Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389

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Geoderma
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Evaluating the degree of weathering in landslide-prone soils in the humid tropics:

The case of Limbe, SW Cameroon
Vivian Bih Che a, b,, Karen Fontijn b, 1, Gerald G.J. Ernst b, Matthieu Kervyn b, c, Marlina Elburg b, 2,
Eric Van Ranst b, Cheo Emmanuel Suh a
a
Department of Geology and Environmental Science, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, SW Region, Cameroon
b
Department of Geology and Soil Science, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S8, B - 9000 Ghent, Belgium
c
Department of Geography & Earth System Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study analyses the behaviour and mobility of major and some trace elements during the physical and
Received 13 March 2010 chemical development of landslide-prone soil proles in Limbe, SW Cameroon. The soils result from in situ
Received in revised form 8 October 2011 weathering of Tertiary basaltic and picrobasaltic rocks. Textural and chemical characterisations, together
Accepted 30 October 2011
with two mass balance models are applied to understand the mobility and redistribution of elements during
Available online xxxx
the weathering of pyroclastic cones and lava ows. Weathering indices are used to estimate the extent of
Keywords:
weathering. The chemical composition of the samples is evaluated by Inductively Coupled PlasmaOptical
Weathering Emission Spectroscopy (ICPOES) and their mineralogical composition by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses.
Volcanic soil It is observed that intensive weathering results in thick meta-stable soils in which signicant loss of Ca, K, Mg,
Mineralogy Na and Sr has taken place. There is a noticeable relative enrichment in all analysed trace elements (Ba, Zr, Y,
Textural heterogeneities Sc, V, Ni, and Co). Ti, Fe, Al, Mn, P and Ce tend to be leached in some horizons and concentrated in others. Zr,
Basalts Ti, and Ce concentrations are greater in the soils than in the bedrock but show slight uctuations in the soil
Cameroon and saprolites hence cannot be used as immobile elements for mass balance evaluations. Y increases progres-
sively with advanced weathering. Major secondary mineral phases developed through weathering are a
mixture of expanding (smectites) and non-expanding clays (kaolinite, halloysite and mica). The proles
show the presence of textural heterogeneities that can be exploited as slip surfaces. Data plotted in SiAl
Fe diagram point out that the most advanced stage of weathering noted in these proles is the kaolinisation
stage.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction precipitation, enrichment, and/or formation of secondary minerals at

The occurrence of landslides in tropical and sub-tropical regions is
generally associated with weathered rock proles characterised by
chemical and mineralogical heterogeneities (Duzgoren-Aydin and
Aydin, 2006). These weathering proles develop in response to phys-
ical, chemical, and biological processes operating on the earth's
surface (Anderson et al., 2002). Physical weathering results in the
mechanical breakdown of rock masses, thereby exposing fresh rock
surfaces and primary minerals to chemical weathering processes.
Chemical weathering on the other hand, induces mineralogical, tex-
tural and geochemical changes in rocks through dissolution, leaching,
Corresponding author at: Department of Geology and Environmental Science,
University of Buea, P.O. Box 62, SW Region, Cameroon.
E-mail address: hevivianbih@yahoo.com (V.B. Che).
1
Present address: Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University,
50 Nanyang Avenue, N2-01b-30, Singapore 639798, Singapore.
2
Present address; School of Geological Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Private Bag x54001, Durban 4000, South Africa.
diverse scales, thereby reducing rock strength.
Changes that accompany weathering processes are never uniform
with depth and thus result in heterogeneities that can act as weak-
ness zones often exploited as slip surfaces for landslide occurrence.
Hence, the identication and location of slip surfaces (Wen et al.,
2004), and the understanding of the conditions and processes that
result in the transformation of hard rock into soil and the develop-
ment of heterogeneities within soil proles are of paramount impor-
tance in predicting and controlling landslides. Duzgoren-Aydin and
Aydin (2006) dened heterogeneities as sudden and substantial
changes in the mechanical and hydraulic characteristics across a
prole. Heterogeneities may develop as a result of non uniform
weathering or may be associated with the mobilisation and redistri-
bution of elements and the accumulation of clay horizons during
weathering. Previous studies attempted to link specic clay minerals
to landslide susceptibility (e.g. Azan et al., 2010; Duzgoren-Aydin
et al., 2002a; Shuzui, 2001) and others associated the occurrence of
landslides to the accumulation of clay in relict joints (e.g. Parry et
al., 2000; Prior and Ho, 1972). It has also been shown that clay

0016-7061/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.10.013
 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389 379

mineralogy and soil chemistry provide indications for the existence of
potential sliding planes (Kitutu et al., 2009; Shuzui, 2001; Wen et al.,
2004; Zheng et al., 2002).
Element mobilisation and redistribution in the course of weathering
result from mineral breakdown (Eggleton et al., 1987; Hill et al., 2000;
Jin-Long et al., 2007). Element redistribution may follow contrasted
pathways as different elements are affected differently by various ped-
ogenic processes some of which include dissolution and transformation
of primary minerals, formation of secondary minerals, redox processes,
transport of material, and ion exchange (Middelburg et al., 1988). Ele-
ments released by weathering may or may not be redistributed down-
slope based on their mobility under constant or changing geochemical

n
oo
er
am
tC
M

Pit 3

Pit 2

Pit 1

Fig. 1. a) Location and general morphology of study area, Limbe and its surroundings on the SE foot slopes of Mount Cameroon characterised by the presence of EW trending
ridges; b) location of sampling pits. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
380 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389
environments along the slope (Brikeland, 1999). The mobility and
redistribution of elements within the secondary environment have
been widely used to estimate the degree of weathering and the behav-
iour of elements during weathering (Beyala et al., 2009). Venturelli et al.
(1997) suggested that reliable information on element mobility during
weathering may be obtained by quantitative mass balance approaches.
In most mass balance models, one or more elements are isolated and as-
sumed to be immobile (Anderson et al., 2002; Brimhall and Dietrich,
1987; Brimhall et al., 1985; Nesbitt and Young, 1982). Weathering indi-
ces (an approximation of the degree of weathering) represent one of
the most widely used ways of quantifying chemical changes in rocks
(Duzgoren-Aydin et al., 2002b; Hill et al., 2000; Patino et al., 2003;
Price and Velbel, 2003).
In the last two decades, the city of Limbe (Fig. 1) and its neigh-
bourhoods located on the SE foot-slopes of Mt Cameroon, West Africa,
were affected by numerous landslides. According to Fell's classica-
tion scheme (Fell, 1994), most of these slides are extremely small to
small shallow translational earth and debris slides with the slip
surface occurring within saprolites or at the soil/saprolite interface
(Che et al., 2011a, 2011b). Saprolite in this study refers to weathered
products in which secondary minerals form pseudomorphs of prima-
ry mineral phases resulting in the preservation of the texture, fabrics
and structure of the parent rock (Velbel, 1985). Soil, on the other
hand, refers to weathered material in which the texture and structure
of the initial parent material has been completely lost. The transformation
of fresh rock into saprolites and soils in the study area principally involves
the weathering of olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, calcic plagioclase and
volcanic glass. It is therefore vital to understand the chemical behaviour
of the elements that make up these mineral phases during the formation
of these soil proles. This will enhance our understanding of the processes
involved in the transformation of parent rock to soil in this area charac-
terised by high temperatures, intense and/or prolonged rainfall with
corresponding long periods of high soil moisture.
Apart from describing the weathering proles, chemistry and min-
eralogy of the landslide prone soils, this paper traces the behaviour
and distribution of major and some trace elements in the course of
the weathering of basaltic rocks. It also provides insights into the de-
gree of weathering that characterises the soil mantle affected by the
landslides, which might be signicant for other landslide studies in
this area and other tropical volcanic areas around the world with ex-
treme climate.
2. Geologic and physiographic characteristics of the study area
The study area lies on the SE foot-slope of Mt Cameroon (Fig. 1)
characterised by two types of volcanic terrain that generate thick
weathered blankets of soils on steep slopes:
The lower anks of Mt Cameroon, made up of numerous ~50300 m
high, ~2040 steep degraded scoriaceous volcanic cones (Fig. 1), lava
ows and reworked material. Radiometric dates from a dyke and from
cores around Mt Cameroon suggest that the oldest rocks in this area
are about 4.79 Ma (Hedberg, 1968; Marzoli et al., 2000) or 10 Ma
(Fitton et al., 1983).
EW trending, deeply dissected and eroded volcanic massif that
predates the growth of Mt Cameroon generally referred to as the
LimbeMabeta Massif (Gze, 1943; Hasselo, 1961; Hedberg, 1968).
Rocks within the study area either lie exposed at the surface or are
mantled by several metres thick of dark brown, reddish brown and/or
pale yellowish sticky, clayey soils derived from protracted intense or
deep weathering. Soil thicknesses vary greatly, ranging from zero to
over 10 m in some areas. The major soil types are residual soils com-
posed of an admixture of relict primary minerals and secondary min-
erals produced from the weathering of primary basaltic mineral and
glass phases.
The area is characterised by a humid tropical climate with mean
annual temperature and precipitation controlled by altitude and
proximity to the sea. This region is characterised by two distinct sea-
sonsa four-month dry season that runs from November to mid-
March and an eight-month rainy season from mid-March to Novem-
ber. Maximum monthly rainfall occurs in June, July and August with
mean monthly values ranging from 320 to 757, 606990, and
5361090 mm, respectively, for different stations within the area.
The total number of rainy days per year ranges from 104 to 212 and
mean annual temperature is ca. 26 C. Total annual rainfall is high to
extreme with amounts between 1500 and over 6000 mm of rain in
the last 30 years (Che et al., 2011a, 2011b). These characteristics cor-
respond to the Am or tropical Monsoon climate according to the Kop-
pen climate classication scheme (Peel et al., 2007).
Because of the high rainfall, temperature and thick soil columns, the
primary vegetation cover is diverse and characterised by dense lowland
forest but most of it has been replaced by cropland and industrial palm,
rubber and banana plantations.
3. Sampling and experimental procedures
The distribution and mobility of major and some trace elements
were assessed at three locations in the study area (Fig. 1). Three
pits, 3 to 4 m deep, were dug into three landslide scars (two on
weathered lava ows and one on a degraded pyroclastic cone). Soil
horizons were described in detail with focus on the colour, texture,
and structure. Bulk samples of each soil horizon were collected from
the walls of each pit by channel chipping, and put in plastic bags for
subsequent bulk density, mineralogical and chemical analysis. Due
to the fact that the pits did not go down to the bedrock, fresh rock
samples were collected from rock fragments within the slide debris
or from outcrops located at the lower reaches of the scar.
Soil colour characteristics of each horizon were obtained from the
Munsell Soil Colour Chart. Sample bulk density was determined by
water displacement of parafn coated samples based on Archimedes
principle. Samples were weighed, coated with parafn and
reweighed. The coated sample was then immersed in water and the
volume of displaced water collected and measured. Particle specic
gravity sometimes referred to as particle density (Gs) was obtained
with the aid of a pycnometer. Natural moisture content was deter-
mined as the weight loss measured after oven-drying at 110 C for
24 h. All the above values were characterised in replicates (n = 34)
and average values were used. Sieve and hydrometer analysis for
samples from each horizon were performed to determine the propor-
tion of sand, silt and clay present.
The mineralogical composition of the soil and saprolite samples was
studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD patterns were recorded with a
Philips diffractometer (PW 3710) using K radiation (40 kV, 30 mA) in
the 3 to 60 2 interval with 0.02 2 steps size and 2.5 s counting time
per step. XRD analysis was performed on non-oriented bulk powder
samples and on clay samples oriented on glass slides. Clay samples
were analysed after Mg-saturation and Mg-saturation followed by gly-
col treatment. These tests were done to identify swelling phases observ-
able by a 00l peak shift towards lower 2 angles.
Whole rock (WR) major and trace element composition was de-
termined by Inductively Coupled PlasmaOptical Emission Spectros-
copy (ICPOES). Soil samples were dried overnight at 40 C while
rock samples were sawed to obtain fresh pieces and crushed into
ner fragments with a jaw crusher. Crushed rock and soil samples
were pulverised in an agate ball mill. Ca. 4 g of each powder was
dried at 105 C and loss on ignition (LOI) determined by heating the
samples at 850 C for 2 h. 0.2 g of the sample was then homogenised
and fused with 1 g of 50/50 lithiummeta/tetraborate ux (AccuS-
pec Ultrapure) in high purity graphite crucibles. The resulting glass
was dissolved in 2% HNO3 for analysis with a Spectro Arcos ICPOES
(for Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, P, Mn, Ti, Si and selected trace elements:
 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389
Ba, Sr, Zr, V, Cr, Ni, Ce, Y, Sc and Co). Analyses of rock standards
(BHVO-2, AGV-2, QLO-1 and GSP-2 from the US Geological survey,
JSy-1 and JB-2 from the Japanese Geological Survey, and NIM-L from
Mintek, South Africa) dissolved following the same procedure were
used to produce calibration lines. The compositional range of the
standards brackets that of the unknowns. Analytical accuracy was
monitored with secondary rock standards, different from the ones
used for calibration. Major elements are accurate within 2%. The accu-
racy for trace elements above 10 ppm is better than 10%.
Chemical transformation and element losses and gains that accompa-
ny physical breakdown of the parent rock into saprolites and soils were
quantied by parent normalisation assuming that:
1. The system is open and all elements are mobile.
2. The fresh rock sample can be taken as a reference.
3. Relative change of a certain element can be calculated by normalising
the concentration of the element within the soils and saprolites to
that in the parent rock. If the normalised value is greater than 1, the
element is enriched; if it is less than 1 it is depleted.
The chemical mass balance model proposed by Brimhall and
Dietrich (1987) and Brimhall et al. (1985) was not applicable in this
case because all the elements analysed in this study were either rela-
tively enriched or depleted in the saprolite or soil. Instead, the density
of the samples was used as a proxy to the degree of weathering as-
suming that the soils formed by isovolumetric processes. Percentage
changes (absolute change) were calculated according to the following
relation (Millot and Boniface, 1955).
" #
C w : w
Absolute % change 1  100
C p : p
where C is the concentration of any element, is the bulk density, and
w and p represent the weathered and parent rock, respectively.
The bulk rock magnesium number (Mg#), given by
100MgO
Mg Macdonald et al. (2001)
MgO FeO
with FeO calculated as 0.9 Fe2O3* (Fe2O3* is total iron), was also de-
termined and used to estimate the degree of evolution of the magmas
that produced the various parent rock types (Macdonald et al., 2001).
It is worth noting that Mg is calculated on a molecular basis.
Weathering indices (an approximation of the degree of weathering)
such as the chemical index of alteration (CIA), the Vogt Residual Index
(V), the silica/alumina ratio (Ruxton ratio) and the SiO2/(SiO2 +Al2O3 +
Fe2O3*) ratio (S/SAF) given by the following equations were calculated
to estimate the degree of weathering within the proles.
 
Al2 O3
CIA 100 
Al2 O3 CaO Na2 O K2 O
Nesbitt and Young (1982)
 
Al2 O3 K2 O
V
MgO CaO Na2 O
Vogt (1927)
 
SiO2
Ruxton ratio
Al2 O3
381
Ruxton (1968)
 
S Al2 O3

SAF SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3
Hill et al. (2000).
The calculation of these indices is made using the molecular pro-
portion of the metal oxides based on the assumption that the distri-
bution of elements along the prole is mainly regulated by the
degree of weathering (Duzgoren-Aydin and Aydin, 2006).
4. Results
4.1. Prole description
4.1.1. Prole 1
The rst prole (Fig. 2a) was obtained from a pit dug into a weath-
ered basaltic lava ow at Bonjo (Fig. 1) affected by landslides in 2005
and later reactivated in August 2008. Fragments of unweathered rock
found within the slide debris suggest that the parent rock (P1HR1)
is a dark-coloured porphyritic basalt with a bulk density () of
2.93 g/cm 3. It is characterised by the presence of plagioclase, pyrox-
ene and olivine phenocrysts in a microlite and glass-rich groundmass.
Within this pit, the soil prole shows visible colour and textural gra-
dation with 4 distinct horizons (Fig. 2a). However, no mineralogical
heterogeneities were observed from X-ray patterns for the soil and
saprolite samples obtained from this pit. Texturally, the soils and
saprolite are dominantly clay and silt with less than 25% sand. The
upper 20 cm is covered by a dark humus layer which was scraped
off and discarded. Underneath, a 1 m thick pale yellow mottled plas-
tic clayey loam horizon occurs, with a Gs of 2.83 g/cm and a of
1.85 g/cm, interrupted at 80 cm depth by a thin layer of decaying
debris, possibly representing the top material from the previous
slide. At a depth of 1.2 m below the surface, there is an abrupt
change in colour from yellow (5Y8/2) to brown (7.5YR5/2) clay
with Gs 2.9 g/cm and 2.06 g/cm. The material then gradually
grades into a light grey (2.5Y7/1) silty saprolite with alternating
grey and brown strips.
XRD patterns from soil (Fig. 3a) and saprolite powders indicate the
presence of sanidine (6.50 , 3.7, 3.46, 3.30, 3.2 , 1.7 ), anatase
(3.513.53 , 1.89 ), augite (3.2 ), smectites and 1:1 clays (kaolinite
and halloysite) while the clay fraction (Fig. 3b) is dominated by non-
expanding clays (kaolinite and halloysite) and some smectites. The
mineralogy does not change signicantly with depth. SiO2, Al2O3,
Fe2O3 and CaO are the dominant oxides present in the fresh rock mak-
ing up 83 wt.% of the major element content. As the rock transforms
into soil, CaO, MgO, Na2O and K2O are progressively leached, leaving
behind SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3, which constitute ca. 98% of the
major elements in the soils (Table 1). Along this prole, Al2O3, Ba, Zr,
Ce and Y are most enriched in the soil compared to the saprolite and
the bedrock. TiO2, Fe2O3, V, and Co are more concentrated in the sapro-
lite than in the soil and parent rock. All the other elements show higher
absolute depletion patterns in the soil relative to the saprolite and par-
ent rock (Table 2). Calculated CIA varies from 98.6% for the most weath-
ered horizon to 44.4% for the fresh rock sample. The Ruxton ratio and
the Vogt index evolve from the fresh rock to the weathered horizon
from 2.7 to 1.3 and from 19.7 to 0.6, respectively (Table 3).
4.1.2. Prole 2
This prole describes a 4 m deep section obtained from a pit made
into soils developed on another basaltic ow (Fig. 2b) at Makuka
(Fig. 1) also affected by a translational slide. It shows remarkable varia-
tions in colour and texture but no signicant changes in the mineralogical
composition with depth. The prole is topped by a 45 cm thick loose pur-
plish horizon probably representing a humus layer underlain by a 50 cm
thick light olive brown clayey layer with Gs 2.82 g/cm, and 1.85 g/cm.
382 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389

Fig. 2. Sections through sampled pits. a) Section of 3 m deep pit at Bonjo; b) 4 m pit at Makuka; c) 3.8 m pit at Mabeta New layout. Sampled horizons are indicated, as well as
associated minerals. An: anatase; Au: augite; F: feldspars; G: goethite; Ha: halloysite; He: hematite; II: ilmenite; K: kaolinite; Mg: magnetite; Mh: meta-halloysite; Mt: titanomagnetite;
O: olivine; Sa: sanidine; Sm: smectite; Gs: particle specic gravity; : bulk density. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

Underneath, a 70 cm thick pale olive (5Y6/4) silty horizon occurs with a
Gs of 2.89 g/cm and of 1.96 g/cm which slowly transgresses towards
a grey (2.5Y6/1) stony and fractured layer with clays sandwiched in
between the joints. This material has a Gs of 2.93 g/cm and of 2.20 g/
cm. The bottom of the pit is made up of a grey (10YR6/1) stony saprolite
which still exhibits the textural characteristics of the parent rock. The par-
ent rock (P2HR2) is a dark, dense porphyritic basalt with a bulk density of
2.82 g/cm.
The mineralogical composition of the material (soils and saprolites)
from this pit indicates that feldspar (sanidine), halloysite and titano-
magnetite are the principal mineral phases, with small amounts of 2:1
clays, mica and goethite (Fig. 3c and d). Chemically, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3
and CaO make up 85 wt.% of the major elements in the rock. Al2O3,
Fe2O3, Zr, V and Co are enriched in the saprolite compared to the soil
and bedrock. TiO2, Ni, Y and Sc show higher absolute concentrations
in the soils relative to the saprolite (Table 2). Silica, together with the
alkali and alkali earth metals shows signicant depletion in both the
saprolite and soils. Calculated CIA varies from 94.9% for the most weath-
ered horizon to 49.5% for the fresh rock sample. The Ruxton ratio ranges
from 1.7 to 3.2 and the Vogt index from 9.2 to 0.9 for the most weath-
ered horizon and the fresh rock sample respectively (Table 3).
4.1.3. Prole 3
The third prole describes the section of a 3.8 m deep pit dug into a
3040 slope developed on a degraded pyroclastic cone at Mabeta at an
elevation of 89 m a.s.l (Figs. 1, 2c). It shows no sharp colour differences
between horizons, but exhibits signicant difference in terms of texture
and humidity with the amount of water greatly increasing down the
prole. The rst 70 cm are characterised by a loose reddish brown clay-
ey loam soil with Gs 2.93 g/cm and 2.15 g/cm, probably represent-
ing loose debris from the previous slide. This depth corresponds to the
maximum rooting system of plants within the slide. Under this horizon
down to a depth of 2.8 m below the ground surface, a moist mottled
sandy clay loam horizon with Gs 2.95 g/cm and 1.90 g/cm occurs.
Below 2.8 m, the prole is water saturated, and characterised by loose
sandy loam soils with visible olivine and pyroxene crystals together
with completely weathered rock blocks. This section has a Gs of
2.94 g/m and 1.65 g/cm. The parent rock (P3HR3) is a vesicular
dark brown porphyritic picrobasaltic rock characterised by large pyrox-
ene and olivine phenocrysts in a microlite- and glass-rich groundmass.
It has a bulk density of 2.29 g/cm 3.
The mineralogical composition is characterised by the presence of
titanomagnetite, goethite, hematite, olivine, anatase, halloysite and
meta-halloysite (Fig. 3e) and a subordinate amount of smectite (mont-
morillonite) in the sample collected at the sliding surface. In terms of
chemistry, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO and CaO make up 92 wt.% of the
major element oxides in the bedrock. In this prole TiO2, Fe2O3, MnO,
Ba and Zr are more enriched in the saprolite while Cr, Ni, Y and Sc are
more enriched in the soil. SiO2, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 and Sr
show signicant depletion. Calculated CIA varies from 82.1 to 45.7%,
 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389 383

a b
P1S01 P1S01 Clay fraction

c d
P2S03 P2S04

e f
P3S05 P3S05 Clay fraction

Fig. 3. X-ray diffractograms for bulk sample powders and some oriented clay fractions. An: anatase; Au: augite; F: feldspars; G: goethite; Ha: halloysite; K: kaolinite; M: mica; Mg:
magnetite; Mh: meta-halloysite; Sa: sanidine; Sm: smectite. Sample locations are indicated on proles in Fig. 2. P in the name above each diffractograph represents the pit number
and S the corresponding sample number.

the Ruxton ratio from 1.9 to 3.2 and the Vogt index from 1.6 to 0.5 for
the most weathered horizon and the fresh rock sample, respectively
(Table 3).
4.2. Whole rock (WR) geochemistry
Mg number of 50.64 (Table 1) and thus represents a slightly more
mac magma composition than the basaltic lava ows (Fig. 4).
4.3. Variation in physical characteristics between parent rock and soils
and correlation with chemical elements

Results of WR chemistry for the rocks (HR) and soil (S) samples are
given in Table 1. On a Total AlkaliSilica diagram (Fig. 4) after Le Bas et
al. (1986), the fresh rock samples from the lava ows (P1HR1 and
P2HR2) plot within the basalt eld with Mg numbers that fall within
the range of values calculated by Suh et al. (2003). The fresh rock sample
from the pyroclastic cone (P3HR3) plots in the picrobasalt eld with an
This study documents signicant differences in the physical prop-
erties of the soil and parent rock. Soil bulk densities are 2/3 those of
the parent rock (Table 1) while those of the saprolite are about 3/4
that of the parent. This decline in density probably results from a pro-
gressive increase in porosity with weathering due to element trans-
fer. For Prole 1 (Fig. 2a), the bulk density decreases from 2.93 to
384 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389

Table 1
Whole rock major and trace element composition of fresh rocks and soil samples from the Limbe area, at the SE foot slope of Mt Cameroon. HR and S indicate fresh rock and soil
samples analysed during this study, respectively. MC* are fresh rock samples from the 1959, 1982, 1999 and 2000 lava ows of Mt Cameroon analysed by Njome et al. (2008) and
Suh et al. (2008). Note similarities in the major elements analysed in this study and the variation in the trace element composition. Fe2O3* is all iron expressed as Fe2O3, Mg#
100MgO
(magnesium number) is given byMgOFeO , with FeO calculated as 0.9 Fe2O3*.

Bonjo (slide 1) Makuka (slide 2) Mabeta (slide 3) Lava from MC

Sample number P1S01 P1S02 P1HR1 P2S03 P2S04 P2HR2 P3S05 P3S06 P3HR3 MC* 1959 MC* 1982 MC* 1999 MC* 2000
Depth (cm) 80 200 50 290 160 290
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.85 2.06 2.93 1.85 2.20 2.82 1.90 1.65 2.29
Gs (g/cm3) 2.83 2.90 2.82 2.93 2.95 2.94

Major element concentration (wt.%)

SiO2 38.52 43.41 44.71 38.57 40.92 46.82 38.68 39.23 43.91 46.58 44.71 46.47 45.99
TiO2 4.02 5.20 3.21 4.51 5.18 3.24 3.99 4.39 2.91 3.24 3.5 3.21 3.15
Al2O3 25.89 18.87 13.86 24.32 20.60 16.01 15.30 17.47 11.54 16.31 15.21 15.75 15.17
Fe2O3* 18.46 20.40 12.77 18.07 17.35 11.11 21.54 20.66 12.98 10.94 12.84 11.57 11.83
MnO 0.04 0.26 0.19 0.16 0.22 0.21 0.33 0.32 0.19 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
MgO 1.02 2.09 6.91 1.58 2.70 5.16 8.40 5.50 11.98 5.44 6.24 6.29 7.08
CaO 0.04 0.35 11.31 0.66 2.70 10.26 4.22 4.16 12.09 9.97 12.03 10.58 11.03
K2O 0.31 0.61 1.40 0.53 1.58 1.71 0.00 0.00 0.92 4.45 3.51 4.02 3.79
Na2O 0.00 0.00 3.37 0.07 0.81 3.14 0.00 0.01 1.04 1.84 1.26 1.65 1.49
P2O5 0.49 0.54 0.62 0.61 0.97 0.74 0.05 0.06 0.40 0.84 0.54 0.73 0.67
Total 88.79 91.72 98.35 89.09 93.02 98.42 92.52 91.80 97.95 99.81 100.04 100.49 100.4
LOI 12.28 8.91 1.66 11.88 7.43 1.59 7.94 8.67 2.09 0.43 0.39 0.58 0.44
Mg# 37.55 34.04 59.63 34.7 36.57 40.49 38.94

Trace element concentration (ppm)

Ba 730 375 384 548 630 470 537 836 361 516 370
Sr 300 262 792 186 284 979 26 35 474 1140 917 1055 1063
Zr 477 387 235 459 462 324 328 380 244 386 348 404 410
V 377 467 275 405 412 212 349 359 314 246 331 266 272
Cr 91 255 184 142 116 101 2581 1664 800 44 37 106 151
Ni 56 114 82 99 51 44 806 460 279 48 65 74 88
Ce 229 146 111 224 158 162 117 192 102 163 143 168
Y 61 48 28 64 44 33 53 41 27 37 31 34 33
Sc 29 41 27 37 28 16 100 84 43 18 31 22 25
Co 43 82 48 69 68 41 135 117 60 44 46 38 43

2.06 g/cm 3 in P1S02 and then to 1.85 g/cm 3 in P1S01, i.e. a 30% and
36% change, respectively. Pit 2 (Fig. 2b) shows a 2434% variation
while Pit 3 (Fig. 2c) shows a 1728% change in bulk density between
the parent rock and the weathered products. The porosity tends to di-
minish with depth from the surface. Gs range from 2.8 to 3.0 g/cm and
does not vary signicantly for the different pits and weathering degree
(Table 1). These values can be attributed to the mac composition of
the parent rock rich in iron and magnesium silicates (olivine, pyroxene)
Table 2
Absolute mass changes calculated for the soils and saprolite using individual element
concentrations and corresponding density values for the soil, saprolite and parent rock.
Element P1S01 P1S02 P2S03 P2S04 P3S05 P3S06
and containing FeTi oxides (e.g. hematite, titanomagnetite and
goethite) which constitute the major opaque mineral phases in rocks
of the Mount Cameroon region (Njome et al., 2008; Suh et al., 2003,
2008). Variations in the textural properties observed within these pro-
les, illustrated by the evolution in bulk density, grain size, water content
and permeability documented in details elsewhere (Che et al. in prep),
might result in heterogeneities that can act as slip zone as observed by
Ngole et al. (2007) for the Mabeta area.
LOI values obtained for the fresh rock samples range from 1.5 to
2.1 wt.% whereas those for the soil and saprolite range from 7.4 to
15.2% (Table 1). This decreasing pattern with depth can be attributed
to decreasing weathering intensity and can also be attributed to the

Mass change (%) Table 3

SiO2 45.60 31.73 42.09 44.82 38.07 43.58 Weathering indices for fresh rock and soil samples from landslide scars in Limbe, SW
TiO2 20.94 13.91 2.19 0.96 3.40 4.72 Cameroon. Volcanic rocks on Mt Cameroon and world average values. * values calculated
Al2O3 17.90 4.31 6.81 18.76 6.78 4.42 from the chemistry of fresh rock samples from the Mt Cameroon region by Njome et al.
FeOtot 8.74 12.31 14.39 1.41 16.70 0.50 (2008) and Suh et al. (2008) and, ** values provided by Price and Velbel (2003). # value
MnO 85.48 5.25 45.54 35.54 22.94 9.54 provided by Ruxton (1968). CIA: Chemical Index of Alteration, S/SAF: Silica/(silica +
MgO 90.64 78.74 78.51 66.99 50.68 71.03 aluminium + iron oxide) ratio.
CaO 99.80 97.84 95.47 83.39 75.46 78.29
Sample number CIA Ruxton ratio Vogt ratio S/SAF
K2O 85.80 69.16 78.17 41.47 99.75 100.00
Na2O 100.00 100.00 98.37 83.78 100.00 99.17 P1S01 98.6 1.26 19.74 0.37
P2O5 50.25 39.62 41.95 18.15 90.34 89.86 P1S02 95.1 1.92 6.60 0.28
LOI 60.13 50.57 45.15 56.12 41.67 40.44 P1HR1 44.4 2.74 0.63 0.23
Ba 20.05 31.36 18.01 15.32 4.73 46.36 P2S03 94.9 3.23 9.16 0.35
Sr 76.06 76.77 86.68 81.66 96.22 95.31 P2S04 78.9 1.69 3.10 0.31
Zr 28.12 15.77 0.57 10.11 5.45 1.57 P2HR2 49.5 2.48 0.85 0.25
V 13.57 19.25 34.06 22.46 21.76 27.77 P3S05 79.9 2.14 1.06 0.25
Cr 68.89 2.59 1.64 27.61 126.79 31.28 P3S06 82.1 1.91 1.62 0.27
Ni 57.06 2.84 58.40 26.22 103.00 4.13 P3HR3 45.7 3.23 0.45 r
Ce 30.03 7.55 2.87 38.41 19.93 18.28 Mean fresh rock 48.8 2.94 0.82 0.21
Y 37.86 20.84 35.39 16.35 37.32 4.77 (Suh et al., 2003) 1.1 0.07 0.07 0.01
Sc 33.78 5.19 57.53 8.23 63.67 23.38 Optimum fresh value** b 50 > 10 (4.04.5#) b1
Co 44.84 19.28 19.56 7.18 58.23 23.42 Optimum weathered value ** 100 0 (2#) Innite
 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389
Fig. 4. Plots of the chemical composition of fresh rock samples on the Total AlkaliSilica
diagram after Le Bas et al. (1986). Compositions from other Mt Cameroon lavas are
taken from Njome et al. (2008) and Suh et al. (2003, 2008).
incorporation of water (hydrous phases) into the secondary mineral
phases formed during weathering. LOI also shows a negative correla-
tion with density, silica, the alkali and alkali earth metals with Pear-
son's correlation coefcient (r) between 0.65 and 0.80. It also
shows a positive correlation with Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2, Ce and Y
(r = 0.740.93; Fig. 5a and b).
SiO2, Na2O, K2O, CaO and Sr show a positive correlation with bulk
density (Fig. 5c and d). Elements of the Iron group (Fe, Sc, Co, Ti, Ni,
and Cr), together with Y and Zr, show a negative correlation with
density whereas Ce, Cr, Sc, SiO2 and MgO show no correlation with
density. These correlations suggest that silica, the alkali and alkali
earth metals are depleted with increasing weathering while the iron
group elements are enriched. The other elements show an irregular
pattern. Silica correlates negatively with Ba and Zr. Ba correlates
positively with Zr and negatively with Sr. Cr, Ni, Sc and Co correlate
positively with MnO and shows a strong negative correlation with
P2O5 (Fig. 5e and f). All the alkali and alkali earth metals correlate
positively with silica and negatively with Fe2O3 and Al2O3. MgO
Fig. 5. Plots of a) SiO2 vs. LOI; b) Y vs. LOI; c) Sr vs. ; d) Fe2O3* vs. ; e) Co vs. MnO; and f) Cr vs. P2O5. Symbols are shown in 5a. Note the positive correlation for Y vs. LOI, Sr vs. , Co
vs. MnO and the negative correlation between SiO2 and LOI, Fe2O3 and , and Cr and P2O5.
385
correlates negatively with Zr and Y. Negative correlations are also
observed between Ca and Zr, Ca and V, Ca, Ce and Y.
4.4. Relative element mobility and absolute mass change
during weathering
Relative enrichment calculations (i.e. ratio of element concentration
in weathered material divided by the element concentration in the
parent rock (Cjw/Cjp)) illustrate that the weathering pattern in each
prole is unique (Fig. 6). However, some patterns can be deduced for
the weathering of basaltic lava ows within the study area. Parent
normalised plots (Fig. 6) suggest that Al2O3, Fe2O3 and TiO2 are relative-
ly enriched within these proles. All the alkali and alkali earth metal
oxides (K2O, Na2O, MgO, and CaO) are leached and silica is relatively
unchanged. Sr is the most mobile trace element and tends to be leached.
Most of the trace elements analysed for (Ba, Y, Zr, V, Ni, Co and Ce) tend
to be relatively enriched as weathering progresses with highest concen-
trations measured in the most weathered portions of the prole.
When the density of the parent rock and soil is considered in eval-
uating enrichment and depletion patterns (i.e. absolute change),
some elements that exhibit enrichment patterns in the parent nor-
malised evaluation, now show depletion patterns as observed in
Fig. 7. This implies that the enrichment or depletion of an element
is largely dependent on whether the density measurements are
considered or not. It is suggested in this study that more realistic pat-
terns are obtained if density measurements are considered in mass
balance calculations for weathering proles since weathering is al-
ways accompanied by mass loss that must be taken into consideration
rather than relying only on relationships that exist between element
concentration in the soil and parent rock. Mass changes calculated
using rock and soil density according to Millot and Boniface (1955)
are shown in Table 2. From this table, we note signicant depletion
in all the major alkali and alkali earth metal oxides, P2O5, silica and Sr.
Sr shows far lower concentrations in the soils relative to the par-
ent than other trace elements. This is probably due to its chemical
similarity to Ca (e.g. it is a common substitute for Ca in plagioclase).
It shows between 75 and 96% absolute loss with the maximum loss
occurring within the pyroclastic material. There is >70% mass loss
in all the alkali and alkali earth metal oxides. Depletion patterns gen-
erally follow the order Na = Ca > K > Mg > Sr > P > Si. All the other
386 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389

Fig. 6. Parent normalised element distribution patterns (relative element mobility diagrams) for soils and saprolites from landslide scars in Limbe. a) Pit 1 at Bonjo; b) Pit 2 at
Makuka; c) Pit 3 at Mabeta New Layout. Note signicant depletion in Ca, Na and Sr and a corresponding enrichment in all the other trace metals.

elements show more erratic patterns with enrichment in some hori-
zons and depletion in others with the noticeable exception of Y
which is enriched with increasing intensity of weathering. Fe2O3,
Al2O3, Zr, and V show b20% depletion in some horizons and up to
48% enrichment in others.
4.4.1. Weathering indices
The CIA, Ruxton ratio, Vogt residual index and the S/SAF ratio are
shown in Table 3. They are compared with those calculated for fresh
rock samples of the Mt Cameroon region and optimum fresh and
weathered values given by Price and Velbel (2003). The CIA and

Fig. 7. Absolute mass change a) Pit 1 at Bonjo; b) Pit 2 at Makuka; c) Pit 3 at Mabeta New Layout. Note signicant depletion in all alkali and alkali earth metals, and more irregular
pattern with the trace elements. Relatively low silica variation in the parent normalised diagram is more signicant when density measurements are considered in the mass balance
evaluations.
 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389
Vogt indices for the fresh rock samples are lower than the maximum
threshold value for fresh samples reported by Price and Velbel (2003)
so they appear as a good representation of the unaltered parent
material to which the soils and saprolites are normalised. The Ruxton
ratio on the other hand are lower than the minimum value reported
by Price and Velbel (2003) and by Ruxton (1968), probably because
the parent rocks are enriched in ferromagnesian minerals with rela-
tively low amounts of silica and aluminium when compared with
more evolved igneous rocks. The Ruxton ratio is therefore not appro-
priate for use in proles generated from mac (basic) igneous rocks.
S/SAF for the fresh rock samples ranges between 0.20 and 0.25 for
all the Mt Cameroon rocks and increases progressively with increas-
ing degree of weathering. P1S01, P1S02 and P2S03 show weathering
indices close to the optimum weathered value suggesting near-
complete weathering. P2S04, P3S05, and P3S06 show intermediate
values (Table 3) which can be interpreted as having undergone
lower weathering intensities. These results may indicate that the
lava ows are older than the pyroclastic materials and thus have
undergone more weathering-induced leaching than the pyroclastic
materials. This hypothesis is made on the basis that the climatic con-
ditions under which weathering is taking place is the same. However
the texture and structure (porosity, permeability) of both materials
are signicantly different thus it is expected that pyroclastic materials
would be more intensely weathered than lava ows of the same age.
The analysed samples plotted on a SiAlFe ternary diagram modied
by Hill et al. (2000) suggest that the most advanced stage of weather-
ing in this study area is the kaolinisation stage (Fig. 8).
5. Discussion
In this study, the mobility and redistribution of major and some
trace elements in the proles of landslide prone soils are evaluated.
Results show that major differences exist in the physical properties
of soils and parent rock from which they were derived. These changes
are not uniform along the prole, as observed in Fig. 2, but result in
textural heterogeneities. Soil bulk densities are more than half those
of the parent. This decline in density results from a progressive
increase in porosity with weathering due to element losses during
weathering. These results are similar to observations made by
Anderson et al. (2002) and Jersak et al. (1995) in the Oregon Coastal
Range, USA. Other textural variations were documented based on the
Kaolinisation
Fig. 8. SiAlFe ternary diagram modied by Hill et al. (2000) for the parent rocks and
soil samples from landslides scars in Limbe. 1: average composition of fresh basalts; 2:
lithomarge (saprolite); 3: laterite; 4a: bauxite, and 4b: iron ore crust.
387
grain size analysis, textural classication, porosity and permeability.
These results are presented in detail elsewhere (Che et al. in prep).
During the study, bedrock was not observed within any of the
slide scars. It is therefore concluded that the slip plane lies within
the saprolite or at the soil/saprolite boundary rather than along the
saprolite/bedrock boundary as has been reported in previous studies
(e.g. Wen et al., 2004). This can be attributed to textural heterogeneities
at the soil/saprolite boundary or within the saprolite imposed by non-
uniform weathering.
It is also observed that each prole shows a unique element distri-
bution pattern. However some generalisation can be made for the
weathering of basaltic material under humid climatic conditions. Var-
iation trends in the weathering patterns of major elements (particu-
larly, the alkali and alkali earth metals) along these proles for
example strongly indicate the unstable nature of their primary min-
erals (olivine, pyroxene, amphibole and plagioclase), the formation
of secondary minerals, and mobility of the alkali and alkali earth ele-
ment during weathering. Strong depletion in the alkali and alkali
earth metals (K2O, Na2O, and CaO) reect intense and even complete
decomposition of plagioclase which represent the principal primary
mineral host of these elements in basic igneous rocks. Depletion in
the alkali earth metals and the occurrence of kaolinite and halloysite to-
gether with lower smectite concentrations within the proles indicate
prolonged and/or intense weathering under well drained conditions
(Scarciglia et al., 2007). Good drainage conditions enhance rapid ush-
ing of water through the weathering prole (Noack et al., 1993) thus
resulting in the depletion of the more mobile elements. Absolute deple-
tion of silica along the prole is indicative of well drained conditions as
previous studies indicate that the dissolution of silica is favoured under
well drained conditions during weathering (Scarciglia et al., 2007).
Derry et al. (2005) noted that in strongly weathered soils, biogenic silica
controls silica leaching while direct mineralwater reactions account
for a small fraction of the exported silica.
Unlike other reports of iron and aluminium enrichment along
proles within the humid tropics (Middelburg et al., 1988), absolute
mass change calculations in this study reveal that Al and Fe are not
always concentrated but are leached from some horizons and concen-
trated in others (Table 2). The migration rates of Al and Fe are rela-
tively small. This low migration can be linked to the precipitation of
poorly crystalline solid phases from supersaturated solutions
(Chadwick et al., 2003) or can be associated with the low solubility
of Al and Fe 3 + hydroxides. Slight enrichment in Al2O3, Fe2O3* and
TiO2 might be associated with the formation of secondary minerals
(Wen et al., 2004) that can host these elements during the early
phase of weathering, particularly non swelling clays, hydroxides and
goethite which were observed in the diffraction patterns. Variations
in Ti, Fe and Al may be explained by their low mobility and their
prominent occurrence in secondary mineral phases. The presence of
anatase in these proles may be attributable to the precipitation of
Ti released from primary mineral phases.
The lava ow samples from this study are chemically similar to lava
samples analysed by Njome et al. (2008) and Suh et al. (2003, 2008) for
the 1954, 1959, 1999 and 2000 lava ows of the Mt Cameroon area
(Fig. 4). As expected, both fresh rock and soil samples from the picroba-
salt cone, show signicantly higher Ni and Cr concentrations than fresh
basalt samples and soils developed on basaltic lava ows (Table 1;
Chauvel et al., 2005; Dia et al., 2006; Njome et al., 2008; Suh et al.,
2003), due to the more primitive nature of the former magmas. Upon
magmatic differentiation, Ni and Cr are preferentially fractionated into
Mg-rich olivine, pyroxene and amphibole (Deer et al., 1993; Sato et
al., 1990). The weathering of these minerals would liberate these
elements, which then become enriched in the soil because of their
low mobility.
Ni concentration measured in the picrobasalt prole ranges from
279 ppm in the parent rock to 806 ppm in the soil. Cr concentrations
range from 800 ppm in the parent rock to 2581 ppm in the soil. Ni
388 V.B. Che et al. / Geoderma 170 (2012) 378389
and Cr concentration for other fresh rock samples from Mt Cameroon
are typically lower, ranging from 5 to 99 and 40213 ppm, respective-
ly (Chauvel et al., 2005; Njome et al., 2008; Suh et al., 2003, 2008).
Deruelle et al. (1987) and Sato et al. (1990) however measured
higher Ni and Cr concentrations similar to those obtained in this
study in some pricritic rocks samples from the Mt Cameroon region.
Sato et al. (1990) noted that Ni and Cr concentrations in rocks from
the Mt Cameroon increased with decreasing Fe2O3*/MgO as estimat-
ed in fractional crystallisation models, an observation that is also
true for the present study. The picrobasalt analysed here also has
higher MgO, and lower Al2O3 and K2O contents than other rocks of
the Mt Cameroon region.
Zhang et al. (2007) observed an increase in the enrichment ratio of
Ti, V and Cr with soil age, which might also be the case in this area
though absolute rock ages are not known. Liu et al. (1996) found
that soils developed on basalts normally have higher concentrations
of elements that belong to the Fe family, such as Ti, V, Co, Cr, and Ni
relative to soils developed on more evolved rocks such as granite
and rhyolite. These trace elements become relatively enriched in the
soils formed from basaltic rock due to preferential loss of the other
major elements during weathering. These observations were also
noted in this study as metals of the iron family all show a positive
relative enrichment with intense weathering. Strong positive correla-
tions were also observed between these elements.
By comparing the concentrations of trace elements in the soils and
the parent rocks, it is observed that the analysed trace elements show
signicant relative enrichment to the noticeable exception of Sr which
is signicantly depleted. Rocks on Mt Cameroon are generally charac-
terised by high Ba (400 to 609 ppm) and Sr (927 to 1216 ppm) concen-
trations and depleted in K (Chauvel et al., 2005; Njome et al., 2008; Suh
et al., 2003, 2008). Consequently, high Ba concentrations in the soils
result from high initial concentration in the parent rock that becomes
enriched in the soils as weathering proceeds. Even though Sr is eventual-
ly leached out with increasing weathering intensity, its concentration in
the soil is still high. Similar results have been noted by Dia et al. (2006)
who measured Ba concentrations between 200 and 619 ppm, and Sr
concentrations between 374 and 1021 ppm in multiple soil samples
from Mt Cameroon. Nchia (2010) also measured Ba concentrations
between 136 and 1117 ppm, and 9061196 ppm Sr in top soils within
the Limbe area. Eggleton et al. (1987) also noted Ba enrichment in the
weathering proles of Australian basalts.
Signicant Sr depletion is likely related to the decomposition of
plagioclase in which Sr substitutes for Ca. Sr is a highly mobile element
with similar chemical behaviour to Ca and K implying that soils will
generally have lower concentrations of Sr than the parent rocks. Ba
too, is a highly mobile element. Studies have shown that Ba is easily
scavenged by Mn-minerals, showing a high afnity for Mn in diverse
redox-active environments (Wen et al., 2004). However there is no cor-
relation between Ba and MnO within the proles studied here. Ba can
also be present in sanidine, which is still present in proles 1 and 2.
Thus Ba accumulation may be associated with the presence of sanidine
in the weathered prole. In absolute terms, Ba shows erratic patterns
within these proles.
From the parent normalised patterns, it is noted that all elements
are relatively mobile as some are depleted and others enriched. This
observation particularly for Prole 1 is contrary to the common as-
sumption that Ti and Zr are nearly always immobile as assumed in
many mass balance calculations (e.g. Anderson et al., 2002; Beyala
et al., 2009) within the tropical and temperate zones. Y is observed
in this case to increase progressive with increasing weathering inten-
sity although Hill et al. (2000) noted that Y can be mobile at the very
early stages of the weathering. It is also observed that all the elements
show diverse levels of absolute mass change. An immobile element is
expected to have a 0 absolute mass change which is not the case in
this study. These observations advocate that all the elements are mo-
bile at least for one of the proles. A wider suite of trace and rare
earth element analyses is recommended to further constrain the
most appropriate inert element that can be used in mass balance cal-
culations in this area. Ti, Zr and Y have been used as inert element in
several mass balance models (e.g. Anderson et al., 2002; Zhang et al.,
2007). It is possible that these elements are conserved within the
temperate climate but are mobile under extreme climatic conditions
(Braun et al., 1993, this study) that operate within the humid tropical
region. Braun et al. (2005) also suggest that dissolved organic matter
can signicantly improve the transfer of commonly insoluble ele-
ments such as Al, Fe, Zr, Th and Ti. The study area lies within the tro-
pics characterised by dense vegetation and heavy rainfall. These
conditions favour the development of thick layers of organic matter
that might account for the mobility of some of these elements in
some proles within the study area.
6. Conclusions
We present data on the density, chemistry, and mineralogical
composition of slide prone residual soils derived from the weathering
of basaltic rock under extreme tropical conditions in SW Cameroon.
Our research helps to elucidate the behaviour of some major and
trace element during the weathering of basaltic rocks under humid
tropical climate. Key conclusions include:
Weathering of basaltic and picrobasaltic rocks that characterise the
Limbe municipality is accompanied by depletion in all the alkali and
alkali earth metals with Sr as the most mobile of all the trace ele-
ments analysed.
The proles are characterised by the presence of textural heteroge-
neities but there are no obvious mineralogical or chemical hetero-
geneities at the prole scale, although differences exist in the
mineralogical composition of the pits analysed in this study.
The most advanced stage of weathering in this study area is the
kaolinisation stage.
Ti, Zr and Y generally considered as immobile elements for mass
balance evaluation, are mobile in some cases under extreme climatic
conditions.
CIA shows a positive correlation with bulk density and S/SAF ratio
shows a negative correlation with density implying that chemical
weathering is associated with density decrease and porosity
increase.
More realistic mass change patterns are observed when the density
of soils and saprolite are used in mass balance evaluations.
Acknowledgement
This work was compiled as part of CVB's PhD thesis sponsored by a
grant from the Vlaamse Inter-Universitaire Raad (Flanders, Belgium)
in the framework of the project entitled Capacity building in geohazard
monitoring in volcanically active areas of South-West Cameroon. KF
and GGJE were supported by the Belgian Research Foundation - Flan-
ders (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen). We are
grateful for constructive comments and criticism from two anonymous
reviewers.
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