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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

The Operational Amplifier


Introduction
In this chapter we will introduce a general purpose integrated circuit (IC), the Operational
Amplifier (Op-Amp), which is a most versatile and widely used linear integrated circuit. The
Op-Amp is a direct-coupled high-gain amplifier to which feedback is added to control its
overall response characteristics.
The standard Op-Amp symbol is shown in left-hand figure below. It has two input terminals,
the inverting (-) input and the non-inverting (+) input. The typical Op-Amp operates with
two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other negative, as shown in the right-hand figure
below. Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic symbol for simplicity but
are always understood to be there.
SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

Inverting
Input
Inverting
V2 V+
Input
- -
Output VIN
A A
+ + VOUT
V1 V-
Non-inverting
Input
Non-inverting
Input

The equivalent circuit for an Op-Amp is as follows:

ROUT

+
VIN RIN Aol VIN VOUT
-

Equivalent Circuit
Where
RIN is the total resistance between the inverting and the non-inverting
inputs
ROUT is the resistance viewed from the output terminal
Aol is the Open-Loop Voltage Gain i.e. when there are no external
components

The Op-Amp responds to a difference between the input terminals

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Op-amp Characteristics
Open-Loop Voltage Gain
The open-loop voltage gain, AOL, of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device and
represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external components.
The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design. Open-loop voltage gain can
range up to 200,00 and is not a well-controlled parameter. Data sheets often refer to the
open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain.

Signal-Ended Input
Signal-Ended input => one input is grounded and the signal voltage is applied only to the
other input as shown below.

-
VIN
A
VOUT = -AVIN
+

+
VIN
A
VOUT = AVIN
-

Differential Input (Double-Ended Input)


In this mode, two signals are applied to the inputs, as shown below. The output is the sum of
the respective single ended outputs.

V1
Vdiff A
VOUT = -AV(d)Vdiff
+
V2

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Common-Mode Input
In this mode, two identical polarity signals (same phase) are applied to the inputs, as shown
in the left-hand figure below.
Note that there is no output due to V CM, the common mode voltage because
VCM = V1 - V2 = 0, as shown in the right-hand figure below.

- -

V1
VCM A A
VOUT = -ACMVCM VOUT = 0V
+ +
V2 E

This is very useful as unwanted signals (noise) appearing with the same polarity on both
input lines are essentially cancelled out and do not appear on the output.

The common-mode input voltage range is the range of input voltages which, when applied to
both inputs, will not cause clipping or other output distortion. Many op-amps have common-
mode rages of no more than +/-10 V with dc supply voltages of +/- 15 V, while in others the
output can go as high as the supply voltages (this is called rail-to-rail).

Common-Mode-Rejection-ratio (CMRR).
The ability of an Op-Amp to suppress common signals is expressed in terms of its Common-
Mode-Rejection-ratio (CMRR).
AV ( d )
CMRR =
ACM

The higher the CMRR, the better. A very high value of CMRR means that the differential
gain AV(d) is high and the common-mode gain ACM is low. The CMRR is often expressed in
decibels (dB) as:
AV ( d )
CMRR = 20 log
ACM

Ideally, an Op-Amp provides infinite gain for desired signals (single ended or differential)
and zero gain for common-mode signals,

Input and Output Impedance


Two basic ways of specifying the input impedance of an op-amp are the differential and the
common mode. The differential input impedance is the total resistance between the inverting
and the non-inverting inputs. The common-mode input impedance is the resistance between
each input and ground.

The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output terminal of the op-amp.

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp:

-
ROUT

VIN RIN +
AolVIN
-
VOUT
+

The ideal op-Amp has the following characteristics


Input Resistance RIN = . (i.e. no current demanded at amplifier input
terminals)
Output Resistance ROUT = 0. (i.e. Output Voltage unaffected by load)
Voltage Gain Aol = (i.e. Open Loop Voltage gain is infinite)

The ideal Op-Amp also has the following characteristics:

Bandwidth= (i.e. the response extends from dc to )

Infinite CMRR (i.e. ideally VOUT = 0 for common mode inputs


where the Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is a measure of an
Op-Amps ability to reject common-mode signals )
dVOUT
i.e. the maximum rate of change of VOUT is
Slew rate= dt
where slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage in
response to a step input voltage and is dependent upon the high
frequency response of the amplifier stages within the Op- Amp.
Characteristics of a Practical Op-Amp
In practice the IC Op-Amp falls short of the ideal characteristics, however the following
applies
Very HIGH input resistance
Very LOW output resistance
Very large Open Loop Voltage Gain

For example, a popular 741 Op-Amp has the following characteristics:


Open-Loop voltage gain 200,000
Input impedance 2 M
Output impedance 75
Bandwidth for unit gain 1 MHz
CMRR 90dB
Slew rate 0.5V/s

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Need for Negative Feedback


As the Open-Loop Voltage Gain of the Op-Amp is very large, an extremely small difference
in the two input voltages drives the Op-Amp into its saturated output states, i.e. it will cause
the output voltage to go all the way to its extreme positive or negative voltage limit. As this
is seldom desirable the full gain of the Op-Amp is not usually applied to an input, instead
negative feedback (using external resistors) is applied to reduce the overall gain through
signal feedback.

Negative
Feedback
Circuit

Vf
-

VOUT =AclVIN
VIN +

Where:
VIN is the input signal
Vf is a portion of the output signal fed back to the inverting input
Acl the closed loop gain is the voltage gain with negative feedback

The Op-Amp responds to the voltage VIN at its non-inverting input, which moves the output
towards saturation. However, a fraction of this output is returned to the inverting terminal
through the feedback path. As the feedback signal approaches the value of VIN there is
nothing left for the Op-Amp to amplify as

Vf VIN 0

Thus the feedback signal tries (but never quite succeeds) in matching the input signal and
thus the gain is controlled by the amount of feedback used.

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Op-Amp Configurations with Negative Feedback


The Basic Inverting Amplifier:
A signal VIN is applied through a series resistor R1 to the inverting input as shown below. The
ouput is fed back through R2 to the inverting input. The non-inverting input is grounded.

i2 R2

R1
i1 i-
-
VIN V
A
+ VOUT

The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is defined as the gain with feedback applied

Basic Inverting Amplifer


Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is:
R2
ACl = R1
Input Resistance is ideally RIN = R1

Derive the Closed Loop Gain the Basic Inverting Amplifier:


We call the voltage at the inverting terminal V- and the voltage at the non-inverting terminal
V+.

Then V = V- - V+

and VOUT = -AV= -A(V- - V+) = A(V+ - V-)

From the diagram above: V+ = 0 and V- = V

VIN V V VOUT
i1 and: i2
R1 R2

Kirchhoffs Current Law at the inverting terminal gives us:

i1 = i2 + i-

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

As the ideal amplifier has infinite input resistance then i- must be 0.

i1 = i2

VIN V V VOUT

R1 R2
VIN V V VOUT

R1 R1 R 2 R2
VOUT
But: VOUT = -AV => V
A
VOUT
As A-> then V

=> V -> 0
VIN VOUT

R1 R2
VINR2 = -VOUTR1
R2 VOUT

R1 VIN

VOUT R2
ACl =
VIN R1

Where ACl is the Closed Loop Gain and is defined as the gain with feedback applied

Note that A, the gain of the op-amp without feedback, is called the Open Loop Gain

We see that, as expected, the gain is negative and that the gain depends only on the ratio of
the resistor values and not on the amplifier itself.

V= V- - V+ and as shown above if A -> then V -> 0

V- = V+

In the configuration above, we have V+ grounded so therefore

V- = 0

We cannot actually ground the inverting terminal but since its potential is V- = 0, we say that
a virtual ground exists at the inverting input terminal.

Since V- is at virtual ground the input impedance seen by the signal source generating V IN is
(ideally) R1 ohms.

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Example 1:

i2 R2

R1
i1 i-
-
VIN V
A
+ VOUT

If R1 = 2k, R2 = 10 k and VOUT = 2V,


(a) What is VIN?
(b) What is the input resistance seen by VIN?

VIN?
VOUT R2
ACl =
VIN R1
VOUT 10,000

5
VIN 2,000
VOUT 2
VIN 0.4V
5 5
VIN = -400mV

Input Resistance seen by VIN

Since V- is at virtual ground the input impedance seen by the signal source generating V IN is
R1 ohms.

RIN = R1 = 2k

Note on the behaviour of the Op-Amp circuit:


Since VOUT is held by the supply rails to a maximum of 15V and since A-> , then the
action of the Op-Amp is to look at its input terminals and swing its output terminal around
so that the external feedback resistors bring the input differential, V1 to zero if possible

VOUT 15
i.e. V = 0
A

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

The Basic Non-Inverting Amplifier:


The input signal is applied to the non-inverting (+) input. A portion of the output signal is
applied back to the inverting (-) input through the feedback network. This constitutes
negative feedback.

i2 R2

R1
i1 i-
-
V
A
+ VOUT
VIN

Basic Non-inverting Amplifier


Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: R2
ACl = 1
R1
Input Resistance is ideally RIN =
Derive the Closed Loop Gain of the Basic Non-inverting Amplifier:
Assuming again infinite input resistance, then i- =0 and i1 = i2
VOUT = -AV= -A(V- - V+) = A(V+ - V-)
VOUT
=> V+ - V- =
A
VOUT
As A-> then => 0 and V+ - V- = 0
A
V+ = V-

But: V+ = VIN
VIN VOUT VIN
=> i1 = and i2 =
R1 R2
VIN VOUT VIN
=>
R1 R2
=> VINR2 = VOUTR1 VINR1
=> VIN(R2 + R1)= VOUTR1
VOUT R1 R 2 R2
=> 1
VIN R1 R1
The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: R2
ACl = 1
R1

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

The assumption of large voltage gain in the system implies that the output voltage takes on a
value such that the negative feedback forces the potential of the inverting input to equal
(approximately) that of the non-inverting input.

The input impedance seen by the signal source generating VIN is infinite (ideally)

Example 2:

What is the Closed Loop Gain (A Cl ) and the input resistance seen by the applied signal V IN in
the following system:
R1 = 10k R2 = 90 k

i2 R2

R1
i1 i-
-
V
A
+ VOUT
VIN

Closed Loop Gain

R2 90,000
ACl = 1 R1 1 10,000 10

Input Resistance
Since the input resistance to an Op-Amp is infinite (ideally) the signal V IN sees infinite input
resistance
RIN =

Note also that if the output resistance of the Op-Amp is assumed to be zero, then the output
resistance of the Non-Inverting Amplifier is zero.

If in the previous example, VIN is made 1V what happens?

VOUT is initially 0V. the Op-Amp sees an enormous input imbalance (the + input is at 1V and
the input is at 0V) and the output V OUT is forced to go positive. When VOUT reaches 10V
then the potential divider of R1 and R2 make the voltage at the inverting input equal to 1V. If
VOUT tried to go above 10V then the voltage across R 1 would also rise. The result of a higher
voltage at the inverting terminal is to force VOUT back down to 10V

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

The Voltage Follower: (Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier)


The Voltage Follower is a special case of the non-inverting Amplifier, where all of the output
voltage is fed back to the inverting terminal by a straight connection as shown below.

-
V
A
+ VOUT
VIN

Voltage Follower Amplifier


Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: ACl = 1
Input Resistance is ideally RIN =
Derive the Closed Loop Gain of the voltage follower Amplifier:
VOUT = V + VIN
VOUT
VOUT = -AV => V
A
VOUT
VOUT = VIN
A
VOUT
As A -> then -> 0
A
VOUT VIN
R2
The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: ACl = 1
R1

In this case R2 goes to zero and R1 goes to infinity

ACl = 1

It Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier is called a Voltage Follower since V IN = VOUT. The most
important features of the voltage-follower configuration are its very high input impedance
and its very low output impedance. Therefore, it may be used to allow a signal from a high
impedance source to be coupled to a low impedance load.

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Example 3:
An inverting amplifier is driven by a signal source whose output impedance is 40k. The
source voltage is 2.2Vr.m.s and R1=15k and R2=39k.

What is the peak value of the output voltage?

R2

RS R1

-
V
VS VIN A
+ VOUT

R2
VOUT VIN
R1
Since the inverting terminal is a virtual ground, the input circuit can be drawn as follows:

R1
VIN Vs
R1 RS
R2 R2 R1
RS
VOUT VIN Vs
R1 R1 R1 RS
VS
R2
VOUT Vs
R1 RS

VIN
R1

R2 39 x10 3
VOUT Vs 2.2 1.56Vrms
R1 RS 15 x10 40 x10
3 3

VOUTPEAK
VOUTRMS VOUTPEAK 2 .VOUTRMS 2 .(1.56) = -2.2VPEAK
2
Therefore:
|VOUT | = 2.2V
PEAK

Example 4:
An inverting voltage amplifier is driven by a signal source with internal resistance of 1 k.
The source voltage is 1.2 V, the feedback resistor R2 = 10 k and R1 = 5 k.
What is the output voltage?

Gain = - R2/R1 = - 10/5 = -2


Vin = Vs ( R1/(R1 + Rs) ) = 1.2 ( 5000/6000 ) = 1 V
Vout = 1*(-2) = -2 V

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Exercises:
Attempt the following exercises.

Example 5:
An inverting voltage amplifier is driven by a signal source with internal resistance of 2 k.
The source voltage is 1.4 V, the feedback resistor R2 = 10 k and R1 = 5 k.
What is the output voltage?

Example 6:
An operational amplifier is configured as a non-inverting amplifier having a gain of 10. A
d.c. voltage of 1 V is applied as an input. Draw the circuit diagram. What is the voltage at
each of the amplifier terminals.

Example 7:
An operational amplifier is configured as an inverting amplifier and driven by a signal source
whose output resistance is 5 k. The source voltage is 2.2V, the feedback resistor R 2 = 60
k and R1 = 15 k. What is the output voltage.

Example 8:
It is required to construct an inverting amplifier to have a voltage gain of 20 and an input
resistance of 20 k. Determine the value of the resistive components required. Indicate the
virtual earth point.

Example 9:
Draw a circuit diagram showing how an operational amplifier may be configured as a
non-inverting voltage amplifier.

Determine an expression for the closed loop voltage gain of this amplifier in terms of the
component values in the circuit. State any approximations used.

Give an example of resistor values that would give a voltage gain of 10.

Example 10:
Draw a circuit diagram showing how an operational amplifier may be configured as a
unity gain voltage amplifier and state why such an amplifier might be used.

Example 11:
Two IC op-amps are available to you. Their characteristics are listed below. Choose the one
you think is more desirable.
RIN ROUT AOL
Op-amp 1 5 M 100 50,000
Op-amp2 10 M 75 150,000

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Analogue ELEK1289 - Electronic systems and practice II - Unit 4 Operational Amplifiers

Summary:
OP-AMP Schematic Symbol And Equivalent Circuit

Inverting
Input ROUT
-
Output
A +
Aol VIN VOUT
VIN RIN
+ -
Non-inverting
Input

Common-Mode-Rejection-ratio (CMRR)
The ability of an Op-Amp to suppress common signals is expressed in terms of.
AV ( d ) AV ( d )
CMRR = CMRR = 20 log
ACM ACM

The ideal op-Amp


has the following characteristics
Input Resistance RIN = . (i.e. no current demanded at amplifier input
terminals)
Output Resistance ROUT = 0. (i.e. Output Voltage unaffected by load)
Voltage Gain Aol = (i.e. Open Loop Voltage gain is infinite)
The Basic Inverting Amplifier:
Where ACl is the Closed Loop Gain and is defined as the gain with feedback applied
VOUT R2
ACl =
VIN R1
The input impedance seen by the signal source generating VIN is R1

The Basic Non-Inverting Amplifier:


The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: R2
ACl = 1
R1
The input impedance seen by the signal source generating VIN is infinite (ideally)

The Voltage Follower: (Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier)


R2
The Closed Loop Gain (ACl) is: ACl = 1
R1
In this case R2 goes to zero and R1 goes to infinity =>
ACl = 1
It Unity Gain Buffer Amplifier is called a Voltage Follower since VIN = VOUT. It has
high input impedance and low output impedance. Therefore, it may be used to allow
a signal from a high impedance source to be coupled to a low impedance load.

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