Microwave

This article is about the electromagnetic wave. For the Atmospheric Transmission: Mauna Kea, PWV = 0.001 mm

cooking appliance, see Microwave oven. For other uses, 100

see Microwaves (disambiguation).

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation 80

Transmission (%)
60

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Frequency (GHz)

The atmospheric attenuation of microwaves in dry air with a pre-

cipitable water vapor level of 0.001 mm. The downward spikes
in the graph correspond to frequencies at which microwaves are
absorbed more strongly. Some standards designate the righthand
side of the graph as within the range of infrared.

Beginning at about 40 GHz, the atmosphere becomes less

transparent to microwaves, due at lower frequencies to
absorption from water vapor and at higher frequencies
from oxygen. A spectral band structure causes absorption
peaks at specic frequencies (see graph at right). Above
100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by
Earths atmosphere is so great that it is in eect opaque,
A telecommunications tower with a variety of dish antennas until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-
for microwave relay links on Frazier Peak, Ventura County, called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.
California.
The term microwave also has a more technical mean-
ing in electromagnetics and circuit theory. Apparatus
with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to and techniques may be described qualitatively as mi-
as short as one millimeter; with frequencies between crowave when the frequencies used are high enough
300 MHz (100 cm) and 300 GHz (0.1 cm).[1][2] This that wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the
broad denition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped-element
waves), and various sources use dierent boundaries. In circuit theory is inaccurate. As a consequence, practi-
all cases, microwave includes the entire SHF band (3 to cal microwave technique tends to move away from the
30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with
often restricting the range between 1 and 100 GHz (300 lower-frequency radio waves. Instead, distributed circuit
and 3 mm). elements and transmission-line theory are more useful
The prex micro- in microwave is not meant to suggest a methods for design and analysis. Open-wire and coax-
wavelength in the micrometer range. It indicates that mi- ial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are re-
crowaves are small, compared to waves used in typical placed by waveguides and stripline, and lumped-element
radio broadcasting, in that they have shorter wavelengths. tuned circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or reso-
The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, nant lines. In turn, at even higher frequencies, where the
microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are wavelength of the electromagnetic waves becomes small
fairly arbitrary and are used variously between dierent in comparison to the size of the structures used to process
elds of study. them, microwave techniques become inadequate, and the

1
2 3
methods of optics are used.
1 The electromagnetic spectrum
2 Microwave sources
Cutaway view inside a cavity magnetron as used in a
microwave oven (left). Antenna splitter: microstrip
techniques become increasingly necessary at higher 3.1 Communication
frequencies (right).
Main articles: Point-to-point (telecommunications),
High-power microwave sources use specialized vacuum Microwave transmission and Satellite communications
tubes to generate microwaves. These devices oper-
ate on dierent principles from low-frequency vac-
uum tubes, using the ballistic motion of electrons in
a vacuum under the inuence of controlling electric
or magnetic elds, and include the magnetron (used in
microwave ovens), klystron, traveling-wave tube (TWT),
and gyrotron. These devices work in the density mod-
ulated mode, rather than the current modulated mode.
This means that they work on the basis of clumps of elec-
trons ying ballistically through them, rather than using a
continuous stream of electrons.
Low-power microwave sources use solid-state devices
such as the eld-eect transistor (at least at lower fre-
quencies), tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, and IMPATT
diodes.[3] Low-power sources are available as benchtop
instruments, rackmount instruments, embeddable mod-
ules and in card-level formats. A maser is a solid state
device which amplies microwaves using similar princi-
ples to the laser, which amplies higher frequency light
waves.
All warm objects emit low level microwave black-body
radiation, depending on their temperature, so in mete-
orology and remote sensing microwave radiometers are
used to measure the temperature of objects or terrain .[4] Metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols, such as
MICROWAVE USES
The sun[5] and other astronomical radio sources such as
Cassiopeia A emit low level microwave radiation which
carries information about their makeup, which is studied
by radio astronomers using receivers called radio tele-
scopes.[4] The cosmic microwave background radiation
(CMBR), for example, is a weak microwave noise ll-
ing empty space which is a major source of informa-
tion on cosmology's Big Bang theory of the origin of the
Universe.
3 Microwave uses
Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-
point telecommunications (i.e. non-broadcast uses). Mi-
crowaves are especially suitable for this use since they
are more easily focused into narrower beams than ra-
dio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively
higher frequencies allow broad bandwidth and high data
transmission rates, and antenna sizes are smaller than at
lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely pro-
portional to transmitted frequency. Microwaves are used
in spacecraft communication, and much of the worlds
data, TV, and telephone communications are transmit-
ted long distances by microwaves between ground sta-
tions and communications satellites. Microwaves are also
employed in microwave ovens and in radar technology.
Before the advent of ber-optic transmission, most long-
distance telephone calls were carried via networks of
microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T
Long Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency divi-
sion multiplex was used to send up to 5,400 telephone
channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many
as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the
hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the
IEEE 802.11 specications used for Wi-Fi, also use mi-
crowaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a
uses ISM band and U-NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range.
Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Inter-
net Access services have been used for almost a decade
in many countries in the 3.54.0 GHz range. The FCC
recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to of-
fer services in this range in the U.S. with emphasis on
3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across the coun-
try are securing or have already received licenses from
the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service
oerings that can be carried on the 3.65 GHz band will
give business customers another option for connectivity.
3.3 Radar 3

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Ac-

cess) are based on standards such as IEEE 802.16, de-
signed to operate between 2 to 11 GHz. Commercial im-
plementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and
5.8 GHz ranges.
Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols
based on standards specications such as IEEE 802.20
or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (such as iBurst) operate be-
tween 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building
penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but
with vastly greater spectral eciency.[6]
Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, use the low-
microwave/high-UHF frequencies around 1.8 and 1.9
GHz in the Americas and elsewhere, respectively. DVB-
SH and S-DMB use 1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while propri-
etary/incompatible satellite radio in the U.S. uses around
2.3 GHz for DARS.
Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and
telecommunication transmissions because, due to
their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are
smaller and therefore more practical than they would be
at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also
more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the An air trac control radar using pipes as waveguides
rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below
300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be
used above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range,
in television news to transmit a signal from a remote speed, and other characteristics of remote objects. De-
location to a television station from a specially equipped velopment of radar was accelerated during World War II
van. See broadcast auxiliary service (BAS), remote due to its great military utility. Now radar is widely used
pickup unit (RPU), and studio/transmitter link (STL). for applications such as air trac control, weather fore-
casting, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement.
Most satellite communications systems operate in the C,
X, K, or K bands of the microwave spectrum. These Microwaves cannot be carried with usable eciency in
frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the ordinary transmission lines but require waveguide,such as
crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmo- a metal pipe.
spheric absorption of EHF frequencies. Satellite TV ei- A Gunn diode oscillator and waveguide are used as a mo-
ther operates in the C band for the traditional large dish tion detector for automatic door openers.
xed satellite service or K band for direct-broadcast
satellite. Military communications run primarily over X
or K-band links, with K band being used for Milstar.

3.2 Navigation

Further information: Satellite navigation and Navigation

The ALMA telescope

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including
the Chinese Beidou, the American Global Positioning
System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast
navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2
GHz and 1.6 GHz.

3.3 Radar

Main article: Radar

4 4 MICROWAVE FREQUENCY BANDS

Improving CMBR-maps clear reactor[10] is expected to range from 110170 GHz

and will employ electron cyclotron resonance heating
(ECRH).[11]
Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long dis-
3.4 Radio astronomy tances, and post-World War II research was done to ex-
amine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early
Main article: radio astronomy 1980s to research the possibilities of using solar power
satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would
Most radio astronomy uses microwaves. Usually the beam power down to the Earths surface via microwaves.
naturally-occurring microwave radiation is observed, but Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter
active radar experiments have also been done with ob- waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intoler-
jects in the solar system, such as determining the distance able temperature so as to make the targeted person move
to the Moon or mapping the invisible surface of Venus away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam
through cloud cover. heats the skin to a temperature of 54 C (129 F) at a
The Atacama Large Millimeter Array, located at more depth of 0.4 millimetres (1 64 in). The United States Air
than 5,000 meters (16,597 ft) altitude in Chile, observes Force and Marines are currently using this type of active
the universe in the millimetre and submillimetre wave- denial system in xed installations.[12]
length ranges. The worlds largest ground-based astron-
omy project to date consists of more than 66 dishes and
was built in an international collaboration by Europe, 3.6 Spectroscopy
North America, East Asia and Chile.[7][8]
Microwave radiation is used in electron paramagnetic
The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
resonance (EPR or ESR) spectroscopy, typically in the
has been mapped by a number of instrument at an ever
X-band region (~9 GHz) in conjunction typically with
increasing resolution. The CMBR is understood to be
magnetic elds of 0.3 T. This technique provides infor-
a relic radiation from the Big Bang. Due to the ex-
mation on unpaired electrons in chemical systems, such
pansion and thus cooling of the Universe, the originally
as free radicals or transition metal ions such as Cu(II).
high-energy radiation has been shifted into the microwave
Microwave radiation is also used to perform rotational
region of the radio spectrum. Suciently sensitive radio
spectroscopy and can be combined with electrochemistry
telescopes can detected the CMBR as a faint background
as in microwave enhanced electrochemistry.
glow, almost exactly the same in all directions, that is not
associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.[9]

4 Microwave frequency bands

3.5 Heating and power application

A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave ra-

diation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm) through Visible light
Most of the
infrared spectrum
Long-wavelength
observable Radio waves observable radio waves
food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption Gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet
light blocked by the upper atmosphere
(best observed from space).
from Earth,
with some
absorbed by
atmospheric
gasses (best
from Earth. blocked.

atmospheric

of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became com-

observed
distortion. from space).
100 %

mon kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late

Atmospheric
opacity

1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity 50 %

magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many 0%

0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10 m 100 m 1 km

molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. Wavelength

In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at

around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the Rough plot of Earths atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to
microwave oven. various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. Microwaves
are strongly absorbed at wavelengths shorter than about 1.5 cm
Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for dry-
(above 20 GHz) by water and other molecules in the air.
ing and curing products.
Many semiconductor processing techniques use mi- The microwave spectrum is usually dened as electro-
crowaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive
magnetic energy ranging from approximately 1 GHz to
ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposi-100 GHz in frequency, but older use includes lower fre-
tion (PECVD). quencies. Most common applications are within the 1
Microwave frequencies typically ranging from 110 to 40 GHz range. One set of microwave frequency
140 GHz are used in stellarators and more notably in bands designations by the Radio Society of Great Britain
tokamak experimental fusion reactors to help heat the (RSGB), is tabulated below:
fuel into a plasma state. The upcoming ITER thermonu- P band is sometimes used for K Band. P for previous
 5

was a radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 lated. A similar technique is to use a slotted waveguide
MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std 521.[13][14][15] or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the wavelength.
When radars were rst developed at K band during World These devices consist of a probe introduced into the line
War II, it was not known that there was a nearby absorp- through a longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to
tion band (due to water vapor and oxygen in the atmo- travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are primarily
sphere). To avoid this problem, the original K band was intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave
split into a lower band, K, and upper band, K.[16] ratio on the line. However, provided a standing wave is
present, they may also be used to measure the distance
between the nodes, which is equal to half the wavelength.
Precision of this method is limited by the determination
5 Microwave frequency measure- of the nodal locations.
ment

6 Eects on health

Further information: Electromagnetic radiation and

health and Microwave burn

Microwaves do not contain sucient energy to chem-

ically change substances by ionization, and so are an
example of non-ionizing radiation.[17] The word radi-
ation refers to energy radiating from a source and not
to radioactivity. It has not been shown conclusively that
microwaves (or other non-ionizing electromagnetic radi-
ation) have signicant adverse biological eects at low
levels. Some, but not all, studies suggest that long-term
exposure may have a carcinogenic eect.[18] This is sepa-
rate from the risks associated with very high-intensity ex-
posure, which can cause heating and burns like any heat
source, and not a unique property of microwaves specif-
ically.
During World War II, it was observed that individuals
in the radiation path of radar installations experienced
clicks and buzzing sounds in response to microwave radi-
ation. This microwave auditory eect was thought to be
caused by the microwaves inducing an electric current in
the hearing centers of the brain.[19] Research by NASA
in the 1970s has shown this to be caused by thermal ex-
pansion in parts of the inner ear. In 1955 Dr. James
Absorption wavemeter for measuring in the Ku band. Lovelock was able to reanimate rats frozen at 0 C using
microwave diathermy.[20]
Microwave frequency can be measured by either elec- When injury from exposure to microwaves occurs, it usu-
tronic or mechanical techniques. ally results from dielectric heating induced in the body.
Frequency counters or high frequency heterodyne sys- Exposure to microwave radiation can produce cataracts
[21]
tems can be used. Here the unknown frequency is com- by this mechanism, because the microwave heating
pared with harmonics of a known lower frequency by use denatures proteins in the crystalline lens of the eye (in the
of a low frequency generator, a harmonic generator and same way that heat turns egg whites white and opaque).
a mixer. Accuracy of the measurement is limited by the The lens and cornea of the eye are especially vulnerable
accuracy and stability of the reference source. because they contain no blood vessels that can carry away
heat. Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as
Mechanical methods require a tunable resonator such as from an oven that has been tampered with to allow oper-
an absorption wavemeter, which has a known relation be- ation even with the door open) can produce heat damage
tween a physical dimension and frequency. in other tissues as well, up to and including serious burns
In a laboratory setting, Lecher lines can be used to di- that may not be immediately evident because of the ten-
rectly measure the wavelength on a transmission line dency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher
made of parallel wires, the frequency can then be calcu- moisture content.
6 9
7 History and research
Electromagnetic spectrum (visible-light range highlighted).
The existence of radio waves was predicted by James
Clerk Maxwell in 1864 from his equations. In 1888,
Heinrich Hertz was the rst to demonstrate the existence
of radio waves by building a spark gap radio transmit-
ter that produced 450 MHz microwaves, in the UHF re-
gion. The equipment he used was primitive, including a
horse trough, a wrought iron point spark, and Leyden jars.
He also built the rst parabolic antenna, using a zinc gut-
ter sheet. In 1894, Indian radio pioneer Jagdish Chandra
Bose publicly demonstrated radio control of a bell using
millimeter wavelengths, and conducted research into the
propagation of microwaves.[22]
Perhaps the rst, documented, formal use of the term mi-
crowave occurred in 1931:
When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm
were made known, there was undisguised sur-
prise that the problem of the micro-wave had
been solved so soon. Telegraph & Telephone
Journal XVII. 179/1
In 1943, the Hungarian engineer Zoltn Bay sent ultra-
short radio waves to the moon, which, reected from
there, worked as a radar, and could be used to measure
distance, as well as to study the moon.
Perhaps the rst use of the word microwave in an as-
tronomical context occurred in 1946 in an article Mi-
crowave Radiation from the Sun and Moon by Robert
Dicke and Robert Beringer. This same article also made
a showing in the New York Times issued in 1951.
In the history of electromagnetic theory, signicant work
specically in the area of microwaves and their applica-
tions was carried out by researchers including:
8 See also
Block upconverter (BUC)
Cosmic microwave background
Electron cyclotron resonance
REFERENCES
International Microwave Power Institute
Low-noise block converter (LNB)
Maser
Microwave transmission
Microwave chemistry
Microwave auditory eect
Lens Antenna / klystron / magnetron / radar gun
Microwave cavity
Microwave radio relay
Orthomode transducer (OMT)
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition
Rain fade
RF switch matrix
Thing (listening device)
Tropospheric scatter
9 References
[1] Pozar, David M. (1993). Microwave Engineering
AddisonWesley Publishing Company. ISBN 0-201-
50418-9.
[2] Sorrentino, R. and Bianchi, Giovanni (2010) Microwave
and RF Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, p. 4, ISBN
047066021X.
[3] Microwave Oscillator notes by Herley General Microwave
[4] Sisodia, M. L. (2007). Microwaves : Introduction To Cir-
cuits, Devices And Antennas. New Age International. pp.
1.41.7. ISBN 8122413382.
[5] Liou, Kuo-Nan (2002). An introduction to atmospheric
radiation. Academic Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-12-451451-0.
Retrieved 12 July 2010.
[6] IEEE 802.20: Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
(MBWA)". Ocial web site. Retrieved August 20, 2011.
[7] ALMA website. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
[8] Welcome to ALMA!". Retrieved 2011-05-25.
[9] Wright, E.L. (2004). Theoretical Overview of Cosmic
Microwave Background Anisotropy. In W. L. Freedman.
Measuring and Modeling the Universe. Carnegie Observa-
tories Astrophysics Series. Cambridge University Press.
p. 291. arXiv:astro-ph/0305591. ISBN 0-521-75576-X.
[10] The way to new energy. ITER. 2011-11-04. Retrieved
2011-11-08.
[11] Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH)".
Ipp.mpg.de. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
 7

[12] Silent Guardian Protection System. Less-than-Lethal Di-

rected Energy Protection. raytheon.com

[13] eEngineer Radio Frequency Band Designations. Ra-

dioing.com. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[14] PC Mojo Webs with MOJO from Cave Creek, AZ

(2008-04-25). Frequency Letter bands Microwave En-
cyclopedia. Microwaves101.com. Retrieved 2011-11-
08.

[15] For other denitions see Letter Designations of Mi-

crowave Bands.

[16] Skolnik, Merrill I. (2001) Introduction to Radar Systems,

Third Ed., p. 522, McGraw Hill. 1962 Edition full text

[17] Nave, Rod. Interaction of Radiation with Matter. Hy-

perPhysics. Retrieved 20 October 2014.

[18] Goldsmith, JR (December 1997). Epidemiologic evi-

dence relevant to radar (microwave) eects. Environ-
mental Health Perspectives 105 (Suppl. 6): 15791587.
doi:10.2307/3433674. JSTOR 3433674. PMC 1469943.
PMID 9467086.

[19] Philip L. Stocklin, U.S. Patent 4,858,612, December 19,

1983

[20] Andjus, R.K.; Lovelock, J.E. (1955). Reanimation of

rats from body temperatures between 0 and 1 C by mi-
crowave diathermy. The Journal of Physiology 128 (3):
541546. PMC 1365902. PMID 13243347.

[21] Resources for You (Radiation-Emitting Products)". US

Food and Drug Administration home page. U.S. Food and
Drug Administration. Retrieved 20 October 2014.

[22] Emerson, D.T. (February 1998). The work of Jagdish

Chandra Bose: 100 years of MM-wave research. Na-
tional Radio Astronomy Observatory.

10 Bibliography
Giannini, Franco, and Giorgio Leuzzi: Non-linear
Microwave Circuit Design. John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd, 2004, ISBN 978-0-470-84701-5

11 External links
Interactive Tutorial on Microwaves National High
Magnetic Field Laboratory

EM Talk, Microwave Engineering Tutorials and

Tools

Millimeter Wave and Microwave Waveguide dimen-

sion chart.
8 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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BER, Mav, The Anome, Rjstott, DWeir, PierreAbbat, DrBob, Heron, DennisDaniels, NTF, Edward, Lir, Patrick, PhilipMW, Michael
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Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Arthena, Andrewpmk, Andrew Gray, Axl, Ciceronl, Mac Davis, InShaneee, Mysdaao, Wtmitchell, Velella, He-
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Jim.henderson, AlexiusHoratius, Lilac Soul, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Manjukumargh, Nigholith, Atb 43, Century0, Squeezeweasel,
Mattho123, Katalaveno, Mr Rookles, Mikael Hggstrm, Zak bell, Pimplediddy007, NewEnglandYankee, MetsFan76, Yoyoyo1111, Cor-
age666, Useight, TheNewPhobia, CardinalDan, 28bytes, VolkovBot, Je G., Bangvang, Neilrobinson2000, Philip Trueman, Guineveretoo,
DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, BlueCanary9999, Codyalthaus, Technopat, Nickgully, FragBait0, Liam123456789, Auent Rider, Qxz, 03matt,
Monkey Bounce, Joerglwitsch, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric, Anna Lincoln, Dmilton, Saligron, Lradrama, Clarince63, Mel-
saran, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Sciencewatcher, Python1320, BotKung, Guest9999, Niciismyhero, Jestar, Motleykrieger, Andy Dingley,
Yk Yk Yk, Fmicheau~enwiki, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, WikiDrive, Brianga, Michaelsbll, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Sudhir h, D. Recorder,
Biscuittin, Thw1309, SieBot, StAnselm, Sonicology, Tiddly Tom, Psbsub, Hertz1888, Cockmuncher, Viskonsas, Caltas, Leicanthrope,
Mnbitar, Yintan, Grimvixen, AGould28564, Keilana, Dlukenelson, Genesiscode, Hongpeng, Marco.rossi, Henry Delforn (old), Fara-
dayplank, Xtreme glasses, Tombomp, StaticGull, Aemiliano, Mygerardromance, Ascidian, Escape Orbit, Vcaeken, Naturespace, Wiki-
Botas, Church, ClueBot, Krillion, Binksternet, Darkmagic300300, The Thing That Should Not Be, Natitude, Ndenison, Wysprgr2005,
Hornet35, Meekywiki, Taliska, Drmies, Wikiwomp1, Manoj.zte, BANZ111, Puchiko, Iammenotu, Dansadler47, Luke4545, Excirial,
Jusdafax, Tylerdmace, BobKawanaka, Estirabot, LicenseFee, NuclearWarfare, Jcdasi818, Zomno, Jotterbot, Homeless5, Thisisentire-
lyfactual, M.O.X, Prokopenya Viktor, Twaznboi, Bald Zebra, Zappa711, Thingg, Aitias, Jonverve, Mczack26, Versus22, Dragon1993,
SoxBot III, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Vanished User 1004, Spitre, Dan598687, Feinoha, Drauqe, Avoided, Doc9871,
NHJG, HexaChord, Bubbakid12, Addbot, Thestarz12345, Some jerk on the Internet, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Soccer-
dude1022, Vishnava, Lindert, Cst17, Download, Morning277, Sillyfolkboy, PranksterTurtle, Glane23, Blackhorse1739, Coltonrules12,
I am kurtis, Tide rolls, Verbal, Bennyjoe, Apteva, Gail, Wireless friend, Quantumobserver, Swarm, DrFO.Tn.Bot, Legobot, Neilforcier,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Vectorsoliton, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Yizhan, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Melvalevis, Becky Sayles, QueenCake, Hfd-
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torads, Zz 888 r t f v n, Capricorn42, Brufydsy, GkiwiPD, Screaming midget, Nickkid5, Sellyme, Ryzer777, Anna Frodesiak, Br77rino,
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VincentHermon, A. di M., VittGam, Fotaun, A.amitkumar, Globe Collector, Jack B108, GliderMaven, Yellowweasel, FrescoBot, Tan-
gent747, MetalManiac101, Kinkoloma, Paine Ellsworth, Raj6, W Nowicki, Skychildandsonofthesun, Helennnn, HJ Mitchell, Steve Quinn,
Wione, Jonathankira, Vido017, A little insignicant, Drew R. Smith, Citation bot 1, Javert, BuddyGoleo, ThatRunescaper, Richieisking19,
Benny4540, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Elockid, Projectbluebeam, Jtelser, Lemmon Juice, Drbillfritz, Jschnur, RedBot, Impala2009,
Jenlyad, Inhisname, Jeppiz, Robvanvee, Conjo123, Vrenator, Bluest, Reaper Eternal, TheGrimReaper NS, Jerd10, Weedwhacker128,
Brian the Editor, J. in Jerusalem, Andrea105, Mean as custard, TheRickRoller, Feegang, Filipthecup, TigerkidX, Agent Smith (The
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man1378, Cbnbvnbcbbvnyt6yh, Opokjjkjlkjkljklj, RA0808, Yvesmayrand, Jmencisom, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Swimmingmunky, Hh-
hippo, SunOfErat, Evan1111, F, Shuipzv3, Simulations, Mrmatiko, Rassaei, Zloyvolsheb, Vividadmit, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Eri-
anna, 7E, , L Kensington, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Liehann, DASHBotAV, Newtrend19, MicahJon-
son, Svaucher, LM2000, ClueBot NG, Nopants12, Gordonjsanders, MelbourneStar, Baseball Watcher, AveVeritas, Frietjes, Jamiedwi,
O.Koslowski, Kevin Gorman, Widr, Mudiojas, Cvbnm2212, Diyar se, SevketAkgun, Helpful Pixie Bot, BZTMPS, Lowercase sigmabot,
12.2 Images 9

BG19bot, Avionix1, Bths83Cu87Aiu06, Mynameisnoted, Mifter Public, Hero123213xdzero, Mark Arsten, Omgtotzlawl, Simonach-
van, TROPtastic, SuperSuperSmarty, Anbu121, SupernovaExplosion, Steelers05, Pratyya Ghosh, Liaofanlin, EdenFinite, Aliwal2012,
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LuigiHQ, Reatlas, Joeinwiki, Rfassbind, Gahasitha, Theashlock1, Epicgenius, Smallsignal942, I am One of Many, Melonkelon, Waij, Poke-
freak134562, GingerGeek, Elephantsandbacon, CensoredScribe, Ugog Nizdast, Chatboy123, Lashbey, The Herald, Jwratner1, Ginsuloft,
Marco Ciaramella, Newestcastleman, Jaaron95, Param Mudgal, Racer Omega, Geekofhistory, Iamawalkingdictionary, CogitoErgoSum14,
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Ynot12, Blenderbottles, Majabaja112, Hrishikesh M Kulkarni, Mandyphan1012, Cheesyjaacake, Bschw, Clas of clans dragon king, Sun-
nidays, HaleyDuchsherer, Krelcoyne, Mukul.edu, Keunheeyouk, Dancerkp23, Harmony66990, Arabianpenguinmonk, Etzerblub, Kaspar-
Bot and Anonymous: 1081

12.2 Images
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utors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Ulfbastel
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commons/d/db/Atmospheric_Microwave_Transmittance_at_Mauna_Kea_%28simulated%29.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work
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electromagnetic_opacity.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized by User:Mysid in Inkscape, original NASA image from
File:Atmospheric electromagnetic transmittance or opacity.jpg. Original artist: NASA (original); SVG by Mysid.
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utors: ? Original artist: ?
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tributors: map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m ig/030644/030644.html Original artist: NASA
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Diplexer1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Diplexer1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Averse 19:31, 25. Jan. 2007 (CET)
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
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sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Frazier_Peak,_tower_and_Honda_Element.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Frazier_Peak%
2C_tower_and_Honda_Element.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: GeorgeLouis (talk) (Uploads) Original artist: GeorgeLouis (talk)
(Uploads)
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section_transverse_to_axis.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pingu Is Sumerian
File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png License: LGPL
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File:Ondamtr.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Ondamtr.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?

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