,
OffsetQPSK,ComparisonofconventionalQPSKandOffset
QPSK,BPSK,8PSK&16PSK
Quadrature AmplitudeModulation(QAM);8QAM&16
QAM transmitters and receivers
QAMtransmittersandreceivers,
BandWidthefficiency,
CarrierRecovery;SquaringLoop&CostasLoop,
y; q g p p,
DifferentialPSK,DBPSKtransmitterandreceiver,
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Binary Modulation schemes
BinaryModulationschemes
ASK
FSK
PSK
S
M
Mary M d l ti
Modulationschemes
h
QPSK
QAM
NeedForMary Modulation
Mathematically stated, the Shannon limit for information capacity
is
For a standard telephone circuit with a signaltonoise

signal to noise power ratio
of 1000 (30 dB) and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, the Shannon limit for
information capacity is
I = (3.32)(2700)
(3 32)(2700) log10 (1 + 1000) = 26.9
26 9 kbps
Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel
capacity is I =2B log2 M
Thus
Th forf achieving
hi i 26.9
26 9 kbps
kb we haveh t have
to h
26900 =22700 log2 M
This gives log2 M=5 or L=32, thus in order to achieve 26.9 kbps we
have to use multilevel signals
Bit and Baud
BitandBaud
Mathematically,
y, baud is the reciprocal
p of the time of one
output signaling element, and a signaling element may
represent several information bits.
Baud is expressed as baud =1/ts
In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of change, it also

equals the bit rate fb divided by the number of bits encoded
into one signaling element. Thus,
AMPLITUDESHIFTKEYING
Mathematically,amplitudeshiftkeyingis
Modulating
Modulatingsignal[v
signal [vm(t)]isnormalizedwhere+1V=logic1
(t)] is normalized where + 1 V = logic 1
and1V=logic0.
Thereforeforalogic1input,vm(t)=+1V,Equation reducesto
Andforalogic0input,vm(t)=1V,Equation reducesto
Thus,themodulatedwaveiseitherAcos(wct)or0.
Hence,thecarrieriseither"onor"off"whichiswhy
amplitudeshiftkeyingissometimesreferredtoason
p y g
offkeying(OOK).
ASK(alsocalledDigitalamplitudemodulation,DAM)
PerformanceofBASK/OKK/DAM
Asnoiseaffectsonlytheamplitudeofthesignal,thenoise
performanceofthisisnotgood
ASKModulator
Asynchronous Demodulator
AsynchronousDemodulator
InputDemodulated
Envelope LPF
Detector output
SynchronousASKDemodulation
[ fc ( fb / 2)] fc
fc ( fb / 2)
fb / 2
FREQUENCYSHIFTKEYING
FSK is a form of constantamplitude angle
modulation similar to standard frequency q y
modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is
a binaryy signal
g
FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK).
The general expression for FSK is
The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform
where a logic
g 1 = + 1 V and a logic
g 0 = 1 V.
Thus, for a logic l input, we can write
For
F a logic
l i 0 input,
i vm(t)
( ) = 1,
1
Thus With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (fc) is

shifted (deviated) up and down in the frequency domain by
the binary input signal
Asthebinaryinputsignalchangesfromalogic0toalogic1
andviceversa,theoutputfrequencyshiftsbetweentwo
frequencies
(a)mark,orlogic1frequency(fm),
(b)space,orlogic0frequency(fs).
*Themarkandspacefrequenciesareseparatedfromthecarrier
frequencybythepeakfrequencyf deviationandfromeach
otherby2f .
Frequencydeviationisexpressedmathematicallyas
FSKBitRate,Baud,andBandwidth
The bit time equals the time of an FSK signaling element,
and the bit rate equals the baud.
The
Th baud
b d for f bi
binary FSK can also
l b determined
be d t i d by
b
substituting N = 1 in
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
Example22
Determine(a)thepeakfrequencydeviation,(b)minimum
bandwidth and (c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a mark
bandwidth,and(c)baudforabinaryFSKsignalwithamark
frequencyof49kHz,aspacefrequencyof51kHz,andaninput
bitrateof2kbps
Modulationindex
h=FMmodulationindexcalledthehfactorinFSK
fo =fundamentalfrequencyofthebinarymodulatingsignal
f d t lf f th bi d l ti i l
f=peakfrequencydeviation(hertz)
FSKTransmitter
FSKReceiver
(a)Noncoherent FSKdemodulator
(b)CoherentFSKdemodulator
PLLFSKdemodulator
PLLFSKdemodulatoroperation
As the input
p to the PLL shifts between the mark and spacep
frequencies, the dc error voltage at the output of the phase
comparator follows the frequency shift.
Because
B th
there are onlyl two
t i
input
t frequencies
f i (mark
( k and
d
space), there are also only two output error voltages.
One represents
p a logic
g 1 and the other a logic
g 0.
Performance
Binaryy FSK has a ppoorer error p
performance than PSK or Q
QAM
and, consequently, is seldom used for highperformance
digital radio systems.
Its use is restricted to lowperformance, lowcost,

asynchronous
y data modems that are used for data
communications over analog, voiceband telephone lines.
ContinuousPhaseFrequencyShiftKeying
Continuousphase frequencyshift keying (CPFSK) is binary

FSK except
p the mark and spacep frequencies
q are synchronized
y
with the input binary bit rate.
This ensures a smooth phase transition in the analog output

signal when it changes from a mark to a space frequency or
vice versa.
This has effect of limiting the BW after modulation
Non/continuousphaseFSK
waveforms
Comparison FSK/CPFSK
ComparisonFSK/CP FSK
CPFSK
CP FSK has a better bit biterror
error performance and
lower spectral width than conventional binary FSK
for a given signaltonoise ratio.
The disadvantage
g of CPFSK is that it requires
q
synchronization circuits and is, therefore, more
expensive to implement.
PHASESHIFTKEYING
The simplest p form of PSK is binaryy p phaseshift keying
y g
(BPSK), where N = 1 and M = 2.
Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (2^1 = 2) are
possibleibl for
f the
h carrier. i
One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase
represents a logic 0. 0
As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1
to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), ), the p phase of the output
p
carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by
180.
Other h names for f BPSK are phase h reversall keying
k i (PRK)
( )
and biphase modulation.
BPSK is i a form
f off squarewave modulation d l ti off a
continuous wave (CW)
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LtColAKNigam,ITMUniversity,Gurgaon 27
BPSK Modulator
BPSKModulator
BalancedModulator
BPSKmodulator:truthtablephasor andconstellationdiagram
BandwidthconsiderationsofBPSK
out put = cos wmt.cos wc t (assuming unit amplitude)
(neglecting higher frequencies )
1
= [cos( wc + wm )t + cos( wc wm )]
2
2 fb
But here wm = putting this in above eq.we
eq we get
2
1 fb fb
= [cos( f c + )t + cos( f c )]
2 2 2
fb fb
BW = ( f c + ) ( f c ) = fb
2 2
OutputphaseversustimerelationshipforaBPSK
modulator
BPSKreceiver.
Demodulation
Similarlyitcanbedoneforlogic0(doyourself
Quaternary PhaseShift
QuaternaryPhase ShiftKeying
Keying
QPSK
QPSKisanM
is an Mary
ary encodingschemewhereN
encoding scheme where N =2and
2 and
M=4
Therefore,withQPSK,thebinaryinputdataare
, Q , y p
combinedintogroupsoftwobits,calleddibits.
g p
eachdibit codegeneratesoneofthefourpossible
outputphases(+45,+135,45,and135).
QPSKtransmitter.
QPSKtransmitter.
Two bits (dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter.
After both bits have been serially inputted, they are
simultaneously parallel outputted.
The I bit modulates a carrier that is in p phase with
the reference oscillator (hence the name "I" for "in
phase" channel)
The Q bit modulate, a carrier that is 90 out of
phase i.e. cosine wave .
For a logic
l i 1 = + 1 and
d a logic
l i 0= 1 , two phases
h are possible
ibl at the
h
output of the I modulator (+sinwct and sinwct)
Si
Similarly
il l two
t phases
h are possible
ibl att the
th output
t t off the
th Q balanced
b l d
modulator (+coswct), and (coswct).
For
ForinputofQ=I=1,thetwoinputstotheIbalancedmodulatorare
input of Q =I= 1 the two inputs to the I balanced modulator are
+1andsinwct,andThetwoinputstotheQbalancedmodulatorare
+1andcoswct.
Outputsare
(a)Ibalancedmodulator=(+1)(sinwct)=+1sinwct
(b) Q balanced modulator =(+1)(cosw
(b)Qbalancedmodulator (+1)(coswct)
t) =+1cosw
+1 coswct
Outputofthelinearsummerfor1,1inputdibits is
= sin wc t + cos wc t
= {sin wc t + sin(900 + wc t )}
2 wc t + 900 900
= 2sin cos
2 2
2 wc t + 900
= 2 sin
2
= 1.414sin( wc t + 45o }
(Similarlyitcanbecalculatedforallotherinputcombinations)
Truth table
Truthtable
Phasor diagram
Constellationdiagram
(Howtoremember:For1+ve willgoandfor0ve willgo)

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Salient features
Salientfeatures
Each
ac o of tthe
e four
ou poss
possible
b e output p
phasors
aso s has
as e
exactly
act y tthe
e
same amplitude. Therefore, the binary information
must be encoded entirely in the phase of the output
signal.
i l
The angular separation between any two adjacent
phasors in QPSK is 9090.
Thus a QPSK signal can undergo almost a +45 or 45
shift in p phase duringg transmission and still retain the
correct encoded information when demodulated at the
receiver.
OutputphaseversustimerelationshipforaQPSK
modulator.
modulator
BandwidthconsiderationsofQPSK
Thehighestfundamentalfrequencyattheinputandfastestrateof
changeattheoutputofthebalancemodulatorsisequaltoone
fourthofthebinaryinputbitrate.
MathematicalAnalysis
out put = cos wmt.cos wc t (assuming unit amplitude)
(neglecting higher frequencies )
1
= [cos( wc + wm )t + cos( wc wm )]
2
2 f b
But here wm = putting this in above eq.we get
4
1 fb fb
= [cos( f c + )t + cos( f c )]
2 4 4
fb fb fb
BW = ( f c + ) ( f c ) =
4 4 2
QPSKreceiver
Output of the I product detector
OutputoftheIproductdetector
(ForinputI=0andQ=1)
OutputoftheQproductdetector
OffsetQPSK.
IIs a modified
difi d form
f off QPSK where
h the
h bits
bi on the h I andd Q
channels are offset in phase from each other by onehalf of a bit
time.
Because changes in the i channel occur at the midpoints of the q
channel bits and vice versa, there is never more than a single bit
change in the dibit
Therefore, there is never more than a 90 shift in the output
phase compared
p p to conventional QPSK in which a change g in the
input dibit from 00 to 11 or 01 to 10 causes a corresponding
180 shift in the output phase.
Advantage
Ad t off OQPSK is i the
th limited
li it d phase
h shift
hift that
th t mustt be
b
imparted during modulation.
g Q g p p
disadvantageofOQPSKisthatchangesintheoutputphase
occurattwicethedatarateineithertheIorQchannel".
Offsetkeyed(OQPSK)
Baud and minimum bandwidth
Baudandminimumbandwidth
OQPSK
OQPSKthebaudandminimumbandwidth
the baud and minimum bandwidth
aretwicethatofconventionalQPSKfora
given transmission bit rate
giventransmissionbitrate.
OQPSKissometimescalledOKQPSK(offset
keyed QPSK)
keyedQPSK).
8PSKModulation
With 8PSK,
8 PSK three bits are encoded,
encoded forming tribits and
producing eight different output phases.
To encode eight different phases, the incoming bits are
encoded in groups of three, called tribits (2^3 = 8)
8PSKtransmitter.
Howtofindangles
For 111 input
For111input
Output=1.307sinwt+0.541coswt
Angle=tan^1(.541/1.307)in1st quadrangle
=67.5
OutputPhases
Note
Phases are +/ (22 5+45)
Phasesare+/(22.5+45)
Outputphaseversustimerelationshipforan8
PSK modulator
PSKmodulator
Phasor Diagram
ConstellationDiagram:8PSK
Note:FormatisQIC
Ive (0)I+ve (1)

Q+ve
Q ve ((1)) Q+ve
Q ve ((1))
Ive (0) I+ve

Q+ve ((1))
Q Qve
Q
Bandwidthconsiderationsof8PSK
With8PSK,thedataaredividedintothreechannels,
thebitrateintheI,Q,orCchannelisequaltoonethirdofthebinaryinput
datarate(fb /3).
A l i
Analysis
out put = cos wc t.cos wm t ( amplitude assumed to be unity )
(neglecting
g g higher
g ffrequencies
q )
1
= [cos ( wc + wm )t + cos ( wc wm )]
2
2 fb
But here wm = putting this in above eq.we get
6
1 fb fb
= [cos ( f c + )t + cos ( f c )]
2 6 6
fb fb fb
BW = ( f c + )t ( f c ) =
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8PSKreceiver.
8 PSK Performance
8PSKPerformance
With8PSK,theangularseparationbetweenadjacentoutput
, g p j p
phasesisonly45 (360/8).
Therefore,8PSKcanundergoonlya22.5 phaseshiftduring
transmissionandstillretainitsintegrity.
16PSK
Truthtable
Constellationdiagram
16 PSK Performance
16PSKPerformance
With16PSK,theangularseparationbetweenadjacent
, g p j
outputphasesisonly22.5 (360/16).
Therefore,16PSKcanundergoonlya11.25 phaseshift
duringtransmissionandstillretainitsintegrity.
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDEMODULATION
8QAM
8QAM is an Mary encoding technique

where M = 8.
Unlike 8PSK, the output signal from an 8
QAM modulator is not a constantamplitude
signal.
8QAMmodulator
8QAMmodulator
The incoming data are divided into groups of three bits (tribits): the
I, Q, and C bit streams.
EEach
h stream
t h a bit rate
has t equall to
t onethird
thi d off the
th incoming
i i data
d t
rate.
The I and Q bits determine the polarity of the PAM signal at the
output of the 2to4level converters
The C channel determines the magnitude.
Because the c bit is fed un

uninverted
inverted to both the i and the q channel
2to4level converters, the magnitudes of the I and Q PAM signals
are always equal.
Their polarities depend on the logic condition of the i and q bits

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Truth Table
TruthTable
Phasor andconstellationdiagram
g
Outputphaseandamplitudeversustime
relationship for 8 QAM
relationshipfor8QAM
Bandwidthconsiderationsof8QAM.
N=3
Thustheminimumbandwidthrequiredfor8
QAM is fb /3,thesameasin8PSK.
QAMisfb / 3 the same as in 8 PSK
8QAMreceiver.
An
An8
8QAM
QAMreceiverisalmostidenticaltothe
receiver is almost identical to the
8PSKreceiver
16QAM
As with the 1616PSK

PSK, 16
16QAM
QAM is an M Mary
ary
system where M =16.
The input data are acted on in groups of four
(2^4 = 16).
As
A withi h 8QAM,
8 QAM both
b h the
h phase
h and
d the
h
amplitude of the transmit carrier are varied.
QAMtransmitter
Theinputbinarydataaredividedintofourchannels:I,I',Q,andQ'.
The
Thebitrateineachchannelisequaltoone
bit rate in each channel is equal to onefourth
fourthoftheinputbitrate
of the input bit rate
(fb/4).
The
TheIandQbitsdeterminethepolarityattheoutputofthe2to4level
I and Q bits determine the polarity at the output of the 2 to 4 level
converters
logic1=positive
logic0=negative
The
TheII'andQ
and Q'bitsdeterminethemagnitude
bits determine the magnitude
logic1=0.821V
logic0=0.22V
IandQ,1=+ve logic0=ve
QAM
IandQlogic1=0.821V,logic0=0.22V
transmitter
Computation of values of amplitude and phases
Computationofvaluesofamplitudeandphases
The outputs from the I and Q channel product modulators are

combined in the linear summer and produce a modulated output
For a qquadbit input

p of I= 1,, I' = 0,, Q = 1,, and Q
Q' = 0 i.e.(1010)
( ) logic
g 1
for I and Q gives +ve value and logic 0 for I and Q gives 0.22 V
Thus summer output = 0.22 sin wc t + 0.22cos wc t

=0.22{sinwct + sin(90 + wct)}
=0.22[2{sin(wct + 45). cos45}
=0.311sin(wct+45)
Similarly other values of amplitude and phase can be computed
Valuesofamplitudeandphases
Phasor andconstellationdiagram
g
1
1023
0 2 3
Howtoremember
BANDWIDTHEFFICIENCY
Bandwidthefficiencyis
Bandwidth efficiency is
Example
Qu.For16PSKandatransmissionsystemwith
a10kHzbandwidth,determinethemaximum
,
bitrate.
Solution
Thebandwidthefficiencyfor16PSKis4,which
h b d id h ffi i f i hi h
meansthatfourbitscanbepropagatedthrough
the system for each hert of bandwidth.
thesystemforeachhertzofbandwidth.
Therefore,themaximumbitrateissimplythe
productofthebandwidthandthebandwidth
efficiency,or
ffi i
bitrate=4x10,000=40,000bps
DIFFERENTIALPHASESHIFTKEYING
Is an alternative form of digital g

modulation where the binary input
information is contained in the difference
between two successive signaling
elements rather than the absolute phase.
p
OPofmodissameforinputas1
andisshiftedby180 for input 0
InputData
(initial reference bit is assumed a logic 0, If the initial

reference bit is assumed a logic 1, the output from the
XNOR circuit is simply the complement of that shown)
Demodulation
Demodulation
Change of phase indicates 0 same phase indicates 1

Changeofphaseindicates0,samephaseindicates1
PROBABILITYOFERRORANDBITERRORRATE
Probability of error P(e) and bit error rate (BER) are often used
interchangeably
It is a function of the carriertonoise power ratio (or, more
specifically, the average energy per bittonoise power density
ratio) and the number of possible encoding conditions used (M
ary).
ary)
Energy per bit is simply the energy of a single bit of information.
Mathematically,
Energy per bit is Eb = C.Tb=C/fb.............................1
Noise power density is the thermal noise power normalized to a
1 Hz
1 H bandwidth
b d idth (i.e.,
(i th noise
the i power presentt in i a 1Hz
1H
bandwidth). Mathematically, noise power density is
No = N/B
/ N= Noise,, B= BW2
From eq 1and2wecanwrite
Fromeq 1 and 2 we can write
Eb C / fb
=
N0 N / B
C B
=
N fB
Stated in dB
Eb C B
= +
N 0 dB N dB f B dB
or
B Eb C
=
B dB 0 dB N dB
f N
PSKErrorPerformance
For PSK systems, the phase
difference between two consecutive
signaling
i li points
i t is
i =2
2 /M
For error free transmission the
maximum shift of angleg p
permissible =2 /2M
=2
is = 2 /2M either way from d
signaling point.1 D
If d=
d distance
di b
between consecutive
i
two signaling points and D=Peak
signal amplitude then
sin =(d/2)/D or
Sin(2 /2M)=d/2D from Eq. 1
or d/2 =D.sin(/M).2
ComputationofBitErrorProbability
Ifno.ofstates=M,thenno.ofbitsrequiredtoencode
these=log2M
IfE
If Eb/N0 isthebitenergytonoisedensityratiothenenergyin
i th bit t i d it ti th i
allbits
Eb
D = log 2 M
0
N
Puttingthisineq.2weget
Eb
d / 2 = Sin log 2 M ................3
M N0
Nowtheprobabilitythatthenoisewillbegreaterthanzis
givenbyerrorfunction

2
e
z2
P( z ) = dz
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Nowmaximumerrorcanbed/2,thuserrorwillbeobtained
/ ,
byputtingz=d/2fromeq.3
Astherearelog2Mbitspersignal,thebiterrorprobability
wouldbe
ld b
1
P (e) = erfc( z )
log 2 M
WhereZisgivenby
g y
Eb
z = d / 2 = Sin log 2 M ................3
M N0
AndMisno.oflevels
Example of BPSK
ExampleofBPSK
M=2,thusfromeq.3weget
Eb
d / 2 = Sin log 2 2
2 0
N
Eb
=
N0
1 Eb Eb
P (e) = erfc = erfc
l 22
log N0 N0
Example of QPSK
ExampleofQPSK
E
d / 2 = Si
Sin log 2 4 b
4 N0
1 Eb Eb
= 2 =
2 N0 N0
1 Eb Eb
P (e) = erfc = erfc
g2 2
log N0 N0
Errorratesof
Error rates of
PSK
modulation
modulation
systems
QAMErrorPerformance
1 L 1
P ( e) = erfc
f ( z)
l 2 L L
log
Where z is given by
log 2 L Eb
z=
L 1 N0
FSKErrorPerformance
TheprobabilityoferrorforcoherentFSKis
1 Eb
P(e) = erfc
2 2N
2 N0

ASKErrorPerformance
TheprobabilityoferrorforcoherentASKis
p y
1 Eb
P (e) = erfc
2 2 N0
TheprobabilityoferrorfornoncoherentFSKis
1 Eb
P (e) = erfc
2 2 N0

DPSK Error Performance
DPSKErrorPerformance
Eb
1
P(e) = e N0

FindingErrorfunctionvaluesusing
Finding Error function values using
approximateformula
x2
e
f ( x) =
erfc
x
Forexample
p
erfc(.7)=.493
erfc(.5)=.878

BANDWIDTHEFFICIENCY
Alsocalledinformationdensityorspectralefficiency,often
y p y,
usedtocomparetheperformanceofonedigitalmodulation
techniquetoanother.
Bandwidthefficiencyisdefinedas
B d idth ffi i i d fi d

Clock Recovery
ClockRecovery
SquaringLoop
Squaring Loop
CostasLoop
Remodulator
d l

SquaringLoop
The incoming modulated signal is squared and bandpass
filtered to extract the carrier component at 2 times its
original frequency.
frequency
This signal is then fed into a phase locked loop whose other
input comes from a VCO.
The error output of the phase locked loop is converted into a
DC voltage which is fed back into the VCO to cause it to
oscillate at a frequency which is almost same as the carrier
frequency such that the error output reduces to nearly zero.
This is then divided by two to give the in phase carrier
frequency

BPF Squarer PLL Divider
I t tto squarer = sin

Input i wc t ( PSK input
i t)
Output of squarer
= + sin
i wc 2t
1
= + ((1 cos 2 wc t )
2
This is filtered to give
1
= cos 2 wc t
2
This is divided by 2 to give in phase carrier frequency

COSTASLOOP

It consists of two coherent detectors supplied with the same
received PSK input
Carrier is generated locally by using a VCO which is having a
phase difference of for simplicity we assume that it has
amplitude =1 volt.
This carrier is given as it is to I product modulator
Other
O h productd fi
figure i applied
is li d the
h locally
l ll generatedd carrier
i
with phase of 90 shift of as shown.
Both the outputs of I and Q channel are passed through a
LPF and are fed to a phase discriminator which is consisting
of a multiplier followed by a low pass filter
Output off the
h final
f l LPF is error voltage
l which
h h is proportionall
to sin2 and it corrects VCO frequency to carrier frequency
byy bringing
g g to to 0

O u tp u t o f I M o d u la to r is
= A c . c o s w c t .m ( t ) c o s ( w c t + )
Ac
= m ( t ) {c o s ( 2 w c t + ) + c o s }
2
A
A fte r L P F it is = c m (t ) c o s
2
O u tp u t o f Q M o d u la to r is
= A c . c o s w c t .m ( t ) s i n ( w c t + )
Ac
= m ( t ) {s i n ( 2 w c t + ) s i n ( ) }
2
A
= c m ( t ) {s i n ( 2 w c t + ) + s i n }
2
A
A fte r L P F it is = c m (t ) s in
2
O u tp u t o f p h a s e d is c r i m in a to r is
Ac Ac A c2 1 2
= m (t ) c o s . m (t ) s in = s i n 2 m (t )
2 2 4 2
a s 0 e r r o r v o lta g e g o e s to 0
a9/18/2013
n d i t l o c k s t o t h e c a r r LtColAKNigam,ITMUniversity,Gurgaon
ie r fr e q u e n c y 110
Clock recovery and timing diagram
Clockrecoveryandtimingdiagram

Unit3 Phpapp01

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Unit 3

For a standard telephone circuit with a signaltonoise

Baud is expressed as baud =1/ts

In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of change, it also

Thus, for a logic l input, we can write

Thus With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (fc) is

The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as

Its use is restricted to lowperformance, lowcost,

Continuousphase frequencyshift keying (CPFSK) is binary

This ensures a smooth phase transition in the analog output

This has effect of limiting the BW after modulation

(Howtoremember:For1+ve willgoandfor0ve willgo)

Ive (0)I+ve (1)

Ive (0) I+ve

8QAM is an Mary encoding technique

The C channel determines the magnitude.

Because the c bit is fed un

Their polarities depend on the logic condition of the i and q bits

As with the 1616PSK

The outputs from the I and Q channel product modulators are

For a qquadbit input

Thus summer output = 0.22 sin wc t + 0.22cos wc t

Is an alternative form of digital g

(initial reference bit is assumed a logic 0, If the initial

Change of phase indicates 0 same phase indicates 1

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I t tto squarer = sin

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