_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Report Information from ProQuest

12 April 2015 09:06
_______________________________________________________________

12 April 2015 ProQuest

 Table of contents

1. The relation of LD and gender with emotional intelligence in college students............................................ 1

12 April 2015 ii ProQuest

Document 1 of 1

The relation of LD and gender with emotional intelligence in college students

Author: Reiff, Henry B; Hatzes, Nanette M; Bramel, Michael H; Gibbon, Thomas

ProQuest document link

Abstract: This study examined the relation of learning disabilities (LD) and gender with emotional intelligence in
128 college students. Fifty-four students with LD (32 men and 22 women) and 74 without LD (34 men and 40
women) attending two colleges and one university participated in the study.

Full text: Headnote

Abstract
Headnote
This study examined the relation of learning disabilities (LD) and gender with emotional intelligence in 128
college students. Fifty-four students with LD (32 men and 22 women) and 74 without LD (34 men and 40
women) attending two colleges and one university participated in the study. Emotional intelligence was
assessed using the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; BarOn,1997), a self-report instrument designed to
measure interpersonal and intrapersonal skills, stress management, adaptability, and general mood. A 2-way
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to examine the main effects of LD and gender and
the interaction of the two main effects on the five composites of the EQ-i. Students with LD had fewer credits
and lower scholastic aptitude test (SAT) scores, high school grade point averages (GPAs), and college GPAs
than students without LD; women students were older and had higher college GPAs than men students. Results
of the MANOVA indicated significant main effects of both LD and gender; no significant interaction occurred.
Post hoc univariate analyses of the five composites revealed significant differences between students with LD
and students without LD on stress management and adaptability, significant differences between men and
women students on interpersonal skills, and significant differences of the interaction of LD and gender on
interpersonal skills.
Research has suggested that intelligence is broader than the narrow cognitive domains measured by traditional
intelligence tests and, in fact, contributes only about 20% to the factors that determine life success (Gardner,
1995). Recently, emotional intelligence, a construct that includes much of Gardner's theory, has emerged as a
key factor in research investigating a range of outcomes including academic achievement and employment
success (Coleman, 1995, 1998; Salovey &Mayer, 1989-1990). According to Leeper (1948), emotions are
primarily motivating forces; they are "processes which arouse, sustain, and direct activity" (p. 17). Emotions are
reported to influence learning, in addition to influencing a range of behaviors such as helping, negotiating,
altruism, risk taking, and compliance (Isen, 1984). More recently, Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) defined the
construct of emotional intelligence as "the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's own thinking and actions" (p. 189).
Coleman (1995) described emotional intelligence as an ability that includes selfawareness, impulse control,
persistence, zeal, self-motivation, empathy, and social deftness. Bernet (1996) operationalized emotional
intelligence by focusing on optimal responses that result from "the ability to attend rapidly, appropriately and
without effort to the experienced feelings" (p. 5); an inability in this area leads to self-damaging emotions and
behaviors. In other words, emotional intelligence refers to the skillfulness with which one can mediate and
regulate the emotions of oneself and others.
Nevertheless, operationalizing and measuring emotional intelligence has presented a challenge. BarOn (1997)
developed an instrument, the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), to assess psychosocial functioning,
conceptualized broadly as emotional intelligence. The EQ-i (BarOn, 1997) measures emotional intelligence
through five composites that include Interpersonal Skills, Intrapersonal Skills, Stress Management, Adaptability,

12 April 2015 Page 1 of 19 ProQuest

and General Mood. According to BarOn (1997), emotionally intelligent people "are generally optimistic, flexible,
realistic, and successful at solving problems and coping with stress, without losing control" (p. 156).
Traditional constructs of intelligence often have little to do with emotional intelligence or success in life (Sutarso,
Baggert, Sutarso, &Tapia, 1996). High test scores in college do not predict salary, productivity, status in field,
life satisfaction, or happiness with friendship, family, and romantic relationship (Ekman, 1992). For example,
Coleman (1995) referred to a longitudinal study where the degree of impulsivity control in 4-year-olds predicted
scholastic aptitude test (SAT) scores, high school grade point average (GPA), and other outcomes in
adolescence. Further, Coleman (1998) claimed that his 2-year review of research demonstrated the superiority
of emotional intelligence over IQ in determining job performance. Martinez-Pons (1997-1998) used path
analysis to show a positive relation between emotional intelligence and goal orientation and life satisfaction in
108 adults. Mayer and Geher (1996) studied 321 undergraduates who evaluated emotional recognition abilities.
The researchers concluded that, whereas emotional intelligence may be distinct from general intelligence, the
two intelligences are correlated to a degree. Clearly, emotional intelligence is emerging as a specific intelligence
warranting further research.
In the present study, we primarily examined the relationship of learning disabilities (LD) with emotional
intelligence in college students. We measured the construct of emotional intelligence by using the EQ-i.
Furthermore, we examined the relationship of gender with emotional intelligence in order to control for gender
influences. Differences in emotional intelligence may increase our understanding of behavioral differences
between college students with and without LD, and between male and female college students; moreover, an
examination of the interaction between LD and gender may demonstrate that LD have a different impact on men
and women. Identifying significant main effects and interactions may provide insight about how both men and
women students with LD face and cope with the demands of college life; such understanding should help
service providers address the unique affective issues of these students.
Emotional Intelligence and LD
It seems reasonable that college students with LD need to possess the necessary emotional skills to navigate
and achieve in a competitive academic arena. College students with LID are required, often for the first time, to
1. navigate within a complex bureaucracy,
2. advocate for needed accommodations,
3. overcome the obstacles and compensate for the challenges presented by significant learning problems, and
4. manage the stress that often accompanies these challenges (Hatzes, 1996).
Because these students have achieved a measure of success in school resulting in admission to higher
education, one might hypothesize that they resemble their nondisabled peers on measures of emotional
intelligence. Although the literature suggests that many adults with LD may have deficits in emotional
intelligence, college students with LID represent a subset of the total population of adults with LD. These
students, despite their learning problems, have achieved a measure of success in school, enabling them to
pursue a college education. However, no research to date has compared them to their peers without LD on
measures of emotional intelligence.
Nevertheless, a clear profile regarding the emotional intelligence of college students with LD has not yet
emerged. As Morrison and Cosden (1997) have suggested, most individuals with LD do not have significant
emotional problems; however, the presence of LD seems to place them at greater risk for anxiety and
depression, mental states that are known to have deleterious affects on effective functioning. Furthermore,
many studies have indicated that students with LID present deficiencies on a variety of affective measures
(Bruininks, 1978; McIntosh, Vaughn, &Zaragoza, 1991; Ochoa &Palmer, 1995; Wenz-Gross &Siperstein, 1998).

In a descriptive study, Hatzes (1996) interviewed 20 adults with LD, 10 of whom had been academically
dismissed from a large research university and 10 of whom had graduated. The groups were matched on

12 April 2015 Page 2 of 19 ProQuest

gender, age, ethnicity, IQ SAT scores, and entrance status in order to reduce differences attributable to these
factors. Hatzes found emotional intelligence to be a critical factor contributing to the academic and employment
outcomes of this group of individuals. Emotional intelligence, in Hatzes' study, was conceptualized to include
1. ability to manage emotions, 2. persistence,
3. interpersonal skills,
4. empathy,
5. positive reframing, and
6. explanatory style.
The persisters in this study were better able than the leavers to manage their emotions, persist in the face of
difficulties, get along and empathize with others, and had a more positive explanatory style. A common thread
that ran though the stories both of those who graduated and of those who were academically dismissed was
that they all, without exception, expressed feeling stressed out and overwhelmed during their first year at the
university. This study, however, did not include a comparison group of individuals without LD and, thus, did not
provide information regarding whether the adults with LD differed from their peers without LD on those
dimensions.
Emotional Intelligence and Gender
Popular literature has created a virtual industry related to gender differences associated with emotional
intelligence. The overwhelming popularity of works such as Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus (Gray,
1993), which remained a bestseller for more than 3 years, attests to our fascination with gender differences.
"Conventional wisdom" and pseudoscience apparently suggest that men and women have significantly different
styles of emotional intelligence, largely related to very traditional notions of genderspecific roles.
Psychoeducational research has not made such dramatic claims, but studies have demonstrated some degree
of a relation between gender and emotional intelligence.
For example, Sutarso et al. (1996) examined the relationship of gender and GPA with emotional intelligence in
138 college students. Emotional intelligence was measured by scores on scales of compassion/empathy,
selfawareness/self-control, and attunement from an instrument developed by Baggert, Sutarso, and Tapia
(1996). In this study men and women differed significantly on compassion/empathy and self-awareness/self-
control, but not on attunement. Furthermore, GPA and the interaction of gender and GPA did not have
significant effects. Sutarso et al. reported gender differences in terms of intensity of emotional experience,
empathy, body image and selfesteem, aggressive feeling and social monitoring, coping, human relations,
emotional development, parenting and family support, and depression. Many studies have reported that women
tend to demonstrate greater compassion and empathy than men; the literature is mixed in terms of differences
on self-awareness and selfcontrol (Bernet, 1996; Sutarso et al., 1996).
Bernet (1996) measured more than 1000 individuals in developing the Style in the Perception of Affect Scale
(SIPOAS), an instrument designed to operationalize some of the constructs of emotional intelligence. Women
demonstrated slightly greater abilities in social and emotional intelligence, greater doubt about feelings and
decisions, and less emphasis on the intellect. However, Bernet (1996) noted that these gender differences were
"much more moderate than is popularly held" (p. 7). Clearly, the educational field has yet to reach consensus
regarding gender differences on emotional intelligence.
Emotional Intelligence, LD, and Gender
The preceding review of the literature provides support that both LD and gender are related to emotional
intelligence. A number of studies investigating gender differences within the LD population have offered the
possibility of an interaction effect. For example, Vogel's (1990) review of the literature indicated that women
students with LD tended to have lower IQs and more severe academic deficits than men students with LD.
Gottlieb's (1987) study of 115 boys and 215 girls in special education, most of whom had been identified with
LD, presented similar findings. The girls in Gottlieb's study obtained significantly lower scores than boys on the

12 April 2015 Page 3 of 19 ProQuest

Verbal Comprehension subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R).
Researchers have speculated that gender bias occurs in the identification of LD-girls need to exhibit more
severe difficulties before they are referred and assessed. Boys identified with LD outnumber girls with LD as
much as 3 to I (Lerner, 1997). This gender disproportion in identifying students with LID supports the theory that
girls need to present more severe deficits in order to be identified with LD. Forgoing a discussion on the social
forces that result in gender bias, in the population of individuals with LD, women may represent a
disproportionately severe group. Consequently, women with LD may represent a unique population who present
differently on emotional intelligence than men with LD and women without LD.
Emotional Intelligence Subscales and LD
Many studies have reported that individuals with LD have low self-esteem, negative self-concepts, excessive
dependency, problems with adult adjustment, feeling of fear, obsessive thoughts, lack of self-confidence, and
extreme self-criticism (Fisher, 1985; Geist &McGrath, 1983; Gerber, 1992; Gregg, Hoy, King, Moreland,
&Jagota, 1992; Morse, 1977; Saracoglu, Minden, &Wilchesky, 1989; Silver &Hagin, 1964; Wilchesky &Minden,
1988; Wright-Strawderman &Watson, 1992). Other studies have reported that adults with LD have difficulties
with social skills and social immaturity and difficulty maintaining satisfying personal relationships (Bruininks,
1978; Cronin &Gerber, 1982; Rogan &Hartman, 1976; Schumaker &Hazel, 1984; Silver &Hagin, 1964, 1985).
Furthermore, social deficits may be attributable to the backlash of years of frustration and repeated failure
(Murphy, 1992; Reiff &Gerber, 1994). In this section, we attempt to offer a brief overview of the literature that
has explored the affective issues of individuals with LD through the lens of the five composites of emotional
intelligence delineated by BarOn (1997).
Interpersonal Skills. The literature on children, adolescents, and adults with LID suggests that many of these
individuals have poorly developed social skills and, consequently, experience difficulty getting along with others.
Numerous studies suggest that children with LD have difficulty making new friends and getting along with their
teachers (Bruininks, 1978; Wenz-- Gross &Siperstein, 1998). A metaanalysis conducted by Ochoa and Palmer
(1995) found that children with LD have lower sociometric status among their peers than nondisabled students
and that gender, grade level, and research design influenced these results. McIntosh, Vaughn, and Zaragoza
(1991) found that adolescents with LD often exhibited deficient interpersonal skills that resulted in lack of
popularity and social rejection. Not surprisingly, these problems are not shed as an individual enters into
adulthood. Many adults with LID report having difficulties with social skills, social immaturity, and difficulty
maintaining satisfying personal and social relationships (Cronin &Gerber, 1982; Rogan &Hartman, 1976;
Schumaker &Hazel, 1984; Silver &Hagin, 1964, 1985).
However, other studies have found that, although this may be true for the total population of individuals with LD,
it may not be so for the subset of individuals with LD who achieve higher levels of employment and educational
success (Murphy, 1992; Reiff, Gerber, &Ginsberg, 1992). College students, in particular, need to be effective
self-advocates and are thus required to interact effectively with faculty and support staff in order to arrange for
needed accommodations and support services. Consequently, college students with LD must rely to varying
degrees on their interpersonal skills in order to succeed.
Intrapersonal Skills. Self-awareness has been identified as a protective factor for individuals with LD and is a
critical intrapersonal skill because it allows the individual to "develop proactive compensatory strategies for
achieving in school as well as for finding appropriate employment" (Morrison &Cosden, 1997, p. 53). Patten
(1983) and Stevenson and Romney (1984) examined the relationship between anxiety, self-esteem, and
selfawareness in individuals with LID and found that higher levels of selfawareness and self-esteem were
correlated with lower levels of anxiety. For college students with LD, the ability to appraise one's strengths and
weaknesses accurately and persist in the face of adversity is primarily intrapersonal in nature. Thus,
intrapersonal strengths may facilitate academic success, particularly for students with LID.
Adaptability. In a study that compared the coping styles of LD and non-- LD adolescents, Shulman, Carlton--

12 April 2015 Page 4 of 19 ProQuest

Ford, Levian, and Hed (1995) found that adolescents with LD were less able to appraise a source of stress and
seek information in the various domains with which they were expected to cope. Geisthardt and Munsch (1996)
found that, whereas their sample of junior high students with LD did not differ from nondisabled students in their
perceived levels of stress, students with LD reported relying on cognitive avoidance as a coping strategy more
heavily than did their nondisabled peers when coping with an academic stress event. Furthermore, adolescents
with LD sought support from peers significantly less often when dealing with academic and interpersonal
stressors. College students with LD have been found to generally have more difficulty adjusting to university life,
which may be related to their reported low self-esteem and mistrust of others (Wilchesky &Minden, 1988). A
study conducted by Mellard and Hazel (1992) found that students with LD enrolled in a community college had
more difficulty handling pressure, adjusting to changes in routine, and accepting criticism.
Ability to Manage Stress. Studies have indicated that children and adults with LD suffer from greater levels of
stress than do their nondisabled peers. In a study of at-risk middle school students with learning problems,
Wenz-- Gross and Siperstein (1998) found that their sample of students with LD reported more academic
stressors and more stressors related to teachers and rules, and experienced more stress events than students
without learning problems. Gregg et al. (1992) compared clients with LD in a rehabilitation center and a sample
of university students with LD to a normative population of average achieving college students and found that
the university group with LD demonstrated feelings of fear, obsessive thoughts, lack of selfconfidence, self-
doubt, and extreme self-criticism. The authors suggested that adults with LD live in fear of being "found out" on
the job or experience anxiety as the result of pressures imposed by time limits on tests and the completion of
assignments.
General Mood or Optimism. According to Seligman (1990), individuals with an optimistic explanatory style see
the causes of good events as internal, permanent, and pervasive and the causes of bad events as external,
temporary, and specific. According to Goleman (1995), "The basic belief that leads to optimism is ... that
setbacks or failures are due to circumstances that we can do something about to change them for the better."
(p. 153). Conversely, a pessimist attributes bad events to causes that are either internal or external, permanent,
and pervasive, and good events to causes that are external, temporary,and specific. In other words, when
people attribute their failures to some unchangeable deficit within themselves, or to factors that are permanent
and pervasive, they lose hope and stop trying (Goleman, 1995; Seligman, 1990). Williams (1992); Hersh, Stone,
and Ford (1996); and others have found that individuals with LD are more likely to exhibit learned helplessness,
an attribution associated with a pessimistic explanatory style.
In summary, college students are afforded a degree of freedom that requires self-control and self-regulation.
Students with LD, however, are under greater pressures. In addition to academic demands that may pose
significant challenges, they need to adapt to a new environment and develop effective compensatory and
coping strategies, as the safety net of parents and the structure and supports offered at the secondary level are
pulled away. An emergent body of research from the field of LD suggests that psychosocial factors captured by
the construct of emotional intelligence influence academic and employment outcomes (Bruininks, 1978; Hatzes,
1996; Morrison &Cosden, 1997; Reiff, 1998; Shessel &Reiff, 1999; Vogel &Adelman, 1992; Wenz-- Gross
&Siperstein, 1998). Consequently, we posit that the skills that constitute the construct of emotional intelligence
are particularly important for students with LD making the transition from high school to college.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study were recruited from two small colleges in the mid-Atlantic region of the United
States and two campuses of a large research university in the same area. Documentation of participants with
LD met the guidelines suggested by the Association of Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD). AHEAD
guidelines suggest that testing or reevaluations be current (within 3 years) and comprehensive; assess domains
of aptitude, achievement, and information processing; and include a developmental history. The guidelines also

12 April 2015 Page 5 of 19 ProQuest

identify procedures for testing, qualifications of examiners, and reporting of data. On average, the students with
LD were first identified at 12.67 years, with a range of age 4 to 50. The average Full-Scale IQ of students with
LD was 106, with a range of 85 to 134. The average Verbal IQ score was104.2, with a range of 79 to 130. The
average Performance IQ score was 106.7, with a range of 81 to 137. Forty-one students with LD reported
receiving support services while in high school. Nineteen (35%) of these students reported repeating one or
more grades. Seven participants also reported having a diagnosis of attention-deficit disorder.
The final sample included 71 students with LD and 98 students without LD (non-LD). The BarOn (1997) manual
provides guidelines to exclude protocols that are highly inconsistent or present an exaggerated positive or
negative impression. Consequently, 128 of the 169 participants completed valid protocols (54 LD, 74 non-LD)
that were used for the analysis, and the remaining students (17 LD, 24 non-LD) were dropped from the study.
The proportion of LD and non-LD students who were excluded was approximately the same, 24% and 29%
respectively.
To address concerns about possible differences between college students at public and private institutions, we
compared these students on pertinent demographic variables. Sixty-nine students (32 LD, 37 non-LD) attended
the public institution; 59 students (22 LD, 37 non-LD) attended the two private colleges. The average age of the
students in the public university was 22.8 (22.9 LD, 22.7 non-LD); the average age of the students in the private
colleges was 20.0 (19.6 LD, 20.4 non-LD). The average high school GPA of the students at the public university
was 2.84 (2.76 LD, 2.99 non-LD); the average high school GPA of the students at the private colleges was 3.07
(2.64 LD, 3.34 non-LD). The average total SAT score of the students in the public university was 976 (927 LD,
10.18 non-LD); the average total SAT score of the students in the public university was 1087 (1014 LD, 1134
non-LD). In summary, the groups were relatively similar. The students from the private colleges had higher high
school GPAs and total SAT scores, with the non-LD students contributing most to this difference.
Once the participants with LD were identified, a comparison group of students without LD was composed by
selecting a matched cohort to the LD group based on the age to control for that factor. Because there was a
higher percentage of men in the LD group than in the non-LD group, a Pearson chi-square analysis was
performed to investigate the effect of gender and group membership (LD or non-LD). The obtained X2 = 2.216,
df = 1, N = 128, was not significant (p = .137). The LD and non-LD groups differed on college credits, high
school GPA, total SAT, and college GPA; men and women differed on age and college GPA. Implications of
these differences are addressed in the discussion. Tables 1 and 2 provide demographic data of the participants.

Instrument
All participants completed the BarOn EQ-i (BarOn, 1997), a measure generally taking about 35 minutes, in one
session. This instrument is appropriate for individuals age 16 and older. The EQ-i was computer-scored by
MultiHealth Systems, assuring reliability of scoring. The EQ-i manual reported strong test-retest reliability and
offered a number of studies to support content, criterion, and construct validity. The EQ-i has been normed on
populations around the world. The North American norms are based on a sample of more than 4,000
individuals, with mean scores of 100 and standard deviations of 15. Most participants with LD completed the
EQ-i individually, whereas most participants without LD completed the EQ-i in groups.
Reliability. The EQ-i reports scores in aggregate (Total EQ-i) and also has five composite scores: Intrapersonal,
Interpersonal, Adaptability, Stress Management, and General Mood. The five composites are composed of a
total of 15 subscales (see Table 3). BarOn (1997) reported a Cronbach alpha coefficient ranging from .69 to .86
with an average internal consistency of .76, which indicated "very good reliability" (p. 95). Test-retest reliability
for one sample was .85 after 1 month.

12 April 2015 Page 6 of 19 ProQuest

Validity. The manual (BarOn, 1997) described nine types of validity studies that support the constructs
measured by the EQ-i: content, face, factor, construct, convergent, divergent, criterion group, discriminant, and
predictive validity. BarOn (1997) concluded that the final form of the inventory adequately met Anastasi and
Urbina's (1997) requirements of content and face validity. Factor analysis was used to organize and refine the
subscales and composites, validating the construct that the EQ-i comprises five distinct components.
Correlations ranging from .30 to .70 of the EQ-i subscale scores, with various scale scores of 10 other related
measures, suggested that "EQ-i subscales overlap reasonably well with other tests and yet those subscales
also demonstrate a clear distinctiveness" (BarOn, 1997, p. 128). The manual further presented evidence for
strong convergent and divergent validity and criterion-group validity. The strong convergent and discriminant
validity also supports the predictive power of the EQ-i.
Scoring and Items. The EQ-i consists of 133 items using a 5-point likert scale. Each composite consists of two
to five subscales; each subscale consists of 7 to 11 items. Participants respond to statements about themselves
such as, "I feel sure of myself in most situations," "I have strong impulses that are hard to control," and "It's easy
for me to make friends." EQ-i scoring affords the use of normative comparisons either to age/gender-specific
norms or to a general population. Because of the range of ages represented in this study, the general
population norms were used.
Procedures. All students with LD were invited to participate in this study by the disability service provider on
their respective campuses. Participants without LD were students enrolled in introductory psychology courses
who were given the choice to participate in this research study or to complete another, comparable assignment
for class credit. Because the participants with LD attending the large university were often recruited as
participants for research, a stipend of $10.00 was offered to elicit their participation. All participants signed
releases of information giving the researchers access to their grades and SAT scores.
Results
In order to examine the main effects of LD and gender and their possible interactions on the five EQ-i
composites (Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Adaptability, Stress Management, and General Mood), Multivariate
Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), was employed. MANOVA offers the researcher a means to examine multiple
independent variables (LD and gender) on multiple dependent variables (the five composites) without inflating
the possibility of a Type I error. Furthermore, MANOVA accounts for correlations within the dependent
variables, thereby giving a more accurate picture of the data (George &Mallery, 1999). Although the EQ-i
presents an overall aggregate score (Total EQ-i), the five composite scores offer a clearer means for
operationalizing the constructs of emotional intelligence. Because Total EQ-i exhibits linear dependency on the
other dependent variables, it was not used in the MANOVA.
Table 3 presents descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, and sample sizes) related to EQ-i scores of
all participants for all cells in the model. Table 4 presents the results of the MANOVA. In examining all five

12 April 2015 Page 7 of 19 ProQuest

dependent variables simultaneously, the MANOVA determined significant main effects for LD and gender; the
interaction of LD and gender was not significant. That is, on a hypothetical single variable of the five composite
scores, students with LD differed significantly from students without LD, and men differed significantly from
women.
Tables 5, 6, and 7 present the results of the post hoc univariate interactions for the observed means of the five
composite scores. Although this procedure does not examine the five dependent variables simultaneously (the
advantage of MANOVA), these post hoc comparisons help to determine the specific meaning of the main
effects or interactions (George &Mallery, 1999). All the post hoc comparisons use the univariate F statistic,
which helps to control for experimentwise error. George and Mallery (1999) observed that univariate tests may
be significant even when multivariate effects are not and vice versa.

These analyses indicated that students with LD significantly differed from students without LD on the
composites of Stress Management, F(1, 126) = 8.757, p = .004, ES = .52, and Adaptability, F(1, 126) = 5.998, p
=.016, ES = .44 (see Table 5). Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) stated that effect sizes larger than .33 have practical
significance. Students with LD had a mean score of 90.685 on Stress Management, compared to a mean score
of 98.176 for students without LD. Students with LD had a mean score of 90.481 on Adaptability, compared to a
mean score of 96.932 for students without LD.
Men differed from women on the composite of Interpersonal, F(1, 126) = 6.866, p = .010, ES = .53 (see Table
6). Men had a mean score of 96.727 on Interpersonal, compared to a mean score of 104.290 for women.
The post hoc comparisons also indicated a significant interaction effect on Interpersonal, F = 4.161, p = .043,
ES = .82 (see Table 7). Women without LD had the highest score (106.050), men without LD had the lowest
score (94.029), and both men and women with LD fell in the middle with similar scores (men = 99.594, women
101.091).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the factors of LD and gender have a relation with emotional
intelligence as measured by the EQ-i. In order to control for alternative explanations for any differences, we
used cells with similar variances and matched the groups on age. In this way, we increased the likelihood that
any observed differences were directly related to the impact of LD, gender, or their interaction.
The results of this study indicate that students with LD differed significantly from students without LD on the EQ-
i; in this case, the MANOVA used all five composite scores simultaneously to maximize group differences on a
single theoretical variable. As we discussed in the introduction of this article, many studies have proffered that
adolescents and young adults with LD present deficits compared to individuals without LD in areas
conceptualized as emotional intelligence. Post hoc univariate interactions identified the composites of Stress
Management and Adaptability as accounting for most of the difference. These two composites presented

12 April 2015 Page 8 of 19 ProQuest

practical significance, as determined by ES, as well as statistical significance; similarly, the non-statistically
significant composites were not practically significant (i.e., ES <.33). However, it must be noted that the scores
of students with LD on these two composites were still within the "normal" range of the EQ-i (BarOn, 1997).
Stress Management measures calmness of disposition, ability to withstand stress, lack of impulsivity, and good
emotional management. A lower score on Stress Management indicates less capacity to withstand adverse
events and stressful situations, often accompanied by impatience, reactivity, and loss of control (BarOn, 1997).
That is, according to the EQ-i, college students with LD reported greater feelings of stress than their non-LD
counterparts.

12 April 2015 Page 9 of 19 ProQuest

The finding in this study that students with LD experience more difficulty with stress management is consistent
with prior research on college students with LD. For example, Gregg et al. (1992) assessed 16 university
students with LD on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2. Scores from these students related to
feelings of fear, obsessive thoughts, generalized anxiety, lack of selfconfidence, self-doubt, and selfcriticism.
Scores reflected both shortand long-term stress leading to anxiety.

12 April 2015 Page 10 of 19 ProQuest

A number of reasons may account for this phenomenon. In general, college students with LD enter college less
well prepared than their nondisabled counterparts, perform more poorly on the SAT, and attain lower GPAs in
college, but nevertheless manage to graduate at about the same rate and within the same time frame (Vogel
&Adelman, 1990). Problems with reading and writing are common academic concerns (Blalock, 1981; Vogel
&Adelman, 1992). Cordoni (1979) estimated that 80% to 100% of college students with LD have writing
difficulties involving handwriting, mechanics, sentence structure and construction, organization, and overall
expression. Bruck (1993) reported that, on average, college students with LD spell at less than Grade 6 level.
The sample in the present study presented a similar profile. For the most part, these students began college
with some academic disadvantage, yet most of them managed to overcome deficits and eventually achieved
success. Certainly the experience of competing at a disadvantage, albeit successfully, is likely to be stressful for
many students. In fact, successful outcomes may indicate that these students have had to work harder than
their nondisabled peers, a process that many would find stressful; Hatzes (1996) documented this phenomenon
in a study of college students with LD. The students with LD also had a significantly lower college GPA than the
students without LD. Consequently, it is difficult to determine if increased stress is inherent to LD or simply a
byproduct of a lower GPA, which, in turn, may be related to LD.
The finding that college students with LD report a greater degree of stress than college students without LD has
clear implications for programming at the college level. Support programs for college students with LD typically
focus directly on academic issues. The most reported accommodation for students with LD is extended time on
tests; notetakers, scribes, separate testing locations, and alternative means of demonstrating competencies are
also common. Direct support services generally include specific tutoring in content areas and training in study
skills, time management and organization, and communication and self-advocacy skills. Although all of these
services may indeed reduce some stress, this study suggests that programs could-and should-be more effective
in this area.
Barton and Fuhrman (1994) contended that LD in adulthood are often associated with a number of
psychological difficulties, including stress and anxiety. Moreover, the other common effects that Barton and
Fuhrman (1994) identified-low self-esteem and feelings of incompetence, unresolved grief, and helplessness-
may manifest themselves as elevated levels of stress. A degree of stress is probably endemic to the experience
of being a college student, although the students without LD in this study scored 98.176, which is extremely
close to the norm of 100. College students with LD may experience increased levels of stress because their
meeting academic demands requires more time, greater effort, and self-regulation (Hatzes, 1996). Successful
students with LD often have to devise special study methods that require extra energy and increase fatigue.
Many sense that they just never have enough time. In addition to the burden of time management for coping
with schoolwork, some of these students are acutely aware that they do not have the free time to participate in

12 April 2015 Page 11 of 19 ProQuest

the types of social activities enjoyed by their peers (Gerber &Reiff, 1991; Reiff, Gerber, &Ginsberg, 1997).
Finally, research has consistently identified social skills deficits as a common LD characteristic (e.g.,
Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1988). As college students often place a great deal of
emphasis on their social satisfaction, a lack of success in this area could exacerbate the preexisting
vulnerability of students with LD to stress.
Nevertheless, we question whether a high degree of stress need be an inevitable consequence of success for
college students with LD. The negative effects of stress on health are well documented and have become a
central issue for many adults. Service providers working with college students with LD obviously need to
address academic issues-academic success is necessary to matriculate and graduate. Furthermore, service
providers must consider the ramifications of affective issues faced by these students. First, affective difficulties
may impinge on academic performance. Second, students drop out of college and university for personal
reasons, often in spite of adequate academic performance. We cannot afford to lose capable students with LD,
nor should service providers rationalize that such attrition is not their concern. Third, service providers and
educators in general must maintain focus on preparing students for life beyond the classroom.

We do recommend that college programs for students with LD recognize that stress may play a major role in the
functioning of many of those students. Intake and ongoing assessment should include ways to evaluate stress
and anxiety, and service plans should include treatment and intervention when appropriate. We need to identify
factors associated with stress in college students with LD; for example, types of academic preparation (e.g.,
course selection, support services) and factors such as IQ may significantly influence stress levels and coping
strategies of college students with LD.
Coleman (1995) contended that emotional intelligence is an alterable variable that can be taught and learned.
He cited a number of studies that demonstrated improvement in types of emotional intelligence, including stress
management. For example, Greenberg et al. (1995) reported on a program that led to improved classroom
behavior of special needs students in frustration tolerance, assertive social skills, task orientation, peer skills,
sociability, and self-control; these students also decreased their levels of anxiety and depression. Moreover,
Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsberg (1994) suggested that components of their model of employment success, which
contains many elements of emotional intelligence, can be systematically taught and used in the classroom.
These studies focused on younger children, perhaps suggesting that college students with LD might deal more
effectively with stress if a proactive approach begins early in the educational process.
Students with LD and students without LD also demonstrated a significant difference on Adaptability. A lower
score on Adaptability indicates less ability to cope with environmental demands and to size up and deal with
problematic situations (BarOn, 1997). That is, according to the EQ-i, college students with LD are less
adaptable than their non-LD counterparts.

12 April 2015 Page 12 of 19 ProQuest

Problems with adaptability would seem to have a relation with increased levels of stress. The demands of the
college experience, both academically and otherwise, require a wide range of responses. Students must adapt
their study habits to the specific needs of different courses and professors. Moreover, college tends to be an
extremely unstructured environment; for many students, the only established structure is their class schedule,
usually accounting for about 15 hours of the week. In order to be successful, students must structure their
remaining time and use it effectively. The degree of independence thrust upon college students places
significant demands on adapting and adopting new and effective coping mechanisms.
Studies have indicated that many students with LD have difficulties with being flexible, being willing to change,
and developing large repertoires of behavioral responses (Bender, 1987; Pihl &McLarnon, 1984). Nevertheless,
adults with LD who have achieved vocational success tend to have developed an array of adaptations, both in
terms of specific compensations and strategies and in terms of a general willingness to change and try different
approaches to meet demands (Reiff, Gerber, &Ginsberg, 1997). Clearly, adaptability is a desirable behavior in
many aspects of adult life.
The results of this study indicate that men students differed significantly from women students on a single
theoretical variable of all five EQ-i composite scores. Post hoc univariate interactions identified that the
composite of Interpersonal accounted for most of the difference. This composite presented practical
significance, as determined by ES, as well as statistical significance; again, the non-statistically significant
composites were not practically significant (i.e., ES <.33).
A lower score on Interpersonal indicates less ability with social adeptness, understanding others, and interacting
and relating with people (BarOn, 1997). That is, according to the EQ-i, men students demonstrate lower
interpersonal skills than do women students. Literature has suggested that women tend to have better
interpersonal skills than men, although the extent of the difference is questionable. Certainly, conventional
wisdom supports such a difference. For example, in a number of education classes, we have asked students to
self-evaluate strengths and weaknesses using Gardner's multiple intelligences test. Inevitably, many if not most
of the women will rate themselves high on interpersonal intelligence; men are less likely to do so. Inasmuch as
such differences can be characterized as stereotypical and perhaps even superficial, it seems clear that many
men and women do perceive themselves as being different in the area of interpersonal skills.
Interpersonal skills are certainly desirable in careers emphasizing human interaction; such skills would also
seem relevant for success in college and university settings. Effective academic advising often takes the form of
encouraging students to develop positive relationships with their instructors (Reiff, 1997). Moveover, as
pedagogy moves away from a lecture format to more interactive teaching and learning, often using small group
work, interpersonal skills may play an increasing role in academic success. Women students had higher GPAs
than the men; better interpersonal skills might be related to this success. Women students were also older than
men students. In a post hoc analysis, we used multiple regression to correlate college GPAs and age with total
EQ-i and the five composites. These analyses revealed that GPA and age both had significant correlations with
General Mood. Furthermore, age had a positive correlation with Interpersonal. We acknowledge that the lack of
control in this area might present a confounding variable.
The results of the MANOVA did not indicate an overall interaction effect, but the post hoc univariate interactions
did identify an interaction on the Interpersonal composite. Although this finding must be described as tentative
at best, it is intriguing. The significant difference lies between men and women students without LD, reinforcing
the theory that women have stronger interpersonal skills. The results of men and women students with LD
provide an additional dimension. Men with LD scored higher than men without LD, although still lower than
women without LD. Perhaps men with LD scored higher than men without LD because interpersonal skills are a
more critical coping mechanism for students with LD. Students with LD may rely on their interpersonal skills to
compensate for academic deficits. Conversely, women with LD achieved lower interpersonal scores than would
be expected for women without LD. The gender bias/severity theory would seem to account for this difference;

12 April 2015 Page 13 of 19 ProQuest

even in college, women with LD may have more severe deficits than their male counterparts, resulting in slightly
lower functioning even in interpersonal skills. Again, the results of the present study do not make a statistically
significant case for an overall interaction effect; nevertheless, the ES of .82 suggests that this interaction is
worth noting. Future research of gender differences on emotional intelligence in the LD population might provide
useful insights regarding the gender bias/severity theory.
Limitations of the Study
We acknowledge the possibility that the relatively small sample is not representative of the overall population of
college students with and without LD-an issue of external validity. Both volunteers (mainly with LD) and
nonvolunteers (mainly without LD) participated, creating inherent bias problems. Students who did not volunteer
for the study may present a different profile from those who did volunteer.
Although we did obtain diagnostic information from the students with LD, a closer examination of learning
characteristics might have led to a more complete understanding of the relationship of LD with emotional
intelligence. For example, a breakdown of the group by subtypes-such as verbal LD compared to nonverbal
LDwould have allowed a comparison on emotional intelligence. As research has suggested that students with
nonverbal LD may have greater difficulty with social perception and social skills (e.g., Reiff &Gerber, 1990), this
subtype might evidence unique deficits in some areas of emotional intelligence.
Finally, in spite of the claims of strong validity from the developers of the EQ-i, skepticism, or at least a sense of
caution, has emerged from several quarters. Cribb (1998) raised concerns about the situation specificity of the
test and its relation to job performance, especially as businesses have begun to use the EQ-i as a screening
instrument for applicants. Clearly, as the EQ-i makes an impact in the workplace, independent research should
continue to explore validity issues.
Conclusions
The results of this study indicate that college students with LD and college students without LD are relatively
similar in emotional intelligence, as measured by the EQ-i, despite differences on college credits, high school
GPA, total SAT score, and college GPA. Although differences in stress management emerged, the relatively low
degree of predictability of group membership (60.2%) reminds us that other factors distinguish college students
with LD from those without LD. Future research should examine whether stress is an inherent component of the
construct of LD or whether it is an artifact or by-product of other variables.
It should not be disappointing that college students with LD do not exhibit significant deficits in emotional
intelligence. The students with LD who participated in this study have all managed to meet the demands of
college. In this respect they are successful, albeit not necessarily representative of the larger population of
individuals with LD. As Hatzes (1996) and Reiff, Gerber, &Ginsberg (1997) have suggested, a relation exists
between success and emotional intelligence in individuals with LD. Although this study supports this relation, we
do not know whether, conversely, emotional intelligence contributes to achievement or whether, conversely, a
history of academic achievement may account for increased levels of emotional intelligence as measured by the
EQ-i. Further research should clarify this relationship, which may in turn help service providers at all levels to
determine an appropriate balance in dealing with academic and affective issues.
The results from this study should prove valuable for a number of reasons. These results contribute to the
knowledge base and theoretical framework of emotional intelligence and may provide a greater understanding
of the impact of LD and gender on college students. Students with LD are under great pressure in a college
setting. They need to adapt to a new environment and develop effective compensatory and coping strategies,
as the safety net of parents and the structure and supports offered at the secondary level are less readily
available. Consequently, we posit that the skills constituting the construct of emotional intelligence are
particularly important for students with LD making the transition from high school to college. Research suggests
that the characteristics associated with emotional intelligence are alterable variables (e.g., Coleman, 1995,
1998; Reiff et al., 1997). That is, students may learn to develop and increase affective factors that presumably

12 April 2015 Page 14 of 19 ProQuest

are associated with academic and vocational success. Investigating learning and teaching processes of
emotional intelligence ultimately may lead to more effective practices in preparing students with and without LD
to meet the demands of college and the workplace.
References
REFERENCES
References
Anastasi, A., &Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing. (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Baggert, L. K., Sutarso, P., &Tapia, M. (1996, November). Emotional intelligence test. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Tuscaloosa, AL.
BarOn, R. (1997). BarOn emotional quotient inventory: A measure of emotional intelligence. Toronto, Ontario,
Canada: Multihealth Systems.
References
Barton, R. S., &Fuhrman, B. S. (1994). Counseling and psychotherapy for adults with learning disabilities. In P
J. Gerber &H. B. Reiff (Eds.), Learning disabilities in adulthood: Persisting problems and evolving issues (pp.
82-92). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Bender, W. N. (1987). Behavioral indicators of temperament and personality in the inactive learner. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 20, 301-305.
References
Bernet, M. (1996, August). Emotional intelligence: Components and correlates. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
Blalock, J .W (1981). Persistent problems and concerns of young adults with learning disabilities. In W
Cruickshank &A. Silver (Eds.), Bridges to tomorrow (Vol. 2, pp. 35-55). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University.
Bruck, M. (1993). Component spelling skills of college students with childhood diag
References
noses of dyslexia. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 171-184.
Bruininks, V. (1978). Peer status and personality characteristics of learning disabled and nondisabled students.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 484-489.
Cordoni, B. (1979). Assisting dyslexic college students: An experimental program design at a university. Bulletin
of the Orton Dyslexia Society, 29, 263-268.
References
Cribb, R. (1998, July 15). Recruiters get emotional in search for top talent. The Toronto Star, pp. El-E2.
Cronin, M. E., &Gerber, P. J. (1982). Preparing the learning disabled adolescent for adulthood. Topics in
Learning and Learning Disabilities, 2, 55-68.
Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169200.
Fisher, E. (1985). Educator examines myths, realities, of LD students at the college level. Hill Top Spectrum, 3,
1-5, 8.
References
Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., &Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An introduction. Longman: White Plains, NY.

Gardner, H. (1995). Cracking open the IQ box. The American Prospect, Winter (20), 71.
Geist, C. S., &McGrath, C. (1983). Psychosocial aspects of adult learning disabled persons in the world of work:
A vocational rehabilitation perspective. Rehabilitation Literature, 44, 210-213.
Geisthardt, C., &Munsch, J. (1996). Coping with school stress: A comparison of adolescents with and without
learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 287-296.
References
George, D., &Mallery, P. (1999). SPSS for Windows step by step. Boston, MA: Allyn &Bacon.

12 April 2015 Page 15 of 19 ProQuest

Gerber, P. (1992). Being learning disabled and a beginning teacher and teaching a class of students with
learning disabilities. Exceptionality, 3, 213-231.
Gerber, P. J., &Reiff, H. B. (1991). Speaking for themselves: Ethnographic interviews with adults with learning
disabilities. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
References
Coleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
Coleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
Gottlieb, B. W. (1987). Differences in cognitive profiles among urban children placed in special education. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED387972)
Gray, J. (1993). Men are from Mars and women are from Venus. New York: HarperCollins.
References
Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., Cooke, E. T., &Quamma, J. P. (1995). Promoting educational competence in
school-aged children: The effects of the PATHS curriculum. Development and Psychopathology, 7(1), 117-136.
Gregg, N., Hoy, C., King, M., Moreland, C., &Jagota, M. (1992). The MMPI-2 profile of adults with learning
disabilities in universities and rehabilitation settings. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 386-395.
Hatzes, N. M. (1996). Factors contributing to the academic outcomes of university students with learning
disabilities (Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International,
AAT9717515.
References
Hersh, C. A., Stone, B. J., &Ford, L. (1996). Learning disabilities and learned helplessness: A heuristic
approach. International Journal of Neuroscience, 84, 103-113.
Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities (Ed.). (1988). Learning disabilities: A report to the U.S.
Congress. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Isen, A. M. (1984). Toward understanding the role of affect in cognition. In R. S. Wyer &T. K Srull (Eds.), The
handbook of social cognition. (Vol. 3, pp. 179-236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
References
Leeper, R. W. (1948). A motivational theory of emotions to replace "emotions as a disorganized response."
Psychological Review, 55, 5-21.
Lerner, J. (1997). Learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, and teaching strategies (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
Martinez-Pons, M. (1997-1998). The relation of emotional intelligence with selected areas of personal
functioning. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 17, 3-13.
References
Mayer, J. D., &Geher, G. (1996). Emotional intelligence and the identification of emotion. Intelligence, 22, 89-
113.
Mcintosh, R., Vaughn, S., &Zaragoza, N. (1991). A review of social interventions for students with learning
disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 451-458
Mellard, D. F., &Hazel, J. S. (1992). Social competencies as a pathway to successful life transitions. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 15, 251-271.
References
Morrison, G. M., &Cosden, M. A. (1997). Risk, resilience, and adjustment of individuals with learning disabilities.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 43-60.
Morse, D. (1977). Counseling the young adolescent with learning disabilities. The School Counselor, 25, 8-15.
References
Murphy, S. T. (1992). On being LD: Perspectives and strategies of young adults. New York: Teachers College
Press.

12 April 2015 Page 16 of 19 ProQuest

Ochoa, S. H., &Palmer, D. J. (1995). A metaanalysis of peer rating sociometric studies with learning disabled
pupils. The Journal of Special Education, 29, 1-19.
Patten, M. D. (1983). Relationships between self-esteem, anxiety, and achievement in young learning disabled
students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 43-45.
References
Pihl, R. O., &McLarnon, L. D. (1984). Learning disabled children as adolescents. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 17, 96-100.
Reiff, H. B. (1997). Academic advising: An approach from learning disabilities research. Journal of Counseling
and Development, 75, 433-440.
Reiff, H. B. (1998). Off the beaten path: A model of success for adults with learning disabilities. In S. A. Vogel
and S. Reder (Eds.), Learning disabilities, literacy, and adult education (pp. 313-329). Baltimore: Brookes.
References
Reiff, H. B., &Gerber, P J. (1990). Cognitive correlates of social perception in students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 260-262.
Reiff, H. B., &Gerber, P. J. (1994). Social/ emotional and daily living issues for adults with learning disabilities.
In P. J. Gerber &H. B. Reiff (Eds.), Learning disabilities in adulthood: Persisting problems and evolving issues
(pp. 72-81). Boston: Andover.
Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P J., &Ginsberg, R. (1992). Learning to achieve: Suggestions from adults with learning
disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 10, 11-23.
References
Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P. J., &Ginsberg, R. (1994). Instructional strategies for longterm success. Annals of
Dyslexia, 44, 270-288.
Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P. J., &Ginsberg, R. (1997). Exceeding expectations: Successful
References
adults with learning disabilities. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Rogan, L., &Hartman, L. (1976, December). A follow-up study of learning disabled children as adults. (Final
Report, Project # 443CH60010, Grant #OEG-074-7453). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health Education
and Welfare, Bureau of Education for the Handicapped.
Salovey, P., &Mayer, J. D. (1989-1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 185-
211.
References
Saracoglu, B., Minden, H., &Wilchesky, M. (1989). The adjustment of students with learning disabilities to
university and its relationship to self-esteem and self-efficacy. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 590-592.
Schumaker, J., &Hazel, S. (1984). Social skills assessment and training for the learning disabled: Who's on first
and what's on second? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 422-431.
Seligman, M. E. (1990). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York: Pocket Books.
References
Shessel, I., &Reiff, H. B. (1999). Experiences of adults with learning disabilities: Negative and positive impacts
and outcomes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 305-316.
Shulman, S., Carlton-Ford, S., Levian, R., &Hed, S. (1995). Coping styles of learning disabled adolescents and
their parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 281-294.
Silver, A., &Hagin, R. (1964). Specific reading disability follow-up studies. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
24, 95-101.
References
Silver, A., &Hagin, R. A. (1985). Outcomes of learning disabilities in adolescence. In M. Sugar, A. Esman, J.
Looney, A. Schwartzberg, &A. Sorosky (Eds.), Adolescent psychiatry: Vol. 12. Developmental and clinical

12 April 2015 Page 17 of 19 ProQuest

studies (pp. 197-211). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Stevenson, D. T., &Romney, D. M. (1984). Depression in learning disabled children.
References
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 579-582.
Sutarso, T., Baggert, L. K., Sutarso, P., &Tapia, M. (1996, November). Effect of gender and GPA on emotional
intelligence. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association,
Tuscaloosa, AL.
Vogel, S. A. (1990). Gender differences in intelligence, language, visual-motor abilities, and academic
achievement in students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 44-52.
References
Vogel, S. A., &Adelman, P. B. (1990). Intervention effectiveness at the postsecondary level for the learning
disabled. In T. Scruggs &B. Wong (Eds.), Intervention research in learning disabilities (pp. 329344). New York:
Springer Verlag.
Vogel, S. A., &Adelman, P B. (1992). The success of college students with learning disabilities: Factors related
to educational attainment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 430-441.
References
Wenz-Gross, M., &Siperstein, G. (1998). Students with learning problems at risk in middle school: Stress, social
support, and adjustment. Exceptional Children, 64, 91-100.
Wilchesky, M., &Minden, H. A. (1988). A comparison of learning and non-learning disabled university students
on selected measures. In D. Knapke &C. Lendman (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1988 AHSSPPE conference (pp.
116-118). Columbus, OH: Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Education.
References
Williams, M. V. (1992). The relationship of locus of control and learned helplessness in special education
students. BC Journal of Special Education, 16, 1-12.
Wright-Strawderman, C. W., &Watson, B. L. (1992). The prevalence of depressive symptoms of children with
learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 258-264.
AuthorAffiliation
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
AuthorAffiliation
Henry B. Reiff, PhD, is an associate professor of special education and associate dean of aca
AuthorAffiliation
demic affairs at Western Maryland College. His most recent book, Exceeding Expectations: Successful Adults
with Learning Disabilities (Reiff et al., 1997), has been selected by the American Library Association as a Top
20 LD resource. Nanette M. Hatzes, PhD, director of the Learning Center at Pennsylvania State University at
Mount Alto, has research interests in the development of self-determination, transitions, and emotional
intelligence. Michael H. Bramel, PhD, is on the faculty at Pennsylvania State University at Mount Alto, with
research interests in assessment issues and adults with learning disabilities. Thomas Gibbon, MS, is director of
learning services at Mount Saint Mary's College, where he designs and implements programs to retain at-risk
students and student with learning disabilities. Address: Henry B. Reiff, Academic Affairs, Western Maryland
College, 2 College Hill, Westminster, MD 21157-4390; e-mail: hreiff@wmdc.edu

Subject: Learning disabilities; Gender; College students; Emotions; Intelligence;

MeSH: Adolescent, Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Male,
Personality Inventory, Social Adjustment, Social Perception, Students -- psychology, Universities, Emotions
(major), Gender Identity (major), Intelligence (major), Learning Disorders -- psychology (major)

12 April 2015 Page 18 of 19 ProQuest

Publication title: Journal of Learning Disabilities

Volume: 34

Issue: 1

Pages: 66-78

Number of pages: 13

Publication year: 2001

Publication date: Jan/Feb 2001

Year: 2001

Publisher: SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC.

Place of publication: Austin

Country of publication: United States

Publication subject: Education--Special Education And Rehabilitation, Psychology, Medical Sciences

ISSN: 00222194

CODEN: JLDIAD

Source type: Scholarly Journals

Language of publication: English

Document type: Journal Article

Accession number: 15497273

ProQuest document ID: 194221065

Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/194221065?accountid=49910

Copyright: Copyright PRO-ED Journals Jan/Feb 2001

Last updated: 2013-08-22

Database: ProQuest Medical Library

_______________________________________________________________
Contact ProQuest
Copyright 2015 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. - Terms and Conditions

12 April 2015 Page 19 of 19 ProQuest