Network Analysis 1:

Nature of Electricity
Voltage, Current and Resistance

Jayson Bryan E. Mutuc, REE, RME

Structure of an Atom

Atom is composed of sub-atomic particles of electrons, protons, and neutron in

various combinations

Electron (negative charge particle) revolves around the nucleus

Proton (positive charge particle) found inside the nucleus
Neutron (neutral charge particle) found inside the nucleus

A stable (neutral) atom has a certain amount of energy, which is equal to the sum of
the energies of its electrons. Electrons, in turn, have different energies called energy
levels. The energy level of an electron is proportional to its distance from the
nucleus. Therefore, the energy levels of electrons in shells farther from the nucleus
are higher than those of electrons in shells nearer the nucleus.
The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. When external
energy such as heat, light, or electric energy is applied to certain materials, the
electrons gain energy. This may cause the electrons to move to a higher energy
level. An atom in which this has occurred is said to be in an excited state. An atom
in an excited state is unstable

When an electron has moved to the outermost shell of its atom, it is least attracted by
the positive charges of the protons within the nucleus of its atom. If enough energy is
then applied to the atom, some of the outermost shell or valence electrons will leave
the atom. These electrons are called free electrons. It is the movement of free
electrons that provides electric current in a metal conductor.

The Electrostatic Field

The fundamental characteristic of an electric charge

is its ability to exert a force. This force is present
within the electrostatic field surrounding every charged
object. When two objects of opposite polarity
are brought near each other, the electrostatic field
is concentrated in the area between them (fig).
The electric field is indicated by lines of force drawn
between the two objects. Electrostatic field between two charges opposite polarity
Potential Difference

Because of the force of its electrostatic field, an electric charge has the ability to do
the work of moving another charge by attraction or repulsion. The ability of a charge
to do work is called its potential. When one charge is different from the other,
there must be a difference in potential between them.

The sum of the differences of potential of all the charges in the electrostatic field is
referred to as electromotive force (emf).

The basic unit of potential difference is the volt (V). The symbol for potential
difference is V, indicating the ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move.
Because the volt unit is used, potential difference is called voltage.
V = W/Q; W (in joules); Q (in coulombs)

Current
The movement or the flow of electrons is called current. To produce current, the
electrons must be moved by a potential difference. Current is represented by the
letter symbol (I). The basic unit in which current is measured is the ampere (A). One
ampere of current is defined as the movement of one coulomb past any point of a
conductor during one second of time.
I = Q/t; Q (coulombs); t (seconds)
Sources of Electricity

Chemical Battery
A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of materials which are used for
converting chemical energy into electric energy

Generator
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by the principle of
electromagnetic induction

Thermal Energy
The production of most electric energy begins with the formation of heat energy.

Solar Cells
Solar cells convert light energy directly into electric energy. They consist of
semiconductor material like silicon.

Piezoelectric Effect
Certain crystals, such as quartz and Rochelle salts, generate a voltage when
they are vibrated mechanically.
Thermocouples
If wires of two different metals, such as iron and copper, are welded together
and the joint is heated, the difference in electron activity in the two metals produces
an emf across the joint.

Direct Current and Alternating Current

Direct current (dc) is current that moves through a conductor or circuit in one
direction only

A dc voltage source can change the amount of its output voltage, but if the same
polarity is maintained, direct current will flow in one direction only.

An alternating-current voltage (ac voltage) source periodically reverses or alternates

in polarity.
Therefore, the resulting alternating current also periodically reverses direction.
The ac power line used in most homes is a common example.

Resistance

It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts)
the flow of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it.

The practical unit of resistance is ohm.** A conductor is said to have a resistance of

one ohm if it permits one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is
impressed across its terminals.
** After George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German mathematician who in about 1827 formulated the law known after his name as
Ohms Law.
Laws of Resistance
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:

(i) It varies directly as its length, l.

(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.
(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.

If area is in Circular Mils CM

Area = d2
1inch = 1000mils
1 cmil = /4 sq.mils

R = resistance (ohms)
= specific resistivity
L = length of conductor ! !
A = area of conductor
Conductors Undergoing a Drawing Process

Conductors passed through drawing gauges increases its length at the expense of
reduction in cross-sectional area in most cases, the waste during the drawing
process is assumed negligible, and keeping the volume of the conducting material is
constant.

Resistance Variations with Respect to Length

Resistance caries directly as the square of the length

Resistance Variations w/Respect to Diameter

Resistance caries directly as to the fourth
of the diameter
Resistivity of Some Common Materials
Material Resistivity
-m -CM/ft
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 17.02
Copper 1.724 x 10-8 10.37
Gold 2.44 x 10-8 14.676
Iron 98 x 10-8 589.4
-8
Silver 1.629 x 10 9.805
Sample Problems
An energy of 20 joules is required in moving a 2-coulomb charge from point A to B.
What is potential difference between point A and B?

How many electrons pass a given point in 40 seconds in a conductor carrying 10

amps?

What is the resistance of a copper wire having a diameter of 10-mm and a length of
10-m. the resistivity is 1.72 x 10-8 -m.
Ans. 2.19-m
3 o
A wire measuring 1.5 m has a resistance of 0.955 at 20 C; its length is 1.5m and
an area of 1m2. Calculate the resistance of this wire at 20oC if the length is changed
to 150-m and its area to 450-cm2.
Ans. 2.12-m
A 1-km cable consists of 12 identical strands of aluminum each 3mm in diameter.
What is the resistance of the cable?
Ans. 0.33-
A piece of silver wire has a resistance of 1 . What will be the resistance of
manganin wire of one third the length and one third the diameter, if the specific
resistance of manganin is 30 times of that silver?
Ans. 90-
Supplementary Problems
A one meter rod of 2 cm diameter is drawn until its resistance is 100 times the initial
resistance. Its length afterward is?

Determine the resistance of a bus bar made of copper if the length is 10 meters long
and cross-sectional area is 4 x 4 sq.cm. the resistivity is 1.724 -cm.

A rectangular carbon block has dimensions 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 50 cm. what is the
resistance measured (a) between two square ends. (b) between two opposing
rectangular faces