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Inverting
Input
Inverting
V2 V+
Input
- -
Output VIN
A A
+ + VOUT
V1 V-
Non-inverting
Input
Non-inverting
Input
ROUT
+
VIN RIN Aol VIN VOUT
-
Equivalent Circuit
Where
RIN is the total resistance between the inverting and the non-inverting
inputs
ROUT is the resistance viewed from the output terminal
Aol is the Open-Loop Voltage Gain i.e. when there are no external
components
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Op-amp Characteristics
Open-Loop Voltage Gain
The open-loop voltage gain, AOL, of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device and
represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external components.
The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design. Open-loop voltage gain can
range up to 200,00 and is not a well-controlled parameter. Data sheets often refer to the
open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain.
Signal-Ended Input
Signal-Ended input => one input is grounded and the signal voltage is applied only to the
other input as shown below.
-
VIN
A
VOUT = -AVIN
+
+
VIN
A
VOUT = AVIN
-
V1
Vdiff A
VOUT = -AV(d)Vdiff
+
V2
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Common-Mode Input
In this mode, two identical polarity signals (same phase) are applied to the inputs, as shown
in the left-hand figure below.
Note that there is no output due to V CM, the common mode voltage because
VCM = V1 - V2 = 0, as shown in the right-hand figure below.
- -
V1
VCM A A
VOUT = -ACMVCM VOUT = 0V
+ +
V2 E
This is very useful as unwanted signals (noise) appearing with the same polarity on both
input lines are essentially cancelled out and do not appear on the output.
The common-mode input voltage range is the range of input voltages which, when applied to
both inputs, will not cause clipping or other output distortion. Many op-amps have common-
mode rages of no more than +/-10 V with dc supply voltages of +/- 15 V, while in others the
output can go as high as the supply voltages (this is called rail-to-rail).
Common-Mode-Rejection-ratio (CMRR).
The ability of an Op-Amp to suppress common signals is expressed in terms of its Common-
Mode-Rejection-ratio (CMRR).
AV ( d )
CMRR =
ACM
The higher the CMRR, the better. A very high value of CMRR means that the differential
gain AV(d) is high and the common-mode gain ACM is low. The CMRR is often expressed in
decibels (dB) as:
AV ( d )
CMRR = 20 log
ACM
Ideally, an Op-Amp provides infinite gain for desired signals (single ended or differential)
and zero gain for common-mode signals,
The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output terminal of the op-amp.
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
-
ROUT
VIN RIN +
AolVIN
-
VOUT
+
4
Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Negative
Feedback
Circuit
Vf
-
VOUT =AclVIN
VIN +
Where:
VIN is the input signal
Vf is a portion of the output signal fed back to the inverting input
Acl the closed loop gain is the voltage gain with negative feedback
The Op-Amp responds to the voltage VIN at its non-inverting input, which moves the output
towards saturation. However, a fraction of this output is returned to the inverting terminal
through the feedback path. As the feedback signal approaches the value of VIN there is
nothing left for the Op-Amp to amplify as
Vf VIN 0
Thus the feedback signal tries (but never quite succeeds) in matching the input signal and
thus the gain is controlled by the amount of feedback used.
5
Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
i2 R2
R1
i1 i-
-
VIN V
A
+ VOUT
The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is defined as the gain with feedback applied
Then V = V- - V+
VIN V V VOUT
i1 and: i2
R1 R2
i1 = i2 + i-
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
i1 = i2
VIN V V VOUT
R1 R2
VIN V V VOUT
R1 R1 R 2 R2
VOUT
But: VOUT = -AV => V
A
VOUT
As A-> then V
=> V -> 0
VIN VOUT
R1 R2
VINR2 = -VOUTR1
R2 VOUT
R1 VIN
VOUT R2
ACl =
VIN R1
Where ACl is the Closed Loop Gain and is defined as the gain with feedback applied
Note that A, the gain of the op-amp without feedback, is called the Open Loop Gain
We see that, as expected, the gain is negative and that the gain depends only on the ratio of
the resistor values and not on the amplifier itself.
V- = V+
V- = 0
We cannot actually ground the inverting terminal but since its potential is V- = 0, we say that
a virtual ground exists at the inverting input terminal.
Since V- is at virtual ground the input impedance seen by the signal source generating V IN is
(ideally) R1 ohms.
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Example 1:
i2 R2
R1
i1 i-
-
VIN V
A
+ VOUT
VIN?
VOUT R2
ACl =
VIN R1
VOUT 10,000
5
VIN 2,000
VOUT 2
VIN 0.4V
5 5
VIN = -400mV
Since V- is at virtual ground the input impedance seen by the signal source generating V IN is
R1 ohms.
RIN = R1 = 2k
VOUT 15
i.e. V = 0
A
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
i2 R2
R1
i1 i-
-
V
A
+ VOUT
VIN
But: V+ = VIN
VIN VOUT VIN
=> i1 = and i2 =
R1 R2
VIN VOUT VIN
=>
R1 R2
=> VINR2 = VOUTR1 VINR1
=> VIN(R2 + R1)= VOUTR1
VOUT R1 R 2 R2
=> 1
VIN R1 R1
The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: R2
ACl = 1
R1
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
The assumption of large voltage gain in the system implies that the output voltage takes on a
value such that the negative feedback forces the potential of the inverting input to equal
(approximately) that of the non-inverting input.
The input impedance seen by the signal source generating VIN is infinite (ideally)
Example 2:
What is the Closed Loop Gain (A Cl ) and the input resistance seen by the applied signal V IN in
the following system:
R1 = 10k R2 = 90 k
i2 R2
R1
i1 i-
-
V
A
+ VOUT
VIN
R2 90,000
ACl = 1 R1 1 10,000 10
Input Resistance
Since the input resistance to an Op-Amp is infinite (ideally) the signal V IN sees infinite input
resistance
RIN =
Note also that if the output resistance of the Op-Amp is assumed to be zero, then the output
resistance of the Non-Inverting Amplifier is zero.
VOUT is initially 0V. the Op-Amp sees an enormous input imbalance (the + input is at 1V and
the input is at 0V) and the output V OUT is forced to go positive. When VOUT reaches 10V
then the potential divider of R1 and R2 make the voltage at the inverting input equal to 1V. If
VOUT tried to go above 10V then the voltage across R 1 would also rise. The result of a higher
voltage at the inverting terminal is to force VOUT back down to 10V
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
-
V
A
+ VOUT
VIN
ACl = 1
It Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier is called a Voltage Follower since V IN = VOUT. The most
important features of the voltage-follower configuration are its very high input impedance
and its very low output impedance. Therefore, it may be used to allow a signal from a high
impedance source to be coupled to a low impedance load.
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Example 3:
An inverting amplifier is driven by a signal source whose output impedance is 40k. The
source voltage is 2.2Vr.m.s and R1=15k and R2=39k.
R2
RS R1
-
V
VS VIN A
+ VOUT
R2
VOUT VIN
R1
Since the inverting terminal is a virtual ground, the input circuit can be drawn as follows:
R1
VIN Vs
R1 RS
R2 R2 R1
RS
VOUT VIN Vs
R1 R1 R1 RS
VS
R2
VOUT Vs
R1 RS
VIN
R1
R2 39 x10 3
VOUT Vs 2.2 1.56Vrms
R1 RS 15 x10 40 x10
3 3
VOUTPEAK
VOUTRMS VOUTPEAK 2 .VOUTRMS 2 .(1.56) = -2.2VPEAK
2
Therefore:
|VOUT | = 2.2V
PEAK
Example 4:
An inverting voltage amplifier is driven by a signal source with internal resistance of 1 k.
The source voltage is 1.2 V, the feedback resistor R2 = 10 k and R1 = 5 k.
What is the output voltage?
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Exercises:
Attempt the following exercises.
Example 5:
An inverting voltage amplifier is driven by a signal source with internal resistance of 2 k.
The source voltage is 1.4 V, the feedback resistor R2 = 10 k and R1 = 5 k.
What is the output voltage?
Example 6:
An operational amplifier is configured as a non-inverting amplifier having a gain of 10. A
d.c. voltage of 1 V is applied as an input. Draw the circuit diagram. What is the voltage at
each of the amplifier terminals.
Example 7:
An operational amplifier is configured as an inverting amplifier and driven by a signal source
whose output resistance is 5 k. The source voltage is 2.2V, the feedback resistor R 2 = 60
k and R1 = 15 k. What is the output voltage.
Example 8:
It is required to construct an inverting amplifier to have a voltage gain of 20 and an input
resistance of 20 k. Determine the value of the resistive components required. Indicate the
virtual earth point.
Example 9:
Draw a circuit diagram showing how an operational amplifier may be configured as a
non-inverting voltage amplifier.
Determine an expression for the closed loop voltage gain of this amplifier in terms of the
component values in the circuit. State any approximations used.
Give an example of resistor values that would give a voltage gain of 10.
Example 10:
Draw a circuit diagram showing how an operational amplifier may be configured as a
unity gain voltage amplifier and state why such an amplifier might be used.
Example 11:
Two IC op-amps are available to you. Their characteristics are listed below. Choose the one
you think is more desirable.
RIN ROUT AOL
Op-amp 1 5 M 100 50,000
Op-amp2 10 M 75 150,000
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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers
Summary:
OP-AMP Schematic Symbol And Equivalent Circuit
Inverting
Input ROUT
-
Output
A +
Aol VIN VOUT
VIN RIN
+ -
Non-inverting
Input
Common-Mode-Rejection-ratio (CMRR)
The ability of an Op-Amp to suppress common signals is expressed in terms of.
AV ( d ) AV ( d )
CMRR = CMRR = 20 log
ACM ACM
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