User Interface

A user interface is the interaction between the computer and the user

Types of Software user interface.

These include:

1. Menu driven
2. Command language interface
3. Graphical user interface

Menu

A menu gives the user a list of command from which to choose from.

A software package that uses a menu is said to be menu driven. A mouse is the input device that
is used in a menu driven package.

Advantages of menu driven interface

1. The user is present with a list of option to choose from; they dont need to remember
commands.
2. Free typing errors, since users dont type anything.
3. A wide variety of input device can be used to interface with menu.

Disadvantages

1. Once user has learned the menu system it is bothersome to wait on the package to
present.
2. Several steps required issuing a command.

Command Driven Interface

A command driven interface waits for the user to enter the appropriate data or command at the
prompt. An example of a command driven interface is MS-DOS. The keyboard is the main
interfacing device for this type of interface.

Advantages of Command Driven Interface

1. Faster to use once you have learnt the commands.

2. Cheaper to implement for computer programmer.

Disadvantages
 1. Commands are sometimes difficult to remember, therefore, users will have to constantly
referring to software user manual.
2. Users are restricted to the keyboard unlike the other interface which uses a wide variety
input devices.

Graphical User Interface

Graphic user interface rely on graphic based software where the user uses graphic icons and the
computer mouse to issue commands and make selection.

Advantages of G.U.I

1. The user face is user friendly.

2. Fewer command error.
3. Reduce typing.

Disadvantages

1. May take up more screen space.

2. Designing of G.U.I is complex
3. Click of icon can produce unexpected results because of lack of icon standard.

Hardware user interface

A hardware interface specifies the plugs, sockets, cables and electrical signals that pass through
each line between the CPU and a peripheral device or communications network.

Types of hardware user interface

1. Braille
2. Touch Screen
3. Biometric System
4. Surveillance

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU or microprocessor in the case of a microcomputer has the ability to fetch, decode,
execute instruction and to transfer information to and from other resources over the computers
main data- transfer path, otherwise called the bus. It provides all the timing and control signals
necessary to do this. By definition, the CPU is the chip that functions as the brain of a
computer. In some instances, however, the term encompasses both the processor and the
computers memory.

Component of the CPU

The CPU is made up of the following sections:
 Control Unit (CU)
Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
Registers

N.B. the CPU works with main memory to execute instruction.

Control Unit (CU)

This unit is responsible for supervising the operation of the entire hardware. It performs this role
by repeatedly following a basic instruction execution cycle for each program: it fetches
instruction from main memory, interprets them, then decides where to send what if the
instruction requires calculation or comparison, then the CU sends the necessary signals to the
ALU, otherwise it is sent to some other device or program in the computer system.
The functions of the control unit (CU) are:
Controls the fetching of instruction from memory
Decodes the instruction
Executes the decoded instruction
Controls the input and output devices
Controls the passing of data to the Arithmetic/Logic Unit for computation

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

The purpose of the ALU is to perform arithmetic and logic operations. Typical operations
performed by the ALU are:

Addition
Subtraction
negation
division
multiplication

The ALU performs the fundamental arithmetic and logic operation (+, -, *, /, OR, AND, NOT
etc), including comparisons (=, <, <=, >, >=,) on data values sent to it from memory.
Support for this activity is provided by one or more special ALU registers called accumulation,
which can receive initial value from memory, hold cumulative results of arithmetic and logic
operations and transmit final results back to memory. The operations concerned may be unary
acting on the accumulator alone, e.g. negating the value in the accumulator or binary (dyadic)
between the accumulator value and a value from memory, leaving then result in the accumulator.

Registers
The registers are called the work horses of the CPU. They are high speed storage locations
within the CPU and they hold data, instruction, and addresses for the next instruction. The CU
takes the instruction from memory and placed it into the instruction register. Any data or
operand needed will be fetched from memory and placed in the storage register. The CU is
nearer to the register then main memory, therefore it takes a shorter time to access any
information needed. Thus the access time is reduced.
Registers can either be special - purpose or general - purpose. Special purpose registers are
those that perform a specific task. Examples are:

Accumulator register collects the results of computations

Address register keep track of where an instruction or data is stored in memory
Storage register holds data taken from or about to be sent to memory
Instruction register holds the instruction to be executed

General-purpose registers on the other hand, can be accessed by the programmer or computer for
different purposes.

Buses
A bus is the circuit that provides a path for transmi8ssion of data/information between the
components of the CPU. There are three types of buses:

Data Bus: Pathway linking memory and processor. It is used to transfer data between
the processor and memory or peripheral device.
Control Bus: Pathway linking control unit, ALU, register, and memory. It provides
timing signals to synchronize the flow of data between the processor and the memory
or peripheral devices
Address Bus: Pathway linking processor and memory. It carries memory addresses
of instruction and data.

Primary storage

primary storage contains data that are actively being used (for example, the programs currently
being run and the data they are operating on). It is typically high-speed, relatively small, is often
(but not always) volatile. It is sometimes referred to as "Main Memory." It can be accessed
immediately and randomly. (A storage location that holds memory for short periods of times. For
example, computer RAM is an example of a primary storage device).

Memory
Memory consists of electronic components that stores instructions waiting to be executed by the
processor, data needed by those instructions, and the result of the process data (information).

RAM
RAM, is used to store things such as programs and data temporarily while the computer is using
them. It can be accessed at very high speeds, which makes it suitable for this, however all
information in it is lost when the computer is turned off.
ROM - a small computer memory for storing data permanently. Once data has been written onto
it, the data cannot be altered or added to and can only be read. Because read-only memory retains
its contents when the power is turned off, most personal computers use it to store essential
programs such as the one that boots the computer.

PROM - Programmable read only memory chip is a blank ROM chip on which a
programmer can write permanently. Programmers use microcode instructions to program a
PROM chip. Once a programmer writes the microcode on the PROM chip, it functions like a
regular ROM chip and cannot be erased of changed.

EPROM, in information technology it is an acronym for erasable programmable read-only

memory, also called reprogrammable read-only memory (RPROM). EPROMs are nonvolatile
memory chips that are programmed after they are manufactured. EPROMs differ from PROMs
in that they can be erased, generally by removing a protective cover from the top of the chip
package and exposing the semiconductor material to ultraviolet light, and can be reprogrammed
after having been erased. Although EPROMs are more expensive than PROMs, they can be more
cost-effective in the long run if many changes are needed.

Cache
Cache memory, which is often built into the microprocessor, hard drives, or other devices, a
small amount of very high speed dedicated memory used so that important parts of a computer
can work at full speed without having to constantly request information every time from slower
devices or the rest of the system.

Secondary Storage Media-: These are used as external memory they store programs and data
that are not currently in use. Secondary storage media include hard-disk, optical disk, magnetic
tape, super disk, zip disk.

Magnetic Tape-: A magnetic disk or floppy disk is a removable round flat piece of Mylar plastic
which stores data or programs magnetize spots. Magnetic disk includes:

(a) 3 1/2 Floppy that holds 1.44MB.

(b) Zzip disk

Zip Disk-: (A high-capacity floppy disk developed Iomego Cooperation). Zip disk are slightly
larger than conventional floppy disks, and about twice as twice as thick. They can hold 100MB
of data. Because it is relatively inexpensive durable, the zip disk has become a popular medium
for backing up hard disk and for transporting large files.

Hard Disk-: This device contains several inflexible circular plotters that stores item
electronically. A hard disk is also portable. The hard disk can hold more information than the
floppy disk. A hard disk hold up to several terabytes of information.
Optical Disk/ Compact Disk-: This is storage medium consisting of a flat round portable metal
disc with a protective plastic coating types of compact disc are:

1. CD R.O.M Compact Disc Read Only Memory

2. CD:R Compact Disc Recorder
3. CD RW Compact Disc Re-writtable
4. DVD ROM Digital Video Disc-Read Only Memory
5. WORM Write Once Read Many

Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD- ROM)

A compact disc read only memory used the same laser as audio C.Ds for recording music. In
addition to audio C.Ds, CD ROM contains text graphics and video. Information on CD ROM
cannot be erased or modified hence remains read only memory. Typically around 700MB of data
can be stored.

Compact Disc Recorder-: Compact Disc Recordable is a multiple session compact disc unto
which you can record your own items such as: text graphics and audio.

Compact Disk Rewritable-: This is an erasable disc you can write on multiple times, with CD-
RW the disc acts like a floppy or hard disc allowing data instructions and the information to be
written on it.

Digital Video Disc-: Digital video disc are available in a variety of form one of which stores
motions pictures. Typically around 4.7GB of data can be stored.

Magnetic Tape-: This is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amount
of data and information at low cost. It store information in sequence.

Tracks-: A narrow recording band that forms a full circle on the surface of a disc. The disc
storage location consist of pie shaped section which breaks the tracks into small arcs called
sectors they are 80 tracks on each side of the diskettes.

Sectors-: Sector is the method by which micro-computers use to store and retrieve data. Each
sector can store up to 512 bytes (B) of data.

Cylinder-: A cylinder is a set of matching track in a vertical plain through a disc pact.

Buffer-: This is a segment of memory or storage in which items are placed waiting to be transfer
from an input and output device.

Sequential File Organization (Tape)

This is a method of storing data record in which the record must be retrieved in the same
physical sequence in which they are stored.
Random File Organization (Magnetic Disc/Optical Disc)-: A method of storing data in a file so
that they can be accessed in any sequence without recording the actual physical order of the
storage device.

Advantages of Magnetic Disc

1. Access data information or instruction on magnetic disc can be direct or random or

sequential.
2. Each record can be given a piece of physical address on the disc.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Disc

1. Disc drive is susceptible to the environment.

2. Disc drive is more expensive than tape.

Advantages of Magnetic Tape

1. It is cheap
2. Relatively stable
3. Can be re-used many times

Reading from a storage device

This is the process of transferring data instructions and information from the storage medium
into memory.

Writing-: To copy data from main memory to a storage device, such as a disk.
Formatting-: Is the process of preparing a disc for reading/writing. A disc cannot be used unless
it is formatted.

Care of Floppies

1. Hold the disc at label section when it is out of it protective case. Dont touch the section
of the disc that is exposed through the read/write hole.
2. Avoid allowing diskette to contact electronic motors.
3. Do not leave diskettes in extremely hot or cold environment
4. Avoid dropping the disk, this may damage or destroy stored data.
5. Do not remove tab on right side of the floppy this will prevent data from being written to
it.

Computer Output and Microfilm: This is a technique for producing computer output directly on
microfilm for e.g. the creation of computer generating microfiche.

Advantages
 1. Storing arc-hive data on microfilm is economical.
2. Microfilm can store information in a small space.

Disadvantages

1. Microfilm is more expensive than printed output.

2. Need special equipment to read the information.

Software is the general name given to all programs (set of instructions) that computers use to
perform different tasks. Software is divided into two categories:

1. Application Software
2. System Software

System Software: software that manages and supports the resources and operations of a
computer system. It enables the running of application software and the management of the
system resources. System software acts as the buffer between the hardware and the application
software. System software is divided into three categories: (i) operating system (ii) utility
programs (iii) language translators

i. Operating System (OS): Set of programs that governs the operation of a computer.
Without the OS the computer cannot function. The term booting refers to the process of
loading the OS into the computer main memory from disk. The OS remain on memory until
you turn off the computer.

Types of OS: OS may have either a Graphical User Interface or Command Line User Interface
Graphical User Interface: (Windows 3.x, Windows 95, 98, 2000, ME, XP, Vista,) Linux, OS/2,
Command line: MS_DOS, UNIX,

Functions of the OS:

(1) Managing the computer resources: the OS allows application programs or user
programs to communicate with the hardware. Eg. If you are working a word processing
program and you want to print the document, simply click Print. The OS also manages
input and output devices.

(2) Managing files and memory: It keeps track of the locations where programs and data
are stored in the computers memory. Eg. The OS makes it easy to store and open files
on secondary storage devices (hard drive, floppy disk, flash disk).

(3) Maintaining Security: In networks and larger computers each user is given a username
or ID and a password to gain access to the computer system. The OS keeps a registry of
all these names so that only persons with valid usernames or IDs and passwords can
 access the system. The OS also keeps a log with records which users logged in, the
length of time each user stayed on the system and what they did.

(4) Managing Tasks: Multitasking is the ability of the computer to appear to run more than
one program at the same time. The OS manages which instruction is sent to the CPU.
Eg. Many students like to listen to music while at the same time typing a document.

(5) Providing a user interface: many operating system functions are never apparent on the
computers display screen. What you do see, though, is the user interface. The user
interface is the user-controllable part of the operating system which allows you to
communicate, or interact with it.

Application Software: are programs developed to carryout specific tasks or solve particular
problems. Eg. Entertainment (games), home or personal software (CD-ROM encyclopaedia),
productivity tools (word processing, spreadsheet).

1. General Purpose: is not written for any specific business or organization but can be used
or adopted to suit their specific needs.

2. Integrated Software: is a set of related programs combined in a unified package that

allows data to be transferred easily between the programs. Eg. Microsoft Office, Microsoft
Works, Lotus Smartsuite and IWorks package. A basic integrated package may contain word
processor, spreadsheet, database, communications and graphics presentation programs.

3. Specialized Software: is written for specific task rather than for a broad application area.
These programs provide facilities specifically for the purpose for which they were designed.
Eg. Payroll programs that deals with all aspects of a companys payroll, expert systems
(medicine), accounting programs and airline booking systems.

4. Customized software: this refers to general-purpose software which has been modified
to meet the needs of an individual or organization better. Usually permission must be given
from the software developer to modify their program.

5. Custom-written (tailor-made) software written to meet specific needs of a business or

organization. Custom-written software may be written by programmers within the company
or it may be contract out to a software house (a company that specializes in writing
software).

Data Communication- is the process of transmitting data and information over a

communication medium such as telephone line, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable or microwave
from a computer to a user or from one computer to another.
Telecommunication - this is the transmitting of data over a far distance without changing it,
using transmission facilities such as telephone lines or microwave links.

Telecommuting Performing work at the home while linked to the office by means of
telecommunications-equipped computer system.

Teleconferencing- This is a simple and secured wired voice communications application in

which more than two distance people conduct business by conference call.

Telemarketing - telemarketing systems employs the telephone for contracting customers,

offering products and following up on sales.

Videoconferencing- this is a technology enabling two or more people to have a face-to-face

meeting even though they are geographically separated.

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) - Automated teller machines (ATM) is an example of EFT at
work. You go to an ATM machine located at a bank, insert your ATM card, enter your personal
identification number and following services become available: withdrawals, deposits and
payment of utility bills.

E-Commerce - Conducting business transactions through electronic transmissions between

computers. Typically used in reference to doing business over the internet.

Transmission Media- a means by which a communications signal is carried from one system to
another (for example, twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable. Or Transmission
Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific path. The data signals
are bound by the "cabling" system.

Coaxial Cable- coaxial cable consists of a conductive cylindrical shield with a central wire or
solid core held together by an insulating material. These are the cables that connect your
television set to the cable television provider.

Twisted Pair - Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire that connects home and many business
computers to the telephone company. To reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between
pairs of wires, two insulated copper wires are twisted around each other. Each connection on
twisted pair requires both wires.

Fiber Optic Cables - Fibre optic line is made up of tiny threads of glass tubes about the size of
human hair. Large volumes of data can be transmitted at the speed of light through these glass
tubes. A single glass fiber can transmit the entire bible in a single second. It would take over 20
hours to send the bible over the telephone line.

Microwaves Microwaves are electromagnetic radio waves that provide high speed signal
transmission with a very short frequency. Microwave transmission, often called fixed wireless,
involves sending signals from one microwave station to another. A microwave station is an earth-
base reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers, and other equipment necessary for
microwave communications.

Transmission signals two types of signals used for data transmission are analog and digital.

Analog Signals - This is a signal sent by continuous waves that varies in strength and quality,
such as those that phones and phone lines send and receive. Speech is an analog signal, and
varies in amplitude (volume) and frequency (pitch).

Digital Signals - This is a signal sent via discontinuous pulses, in which the presence or absents
of electronic pulses represents 1s and 0s, such as computer send and receive. Digital signals are
the language of modern computers. They normally comprise of only two states, expressed as ON
or OFF, 1 or 0 respectively.

Modem (Short for modulator/demodulator) This is communications device that converts digital
signals into analog signals for purpose of transmission over a telephone line. Signal is then
converted back to digital form so that it can be processed by a receiving computer. Modems are
typically used to link computers via telephone lines.

Types of Modems Modems consists of two types, internal and external modems. External
modem plugs into a serial port on the back of the computer and internal modem is where the
telephone line plugs directly into card through the back of the computer.

Transmission Direction The three basic transmission modes are: simplex, half-duplex and
full-duplex (Duplex).

Simplex - data transmission in simplex channel is always in one direction. Simplex channels are
not often used because it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
An example of data transmission in simplex channel is a public address system.

Half-duplex A half-duplex channel can send and receive, but not at the same time. It is like
using a radio phone where only one person can communicate at a time.

Full-duplex - Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from
transmit to receive mode as in half duplex. An example is communicating using your cell phone
or your landline.

Transmission Modes There are two main modes of transmitting data asynchronous and
synchronous.

Asynchronous Send one character at a time. Start bits and stop bits are inserted to separate the
characters. Good for channels with transmission speeds of between 30 and 240 characters per
second.

Synchronous Send blocks of characters called frames; no start bits or stop bits; data are sent
at timed intervals.
Protocols- This is a set of rules and procedures controlling the transmitting and receiving of data
so that different devices can communicate with each other.

Up-Load This is the process of sending a file from your personal computer to another
computer or server by means of a computer network.

Down-Load This is the process of transferring a file from another computer to your personal
computer by means of a modem and a telephone line.

Network - A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via

communications devices and transmission media. This means network users are able to share
files, printers, and other resources; send electronic messages; and run programs on other
computers. A network has three layers of components: application software, network software,
and network hardware.

Advantages of using Networks

Facilitating Communications - This means that when using network, people communicate
efficiently and easily via e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, video telephone calls, video
conferencing, internet telephony, wireless messaging services, and group ware.

Sharing hardware - In a networked environment, each computer on the network has access to
hardware on the network. Business and home users network their hardware to save money. That
is it may be too costly to provide each user with the same piece of hardware such as printer. If
the computers and a laser printer are connected to a network, the computer users each access the
laser printer on the network, as they need it.

Sharing data and information - In a networked environment, any authorized computer user can
access data and information stored on other computer on the network. A large company, for
example, might have a data base of customers information. Any authorized person, including a
mobile user with a PDA or smart phone connected to the network, has access to the database.

Sharing software - User connected to a network have access to software on the network. A
network allows multiple users to access the software on a server simultaneously.

Transferring funds With Electronic funds transfer, it allows user connected to a network to
transfer money from one bank account to another through the use of transmission media.

Types of network

Networks are usually classified as a local area network, metropolitan area network, or wide area
network. The main differentiation among these classifications is their area of coverage.
LAN A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school computer laboratory, office building or closely
positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network, called a node, often
shares resources such as printers, large hard disks, and programs. Oftentimes the nodes are
connected via cables.

MAN - A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high-speed network that connects local area
network in a metropolitan area such as a city or town and handles the bulk of communications
activity across that region. A MAN typically includes one or more LANs, but covers a smaller
geographic area than a WAN.

WAN - A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area such as
city, country, or the world using a communications channel that combines many types of media
such as telephone lines, cables, and radio waves. A WAN can be one large network or can consist
of two or more LANs connected together. The internet is the worlds largest WAN.

Keyboarding skills

Space bar - Pressing the space bar, moves the blinking line one space to the right.
This puts spaces between words.

CAPS LOCK - Pressing Caps Lock on makes all letters typed in capitals. When
Caps L is on, a green light appears on the keypad under CAPS LOCK.

Enter Key - Also known as a return key, the enter key is used to return a cursor to the next line
or execute a command or operation.

Shift key - To type lower-case letters, just press the keys. To type capital letters, hold down a
Shift key with one hand and press keys with the other hand.

Arrow keys - move the blinking line around the text.

Insert - allows "inserting" text between words.

Delete - deletes text. Place the line in front of text, press delete.

Page Up moves the text up one screen.

Page Down moves text down one screen.

Home and End jumps to the beginning and end of documents.

NUM LOCK - Press NUM LOCK to be sure the keypad is on, a green light turns on
above NUM LOCK. To turn the keypad off numbers, press the "Num Lock" a second
time.

Keyboard shortcuts for Windows

Windows system key combinations

F1: Help
CTRL+ESC: Open Start menu
ALT+TAB: Switch between open programs
ALT+F4: Quit program
SHIFT+DELETE: Delete item permanently

Windows program key combinations

CTRL+C: Copy
CTRL+X: Cut
CTRL+V: Paste
CTRL+Z: Undo
CTRL+B: Bold
CTRL+U: Underline
CTRL+I: Italic
CTRL+A: Select all the items in the current window

Word processing

A word processor is an electronic device or computer software application that performs the
task of composing, editing, formatting, and printing of documents. An example of word
processing software is Microsoft Words.

What is an Electronic Spreadsheet?

A spreadsheet is a computer application or program that enables the user to tabulate and collate
data. This data can then be used to make calculations, show graphical representations or analysis.
A spreadsheet is a file made of rows and columns that help sort data, arrange data easily,
and calculate numerical data. What makes a spreadsheet software program unique is its
ability to calculate values using mathematical formulas and the data in cells. A good
 example of how a spreadsheet may be utilized is creating an overview of your bank's
balance. Below is a basic example of what a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet looks like, as
well as all the important features of a spreadsheet highlighted.

A spreadsheet comprises of a grid of cells arranged in rows and columns and

information can be inserted into each cell.
Each cell can contain text, numbers and formulas.
A formula is a calculation based from the contents of cells or a total of a combination of
cells. The total in that formula can change if the content of the combination cells used is also
amended.
Spreadsheets can be useful for home budgeting or accounting and they make it easy to
display information.
Spreadsheets can consist of a number of different worksheets that can include different
data as well as enabling cells on one worksheet to be used and referenced on other different
worksheets.
Information can also be sorted and filtered by a spreadsheet.
The Microsoft Office spreadsheet is called Excel but there are open office spreadsheets
available, including internet based web apps such as Google spreadsheets.
Spreadsheets have a number of tools included to support many different types of
calculations and can include graphical presentations such as graphs, pie charts etc.
In the above example, this spreadsheet is listing three different checks, the date, their description,
and the value of each check. These values are then added together to get the total of $162.00 in
cell D6. That value is subtracted from the check balance to give an available $361.00 in cell D8.

Examples of spreadsheet programs

Today, Microsoft Excel is the most popular and widely used spreadsheet program, but there are
also many alternatives. Below is a list of spreadsheet programs that can be used to create a
spreadsheet.

A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables you

to store, modify, and extract information from a database. There are many different types of
database management systems, ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to
huge systems that run on mainframes.

Examples of Database Applications

The following are examples of database applications:
computerized library systems
automated teller machines
flight reservation systems
computerized parts inventory systems