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Semiconductors for
Electronic Devices
Heteroepitaxial
Semiconductors for
Electronic Devices
Edited by
G. W. Cullen
C. C. Wang
With contributions by
V. S. Ban S. Berkman J. Blanc
G. W. Cullen M. T. Duffy
N. Goldsmith W. E. Ham
C. C. Wang P. J. Zanzucchi
Springer Science+B
usiness Media, LLC
G. w. CULLEN C. C. WANG
RCA Laboratories RCA Laboratories
Princeton, NJ 08540 Princeton, NJ 08540
USA USA
No part ofthis book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written
permission from Springer-Verlag
987 65 4 32 1
Some years ago it was not uncommon for materials scientists, even within
the electronics industry, to work relatively independently of device engi-
neers. Neither group had a means to determine whether or not the materials
had been optimized for application in specific device structures. This mode
of operation is no longer desirable or possible. The introduction of a new
material, or a new form of a well known material, now requires a close
collaborative effort between individuals who represent the disciplines of
materials preparation, materials characterization, device design and pro-
cessing, and the analysis of the device operation to establish relationships
between device performance and the materials properties. The develop-
ment of devices in heteroepitaxial thin films has advanced to the present
state specifically through the unusually close and active interchange among
individuals with the appropriate backgrounds. We find no book available
which brings together a description of these diverse disciplines needed for
the development of such a materials-device technology. Therefore, the
authors of this book, who have worked in close collaboration for a number
of years, were motivated to collect their experiences in this volume. Over
the years there has been a logical flow of activity beginning with heteroepi-
taxial silicon and progressing through the III-V and II-VI compounds. For
each material the early emphasis on material preparation and characteriza-
tion later shifted to an emphasis on the analysis of the device characteristics
specific to the materials involved. It has been an exciting period of experi-
mental activity for us, and we hope that the readers will share our enthusi-
asm. Some of the materials described are now being used in commercially
available device structures. Some of the materials must be further devel-
oped in order to be useful for commercial application. It is also the hope of
the authors that some readers will see potential in the less well developed
heteroepitaxial materials systems, and identify applications which will
justify the effort needed for further development.
Many of the authors' colleagues at RCA Laboratories, too numerous to
mention, have contributed to this technology. Clearly there have been
experimentalists active in other laboratories who have made major contri-
butions, and we have made every effort to identify them in the text. We
viii Preface
1. Introduction 1
G. W. Cullen and C. C. Wang
Index 295
Heteroepitaxial
Semiconductors for
Electronic Devices
Chapter 1
Introduction
G. W. Cullen and C. C. Wang
The authors' intent heteroepitaxial film, methods have been employed for
the chemical, physical, and electrical characterization
Perhaps the most useful function that an introduction of the deposits, some of which are specific to the
can serve is to let the reader know, more completely nature of the thin films on the insulating substrates.
than can be indicated in the title, what the authors The coalescence of these technologies is the topic of
have set out to accomplish. Our intention is to this book and is very briefly reviewed in the following
describe in some detail the preparation and characteri- section.
zation, and to point out the applications, of heteroepi-
taxial thin films of silicon, III- V compounds and
alloys, and II- VI compounds deposited on sapphire A brief overview of the technology*
and spinel substrates. The methods of preparation and discussed in this book
characterization have been developed specifically
with applications in mind, and to a large extent the It has been appreciated for some time that the availa-
quality of the thin films has been determined by exam- bility of single crystal semiconductor thin films on an
ination of the functional characteristics required for insulating substrate would permit some very signifi-
application in device structures. The development of cant advances in the characteristics of transistor struc-
this heteroepitaxial thin-film technology has followed tures fabricated in the thin films. More than ten years
a logical progression in the methods of synthesis ago "single crystal" silicon deposits were realized on
employed, the nature of the materials prepared, and a number of refractory oxide substrate crystals. The
the device functions that can be served by the individ- crystalline nature of the deposits was determined by
ual materials or combination of materials. physical characterization techniques and gave very
The real possibility for commercial application of little information about the usefulness of the deposits
the heteroepitaxial deposits started with silicon. As in practical device structures. In fact, the semicon-
success was achieved in realizing usable semiconduct- ducting properties proved to be a strong function of
ing properties in the thin heteroepitaxial silicon films, the distance from the silicon/substrate interface, and
it seemed logical to apply the heteroepitaxial growth usable electrical properties were observed only in
technology to the III- V and II- VI compounds. The deposits much thicker than could be processed (by
availability of the compound heteroepitaxial deposits available methods) into usable device structrues. The
offered the possibility of employing the photoconduc- electrical properties also proved to be unstable during
tive, electroluminescent, piezoelectric, and electroop- the thermal cycling required for device processing.
tic properties of these materials. (These functions These undesirable characteristics were associated, for
were not included in the book's title because we felt it the most part, with reaction between the deposition
would have complicated the title more than would constituents and the substrate material. The products
have been justified, but they are discussed in Chapters of the reaction with the substrate led to the degrada-
3 and 4.)
In conjunction with the preparative aspects of the *Complete references are found in subsequent chapters.
2 Chapter 1. G. W. Cullen et al. Introduction
tion of the films both by interference with nucleation phases of the heteroepitaxial growth of both silicon
on the substrate surface and by contamination of the and the Ill-V materials can be assigned to irreprodu-
silicon. The interface reactions were suppressed by cibility in the crystalline nature of the substrate
substituting hydrides for halides as the silicon source surface.
and by decreasing the growth temperature and In extending the heteroepitaxial growth on insulator
increasing the growth rate. The ability to improve the technology from the III-V semiconductors to piezo-
crystallinity of the deposits, while increasing the electric (AlN, GaN, ZnO) and dielectric (Si3N4, Al20a)
growth rate and decreasing the growth temperature, materials, the overall philosophy of deposition on
can be associated (at least in part) with the develop- work damage-free substrates, avoiding the introduc-
ment of methods to remove the substrate surface crys- tion of halides into the system, and depositing at as
tallographic work damage introduced during the abra- low a temperature as possible has been followed. With
sive fabrication of the refractory oxide crystals. The the exception of the one II-VI compound of interest
finishing of the substrate surface proved to be more here (ZnO), all of these materials are prepared from
difficult than originally anticipated and the require- the organometallic compound of the cation and the
ment of providing a single crystal refractory oxide hydride of the anion. Although ZnO cannot be depos-
surface free of mechanical work damage was new to ited using the organometallic process, the use of close-
practitioners in the field of ceramic fabrication. A spaced transport, with hydrogen as the transporting
good deal of reorientation of those skilled in this "art" agent, has made it possible to avoid the halides in this
was required before methods were developed for case as well.
reproducible production of work damage-free heter- Feasibility of constructing devices with various
oepitaxial substrates. As the contamination by sub- functional characteristics has been demonstrated in
strate reaction products was minimized, the influence each of the heteroepitaxial materials individually
of impurities introduced from the source gases and deposited on the insulating substrates. High-speed
reactor components was observed, and methods were low-power complementary pair MOS transistor (C-
developed to rigidly exclude these impurities. It MOST) structures have successfully been constructed
proved to be necessary to reduce the level of the in 0.6-~-tm-thick heteroepitaxial silicon on sapphire.
gaseous contaminants to a lower level in the heteroe- Light-emitting diodes and photocathode structures
pitaxial growth than can be commonly tolerated in the have been demonstrated in the III-V semiconductors
homoepitaxial growth of silicon. At the relatively low on sapphire and spinel. Surface acoustic waves have
heteroepitaxial growth temperatures undesirable spe- been manipulated in A1N heteroepitaxial deposits on
cies, volatile at higher growth temperatures, interfere sapphire, and operational optical waveguide struc-
with the semiconducting properties as the result of tures have been constructed in ZnO on sapphire. The
condensation on the substrate and deposit surfaces. challenge of the future is to integrate these materials
Having briefly outlined the course of development on a single substrate wafer in order to provide the
of the heteroepitaxial growth of silicon, an outline of capability to manipulate electronic, light, and acoustic
the heteroepitaxial growth of the compound semicon- signals in devices bridged by single crystal intercon-
ductors can be very much briefer, because much of nections where needed. Chemical compatibility prob-
the wisdom developed in the growth of silicon was lems must be solved in order to make such a technolo-
directly applicable to the synthesis of the other com- gy a reality. The most likely heteroepitaxial material
posite systems. Using halides as the source gases, the for each function to be considered for integration into
heteroepitaxial compound semiconductors were seri- a more complex system on a single wafer is summa-
ously degraded by reaction with the substrate. Under rized in Table 1.1.
very specific conditions good films of several of these Flexibility in integrating device functions is provid-
materials were obtained from halide sources, but it ed by layering the materials as well as depositing them
proved to be difficult to identify the critical variables side by side on the same substrate. The properties of
and to maintain reproducibility. The reaction with the the deposits can often be improved by providing an
substrate was suppressed by introducing the cationic intermediate layer of a material that is functionally
component as a volatile organometallic compound inactive in the particular device structure between the
(such as trimethyl gallium) rather than as a halide. The active layer and the refractory oxide substrate. For
hydride of the anion (such as arsine) was used in both example, GaP and a thin layer of silicon are sufficient-
systems. With the use of the organometallic source ly transparent to visible light to serve as an intermedi-
materials, it was possible to lower the deposition tem- ate buffer layer in a GaAs photocathode structure in
perature while maintaining desirable growth rates. which the light enters through the substrate. Materials
The crystallographic nature of the substrate surface that have been grown in side-by-side and layered
also proved to be a critical factor in the achievement structures are listed in Table 1.2.
of desired electrical properties. In hindsight, a good Inherent in the development of any new technology
deal of the irreproducibility observed in the early involving electronically active materials is the ability
A brief overview of the technology discussed in this book 3
to characterize the material. In the single crystal thin Preparative solid state chemists have had the ten-
film technology, conventional electrical and physico- dency to focus on the chemical and crystallographic
chemical methods of analysis must be employed with aspects of thin-film deposition and to treat the condi-
caution. In some cases established techniques can be tions of gas flow during deposition in an empirical
modified to take into consideration the peculiar prop- manner. When one faces, however, the commercial
erties of the thin films. In other areas of analysis, new utilization of the heteroepitaxial deposits, it is neces-
techniques have had to be developed. Both the physi- sary to turn to some of the fundamentals of gas-flow
cochemical and electrical characterization of the het- dynamics in designing conditions to maintain the
eroepitaxial films are complicated by the small volume required uniformity of thickness, doping, and compo-
of material, the large changes in the material proper- sition in scaled-up deposition apparatus. Therefore, a
ties with distance from the deposit/substrate interface, discussion of gas-flow dynamics is included in this
and the proximity of the components sandwiching the book. The role of the "boundary layer" is discussed,
film. In the physicochemical methods it has been nec- and a model is developed in which the thermal gra-
essary to employ techniques to sample small portions dients and gas constants can be treated in a general
of the already thin film. It is highly desirable, in both manner. Although the model has been designed to
the physicochemical and electrical methods, to char- handle some of the conditions peculiar to heteroepi-
acterize the materials nondestmctively. The process- taxial growth (for instance, relatively steep thermal
ing of complex integrated devices is a very expensive gradients), it is applicable to both hetero- and homoe-
proposition, and therefore it is very important to pitaxial growth. In order to handle the variables
develop the capability to qualify the heteroepitaxial involved, it has been necessary to make some empiri-
deposits prior to processing the complex device struc- cal simplifying assumptions concerning the averaging
tures. In the electrical characterization of the films it of the temperature gradients. Nonetheless, we have
must be kept in mind that concepts derived from found that the model has brought to the foreground
measurements on nearly perfect semiconductors may some relationships that may defy intuition and has
not be directly applicable to the relatively imperfect been very useful in the design of scaled-up deposition
heteroepitaxial deposits. In addition to the structural apparatus.
imperfections, the electrical characterization is com- In any treatment of heteroepitaxial growth one will
plicated by the "bulk" of the film being sandwiched almost always find a discussion included on lattice
between two closely spaced electrically active inter- mismatch between the deposit and the substrate. We
faces. These interfaces may have a strong influence on have included one particular view of this issue. The
the film properties and must be taken into considera- feeling is expressed that in such complex systems as
tion both in the design and interpretation of electrical discussed in this book, an understanding sufficiently
tests. accurate to lead to more than vague guidelines will not
come in the near future. First, the lattice match in sented in Chapter 7. Finally, some general comments
more simple systems, such as homoepitaxial silicon on are given in Chapter 8 on the current state of under-
doped silicon substrates, must be defined. This view is standing of crystallographic misfits at the deposit/sub-
supported by the observation that even in the deposi- strate interfaces.
tion of cubic III-V compounds on cubic spinel, the
orientation of the overgrowth is not uniquely defined
by the orientation of the substrate. A number of lat- The role of heteroepitaxial films in
tice-matching schemes have been presented to ration- semiconductor technology
alize, for instance, the heteroepitaxial growth of cubic
silicon on rhombohedral sapphire. None of these It is important to point out the degree to which the
schemes have been sufficiently general to aid in the processing of the heteroepitaxial thin films is compati-
search for new and improved heteroepitaxial compos- ble with the processing of device structures in single
ite systems. The search for substrates ~n which better crystal silicon. A tremendous amount of technology
electrical properties in heteroepitaxial semiconductors has been developed for the processing of device struc-
might be achieved has been more Edisonian than the tures in bulk silicon. New materials must exhibit very
solid state chemist might have wished. It is not practi- large advantages to displace bulk silicon as the basic
cal, however, to wait for the development of useful semiconductor material, particularly if the processing
theory prior to lauching efforts directed toward further of the new material is incompatible with and cannot
optimization of the heteroepitaxial systems. It is draw from bulk silicon processing technology. Essen-
hoped that some of the experimental observations tially no new materials have made the grade in the past
presented in this book, such as the lack of unique decade. We have long since passed the "if you can't
definition of orientation of GaP on spinel, will incite fight them, join them" turning point. In order for a
the interest of the more theoretically oriented crystal- material or composite material system to be seriously
lographers to develop useful models for well oriented considered as a complement to silicon technology it
heteroepitaxy. must be basically compatible with bulk silicon pro-
Clearly we have made no effort to balance the cessing. In the case of silicon on sapphire, while it has
length of the chapters.The intent has been to provide been necessary to develop methods to minimize the
the information in the degree of detail that we feel thermal cycling, basically the same oxidation, mask-
would contribute to the overall theme of the book. ing, diffusion (and/or ion implantation), and metalliza-
tion schemes can be applied using the bulk silicon
processing equipment. In the case of the integration of
The content of the individual chapters the various functional materials on an insulating sub-
strate, significant differences in chemical reactivity
In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, the development of the prepa- must be taken into consideration. On the other hand, it
rative techniques for the various heteroepitaxial mate- is anticipated that processing of the integrated mate-
rials and the results and conclusions drawn from char- rials can be developed to the point where it is compati-
acterization are discussed. Current and potential ble with modified silicon processing techniques.
applications in device structures, and some of the
material aspects of device processing are outlined.
Included in Chapter 2 is a discussion of the selection The authors
of substrate materials, the growth of single crystals,
the shaping of single crystals into the substrate geome- The authors of the individual chapters in this volume
try, and the methods used to remove the surface work are associates at the RCA Laboratories. For a number
damage. This discussion was intended to serve all of years they have been working closely together on
three of the preparative chapters, and therefore, the the various aspects of heteroepitaxial films. There has
sections on substrate preparation in Chapters 3 and 4 been unusually good cooperation and communication
are brief. among the individuals involved in the preparation of
In Chapter 5, the characterization of the thin films is the substrates and thin deposits, the chemical and
discussed, with emphasis on the problems encoun- physical analyses, and the electrical characterization
tered in the chemical and physical (crystallographic) of the materials. It has been the feedback between
methods. In Chapter 6, the electrical characterization these individuals that has made it possible for us to
specific to the nature of the thin heteroepitaxial silicon have developed as complete a picture as is presented
films is treated in some detail. A model is also pre- of the heteroepitaxial systems described in this vol-
sented of current transport through crystallographic- ume. It is fair to say that the authors have drawn most
imperfect heteroepitaxial silicon. heavily from their own work; clearly they know that
The discussion of gas-flow dynamics and the devel- best. It is certainly recognized, however, that there
opment and application of a general model are pre- has been excellent work carried out in other organiza-
The authors 5
tions on the same topic. The authors have made every sive review of all the work done. Particularly in the
effort to include pertinent work done by other earlier work, examples are cited from the literature
research groups. The intent has been to describe the rather than presenting a review of the literature. A
course of development of the technology and the pres- number of very complete review articles have been
ent capabilities rather than to construct a comprehen- cited by the various authors.
Chapter 2
The Preparation and Properties of
Heteroepitaxial Silicon
G. W. Cullen
erties of heteroepitaxial silicon measured after device conducting device structures. There is no practical
processing are a stronger function of the deposition method to fabricate the desired devices in the 6-~J-m
conditions than are the properties measured immedi- thick film, and x-ray diffraction provides very little
ately after deposition. This necessitated a particularly indication of the semiconducting properties. In fact,
close collaborative effort between the materials and the semiconducting properties are a much more sensi-
device personnel in the development of the needed tive measure of the crystallinity and purity of the
technology; it was essential that the materials person- heteroepitaxial silicon than are the physicochemical
nel design the original preparative conditions to realize characterization techniques commonly employed by
after-processing semiconducting properties, and it materials scientists. Thus, the realization of x-ray dif-
was also essential that the device personnel design the fraction patterns indicative of single crystal character
processing procedures to take into consideration the in heteroepitaxial silicon was only the first step in a
peculiar chemical/physical characteristics of the heter- sequence of developments in which the semiconduct-
oepitaxial silicon/insulator composite system. The ing properties have been employed as a very critical
methods employed to qualify the deposits from a measure of the quality and applicability of the thin
materials point of view are discussed in some detail in deposits.
this chapter. With the realization of single crystallinity (albeit not
good crystallinity) in heteroepitaxial silicon, investiga-
Advantages in the application of heteroepitaxial silicon tors associated with the electronics industries appreci-
in MOS transistor structures ated the potential in the silicon/insulator composite
structure and rapidly launched materials efforts
The use of single crystal silicon films on insulating designed to optimize the semiconductor properties. In
substrates, rather than on high-resistivity silicon sub- the early work, the silicon was deposited by the
strates, offers the following advantages in integrated hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride at relative-
circuit technology: ly high temperatures. This resulted in the heavy con-
The total junction area is minimized, and the tamination of the silicon as the result of the reaction of
capacitances associated with isolation junctions both silicon and halides with the substrate. Under
in silicon on silicon devices are eliminated; this these circumstances, measurable carrier mobilities
provides relatively high operational speed at low were observed in only relatively thick deposits. The
levels of power consumption. halides were excluded from the deposition atmosphere
Dielectric isolation is provided between closely by the use of silane as the silicon source, and usable
spaced units of integrated circuit arrays; this carrier mobilities were achieved in films of intermedi-
provides high device-packing density. ate thickness (1.5-3 11-m). It proved to be difficult to
Both active and passive devices may be fabri- fabricate devices in such films, because the semicon-
cated on the same substrate. ducting properties changed during the thermal treat-
The minimization of the total junction area also ment involved in device processing and the dopant
contributes to increased radiation resistance. diffused rapidly in the horizontal direction in the crys-
In recent years the above advantages have been tallographically poor silicon adjacent to the silicon
achieved in the heteroepitaxial silicon thin-film tech- substrate interface. It was also difficult to deposit
nology. An additional prospect, which will require a continuous metal contacts over the edge of the rela-
good deal of further development, is the integration of tively thick films. With further development to
silicon, III-V, and II- VI thin heteroepitaxial films on improve the deposits for device application, the
a single insulating substrate wafer. changes in semiconducting properties during thermal
processing were minimized by using relatively low
A brief chronological overview* deposition temperatures and high deposition rates.
The capability of employing such conditions was
From the point of view of a materials scientist, the brought about, at least in part, by improvements in the
realization of 6-11-m-thick cubic single crystal silicon methods used to free the substrate surface of work
on rhombohedral sapphire substrates would be con- damage and the control of impurities from source
sidered to be a significant achievement. The single gases. These preparative conditions also contributed
crystal nature was originally established by x-ray dif- to improving tbe crystallinity of the heteroepitaxial
fraction. From an applications point of view, how- silicon adjacent to the interface and led to the overall
ever, these deposits are of very little use. In the efforts improvement in the physical properties in the thinner
described in this chapter, the goals have been defined deposits (0.5-1.0 11-m).
by application of the heteroepitaxial silicon in semi- In the course of this development, magnesium alu-
minate spinel was examined as a possible substitute
*For detailed references on these developments refer to sub- for sapphire as a substrate material, mainly because
sequent sections of this chapter. the spinel appeared to be less reactive chemically and
8 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
because the cubic structure offered a better lattice surface technology are Miller and Manasevit (1966),
match to silicon. Unusually high hole mobilities were LaChapelle, Miller, and Morritz (1967), Filby and
achieved in silicon on flame fusion spinel, but the best Nielsen (1967), Joyce (1968), Cullen (1971), Filby
electrical properties were not achieved in the crystal- (1972), Manasevit (1974), and Joyce (1974). An
lographic orientation favored for device fabrication, attempt has been made to include sufficient back-
and it proved to be difficult to obtain reproducible ground material to generate a reasonably complete
properties in the large-diameter spinel prepared by the story for the main body of readers. Those seeking
Czochralski method. Therefore, specifically for com- more detailed information on the general subject of the
mercial application in MOS transistor structures, sap- growth of single crystal thin films are referred to litera-
phire proved to be the favored substrate material. ture which treats specific areas in detail. For instance,
There is little doubt, however, that the simultaneous the classic article by Pashley (1965) provides perspec-
examination of the two substrate materials with signif- tive on the crystallography of composite systems.
icantly different chemical and crystallographic proper- Chopra (1969) discusses the preparation and charac-
ties contributed significantly to a practical understand- terization of a variety of crystalline and noncrystalline
ing and an accelerated development of the heteroepi- thin films. The collected individually authored chap-
taxial silicon preparative technology. In the event that ters in volumes edited by Schneider and Ruth (1971)
the integration of heteroepitaxial silicon, III-V, and and Matthews (1975) include discussions of many
II-VI materials becomes a reality, spinel substrates aspects of homoepitaxial growth applicable to heter-
may play an important role. For these reasons this oepitaxy. Because of the commercial significance of
chapter discusses experimental work carried out on chemically vapor-deposited silicon, numerous journal
both substrate materials. articles are to be found on this topic. A broad view of
The development in the preparative technology has some of the more practical aspects of chemical vapor
resulted in the availability of carrier mobilities similar deposition is found in a volume authored by Powell,
to those of bulk silicon in MOS device structures Oxley, and Blocher (1966).
processed in heteroepitaxial silicon 0.6 ,urn in thick-
ness. The changes in semiconducting properties dur-
ing processing are acceptable, as the result of the
development of both the preparative and device-pro- 2.2. Selection of substrate materials
cessing procedures. This is not to say that all problems
have been solved or that the factors limiting the semi- Overview
conducting properties are understood. The details of
what determines the crystallographic structure in the The criteria by which substrate materials are selected
heteroepitaxial deposit and the nature of the silicon! is qualitative, at best. In the final analysis, potential
substrate interface are still topics of considerable materials must be carefully qualified by experimenta-
effort. These studies continue not only to provide tion. Even in the laboratory, the usefulness of a partic-
further control of such factors as stability and radia- ular substrate crystal system may not be immediately
tion hardness in MOS transistor structures, but they obvious. It is interesting to note that usable semicon-
also have as a goal improving the lifetime sufficiently ducting properties have been achieved on the most
so that bipolar transistors can be fabricated in deposits commonly used substrates only after a considerable
1 ,urn and less in thickness. Were this goal achieved, it effort to develop deposition conditions that minimized
is likely that the heteroepitaxial silicon would consti- the problems associated with the substrate or after
tute a significant fraction of the total semiconductor considerable effort to modify the nature of the sub-
technology. strate material.
In the analysis of the factors limiting the semicon-
Background literature ducting properties of silicon grown on single crystal
insulating substrates, investigators in the field have
Although pertinent early literature has been cited in commonly focused on three factors: (1) the spatial
this chapter where the content bears on the discussion match between the crystalline lattice of silicon and the
of current problems and developments, in general lattice of the supporting substrate; (2) the contamina-
there has been no attempt to present an historic tion of the silicon as the result of reaction between the
review of the silicon-on-insulator literature. The pur- deposition constituents (including silicon) and the sub-
pose is to describe developments that contribute to an strate material; and (3) the relative thermal contraction
appreciation of the current technology, to present an of the silicon and the substrate on cooling from the
overview of the current problems and capabilities, and deposition temperature. In the early search for sub-
to suggest some direction where future efforts would strate materials on which single crystal (or, at least,
be rewarding. Review articles specifically dealing with oriented) silicon growth could be achieved, and in the
or including discussions of the silicon-on-insulating- continuing search for substrate materials that would
2.2. Selection of substrate materials 9
lead to improvement of the semiconducting properties In the development of sapphire as a substrate mate-
already realized, the three factors cited above have rial, availability probably ranked equal to reactivity
been seriously considered. This chapter is oriented and thermal expansion in the initial selection. It was
toward the use of heteroepitaxial silicon for the fabri- fortunate that, as heteroepitaxial deposition tech-
cation of low-power field effect device structures. For niques were refined, other commercial applications
other applications, considerations other than the three brought the development of methods for growth of
cited above become important. For instance, in high- high-quality sapphire crystals. In the case of spinel,
power microwave circuit applications the thermal con- after preliminary observation of positive results on
ductivity of the substrate must be considered for pow- crystals not adequate for substrate usage, it was nec-
er dissipation. In geometries in which the silicon is essary to modify the substrate crystal growth specifi-
used in conjunction with other single crystal materials cally for application as heteroepitaxial silicon
in layered or side-by-side geometries, the functional substrates.
properties of the associated materials may play a role Beryllium oxide has been considered for substrate
in the choice of the substrate. In a layered structure in use because of its unusually high thermal conductivi-
which the silicon/substrate composite serves as a sub- ty, as well as for its low reactivity and cubic structure.
strate for the growth of optically active III-V com- There has been considerable effort to develop the
pounds (Chapter 3), the optical properties of the sub- growth of BeO into a practical manufacturing process
strate must be considered. In a side-by-side structure (Austerman, 1964; Austerman et a!., 1967, 1972). At
including silicon and AlN in surface acoustic wave this time the material is not readily available, how-
device geometries (Chapter 4), the acoustic wave ever, nor is information on the properties of silicon
attenuation of the oxide substrate is a factor in the deposited on the BeO. This substrate is therefore not
choice of the substrate. discussed here.
In a practical sense, the properties of heteroepitaxi- The physical properties of sapphire and spinel
al films are also determined by (1) the ability to grow which are useful for evaluation of sapphire and spinel
good-quality crystals of the desired substrate material as substrates for silicon growth are given in Table 2.1.
(see Section 2.3); (2) the ability to prepare the surface
of the crystal for heteroepitaxial growth (see Section Orientation and lattice match: theory
2.4); and (3) the ability to develop deposition tech-
niques that constitute a realistic compromise between Early in the development of heteroepitaxial silicon
the conditions most favoring single crystal growth and technology a good deal of emphasis was placed on
the conditions providing suppression of the reaction lattice-matching considerations. This was probably
betweer the deposition constituents and the substrate based on the availability of detailed and accurate
material (see Section 2.8). information on the various crystal structures of inter-
est and on a confidence in recently developed theories TABLE 2.2 Silicon on Sapphire Orientation Relationships
of heteroepitaxy. Orientation Planes Orientation Direction
Lattice matching for the various orientations of Relationship Siliconr;apphire Siliconl~apphire
interest of both sapphire and spinel has been dealt
I (001)11(0112) [100]1[2il0]
with in some detail by a number of investigators [see,
for instance, the review articles by LaChapelle et al. II (111)110 124) [llo]p1oo]
(1967) and Filby and Nielsen (1967) and papers by (110)!(1120)
Nolder and Cadoff(1965) and Manasevit et al. (1968)]. III (111)1(1120) [ 110]![22o1]
Using the rationale presented in the work cited, the (112)11<1 104)
lattice misfits for cubic silicon on rhombohedral sap- IV (111)1(1014) D1~liP2!ol
phire and cubic spinel have been estimated. For [112]1[1011]
instance, if one assumes coincidence of silicon and
aluminum (La Chapelle et al., 1967), the mismatch v (001)1(1012) [100]i[21 10]
between the (100) silicon on (1 102) sapphire is -12.5 VI (310)~(1011) [!32]i[!210], [1210]
percent in the [ 1120] direction and -4.2 percent in the [135]i[l012]
[ 1101] direction. This orientation has been the most VII (111)1(0001) [112]1[1100]
extensively investigated. Assuming a coincidence of
silicon with the substrate cations, and using a match- VIII Four multicrystalline relationships
ing scheme wherein three unit cells of silicon are Source: Manasevit et al. (1968);
superimposed on two unit cells of spinel, the calculat-
ed mismatch between silicon and the MgO 3.3A~03
spinel is -1.9 percent (Seiter and Zaminer, 1965; ial silicon. The significance of lattice matching is a
Manasevit and Forbes, 1966; Heywang, 1968). The complex and interesting issue, which bears further
lattice constant of spinel increases with decreasing study. We share the viewpoint expressed in Chapter 7
alumina content, and thus the calculated mismatch (by J. Blanc) that initial understanding will come from
between silicon and the MgO Al2 0 3 (stoichiometric) the study of much simpler systems than silicon on
spinel is less than 1 percent (Wang, 1969). sapphire.
Detailed lattice-matching schemes have been devel-
Orientation relationships: experiment
oped for other substrate types and orientations. These
are not discussed here, however, because the calculat-
ed mismatch values have not proven to be useful in The orientation relationships and the related crystal-
choosing substrate materials or in predicting the quali- linity of the silicon deposited on the various sapphire
ty of the heteroepitaxial films. It is interesting to note and spinel orientations have been developed by exper-
that Pashley (1965) pointed out that a small lattice imentation. Manasevit and coworkers (1968) investi-
misfit is not an essential condition for the occurrence gated the silicon-on-sapphire orientation relationships
of an oriented overgrowth and that the orientation by depositing on rounded cylindrical surfaces of single
occurring in heteroepitaxial growth is not always that crystal sapphire (Cullen et al., 1973A). It was found that
which corresponds to the best geometrical fit. Nor ed in Table 2.2 and illustrated in the stereographic
does a good lattice match assure oriented growth. projection shown in Figure 2.1. Estimates of the crys-
Green and coworkers (1970) failed to observe oriented talline quality of the various orientations have also
growth even for misfits as low as 0.4 percent in metals been made by depositing on hemispheres of the single
on lithium fluoride (the title of the paper is "The crystal sapphire (Cullen et al., 1973). It was found that
Insignificance of Lattice Misfit for Epitaxy"). the best crystalline quality, as determined by x-ray
The lack of success in formulating misfit guidelines examination, could be correlated with the highly
to predict heteroepitaxial growth may at least in part reflective areas of the deposit and with the thickness at
be attributed to the fact that the real surface of the which the highly reflective areas became rough. The
crystal may not include the same atomic spacings as surface of the (100) silicon on the (1102) sapphire
the bulk of the crystal [see, for instance, Chang remained reflective to a thickness as great as 60 JLm.
(1971)] and that, under the circumstances where the Good single crystal (100) silicon was observed only on
deposit reacts with the surface, more than one crystal- or near the (1102) sapphire orientation. At 10 JLm,
lographic plane may be exposed. Other factors involv-
ing misfit considerations are discussed in detail in *Various investigators use different notations to describe the
Chapter 7. Although the effect of lattice misfit on the crystallographic planes of interest in sapphire. Note that in
nature of the heteroepitaxial deposits is unpredictable, the rhombohedral system the (1 i02), (i012), and (01 i2)
planes are equivalent. The (Oi12), (il02), and (10i2) planes
it is reasonable to assume that spatial mismatches at are also equivalent to one another but not to the above set.
the silicon/substrate interface play a key role in deter- The symmetry associated with these planes may be visual-
mining the semiconducting properties of heteroepitax- ized by reference to Figure 2.1.
2.2. Selection of substrate materials 11
FIGURE 2.1 A complete stereographic projection map of the silicon orientation relationships on sapphire. From Manasevit et al.
(1968)
reflective surfaces were observed in (111) silicon on has not been the case, however, for all cubic materials
the (1120) and (10i3) sapphire. This correlates with the deposited on the cubic spinel (see Table 3.6). The
work of Manasevit and coworkers (1976), who have mobilities observed in silicon on spinel have consis-
observed good semiconducting properties in (111) sili- tently been higher in the (111) silicon deposited on the
con on the (1120) sapphire, as well as on the (10i4) (111) spinel than in the (1 00) silicon deposited on the
surface which is very close to the (10i3) orientation (100) spinel (Cullen, 1971). There has been no clear
cited above. Prior to this work of Manasevit and correlation developed between this observation and
coworkers, the highest mobilities in ~ 1-pm-thick the crystallinity of the heteroepitaxial silicon. The
films had been observed in the (100) silicon deposited effect may be related to the ease of preparing the
on the (1 i02) sapphire. In general, the (100) orienta- substrate surface, which has proven to be highly ori-
tion has been favored for device application also entation dependent in both spinel and sapphire.
because the surface state density at the silicon/silicon
dioxide interface decreases in the order (111) > (11 0) Chemical reactivity of the substrate
> (100) (Grove, 1967).
In silicon on spinel, the orientation of the over- Probably more materials have been rejected for use as
growth matches the orientation of the substrate. This substrates because of chemical reactivity than for the
12 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
other reason. Silicon is very reactive at the deposition mechanisms and the influence of stress on electrical
temperatures and leads to the chemical reduction even properties have not been completely identified (see
of the highly stable aluminum oxide (see Section 2.6). Section 2.11).
It may be assumed that any material that adheres well
to silicon also reacts with silicon. It must be kept in
mind that 1 ppm is equivalent to a concentration of 6 2.3. Growth of substrate crystals
x 1016/cm3 in silicon, and that for device application
the concentration of active carriers must be well con- The development of silicon heteroepitaxy on flame
trolled to levels as low as 1 x l0 15/cm3 It is not fusion and Czochralski-grown substrate crystals
practical to think in terms of holding the total impurity
level to well under 1 ppm. Only specific species, The early work on the heteroepitaxial growth of sili-
however, are electrically active in the heteroepitaxial con on sapphire (Manasevit and Simpson, 1963, 1964)
silicon. Even when the substrate contains compounds was carried out using substrate wafers fabricated from
of elements which are well known dopants in silicon commercially available crystals prepared by the flame
(such as Al), it is difficult to anticipate whether or not fusion method. At that time flame fusion-grown sap-
the reaction products will be electrically active. It is phire, which is prepared in large quantities for gem-
clear that not all of the aluminum-containing reaction stones and watch bearings, was more readily available
products introduced into the silicon from either sap- and considerably less expensive than crystals grown
phire or spinel are electrically active. The aluminum by the Czochralski method. During the late 1960s most
appears to be present in an oxygen-containing com- commercial suppliers in the United States shifted from
plex which has not to date been identified (see Section an emphasis on flame fusion to Czochralski growth as
2.12). The point to be made here is that, a priori, it is the demand for highly perfect single crystals arose to
not possible to choose substrate materials on the basis meet the requirements imposed by laser, electrooptic,
of whether or not impurities introduced from the sub- and heteroepitaxial substrate technologies. In part,
strate will be electrically active. The concentration of because of the development of automatic growth con-
the nonactive impurities must be at a level that does trol, the cost difference between Czochralski and
not degrade the film crystallinity, particularly in the flame fusion sapphires was considerably decreased.*
region of the silicon directly adjacent to the silicon! Greater control can be exercised over the thermal
substrate interface [see, for instance, the nature of gradients and nature of the growth interface in Czo-
early growth of silicon on Czochralski spinel (Section chralski growth than in flame fusion growth, and the
2.6)]. defect density of the Czochralski material is typically
less than that of flame fusion crystals. The possibility
Thermal expansion of the substrate arose, therefore, that the crystalline quality and asso-
ciated semiconducting properties of silicon on Czo-
In regard to the thermal expansion of the substrate, chralski sapphire would be superior to the properties
the first consideration is that the substrate contract the of silicon on the flame fusion material. A number of
same as or more than the silicon on cooling from the investigators, however, reported that the properties of
deposition temperature. Under these conditions the heteroepitaxial silicon on the two types of substrate
film does not crack since it is either not stressed or is were similar (Hart et al., 1967; Dixon and Willis,
under compression. Compression can influence the 1967). It was proposed at that time that the crystalline
transport properties in the silicon (see Section 6.12). nature of the silicon was more dominated by lattice
Tensile stress in the substrate may lead to cracking of mismatch and chemical reaction between the silicon
the substrate. The critical ratio of film thickness to and sapphire than by the crystalline quality of the
substrate thickness that results in the substrate crack- substrate within the range of crystalline quality inves-
ing is a function of the elastic constants and critical tigated. These conclusions were reached, however,
stress constants of the various substrate materials. using thicker films (>211-m) than are of current interest
The ratio of film thickness to substrate thickness in and test structures (such as Hall patterns) that
practical MOS device structures is at least 1/350 (111-m spanned larger areas of the substrate than the individ-
of silicon on 14-mil-thick 2 inch-diameter substrates). ual transistors in integrated arrays. The conclusion
With this ratio, there is no cracking problem with may not be applicable, therefore, to current technolo-
either sapphire or spinel substrates as the result of gy. Trilhe and coworkers (1975) have more recently
differences in the thermal expansion of the silicon and reported that the MOS transistors do operate when
the substrate. Beyond the requirement that the film be fabricated in heteroepitaxial silicon over grain bounda-
under compression, it is not possible to state quantita- ries in the substrate. The distribution in the electrical
tively an acceptable difference between the contrac-
tion of the substrate and the deposit, particularly *Union Carbide Corporation, Crystal Products Dept., San
under the circumstances where the stress-relieving Diego, Ca.
2.3. Growth of substrate crystals 13
characteristics, however, of MOS transistor arrays the interest in silicon on insulator integrated devices
fabricated in silicon on flame fusion substrates proved increased. The similarity in the development of silicon
to be greater than in devices fabricated in silicon on on sapphire and silicon on spinel ends here, for where-
the Czochralski grown material. The information on as the characteristics of silicon on sapphire appeared
the effect of substrate grain boundaries on device to be relatively independent of the method used for the
characteristics is incomplete, and this must be consid- substrate growth, the properties of silicon on spinel
ered to be an open question. Attempts are currently proved to be a strong function of the method of sub-
being made to grow grain boundary-free flame fusion strate growth. When the Czochralski sapphire became
sapphire as large as three inches in diameter. commercially available, it was substituted for the
In the development of new methods for the growth flame fusion material with no modification in the meth-
of sapphire, emphasis has been placed on cost reduc- od of substrate surface preparation or silicon deposi-
tion. Sapphire grown in a "ribbon" form by the edge- tion conditions. The Czochralski spinel, however,
defined film-fed growth (EFG) technique (LaBelle and proved to be more reactive than the flame fusion
Mlavsky, 1971; LaBelle, 1971A,B) more closely ap- spinel in contact with both hydrogen and silicon. it is
proximates the shape required for silicon substrates interesting to note that, from the standpoint of utiliza-
and therefore requires less fabrication. The heat-ex- tion as a silicon substrate material, there is more
changer technique (Schmid and Viechnicki, 1970) re- similarity between sapphire (either flame fusion or
quires less sophisticated control than either the Czoch- Czochralski) and flame fusion spinel than between
ralski or EFG methods for the growth of large boules. flame fusion spinel and Czochralski spinel. As has
The use of costly iridium crucibles has been successful- been previously mentioned, the high-alumina-rich spi-
ly avoided in both the EFG and gradient furnace* meth- nel is most readily prepared by the flame fusion meth-
ods. The Hall mobilities of 1-~-tm-thick (100) silicon od (Wang, 1969). The near-stoichiometric flame fusion
grown on the Czochralski, EFG, and gradient furnace spinel boules commonly craze on cooling from the
(ll02) sapphire are similar (Corboy, 1974). The three growth temperature. By contrast, the near-stoichio-
types of sapphire are currently under evaluation for metric spinel is most readily prepared by the Czo-
commercial application. chralski process; it has been reported that second-
The first heteroepitaxial growth of silicon on the phase precipitates appear in the alumina-rich Czo-
magnesium aluminate spinel was also carried out on chralski spinel (Cockayne and Chesswas, 1967; Grab-
crystals commercially grown by the flame fusion pro- maier and Watson, 1968A,B,C; Cockayne et al., 1969;
cess (Seiter and Zaminer, 1965; Manasevit and Hammond, 1969). The origin of the relationship
Forbes, 1966). The ease of growth of spinel crystals is between the ease of growth by the two methods and
directly proportional to the alumina content within the the MgO/ Al20 3 ratio is not understood in detail, but it
compositional range MgO Al20 3 to MgO 3.5Al2 0 3 It may well be related to the large differences in the
was observed, however, that the thermal stability of thermal gradients characteristic of the various growth
the spinel is inversely proportional to the alumina methods.
content (Wang, 1969). The commercially available Single crystal spinel has also been grown by the
crystals, of nominal composition MgO 3 .3Al20 3 to EFG (LaBelle et al., 1973) and gradient furnace
MgO 3.5Al2 0 3 , proved to degrade at the temperatures (Schmid and Viechnicki, 1973) techniques. As applied
employed for epitaxial growth and device processing to spinel, these crystal growth techniques are in the
(900-1200C). In order to avoid the problems related early stage of development, and the reactivity and
to the thermal instability, methods were developed to stability of the materials for use as silicon substrates
grow flame fusion spinel within the compositional have not been characterized.
range Mg01.5Al 20 3 to MgO 2.5Al2 0 3 (Grabmaier The current emphasis is on the optimization of the
and Watson, 1968A,B,C; Wang, 1969). Below an alu- synthesis of sapphire by the various crystal growth
mina content of Mg01.5Al2 0 3 , it proved to be diffi- techniques. Because of the problems that have been
cult to grow crystals of the diameter desired (at that faced in the synthesis of spinel by methods other than
time 1-1.5 inch). Very promising semiconducting flame fusion growth and the improvement in semicon-
properties were achieved on the "low-alumina-rich" ducting properties only in (111) silicon on spinel, only
flame fusion spinel [Seiter and Zaminer (1965), Cullen sapphire has been commercially employed as a sub-
et al. (1969); see also Section 2.12]. As with sapphire, strate material for MOS transistor circuitry fabricated
focus was placed on achieving between 2- and 3-inch- in the heteroepitaxial silicon. Spinel may be favored as
diameter boules grown by the Czochralski process as the substrate material in applications wherein heteroe-
pitaxial materials other than silicon are required on the
*The terms heat-exchanger and gradient furnace techniques same substrate (see Chapters 3 and 4).
have been used interchangeably in the literature, and more
The techniques employed to grow substrate crys-
recently the method has been referred to as the Schmid-
Viechnicki technique. See the section on heat-exchanger tals, the advantages and disadvantages of the various
growth, which follows. growth methods, and the characteristics of the crys-
14 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
tals specific to the growth method are discussed in the it has been necessary to develop the technology for
following sections. the growth of larger crystals. The problems faced in
attempts to grow the larger crystals are cracking dur-
Flame fusion growth ing cool down and melt runover from the cap. Fal-
ckenberg (1972, 1975, 1976) has introduced a number
In the flame fusion process (also referred to as the of flame fusion furnace and burner design features in
Verneuil method), the melt is held on the cap of the an effort to grow relatively large crack-free spinel and
growing crystal by surface tension. Heat energy is sapphire crystals specifically for application as heter-
introduced with a hydrogen-oxygen flame, and new oepitaxial silicon substrates. In the most refined ver-
melt is supplied by dropping powered material through sion, retractable concentric tubes are positioned
the flame onto the molten cap (Djevahirdjian, 1961; around the growing crystal in such a manner that the
Adamski, 1965; Grabmaier and Watson, 1968A,B,C; tubes can be retracted as the diameter of the crystal
Wang, 1969; Ricard and Cisccolaini, 1972; Falcken- increases. A schematic representation of this configu-
berg, 1972, 1975, 1976). The key feature of the flame ration is shown in Figure 2.2. Falckenberg (1975) also
fusion process is that no crucible is required. As in the found it advantageous to employ a three-tube burner
case of Czochralski growth, the crystalline quality of for growth of the larger crystals. (A two-tube burner is
the growing crystal is a strong function of the thermal shown in Figure 2.2.) In the three-tube design, an
gradients in the system and the nature of the melt-
solid interface. There is less latitude in controlling 0 2 + POWER
these factors in flame fusion growth as compared with
Czochralski growth. The thermal gradients can be
controlled to some degree by the location of the flame
in relation to the molten cap, the interior shape of the
furnace, and the length of the furnace muffle below the BURNER
growth interface. The system has a relatively high
thermal inertia; not only the crystal but the inner
portion of the massive refractory around the crystal
are heated by the flame. In relation to the furnace
geometry, the position of the liquid-solid interface is WATER COOLED
held constant as new material is supplied from a hop- RING
per and the crystal is lowered during growth.
Therefore, after growth to the desired diameter, the
heat input is held constant during the growth of a
crystal. Because the thermal inertia is high, the flame
relatively stable, and the position of the melt-solid
interface fixed, sophisticated closed-loop control
mechanisms are not necessary. This is fortunate, since COATING
the hydrogen-oxygen flame is cumbersome to control
with closed-loop temperature-control systems. Usual-
ly the flame is stabilized with simple gas input-pres-
VIEWING PORT
sure regulators. It is interesting to watch a single
operator monitoring as many as 50 flame fusion
growth stations operated on common gas feed lines.*
After initial alignment of the seed crystal in the flame
and growth to the desired final diameter, the feed rate
and pull rate are fixed, and the growth of the crystal
progresses essentially unattended.
Flame fusion sapphire and spinel crystals prepared
in large quantities for gemstone and bearing applica- TELESCOPING
tion are commonly about one inch in diameter. In FLAME-GAS
DEFLECTOR
commercial production for these applications, quanti-
ty is achieved by operating many simple growth sta-
tions rather than by enlarging the individual crystals.
For application as heteroepitaxial silicon substrates
*Hrand ~evahirdjian SA, lndustrie De Pierres Scientifiques, FIGURE 2.2 A schematic presentation of a flame fusion
Monthey, Switzerland. growth apparatus as described by Falckenberg (1976)
2.3. Growth of substrate crystals 15
Czochralski growth
ATMOSPHERE
CONTROL BELL
JAR
REFRACTORY
OXIDE HEAT
SHIELD
SEED
CRYSTAL
IRIDIUM
CRUCIBLE
R F COILS
FIGURE 2.4
A schematic presentation of a typical
Czochralski growth apparatus
commonly employed. The input to the control system boule diameter for crystals up to 2 inch in diameter.
is a signal proportional to the increase in weight of the For the growth of low-defect crystals, rates of 1.0
growing crystal (Bardsley et al., 1972), the decrease in inch/hr are typically used for crystals 0.5 inch in diam-
weight of the crucible (Zinnes et al., 1973; Kyle and eter, and 0.25 inch/hr for crystals 2 inches in diameter.
Zydzik, 1973), or a change in position of the outer These rates may differ significantly between various
edge of the meniscus of the growing crystal as detect- organizations, depending on the specific growth condi-
ed by a sighting device (Gross and Kersten, 1972). tions employed, the purity of the starting material, and
Since only the crucible and the melt are held above the the crystallographic orientation. Voids resulting from
melting point of the material, the thermal inertia is constitutional supercooling appear in crystals pulled at
relatively low, and fast-acting temperature controllers excessive rates. For substrate use, voids must be
must be employed. Diameter control provides uni- completely avoided since they will intersect the sur-
formity of boule shape and thus minimizes loss of face of substrates cut from the crystal.
material during the grinding of the boule into a The latitude in control of the thermal gradients at
straight-wall cylinder. Even more important, the use the growth interface in Czochralski growth constitutes
of diameter control minimizes crystalline defects that one of the main advantages of this growth method.
may be introduced into the crystal under the condi- The crystal can be observed during growth, estimates
tions where the boule diameter is changing. The use of can be made of the progress and quality, and immedi-
diameter control also minimizes the labor involved in ate corrections can be made. With such control, it is
growing the crystal, so that an experienced operator possible to produce crystals relatively free of defects.
may simultaneously maintain a number of Czochralski The density defect observed in the rhombohedral
growth stations. An unfabricated 2.5-inch-diameter plane of "substrate quality" Czochralski crystals is
Czochralski crystal is shown in Figure 2.5. typically about 5 x l<Jl/cm2 (Mustachi, 1974).
The pull rate of Czochralski sapphire and spinel is The main disadvantage in the Czochralski method
approximately linearly proportional to the inverse of for the preparation of sapphire for silicon substrates is
2.3. Growth of substrate crystals 17
that the crystal is not in the shape useful for sub- The iridium platelets, which are apparently formed as
strates. Prior to slicing the boules are ground into a the result of disproportionation of the volatile oxides,
cylindrical form. The cross section of crystals grown are found both on the surface and in the bulk of the
in the direction normal to the (1 i02) plane is elliptical, boule if the crystal is grown in a reducing or neutral
and thus there is some material loss involved in form- ambient.
ing the cylinder. For cylinders more than 2 inches in Appreciable effort is currently being directed
diameter, typically 50 percent of the crystal is lost toward reducing the cost of the Czochralski sapphire
during slicing (if oo saws are used, see Section 2.4), substrates by increasing the pull rates and minimizing
and an additional 50 percent of the remaining material the fabrication loss. Both Czochralski growth and the
is lost during lapping and polishing. An additional fabrication of ceramic bodies are, however, relatively
disadvantage is that iridium, which is commonly used mature technologies. Innovative techniques will be
as the crucible material, is expensive and difficult to required to realize significant cost reductions. The
form. Structural deterioration of the crucible results more immediate cost reductions will probably result
from the formation of hot spots and local melting as from more efficient use of capital facilities with vol-
the result of flow of RF-induced currents through phys- ume production.
ical heterogeneities. Note that there is a relatively
small difference between the melting point of the cru- Heat-exchanger growth
cible and the sapphire (lr: 2440C; Al20 3 : 2030C).
Resistance and gas fire heating of the iridium crucible The heat-exchanger growth method (Schmid and
have been employed in an effort to minimize nonuni- Viechnicki, 1970; Viechnicki et al., 1972) is the single
form heating and increase crucible life. There are crystal variation of the directional solidification-cast-
problems involved, however, in maintaining reprodu- ing technique. A single crystal seed is located at the
cibility in the gradients of such heaters continually bottom of a molybdenum crucible charged with the
operated at temperatures in excess of 2000C, and source material (see Figure 2.6). The charge is melted
these modes of heating have not been widely accept- by resistance heating, using a carbon heating element
ed. Iridium is lost from the crucible during the crystal enclosed in a vacuum chamber. The seed is partially
growth by chemical transport. To minimize this loss, melted back to assure contact between the melt and
small amounts of oxygen (-0.5 percent by volume) the seed in order to nucleate the growth of a single
are introduced into the inert gas growth ambient. The crystal; complete melting of the seed is avoided by
presence of the oxygen suppresses the formation of careful temperature control and by cooling the bottom
volatile intermediate-oxidation-state oxides of iridium. of the crucible with a jet of helium gas directed
through the high-temperature heat exchanger. The
thermal gradient is maintained and controlled by
adjusting the flow of helium. As the crucible is slowly
cooled, the melt solidifies as a single crystal from the
seed. The thermal inertia of the system is high, and
therefore the temperature control and the lowering of
the temperature are relatively simple processes which
can be carried out over a long period of time with little
supervision. In order to partially melt back the unob-
served seed crystal, it is necessary to establish a
highly reproducible vertical thermal gradient across
the crucible. Since the carbon heating element deterio-
rates during use, care must be exercised to maintain
the reproducibility in thermal conditions.
The heat energy is introduced through the sides of
the crucible and extracted through the bottom (sap-
phire near its melting point is an excellent thermal
conductor). The melt-solid interface is roughly hemi-
spherical as it moves from the bottom to the top of the
FIGURE 2.5 crucible, and therefore some impurities (depending on
An unfabricated boule of Czochralski-
the segregation coefficient) are zoned to the outer edge
grown sapphire, 2.5 inches in diameter.
Note the very uniform geometry of the boule. For substrate use cylinders are extracted
obtainable with automatic diameter by core drilling from the less contaminated portion of
control. Courtesy Crystal Products the crystal. The outer 0.25 inch of the periphery of the
Department, Union Carbide Corporation, crystal is not used.
San Diego, Ca. A 10-inch-diameter single crystal grown by the heat-
18 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
WATER COOLED
VACUUM TIGHT
FURNACE SHELL
HEATING ELEMENT
REFRACTORY
METAL CRUCIBLE
PYROMETER
SIGHT PORT
~1-jj"f.tl~-++J..I--- GROWTH
INTERFACE
SEED CRYSTAL
J""''llftt*..::::::::::...GRAPHITE FELT
HEAT SHIELD
HEAT EXCHANGER
exchanger method is shown in Figure 2. 7. The point of density observed in the rhombohedral plane of a grain
attachment of the seed can be seen through the clear boundary-free gradient freeze crystal is typically
cap of the crystal. Nineteen 2-inch-diameter cylinders --2.2 x 1Q4/cm2 (Mustachi, 1974).
can be core drilled from the 10-inch-diameter boule. In order to avoid confusion in the terminology
With the exception of the outer skin, the remaining employed here, it should be pointed out that until
alumina can be recycled. recently this method was referred to in the literature
The early crystals prepared by the heat-exchanger as the "gradient furnace" growth method. Schmid
method typically contained small amounts of the cru- (1974) points out that the technique is more appropri-
cible material and grain boundaries. The incorporation ately called the heat-exchanger method. His rationale
of crucible materials is associated with the presence of for initiating a change in the terminology is that in the
uncontrolled impurities in the growth system, and the gradient furnace method it is commonly assumed that
grain boundaries are associated with the seeding tech- the temperature gradient in both the solid and liquid is
nique. The development of the method has been rapid, determined by the furnace configuration. In the heat-
however, and crystals have been grown that are free exchanger method, to a large extent the thermal gra-
of both grain boundaries and refractory metal contam- dient in the solid is determined by the gradient in the
ination (within the detection limits of emission spec- furnace, whereas a certain amount of independent
troscopy). The acceptance of the heat-exchanger sap- control of the gradient in the liquid is possible by
phire as silicon substrate material will depend, to a controlling the flow of helium through the heat
large extent, on the development of methods to rou- exchanger.
tinely exclude grain boundaries in the material. The
crystals grown by the heat-exchanger method may be Edge-defined film-fed growth
relatively free of dislocations because the crystal is
grown slowly (with a typical diameter increase of 1.2 In the edge-defined film-fed (EFG) method of crystal
cm/hr) in a comparatively low thermal gradient and in growth (LaBelle, 1971A), the cross-sectional shape of
a system with high thermal inertia. The dislocation the growing crystal is determined by the shape of a
2.3. Growth of substrate crystals 19
refractory metal die (LaBelle and Mlavsky, 1971; tion of the melt proceeds downward from the crystal
LaBelle, 1971B; Chalmers et a!., 1972). The general at a rate matching the pull rate, and the source materi-
configuration of the EFG apparatus is similar to that of al is drawn through the die capillary to replenish the
a Czochralski growth station, with the exception of melt between the die and the crystal. The solid-liquid
the shaping die (Figure 2.8). For the growth of sap- interface can be observed at the edge of the die.
phire substrates, the shaping die is constructed of two LaBelle and Mlavsky (1971) have proposed that small
parallel refractory metal plates. The spacing between fluctuations in the pull rate and temperature are
the plates provides a passage for the source material. accommodated by changes in the thickness of the
The outer edges of the plates define the cross-sectional liquid layer between the die and the crystal. The pull
shape of the crystal. The bottom of the die extends mechanism and temperature control can therefore be
into the molten source material. The source liquid relatively simple. Since the position of the melt-solid
rises to the top of the die by capillary action. For this interface is fixed, there is no need to program the
to take place, the molten source must wet the surface temperature as the liquid level in the crucible recedes.
of the die. To initiate crystal growth, a single crystal Solid source material may be added to the melt in the
seed of the desired orientation, commonly cylindrical, crucible without perturbing the growth interface.
is inserted into the molten source held in the slot The crystallinity of the as-grown ribbon surface is
between the die plates. Material solidifies at the end of adequate for the heteroepitaxial growth of silicon, but
the seed as heat is piped up the seed rod. As the the topology is not appropriate for the precision pho-
crystal solidifies on the seed, it is pulled away from the tomasking required for the fabrication of device struc-
die, and the liquid held above the die (by solid-liquid tures in the thin silicon film. At the current state of the
cohesive forces) spreads in width to the side of the die art, the ribbon surface must be lapped and polished.
and in thickness to the outer edge of the horizontal The interior of the EFG ribbons contain an array of
portion of the top of the die. In order for the liquid to voids which appear in sheets parallel to the surface of
flow over the edge of the horizontal top surface of the the crystal. The position of the void planes is related
die the contact angle would be forced away from the to the die geometry, and therefore the location of the
equilibrium value; this is resisted by natural {orces and voids can be controlled to some extent. The current
thus the spreading of the melt stops at the edge of the procedure is to position the voids near the surface and
horizontal portion of the die. A thin liquid film is remove them during the surface finishing operation.
maintained between the growing crystal and the die as Voids remaining in the interior that do not intersect
the cross section of the crystal assumes the configura- the finished surface do not influence the properties of
tion of the upper edges of the die. Under carefully the heteroepitaxial silicon. The defect density in the
controlled thermal gradients and pull rates, a steady immediate vicinity of the voids is higher than in the
state condition is established in which the solidifica- matrix of the ribbon. The defect density in a fabricated
FIGURE 2.7
An unfabricated single crystal grown by
the heat-exchanger technique (also
referred to as the Schmid-Viechnicki
technique). The boule is 10 inches in
diameter and 4 inches thick. The point of
attachment of the seed can be seen
through the clear cap of the crystal.
Courtesy Crystal Systems, Inc., Salem,
MA.
20 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
CRYSTAL
HEAT SHIELDS
SHAPING DIE
WATER COOLED
QUARTZ ENVELOPE
REFRACTORY
METAL CRUCIBLE
R F COILS
(1102) surface free of intersected voids is typically more than one EFG ribbon simultaneously from the
about 1.4 x 10S/cm2 (Mustachi, 1974). same crucible (LaBelle et al., 1973/74). A group of
The growth direction of the EFG crystals is in the three ribbons attached to a single seed is shown in
plane of the substrate surface, whereas that of Czo- Figure 2.9. The properties of the three ribbons are
chralski growth is normal to the substrate surface. essentially identical. It is clear that this development
Therefore, to prepare the same number of substrate has a major impact on the economics of the produc-
wafers per unit of the growth apparatus on-time, the tion of substrate by the EFG process and offers the
rate of pull of the EFG ribbon must exceed that of possibility of significant reductions in the cost of sub-
Czochralski by a factor equal to the product of the strate materials prepared by the EFG method.
wafer diameter/wafer thickness ratio and the linear A disadvantage of the EFG process is that it is a
fractional yield of the Czochralski crystal after fabrica- relatively new and complex technology, and a high
tion (see Section 2.4 for a discussion of the fabrication degree of skill and experience are required to establish
yield). At present, approximately the same number of a growth system.
2-inch-diameter substrates can be produced by the
two methods of growth during the same time period. It
is important to note that the rate of pull of the EFG Substrate crystal growth: summary
ribbon is inversely proportional to the ribbon thick-
ness but is relatively independent of the ribbon width. The salient features of the crystal growth techniques
Procedures have recently been developed to grow discussed in this section are summarized in Table 2.3.
2.4. Fabrication of the heteroepitaxial substrates 21
ations of blade chatter, in relation to the distance ing materials, small deviations from a specific crystal-
between the edge of the hole and the blade support, lographic orientation may be tolerated, or in some
are similar in ID and oo cutting. The relatively soft cases, even desirable (Chapter 2). But for application
magnesium aluminate spinels (1500 on the knoop of piezoelectric materials (Chapter 3) in surface acous-
scale) can be routinely cut with ID saws, but ID cutting tic wave device geometries, the surface orientation
of the harder sapphire (2000 on the knoop scale) is must be held to less than 0.25.
more difficult because of blade wander and because In an attempt to minimize the effects of chatter of
the edges of the diamond become dulled. The diamond the circular blades, the refractory oxide crystals have
bonded to the edge of ID saws extends about 1/8 inch been sliced with metal wires* and linear metal bladest
from the outer circumference toward the axis of the held in tension at each end. Fine abrasive powders and
saw, and therefore dull diamonds are stripped and new low removal rates are employed in order to leave a
diamonds exposed during cutting or by dressing the surface more characteristic of fine lapping than saw-
blade. The plated diamond on the ID saws is only ing. Since the blades in this geometry can be readily
several diamond layers deep, and therefore the cutting arranged in a parallel array, compensation may be
surface cannot be continually renewed by exposure of made for the low cutting rate by making many cuts
new diamonds. The diamonds cannot be applied to ID simultaneously. Good results have been obtained with
blades by the same techniques used for oo blades the relatively soft materials, but blade wander and
because the resin- or ceramic-bonded abrasive will wear have proven to be difficult to control when sap-
break away from the blade as it is stretched under phire is cut by these methods.
tension. The use of ID saws for the fabrication of When the relatively soft materials are cut, the abra-
sapphire constitutes a trade-off between the cost of sive may be supplied by flow of an abrasive-containing
the blade replacement and the value of the single slurry across the surface being cut which is discarded
crystal material saved by using the thinner m blade. after one pass. When the harder materials, such as
At present it is uneconomical to cut sapphire crystals sapphire, are cut by these methods, it becomes uneco-
larger than 2 inches in diameter with ID saws. Devel- nomical and wasteful to supply the more expensive
opment which would lead to the use of the ID saws to abrasive (such as diamond) in a flow system. There-
fabricate 3-inch-diameter boules could result in con- fore, the promise in using these methods appears to lie
siderable reduction in the cost of the large diameter in the development of abrasively loaded blades. Since
substrates. the metal support is under tension, similar problems
Blade chatter in both oo and ID sawing leads to are faced as in the fabrication of the circular ID blades.
grooving of the substrate surfaces. The contours of the
subsurface crystallographic work damage in the interi- Grinding/lapping. After initial shaping by sawing,
or of the crystal follow the contours of the surface the substrate blanks are ground and/or lapped in order
grooves (see Figure 2.11), and unless the damage is to produce plane parallel surfaces and to remove
carefully removed in subsequent finishing steps, material to the bottom of the deepest saw groove.
defects introduced during sawing will appear on the Clearly the amount of material that must be removed
final etched surface. Residues of saw damage are read- is a function of the quality of the sawing operation. In
ily identified by the arc shape with the radius of the grinding, the abrasive is resin, metal, or ceramic bond-
saw. ed in a wheel geometry. In lapping, the abrasive is
Blanks cut by oo saws are typically wedge shaped, loose, and the operation is carried out against hard
and blanks cut by ID saws are "dish" shaped due to glass, hardened steel, or cast iron. Grinding results in
blade wander and vibration of the unsupported portion the rapid removal of material, but high local forces are
of the crystal against the saw face. The plane of the imposed on the crystal surface. Work damage as deep
sawed crystal surface supported by the bulk crystal is as 20 p,m has been observed (using transmission elec-
usually more normal to the axis of the crystal than the tron microscopy) in sapphire surface ground with 325-
surface of the unsupported portion of the crystal as the mesh (44-p,m) resin-bonded diamond wheel (Hockey,
result of the vibration of the unsupported piece. The 1972A,B). It is not meaningful to derive a relationship
amount of wedging or dishing is clearly a function of between the abrasive particle size of a grinding wheel
the diameter of the crystal. This must be taken into
consideration when a precise crystallographic orienta- *Geoscience Institute Corporation, Mt. Vernon, NY.
tion is required. In the deposition of the semiconduct- tVarian Vacuum Division, Newton, MA.
2.4. Fabrication of the heteroepitaxial substrates 25
and the depth of damage since the abrasive is partially It is noted that in the period during which work
buried in the resin matrix. It has been proposed that damage remaining from the previous step is being
grinding introduces more work damage into the crystal removed, the removal rate is relatively high and
than does sawing. Although the manner in which the smooth surfaces are realized. As the polishing
abrasive is contained is similar, the forces are more approaches the undamaged bulk material, the removal
normal to the surface in grinding than in sawing, and in rate decreases and the surface texture is likely to
sawing the most heavily damaged material is removed change as particles are removed along cleavage planes
from the crystal. Using 325-mesh diamond on an ID rather than from work damage fissures. In the final
saw, a damage depth of 1.8 p,m has been observed steps of polishing, as the work-damaged region
(Ehman, 1973). Although other variables have not becomes thinner, the ease of polishing and the topolo-
been specified, it is nonetheless interesting that slicing gy of the surface become a function of the crystallo-
with the same abrasive size can lead to an order of graphic orientation. At this point the uninitiated opera-
magnitude less damage than lapping. Further evidence tor of a polishing apparatus may come to the
that extremely high local forces (and possibly high conclusion that the finish is degrading rather than
temperatures) are involved in grinding is the observa- improving as polishing continues.
tion of smearing on a sapphire surface (Koepke, 1972). It has been commonly observed that the removal
Because of the depth of the work damage characteris- rate during polishing decreases rapidly with increasing
tic of the grinding operation, this procedure must be diameter of the substrate, even when the pressure per
employed with caution in the finishing of expitaxial unit area of surface is maintained constant. This effect
substrate surfaces. may in part be related to the problem of distributing
In lapping, the abrasive particles are loose, and the abrasive uniformly over the surface of the sub-
although relatively large particle sizes (-5-25 p,m) are strate. A similar effect has also been observed during
employed, the forces are more evenly distributed over slicing.
the substrate surfaces. The emphasis in lapping is on
material removal to shape the substrate rather than on The removal of residual mechanical work damage
the removal of work damage introduced during slicing. by thermal and chemical treatment
A variation of the art of lapping is to use a resilient
abrasive backing material such as aluminum, tin Subsurface crystallographic work damage cannot be
(Lindstrom, 1967), or acrylic plastic. Part of the abra- completely removed by mechanical processing. The
sive becomes embedded in the backing material. damage remaining after the final polishing must be
Using this procedure the depth of the residual work eliminated by rearrangement of the disordered lattice
damage is decreased with relatively little sacrifice in at elevated temperatures by chemical action of corro-
removal rate, for reasons that are not completely sive liquid or gaseous etchants or by chemical-
understood at this time. mechanical polishing. Usually some combination of
these methods is employed.
Mechanical polishing. Grinding and lapping should
be classified with sawing as shaping operations where- Annealing. A detailed low-energy electron diffrac-
as polishing and chemical etching are carried out to tion (LEED) study of the effect of vacuum annealing
remove the work damage remaining after (i.e., intro- of mechanically polished sapphire surfaces has been
duced during) the shaping of the substrate blank. The carried out by C. C. Chang (1971). A summary of his
polishing of sapphire and spinel is carried out with findings is presented in Table 2.4. Most of the mechan-
loose abrasive particles of alumina, silicon carbide, or ically polished sapphire surfaces which had been
diamond, typically less than 3 p,m in diameter. Rela- recrystallized by vacuum annealing for 30s at tempera-
tively soft backing materials, such as Corfam* or Pad- tures between 1000 and 1200C showed equilibrium
K,t are used. In order to conserve time, material is LEED patterns. After annealing at 1400C for 30 s all
removed with successively smaller abrasive particles. the samples exhibited sharp equilibrium patterns. This
During each successive step, the work damage intro- definitive study has put to rest the argument common-
duced by the previously used larger-diameter abrasive ly used by proponents of chemical etches that crystal-
must be completely removed (see the later discussion lographic rearrangement cannot take place in single
of depth of damage in this section). Contamination of crystal lattices at temperatures below two thirds of the
the abrasive with foreign particles larger than the melting point (in Kelvin). Considering the brief heat-
abrasive must be avoided. It is particularly difficult to ing durations used by Chang, removal of material
exclude chips remov.ed from the edge of the crystal. (other than impurities) by sublimation cannot be con-
sidered to be a significant contributing factor. Chang
futher concluded that, from the standpoint of surface
*George Newman and Co., Boston, MA. crystalline perfection, no advantage is gained by
tPellon Corporation, New York, NY. chemically etching the surface prior to annealing. He
26 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
TABLE 2.4 The Effect of Vacuum Annealing Mechanically Polished Sapphire Surfaces
Temperature
(oC) Observations Conclusions
25 Weak LEED patterns from chemi- Most of the surface highly dis-
cally etched surfaces, diffuse or no turbed, except for a few relatively
pattern from unetched; Auger data perfect patches; major contaminant
poor, large AI, 0, and C peaks. c.
500 LEED patterns deteriorate, pres- Contaminants migrate to surface
sure bursts to 1o-s torr; Auger data and distribute over entire surface;
poor, partly due to large number of crystal degasses.
peaks.
600 LEED patterns improve, degass- Surface starts to anneal, most ad-
ing almost complete; Auger data sorbates desorb; major contami-
better, large C peak. nent C.
700-900 Series of different LEED patterns Gross surface anneal nearly com-
appear; some etched samples plete, contaminants produce super-
show weak equilibrium patterns structures, clean areas form equili-
(EP), patterns visible from all sam- brium structures (ES).
ples, large C Auger peak.
1000-1200 LEED patterns sharpen, most sur- Surface contaminants desorbing
faces show equilibrium patterns; C rapidly, equilibrium structure on
Auger peak decreasing rapidly. most surfaces, small amounts of C
left.
1400 Sharp equilibrium patterns form all Minimum temperature at which all
surfaces; only AI and 0 Auger surfaces form equilibrium structure
peaks detectable, C concentration in 30 s. Surface clean but may not be
below 5 x 1013/cm2 stoichiometric.
pointed out that etching prior to annealing is to be of the basal plane but not the prismatic plane after
avoided in the preparation of heteroepita.xial sub- annealing sapphire for 2 hr at 1500C in both air and
strates since it brings out a "scratch" -like surface argon. Patterson (1974) detected no weight loss of
structure that is not altered topologically by annealing. rhombohedral plane substrates after annealing in air
Electron mobilities similar to bulk values were for 4 hr at l600C.
observed in silicon vacuum evaporated on the The sapphire and flame fusion appeal substrates
annealed substrates (see Section 2.8). have commonly been annealed in hydrogen (see the
Hockey (1972,A B) also observed alteration of the following). The Czochralski spinel, however, proved
lattice structure in sapphire at relatively low annealing to be relatively reactive in the presence of hydrogen
temperatures. He examined the material adjacent to (Cullen and Wang, 1971; Green, 1972; Cullen and
diamond-abraded surfaces by transmission electron Dougherty, 1972), but has been successfully annealed
microscopy. The samples were annealed in air. Hock- in air.
ey reported that "dislocation activity" and stress
relief took place after annealing (up to 4 hr) at 900C, Annealing in conjunction with gas etch-
large dislocation networks developed at 1200C, and ing. Hydrogen annealing/etching of mechanically
the subsurface damage was completely eliminated at polished surfaces has been commonly used by investi-
1500C. The removal of the damage at 1500C was gators working in the field (Manasevit and Simpson,
assigned to thermal etching. In discussions of whether 1964; Robinson and Mueller, 1966; Durnin, 1967B;
the removal of work damage is associated with remov- Hart et al., 1967; Seiter and Zaminer, 1969; Cullen et
al of material or crystallographic rearrangement, one al., 1969; and Mercier, 1970A,B). Several of these
must be careful to take into consideration the orienta- workers have reported that semiconducting properties
tion involved. Moss (1973) observed thermal etching of silicon deposited on the hydrogen-annealed surface
2.4. Fabrication of the heteroepitaxial substrates 27
are equivalent to or exceed the properties of silicon appears that at 1500C the residual damage is com-
deposited on surface etched in liquid reagents (Hart et pletely removed in a period less than 30 min. On the
al., 1967; Mercier, 1970A). From a practical stand- other hand, assuming a rate of0.01 p.m/min at 1300C,
point, hydrogen annealing is attractive because the it is clear that the improvement in surface observed
reaction products are gaseous, and hydrogen is rela- after a 30-min firing must be attributed mainly to
tively easy to purify. There is little possibility, there- recrystallization. It has already been mentioned that
fore, of contaminating the substrate surface with spe- the movement of dislocation networks at temperatures
cies which are electrically active in silicon. below 1300C has been well established (Chang, 1971).
There has been a good deal of discussion as to Schmidt and Davey (1972) reported that after
whether hydrogen firing leads to improvement of the hydrogen firing commercially polished "substrate
mechanically polished substrate surface mainly by grade" sapphire at 1500C for 45 min, the surfaces
recrystallization or by removal of the work-damaged were ordered crystallographically (as indicated by
layer. This is an important point to consider in the reflection electron diffraction) but were topologically
development of effective and reproducible surface- poor. The surface roughness of the fired substrates is a
finishing techniques and warrants examination of the function of the quality of the final polishing. Clearly,
relationships among the etch rate as a function of hydrogen firing is not a panacea for all substrate finish-
temperature, the duration of the hydrogen firing, and ing processes and is acceptable only when all steps of
the depth of work damage. The etch rates at the the shaping and finishing processes are well
extremes of the commonly employed substrate firing controlled.
temperatures can be derived from the data of Zeveke Further evidence for the effectiveness of hydrogen
and coworkers (1968); 0.01 p.m/min at 1300C and 0.1 firing of the substrate surface is provided in the micro-
p.rnlmin at 1500C. Their straight-line plot oflog of the graph shown in Figure 2.12 (Mustachi, 1974). A pol-
rate vs. reciprocal temperature , and the observation ished wafer was broken into two parts, one half was
that the rate is insensitive to the hydrogen flow, sug- exposed to hydrogen for 30 min at 1200C, and then
gest that the removal rate is kinetically limited. Allison both halves were etched in KOH. It can be seen that
and coworkers (1969) and Schmidt and Davey (1972) the abrasive surface damage (A in Figure 2.12) has
have also reported an etch rate of 0.1 p.m/min at been completely eliminated by the hydrogen firing.
1500'C. The agreement between these investigators This particular crystal contained grain boundaries (B
may in part be attributed to the rate insensitivity of a in Figure 2.12); a boundary was employed to index the
kinetically controlled reaction to variations in the gas two halves of the sample. As was anticipated, the
flow dynamics of the various reaction vessels. The hydrogen firing had no noticeable influence on the
agreement is nonetheless remarkable considering the
inevitable differences in the extent of surface damage
in substrates prepared at various locations. Gottlieb
(1971) observed etch rates between 0.06 and 0.09 p.ml
min for substrates etched for 15 min at 1500C, but the
rate decreased to less than 0.03 p.m/min when integrat-
ed over a 1 hr period. As is the case with liquid etches,
it is anticipated that the more heavily work-damaged
area near the surface etches more rapidly than the
bulk of the crystal.
In the early work on silicon on sapphire, the sub-
strates were annealed in hydrogen at 1500C for 30
min (Mueller and Robinson, 1964). It is convenient,
however, to heat treat the substrate and deposit the
silicon in the same RF-heated carbon susceptor sys-
tem. At 1500C the carbon susceptors deteriorate and
outgas; therefore, lower annealing temperatures were
sought. As the methods for mechanical finishing were
improved, it was found that the hydrogen firing tem-
perature could be reduced. Using 0.30-p.m alumina as
the abrasive for the final finish, no advantage is seen in
firing carefully polished substrates at temperatures in FIGURE 2.12 An optical micrograph of KOH-etched
excess of 1300C for 30 min (Gottlieb, 1971). Using sapphire surfaces. Half of the polished wafer was exposed to
Hockey's (1972A,B) estimate of 2-p.m-deep work hydrogen for 30 min at J200'C. The grain boundary used to
damage after 0.30-p.m alumina finishing, and the com- index the halves was unaffected at this temperature. Letters
monly reported etch rate of 0.10 p.m/min at 1500C, it are defined in text. From Mustachi (1974)
28 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
gran boundary or the density of the grown-in defects more difficult to employ than the gaseous etches. The
(C in Figure 2.12). Dobrovinskaya and coworkers etch rates change because of accumulation of reaction
(1970) report that grown-in defects are not relieved in products in the liquid or decomposition of the etchant
sapphire below 1800C. (or both). The liquid flow over the substrate surface is
The optimum hydrogen annealing treatment for alu- difficult to control reproducibly, particularly in vis-
mina-rich flame fusion magnesium aluminate spinel cous liquids. In some cases difficult to remove reac-
was found to be 1150C for 30 min (Wang eta!., 1969; tion products form on the substrate surface (Robinson
Cullen eta!., 1969). Although the flame fusion spinel is and Mueller, 1966). A general problem with the
less reactive than the Czochralski spinel (Cullen and removal of subsurface work damage by etching is that
Wang, 1971), it is more reactive than sapphire, and the surface may be roughened as the result of prefer-
higher firing temperatures were avoided. It must be ential etching of the high-energy crystallographic
assumed that the removal rate at temperatures of defects. With materials such as silicon, the difference
about 1250C is low and that improvement of the between the etch rate of the more perfect crystal and
spinel surface also results mainly from annealing. The the defected areas is minimized by using high etch
polished surface of the relatively reactive stoichiomet- rates. With the less-reactive refractory oxides, high
ric Czochralski spinel cannot be improved by hydro- etch rates are difficult to achieve.
gen firing (Cullen and Dougherty, 1972). Green (1972) The chemical polishing of the stoichiometric Czo-
has proposed that the surface of the stoichiometric chralski spinel has received attention in recent years
material degrades as the result of the preferential loss because of the surface reactivity observed during
of magnesium oxide. hydrogen annealing (Green, 1972). In this case there
has been some motivation for overcoming the difficul-
Gas etching. The etching of sapphire with fluorinat-
ties commonly encountered in liquid etching. Aeschli-
ed hydrocarb.ons, originally proposed by Manasevit
mann and coworkers (1970) have achieved flat,
(1968B), has been more recently reinvestigated by
scratch-free surfaces of spinel after removal of -20
Schmidt and Davey (1972). The latter investigators
1-Lm by exposure to orthophosphoric acid (~P04) for
adjusted the content of fluorotrichloromethane (Freon
20 min at 390C. Temperature control is important.
11) in helium to obtain an etch rate of 7.5 1-Lm/min.
Above 400C phosphates are precipitated on the sur-
Smooth, scratch- and work damage-free surfaces are
face, and below 370"C the surface is pitted. Good
obtained on sapphire surfaces (60 and 90 to the c-
semiconducting properties have been achieved in sili-
axis) etched for 5 min. Other fluorine-containing gases
con deposited by vacuum evaporation on these etched
have been proposed as etchants for sapphire (Mana-
surfaces (Gassmann et a!., 1972). Reisman and
sevit and Morritz, 1967) but do not appear to have
coworkers (1971) have been successful in removing
been applied to any great degree.
residual work damage form (1 00) and (11 0) spinel by
At temperatures above the critical condensation
etching the surface in 3:1 H2 S04 :~P04 for 15 min at
temperature of silicon on sapphire, the substrate is
250C. If mechanically polished substrates are etched
etched by silane (Filby, 1966) and silicon vapor (Rey-
nolds and Elliott, 1966; Naber and O'Neal, 1968). in the H2S04:~P04 mixture, deep scratch-like pat-
Since the etchants are themselves the sources of sili- terns are observed on the surface. If the polished
sapphire is air annealed at 1500C for 1 hr prior to
con for CVD and evaporation processes and are avail-
able in high purity, they would appear to be conve- etching, the substrate surface is featureless. Reisman
concluded that the work damage is completely
nient reagents to use. Little information is available in
the literature, however, on the quality of the substrate removed by the high-temperature treatment and that
surface or the properties of silicon deposited on silane- the chemical etching serves only to remove residual
or silicon-etched surfaces. debris and impurities.
Robinson and Wance (1973) have investigated the
Liquid etching. The liquid reagents-for the most chemical finishing of the spinel with N~B4 07 Work
part molten salts or high-temperature acids-which damage-free and smooth surfaces have been realized
have been used to etch sapphire include V20 5 , in (100) stoichiometric and alumina-rich spinel after
KHS0 4, Na2B4 0 7 , and PbF 4. The use of these etch- exposure to borax at 800-900"C. As in the case with
ants has been reviewed by Filby (1972). More recent- the H2 S04:~P04 etching, the (111) spinel surfaces are
ly, Reisman and coworkers (1971) have used mixtures pitted in borax. Carrier mobilities in 1-~-Lm-thick sili-
of H 2S0 4 and H3 P0 4, and Robinson and Wance (1973) con deposited on the borax-etched (100) Czochralski
have employed Na2B40 7 for the chemical finishing of spinel surfaces are similar to mobilities observed in
both sapphire and spinel. There have been no reports, silicon deposited on hydrogen-annealed alumina-rich
however, that the semiconducting properties of silicon spinel.
on chemically polished sapphire are superior to the
properties of silicon deposited on the hydrogen- Chemical-mechanical surface removal. It has been
annealed substrates. The liquid etches are in general demonstrated recently that the subsurface work dam-
2.4. Fabrication of the heteroepitaxial substrates 29
characterization specifically as related to the evalua- substrates, however, the effect of the substrate finish
tion of surface finishing are briefly summarized here. is readily observable even in 1-~m-thick Sirtl-etched
Surface Microscopy: Substrate. It has previously silicon deposits (Sirtl and Adler, 1961).
been pointed out that surface microscopy of unetched Transmission Microscopy. The examination of the
substrates, even at magnifications available with scan- crystalline nature of the surfaces by transmission elec-
ning electron microscopy, is ineffective in revealing tron microscopy provides information not only on the
subsurface damage. The subsurface damage must be depth of damage but on the specific nature of the
converted into topological effects by chemical erosion damage (Hockey, 1972A,B). This method has not
of local high-energy damaged regions. Examination of been commonly employed due to the difficulties
etched surfaces at magnifications as high as 10,000x involved in thinning the sample.
(SEM) is an effective and commonly employed proce- X-ray Topography. Berg-Barrett x-ray topography
dure [see, for instance, the papers in Schneider and has been employed to examine residual surface dam-
Rice (1972)]. Of the various etches that have been age in sapphire and spinel substrates (Maurits and
employed to bring out the subsurface work damage in Hawley, 1971). An advantage to x-ray topography is
the rhombohedral plane of sapphire, concentrated that the entire surface of substrate wafers can be
KOH (at 300-310C) appears to have been the most examined, and thus the homogeneity of the finishing is
successfully employed (Mustachi, 1974; Maurits, evident. The disadvantages are that, using the normal
1974). A rigid test of the care with which the damage methods, the imperfections deep in the substrates are
introduced during sawing and lapping has been superimposed on surface defects, and magnification
removed by the final polishing operation is to examine results only from photographic enlargement.
the etched surface prior to the final thermal anneal. It Low-Angle Electron Diffraction. Electron diffrac-
is unusual to find a featureless surface after this treat- tion is a particularly useful surface evaluation tech-
ment. A KOH etched substrate, before and after the nique because, since the penetration of the electrons
final anneal, is shown in Figure 2.12. Note that grown- (at the angles commonly employed) is only -50 A, the
in defects, as well as the damage introduced by the structure near the surface is emphasized. (In x-ray
shaping and finishing, are brought out by the KOH diffraction, sensitivity to surface effects is lost as more
etch. of the material is sampled.) Care must be taken to
Surface Microscopy: Silicon. The physical charac- sample a sufficiently large portion of the surface to
teristics of the surface of the deposited silicon may be assure the detection of finishing heterogeneities. This
used as a qualitative measure of the substrate surface method was commonly employed during the early
quality. Unless the substrate finish is unusually poor, development of methods to finish the substrate sur-
however, the effect of substrate work damage on the face. The results are qualitative, however, and it is not
physical appearance of the heteroepitaxial silicon can- clear that the method is sensitive enough to detect the
not be observed in as-deposited films 1 ~m and less in small differences now being experienced in the better
thickness. The influence of the substrate surface dam- substrate surfaces.
age may be brought out by depositing thick films (:;;.2 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED) Studies.
~m) and by etching the thick film. The appearance of LEED studies provide detailed information on the"
topological features in thick silicon deposited on dam- nature of the atomic arrangement at the surface and of
aged substrates can be attributed to the dependence of the presence of foreign materials (Estrup and McRae,
the growth rate of silicon on the crystallographic ori- 1971; Chang, 1971). Information on the subsurface
entation. The silicon deposit on the damaged substrate effects can be derived, however, only to within sev-
will be misoriented (or polycrystalline) and thus grow eral atomic spacings of the surface. Meaningful inter-
at a different rate than the surrounds. Since the differ- pretation of LEED patterns requires considerable
ences in the rate are small, the effect must be experience in the field.
enhanced by the growth of relatively thick films. IR Reflection. Lattice-related stress, which can
It is difficult to derive information on the substrate result from mechanical work damage, deforms the
surface finish by exposing thin (1 ~m and less) silicon normal modes for the sapphire vibrational states and
deposited on annealed substrates to the conventional gives rise to forbidden modes in the specular reflection
dislocation etches. The overall high density of defect spectrum (Barker, 1963). This effect is being used in
structures masks localized defects propagated from the development of a method to monitor the substrate
work-damaged areas, and etched surfaces are general- surface quality by IR reflection (Duffy et al., 1975;
ly rough and unfaceted. As the thickness of the silicon Duffy and Zanzucchi, 1976). The effect is not large,
increases, and if the overall substrate finish is good and care must be exercised to establish correlations
and the damage is localized, the crystallinity of the between the observed shifts in the reflection spectra
matrix improves more rapidly than the material in and the specific types of surface work damage. The
which substrate defects have been propagated, and method is attractive because it is nondestructive and
dislocation etches can be employed. On unannealed can be rapid. With further development, it offers the
32 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
possiblity of commercial in-line control of the quality in Huff and Burgess (1973)]. Efforts are now in prog-
of the surface finish. ress at a number of organizations to establish relation-
Constancy of Etch Rate. Since the rate of dissolu- ships between local defect structures and device per-
tion of single crystal materials is a function of the formance in silicon on sapphire.
crystalline perfection, the depth of damage may be
determined by measuring the etch rate as a function of Future trends in surface finishing
thickness. The etch rate is commonly determined by
weight loss. This technique has commonly been It has been common practice to mimmize shaping
employed in the examination of semiconductor single costs by using rapid material removal procedures
crystals (Faust, 1969) and has recently been applied to (high pressure, large abrasive) with little regard to the
the refractory oxides (Ehman, 1973). Care must be introduction of work damage. The assumption has
taken to maintain the chemical conditions constant been that work damage introduced during shaping can
and to avoid pitting. In order to maintain control over be removed at a later stage. Recently, more detailed
the removal of very thin layers of material, low etch examination of the microstructures of lapped and pol-
rates are employed, and therefore, the weight losses ished surfaces has brought an appreciation of the
must be measured very accurately. depth to which damage can be intr.oduced and of the
Surface Microhardness. It is interesting to note that difficulties involved in reproducibly removing the
the work of Ehman (1973) suggests a correlation damage. It seems logical that a future trend will be to
between microhardness and depth of damage for avoid the use of such damaging shaping procedures in
refractory oxides. It is difficult to explain, however, the first place and to compensate for the time con-
why the relationships observed are internally consis- sumed in using less damaging (slower) techniques with
tent only for one type of preparation (sawing, lapping, automatic equipment and multiple wafer processing
or polishing); such correlations were not observed techniques. As the demand for substrates increases, it
when measuring the depth of damage introduced by becomes economically feasible to employ such
the different surface treatments. Although microhard- equipment.
ness would be a convenient method of measurement It is also anticipated that the chemical-mechanical
of depth of damage, it would appear that a further methods of surface finishing will be further developed.
understanding of the mechanism involved must be With improvements in the cutting methods, and
developed in order for this to become a method of increases in the rate of chemical-mechanical polishing,
general use. the intermediate grinding and lapping could be eventu-
Electrical Properties of the Deposited Silicon. The ally eliminated. The motivation for further develop-
Hall mobility of 1.0-1.5-JLm-thick silicon on sapphire ment is clear. The time expended in substrate shaping
and spinel has been employed for the evaluation of the and finishing, and the material loss, are significant
surface finishing (Gottlieb, 1971). The Hall patterns factors in the economics of semiconductors on insulat-
generally cover a relatively large area of the substrate ing substrates; and the crystallographic properties of
(>0.5 cm2 ), and it must be assumed that the surface the heteroepitaxial silicon are closely associated with
finish under evaluation is homogeneous. Druminski the nature of the substrate surface.
and coworkers (1974) have examined the correlation
between the MOS transistor mobility, the substrate
quality (as measured by electron microscopy and dif- 2.5. The gaseous silicon source in
fraction), and the silicon quality (as measured by ion heteroepitaxial growth
backscattering, optical absorption, and light microsco-
py). While qualitative relationships were observed Silicon tetrachloride, which is commonly employed as
between the results of all of the measurements cited, the gaseous source of silicon in the homoepitaxial
quantitative correlations with the mobility were growth of silicon, was also used in the early attempts
observed only with optical absorption and ion back- to realize deposition of single crystal silicon on sap-
scattering of the heteroepitaxial silicon. phire and spinel (Manasevit and Simpson, 1963, 1964;
In the final analysis the question that must be asked Seiter and Zaminer, 1965). Trichlorosilane was also
is what influence local substrate defects, both grown- considered as the silicon source (Bicknell et al., 1966;
in and introduced during polishing, have on the electri- Heywang, 1968). It was soon realized, however, that
cal characteristics of individual components of inte- the halogen-bearing starting materials react with the
grated device structures. It is extremely difficult to sapphire and spinel (Bicknell et al., 1966). As a result,
isolate material effects from device processing effects. the impurity content of the silicon near the silicon
This has been the subject of a great deal of investiga- substrate was high, the crystallinity was poor, and it
tion in devices fabricated by diffusion and/or homoepi- proved possible to achieve usable semiconducting
taxial growth on bulk silicon [see for instance papers properties only in relatively thick films. More recent-
2.5. The gaseous silicon source in heteroepitaxial growth 33
ly, Druminski and Wieczorek (1975) investigated di- enhancement of the crystalline perfection of the grown
chlorosilane as the source gas for the deposition of layer as a result of the removal of high-energy (defect)
silicon on both sapphire and spinel but observed no silicon and redeposition of a more ordered silicon
advantage over silane. Therefore, investigators in the structure. In order to take advantage of the positive
field turned to the use of the less corrosive (in relation features of both source gases, schemes have been
to alumina) silane as the silicon source (Mueller and developed in which the surface of the insulating sub-
Robinson, 1964; Manasevit et al., 1965; Bicknell et al., strate is covered using silane as the source (heteroepi-
1966). The erosion of the substrate by the chlorinated taxy) and the silicon is then grown to the desired
silanes can be associated not only with the presence of thickness (homoepitaxy) by substituting a chlorinated
the halogen, but also with the relatively high tempera- silane or by adding hydrogen chloride to the silane
tures required for the chemical reduction of the chlori- stream (Druminski and Schlotterer, 1972).
nated silanes (~ 1050"C). The pyrolysis of silane at Silane is less stable than any of the chlorinated
acceptable rates can be achieved at 950C. At the silanes. The standard heat of formation (AH1) of silane
higher temperatures, silicon, as well as the reaction is between 7.3 and 7.8 kcal!mole (Brimm and Hum-
products from the reduction of the chlorinated silanes, phreys, 1957; Gunn, 1961). Thus, silane is thermody-
react with the substrate. The first silicon growth namically unstable at room temperature. The decom-
islands are more dense, and surface coverage is position rate, however, is sufficiently low that silane
achieved more rapidly in the deposition of silicon from can be stored at room temperature without time
silane than from silicon tetrachloride (Manasevit et al., restraint. The standard heat of decomposition, stan-
1965) or trichlorosilane (Bicknell et al., 1966). This is dard free energy of decomposition, and equilibrium
because (at least in part) the reverse reaction is negligi- constant of silane as a function of temperature have
ble in the pyrolysis of silane whereas in the reduction been plotted by Mayer and Shea (1964). Also included
of the chloride the reverse reaction results in the in the plots are phosphine and diborane, which are
removal of silicon from the surface. In the deposition commonly used as dopant sources.
of silicon from the chlorinated silanes, the silicon Silane is less stable than any of the chlorinated
islands must form on a surface which is simultaneous- silanes. The standard heat offormation (A.H1) of silane
ly being eroded and from which gaseous reaction is between 7.3 and 7.8 kcal/mole (Brimm and Hum-
products must escape. phreys, 1957; Gunn, 1961). Thus, silane is thermodyn-
In order to achieve acceptable semiconducting amically unstable at room temperature. The decompo-
properties in silicon deposited at temperatures less sition rate, however, is sufficiently low that silane can
than -1100C, atmospheric oxygen and moisture must be stored at room temperature without time restraint.
be rigorously excluded from the deposition system. The standard heat of decomposition, standard free
Above 11 00C silicon oxide is reduced by silicon to energy of decomposition, and equilibrium constant of
form gaseous intermediate-oxidation-state oxides, and silane as a function of temperature have been plotted
thus oxygen at low levels can be tolerated. Below by Mayer and Shea (1964). Also included in the plots
llOO"C, however, silicon oxide is stable in the pres- are phosphate and diborane, which are commonly
ence of silicon. At oxygen levels too low to monitor used as dopant sources.
with conventional analytical instrumentation (<0.1 Although it has commonly been assumed that the
ppm), the presence of oxygen results in the degrada- silicon deposition reaction is surface catalyzed, this
tion of the semiconducting properties of heteroepitaxi- appears to occur more in the decomposition of silicon
al silicon. It is for this reason that the relatively low- by the hydrogen reduction of the chlorosilanes than in
temperature silane pyrolysis reaction is not commonly the pyrolysis of silane, and measures must be taken in
employed in production facilities for the homoepitaxi- developing the deposition conditions to avoid homo-
al growth of silicon, except for the preparation of geneous gas-phase decomposition and the subsequent
device structures in which dopant diffusion must be deposition of solid silicon particles on the substrate
minimized by the use of the low deposition tempera- surfaces. The amount of homogeneous gas-phase
tures. The current expense of silane is also a consider- decomposition is a function of the thermal gradient
ation for use in production facilities. It should be normal to the substrate surface and is thus strongly
noted that silane spontaneously ignites on contact dependent on the reactor geometry (see Section 2.10).
with air, and therefore, silane/hydrogen mixtures must In an effort to completely avoid the presence of
be handled with care to avoid explosion. hydrogen (even as a reaction product) in the deposi-
Whereas the nonreversibility of the silane pyrolysis tion ambient, attempts have been made to deposit
reaction is an advantage in the realization of rapid silicon on insulating substrates using helium as the
substrate surface coverage, in the homoepitaxial carrier gas and organosilanes (such as tetramethyl
growth of silicon from silicon tetrachloride the opera- silane) as the silicon source. To date, the use of the
tion of a reverse (etching) reaction results in the organosilanes as a silicon source has led to the deposi-
34 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
tion of mixtures of silicon and silicon carbide (A vigal ter (see Section 2.12). Because of the undesirable
and Schieber, 1971, Avigal et al., 1974). effects of the presence of substrate reaction products,
considerable effort has been expended in the develop-
ment of deposition conditions that suppress the reac-
2.6. Chemical reactions between the tion between the deposition constituents and the sub-
substrate and the deposition constituents strate. At the same time an effort has also been
directed toward minimizing the high-temperature pro-
The incorporation of substrate reaction products cessing required during the fabrication of devices in
silicon on the insulating substrates.
One of the factors limiting the semiconducting proper- A number of investigators have cited the reaction
ties of thin heteroepitaxial silicon on insulating sub-
strates is the presence in the films of the products of
2Si + Al20 3 +2 Al20 t + 2Si0 t
reaction between the substrate and the deposition con- as the primary source of unintentionally added impuri-
stituents. The incorporation of the reaction products ties in both silicon on sapphire (von Grube et al., 1949;
during the growth of the silicon influences the semi- Manasevit et al., 1965; Bicknell et al., 1966; Hart et
conducting properties in a number of ways. Both sub- al., 1967) and silicon on spinel (Seiter and Zaminer,
stitutionally and interstitially incorporated reaction 1965; Cullen et al., 1969). Although the chemical
products may lead to degradation of the carrier mobili- reduction of alumina by silicon is cited as a source of
ty by distortion of the single crystal silicon lattice. If autodoping of silicon on spinel, it is assumed that
the contaminants are charged, degradation of the similar reactions involving the reduction of magnesia
mobility may also result from scattering of the carriers are involved.
by the charged centers. The impurities may also be The reaction
ionized and lead to a different carrier concentration
from that anticipated on the basis of the amount of
3Si + Al 20 3 +2 2Al + 3Si0 t
intentionally added dopant material. The latter effect has also been cited as a source of autodoping after the
is commonly called "autodoping," by analogy with observation of elemental aluminum as a reaction prod-
effects seen in the homoepitaxial growth of silicon uct (Chang, 1971). The presence of free aluminum is
wherein electrically active species are transferrred somewhat surprising, considering the relative reduc-
from the substrate into the epitaxially grown deposit ing strength of silicon and .aluminum (E 0 si = 0.84 V;
as the result in diffusion, volatilization, or chemical Eo Al = 1.67 V). The escape of the intermediate-oxida-
transport during the growth of the epitaxial silicon. In tion-state oxide of silicon apparently leads to a shift in
the case of the heteroepitaxial growth of silicon, reac- the reaction toward the production of aluminum. In
tion of the deposition constituents with the substrates considering to what extent reactions must be shifted
is the main source of autodoping. The erosion of the from equilibrium to account for the production of
substrate surface may also result in roughening of the significant amounts of dopants, it should be kept in
surface on a microscopic scale. This can lead to the mind that 1 ppm of an electrically active species is
exposure of undesired crystallographic orientations in equivalent to a carrier concentration (in silicon) of
substrate and the propagation of spurious orientations about 6 x 1016/cm 3 Thus, the generation of reaction
and microfaceting in the heteroepitaxial silicon. products in quantities normally considered to be insig-
The effect of the incorporated substrate reaction nificant in preparative inorganic chemistry can lead to
products on the film semiconducting properties is serious alteration of the semiconducting properties of
altered during the thermal processing (in neutral and the heteroepitaxial silicon.
oxidizing ambients) used in device fabrication. This The identification of elemental aluminum as a prod-
must be taken into account in the design of processing uct of the reduction of sapphire with silicon suggests
procedures for the fabrication of device structures in the possibility that autodoping is the result of the
the heteroepitaxial silicon. Because of this effect, a direct substitution of aluminum in the silicon lattice. In
quality factor in the evaluation of heteroepitaxial previous discussions of the autodoping mechanism,
growth conditions is the percentage change in the the oxidation state of the aluminum had not been
carrier concentration and mobility during a standard specified. In order to explain the donor activity of
thermal oxidation. It is interesting to note that the "as- oxidized aluminum, interaction with crystalline
deposited" semiconducting properties of heteroepi- defects or the formation of aluminum-oxygen com-
taxial silicon are relatively insensitive to the deposi- plexes have been invoked.
tion parameters, whereas the "after-oxidation" prop- Since gaseous reaction products must escape from
erties are a strong function of the deposition the growth surface in order for the chemical reduction
parameters (Cullen et al., 1969). This effect is dis- of the substrate by silicon to proceed, it is reasonable
cussed in further detail in a later portion of this chap- to assume that the reaction is terminated after the
2.6. Chemical reactions between the substrate and the deposition constituents 35
surface of the substrate is completely covered. On the to complete coverage of the surface, the substrate is
other hand, the reaction of silicon on the back of the eroded at the edge of the silicon deposit but not in the
substrates as a source of autodoping must not be open areas exposed to hydrogen. This demonstrates
overlooked (Hart et al., 1967). Silicon may be in con- that with flame fusion spinel as well as sapphire,
tact with the back surface of the substrate as the result chemical reduction by silicon (rather than hydrogen) is
of placing the substrate on a silicon-coated susceptor, the main source of reaction products leading to auto-
as the result of transport of the silicon from the sus- doping of the silicon deposited (see Section 2.9).
ceptor to the substrate, or as the result of the pyrolysis The more reactive stoichiometric spinel
of silane that diffuses to the back of the substrate. (MgO Al20 3 ) prepared by the Czochralski process is
Whereas evolution of gaseous reaction products from reduced by both silicon and hydrogen. In this case
the front surface of the substrate is rapidly blocked by erosion of the substrate surface by hydrogen at the
complete coverage of the surface with silicon, the silicon deposition temperature can be clearly observed
back surface does not become completely covered by microscopic examination of hydrogen-annealed
with silicon and therefore may be a source of gaseous surfaces (Cullen and Dougherty, 1972; Green, 1972). It
contamination during the entire deposition run. Also, has been proposed that the crazing of the Czochralski
the back surface is at a higher temperature than the spinel on exposure to hydrogen is the result of the
front surface. Therefore, doping may be decreased by preferential reduction of the magnesia component of
coating the back surface on the substrate, particularly the spinel (Green, 1972). Because of the reactivity of
for the preparation of very low carrier concentration the Czochralski spinel to hydrogen at temperatures in
films and when relatively low deposition rates are used excess of lOOOoC, the subsurface damage resulting
(Mercier, 1968, 1970B). For carrier concentrations from mechanical surface finishing cannot be removed
greater than 1 x 1016/cm3 and for deposition rates of;;;, by annealing under the conditions that are commonly
2 ~m/min it appears that little advantage is gained by used prior to deposition on sapphire (30 min at 1300C
sealing the back of the substrate. in hydrogen). The Czochralski spinel can be effective-
Above the critical condensation temperature of sili- ly annealed, however, in air [Reisman et al. (1971); see
con (> 1200C), elemental silicon (Reynolds and also Section 2.4]. The Hall mobilities measured in
Elliott, 1966; Naber and O'Neal, 1968) and silane silicon deposited in a hydrogen ambient on Czochral-
(Filby, (1966) erode the sapphire at a sufficiently high ski spinel annealed in air for 5 hr at 1500-1600C are
rate to be useful for the removal of work-damaged similar to the mobilities observed in silicon deposited
sapphire. The latter author invokes the formation of a on the hydrogen annealed flame fusion spinel (Cullen
silicon-aluminum alloy as an intermediate step in the and Corboy, 1974).
removal of sapphire as gaseous reaction products.
The reduction of both sapphire (Durnin, 1967B; Helium as a carrier gas
Mercier, 1968, 1970B) and spinel (Robinson and Dum-
in, 1968; Green, 1972) by hydrogen has also been
The feasibility of using helium as a carrier gas has
proposed as a source of reaction products which lead
been explored. This approach was originally directed
to the autodoping of heteroepitaxial silicon:
toward lowering the temperature for the homoepitaxi-
2H 2 + Al 20 3 ~ Al20 + 2H20 al growth of silicon (Richman and Arlett, 1969; Mer-
H 2 + MgO ~ Mg + H2 0 cier, 1971). Degradation of the silicon deposited on the
The reduction of sapphire, however, can be Czochralski spinel can be minimized by employing
assigned primarily to silicon as the reducing agent, helium as the carrier gas. The mobilities measured in
since no advantage is realized by depositing silicon on silicon deposited in helium on the Czochralski spinel
sapphire in a helium atmosphere (Chiang and Looney, are similar to the mobilities observed in silicon depos-
1973; see also following section). In the case of spinel, ited on flame fusion spinel in a hydrogen ambient
(Cullen and Dougherty, 1972). It is interesting to note
the chemical reactivity of the substrate surface is
that in the helium ambient, the optimum growth tem-
strongly dependent on the method used to prepare the
substrate crystal (Cullen and Wang, 1971). The chemi- perature appears to be 40-60C below that used in a
hydrogen ambient (Chiang and Looney, 1973). Under
cal reactivity of the MgO 1. 7Al20 3 spinel substrates
these conditions, improved mobilities have been real-
prepared by the flame fusion process is similar to that
ized (see Figure 2.41).
of sapphire, and no advantage is observed in the use of
helium in place of hydrogen as a carrier gas for the
deposition of silicon on the flame fusion spinel (Cullen The reactivity of spinel substrates
and Dougherty, 1972). It has been observed (by SEM)
that if the deposition of silicon on the flame fusion It is tempting to explain the different reactivities of the
alumina-rich spinel (MgO 1. 7Al20 3 ) is stopped prior sapphire (Al 20 3), the Czochralski stoichiometric spi-
36 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
nel (MgO Al2 0 3), and the flame fusion alumina-rich presence of an AISio+ species in SIMS profiles of the
spinel (MgO 1. 7Ab0 3) on the basis of the alumina deposit. Spots were observed on the electron diffrac-
content. A reasonable proposition would be that alu- tion pattern of the 400-A-thick layer which could not
mina is more resistant to chemical reduction (by sili- be assigned to either the silicon or the substrate (in
con and hydrogen) than magnesia and that therefore this case, spinel). It should be noted, however, that
the degree of autodoping is proportional to the alumi- diffraction spots characteristic of single crystal silicon
na content. It has been observed, however, that the were observed in the 400 A layer. The work of the
surface reactivity of the flux-grown stoichiometric spi- Siemens investigators on the characterization of the
nel is more similar to that of the flame fusion alumina- interface layer has been reviewed by Schlotterer
rich spinel than of the Czochralski-grown stoichiomet- (1976). There is not agreement among investigators in
ric spinel (Cullen and Wang, 1971). In an attempt to the field on the nature or the existence of an interface
stimulate the growth conditions of the flame fusion compound. Cullen and coworkers (1975A) assigned
process (wherein water is present as the product of the extra spots observed in the electron diffraction
combustion of the H2 -0 2 flame), moisture was added patterns of 0.2-p,m-thick silicon on sapphire to miso-
to the ambient during Czochralski growth. This proce- riented silicon rather than to an additional phase.
dure did indeed lead to the chemical stabilization of Abrahams and Buiocchi (1975, 1976) have observed
the Czochralski-grown stoichiometric spinel (Cullen et no evidence for a discrete interface compound in the
al., 1975B; Cullen and Corboy, 1974). Thus, the chem- transmission electron microscopic examination of
ical reactivity within the Al2 0s/Mg0 1.7 Al2 0) cross sections of the interface region of the silicon-on-
MgO Al2 0 3 system must be related to more subtle sapphire composite. Although it is difficult to assign
effects such as the presence of OH- ions and crystal- quantitatively a thickness below which one cannot
lographic site occupancy than to the more obvious observe an interface layer by TEM, it is anticipated
Mg0/Al20 3 ratio. that a layer between 200 and 400 A would be seen if
present. We have taken the position that the material
Interface compounds directly adjacent to the substrate is heavily contami-
nated (see Section 2. 7.) silicon with some degree of
A number of investigators have proposed that the crystallographic misorientation in relation to the
reaction between silicon and the substrate results in "bulk" of the silicon deposit. The electrical and physi-
the formation of a compound at the interface with a cal properties of this contaminated/misoriented silicon
composition, and possibly a crystalline structure, dis- differ markedly from the "bulk" of the thin film, and it
tinct from that of either the substrate or silicon. In is understandable that it is identified as a spurious
early work, Heiman (1966) referred to the presence of phase, particularly when the investigation is based on
a "glassy" material at the interface. His hypothesis electrical properties. Some of the discrepancy
was based primarily on electrical results. More recent- between the various investigators may be accounted
ly, Ipri (l972A,B) reported the existence of a layer for by differences in deposition conditions or substrate
adjacent to the substrate surface which is essentially preparation.
insulating. This conclusion was based on a rather long
extrapolation of mobility vs. thickness data within Impurity profile in heteroepitaxial silicon
about 0.2 p,m of the silicon most remote from the
substrate in a 1-p,m-thick deposit. Stein (1972), on the It has been assumed for many years that the depen-
basis of optical absorption measurements, concluded dence of the semiconducting properties on the heter-
that spinel substrates are chemically modified by the oepitaxial silicon thickness can be associated with
deposition of silicon. Cullis (1972) examined the early changes in the impurity content (and the associated
growth of silicon on sapphire by electron microscopy. change in crystalline perfection) with distance from
At low deposition rates he observed evidence of an the silicon/substrate interface. The direct measure-
interface compound, which he assumed (on the basis ment of the impurity profile is a difficult task because
of the species present) to be an alumina silicate. More of the small volume of material available for analysis
recently, Kiihl and coworkers (1974, 1976A) have sup- and the relatively low (in the ppm level) impurity
plied the most direct evidence for the existence of an content. Early attempts to derive such profiles by
interface compound. Their work included both silicon concentration of etchants used for the controlled
on sapphire and silicon on spinel, but most of the data removal of the deposit and by spark-source mass
presented were gathered from silicon on spinel. They spectrometry did not lead to conclusive results. As
have proposed the presence of an alumina silicate secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) became
layer ~ 400 A thick, based on a difference in optically available, it became possible to develop impurity pro-
and mechanically measured thicknesses, differences files as a function of deposition parameters. The SIMS
in etch characteristics, optical absorption, and the is commonly used in conjunction with sputter removal
2.6. Chemical reactions between the substrate and the deposition constituents 37
/!
and hydrogen (at 1100C) atmospheres. It was
observed that the aluminum content of the silicon
deposited in the helium atmosphere at the lower tem-
perature was less than that of the silicon deposited in o I
hydrogen at the higher temperature by a factor of 104 I
The relationship of these results to current technology I
I
is difficult to assess, however, because of a lack of I
calibration and because of the unusually low growth I
rate (0.1 ~-trnlmin) and the relatively high temperature I
I
employed for the deposition of the silicon on sapphire. I
Garcia and coworkers (1973), on the basis of SIMS 1016L-__~L_L__ _~----~--_ll_ _ _ _ _ __ _ J
analysis of silicon on sapphire, observed that the alu- 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
minum content is a function of the distance from the DISTANCE FROM OUTER SURFACE (,u.ml
substrate surface and the exposure of the composite to
FIGURE 2.15 A secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS)
thermal oxidation. Aluminum contents as high as 1019/
profile of the aluminum concentration in the interface region
cm3 were observed near the silicon/substrate inter- of silicon deposited on sapphire at 2 ~-trnlmin (1000C)
face. These investigators proposed that AlxO u com-
plexes are present. Rai-Choudhury and coworkers
(1974B) have examined the aluminum distribution coworkers (1976), also using SIMS, have compared
(using SIMS) of silicon on sapphire that contained a the aluminum profile in silicon deposited on sapphire
heavily phosphorus-doped (10 20/cm 3 ) layer at the inter- at 2 ~-trnlmin and deposited using an initial growth rate
face to enhance the carrier lifetime in the "'bulk" of (for the first 0.15 ~-tm) of >5 ~-tmlmin (see Section 2.8.).
the deposit. A peak in the aluminum profile at a A SIMS profile of the interface region of silicon depos-
position approximately one third of the thickness of ited at 2 ~-tmlmin is shown in Figure 2.15. The x axis is
the deposit (overall thickness unspecified) was associ- the distance from the outer (most remote from the
ated with the presence of the phosphorus layer. Kiihl substrate) silicon surface. They axis is the aluminum
and coworkers (1976A) and Schlotterer (1976) have content, calibrated with ion implantation (aluminum)
observed an AlSio+ signal in a SIMS profile which of bulk silicon. The silicon/substrate interface is taken,
peaks near the interface of silicon on sapphire. A long for the purpose of the analysis, as the point at which
tail of this signal on the substrate side of the interface the silicon content decreases to 50 percent of the
cannot be explained by these investigators. Kiihl and "'bulk" value. The assignment of the interface in this
coworkers (1976B) also developed SIMS profiles of manner is commonly done in sputter-removal analyti-
silicon on spinel and of the surface of the spinel after cal technique. It can be seen that the aluminum con-
removal of the silicon by acid etching. The aluminum tent decreases by approximately three orders of mag-
signals were observed to decrease by about a factor of nitude to a "'bulk" level over a distance of 500 A. A
100 over a distance of approximately 100 A from the similar decrease with distance from the substrate was
substrate surface. The presence of silicon was observed in a number of samples. In all of the samples
observed in the material remaining on the substrate examined, the aluminum content in the deposit more
surface after the acid removal of the silicon. The than 500 A from the substrate is ~5 x l0 16/cm3 The
presence of silicon/oxygen species was assigned to shape ofthe SIMS profile within 500 A of the interface
oxidation occurring after removal of the silicon layer. was similar in the silicon deposited at a constant
These investigators point out that the SIMS data are growth rate and the silicon deposited using a rapid
consistent with the presence of an Al/Si/0 interface early growth rate. The use of the rapid early growth
compound. technique did, however, lead to a reduction of the
Cullen and coworkers (1975A) and Harrington and aluminum content in the "'bulk" of the deposit (i.e.,
38 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
the deposit more than -500 A from the interface). It is edge of the growth island that the reaction between
clear that most of the aluminum is electrically inac- silicon and the substrate takes place.
tive, since the level of autodoping of the silicon depos-
ited under the conditions described is typically ~ 1015
holes/cm3 In attempting to explain the insensitivity of 2. 7. The nature of silicon growth prior to
the aluminum distribution in the interface region to complete coverage of the substrate surface
growth rates in excess of 2 11-rnlmin, it should be kept
in mind that the thickness at which the substrate is General considerations
covered has proven to be independent of growth rate
for rates between 0.3 and 2 11-rnlmin (in silicon on It has been informative to examine the nature of the
spinel) (Cullen and Dougherty, 1972). It is reasonable early growth of silicon on the insulating substrates as a
to associate the distance over which the aluminum function of the chemical and crystallographic charac-
abruptly decreases with the thickness at which the ter of the substrate, the method used for the prepara-
substrate is completely covered (300-500 A in silicon tion of the substrate surface, and the deposition tem-
on sapphire; see Section 2. 7). perature and rate. In this section the phrase early
growth is taken to mean the growth of the silicon prior
The effects of reaction between silicon and the to complete coverage of the substrate surface. A quali-
substrate surface tative measure of the extent of reaction between the
substrate and silicon and the carrier gases can be
Focus has been placed in the past on the reaction derived from the examination of the early growth
between deposition constitutents and the substrate in islands.
relation to autodoping effects. Using deposition rates Manasevit and coworkers (1965) compared the
~ 2 11-rnlmin, and deposition temperatures ~1000C, nature of early growth of silicon deposited from silicon
the autodoping has been reduced to acceptable levels tetrachloride and silane on sapphire using replication
with regard to current device processing procedures. electron microscopy. They noted that the substrate
Of perhaps greater concern (at least under current surface was covered more rapidly when silane was
deposition conditions) is the physical roughening of employed as the silicon source than when the silicon
the substrate surface as the result of reaction between tetrachloride was the source. Some faceting of the
silicon and the substrate and the exposure of unde- early growth islands was observed in silicon deposited
sired substrate orientations. The roughening of the from the halide. Bicknell and coworkers (1966), also
substrate surface leads to the nucleation of orienta- using replication techniques, compared the early
tions that differ from the "bulk" of the heteroepitaxial growth of silicon deposited on sapphire from trichloro-
deposit. Chang (1971), in connection with the evapora- silane and silane. At their relatively high deposition
tion of silicon on sapphire (see Section 2.9), has point- temperature (1200"C), reaction with the substrate was
ed out that faceting of the surface determines the observed using the halogenated silane as the source,
upper limit of temperatures at which good crystallinity and the early growth islands proved not to be single
can be achieved in the evaporated heteroepitaxial sili- crystalline. Reaction with the surface was detached
con. Cullen and coworkers (1975A) have proposed when silicon was deposited from silane only at deposi-
that the improvement of the semiconducting proper- tion rates less than 0.5 11-mlmin. Mercier (1971), using
ties in thin (<0.9 11-m) heteroepitaxia1 silicon associ- deposition rates less than 0.5 11-mlmin and silane as the
ated with rapid early growth is more related to main- source, also observed erosion of the sapphire sub-
taining the smoothness of the substrate surface than strate between the silicon islands. In a TEM study of
with suppression of autodoping per se. It is evident silicon evaporated onto (0001) sapphire platelets, Cui-
from electron diffraction of 0.2-11-m-thick deposits that lis (1972) reported evidence of reaction between sili-
the surface of the silicon deposited using the rapid con islands and the substrate at an evaporation tem-
early growth method is smoother than the surface of perature of 900"C. Less reaction was observed at a
the silicon grown at 2 11-rnlmin. This is consistent with deposition rate of 20 A!s than at 0.5 A!s.
suppression of substrate surface roughening. We spec- Using flame fusion spinel as the substrate and sili-
ulate that the rapid early growth may force the contin- con tetrachloride and trichlorosilane as the source for
uation of growth of the first nucleated silicon islands, deposition at 1200C, Heywang (1968) observed evi-
rather than the nucleation and growth of some islands dence for reaction between silicon and the incomplete-
at the expense of other islands already on the surface ly covered substrate by TEM. In the presence of the
of the incompletely covered substrate (see Figure corrosive halides, it is not clear how reaction with
2.20). When the latter process is operative, some areas silicon was distinguished from reaction with the hal-
of the substrate are exposed more than one time to the ides (or halide reduction product; e.g, HCl). Because
expanding edge of a silicon growth island. It is at the of the reactivity of silicon tetrachloride and the halo-
2.7. The nature of silicon growth prior to complete coverage of the substrate surface 39
smooth, and no evidence of the island formation can interrupted, and thus the erosion of the substrate at
be seen. the edge of the silicon island must have occurred at
The shape, distribution, and manner in which the deposition temperature immediately after termination
islands grow are similar for the three growth rates of the silane and during cooldown in hydrogen. This
studied. It is only the duration of exposure of the type of erosion is consistent with other evidence that
substrate to the gaseous ambient that is altered by reaction with the substrate is more the result of the
changing the growth rate. A useful conclusion of the chemical reduction of silicon than by hydrogen. Had
examination of the mode of surface coverage of spinel chemical reduction by hydrogen been responsible for
is that the surface is completely covered at a thickness the substrate erosion, the recessions in the substrate
of -0.2 1-Lm and that this thickness is independent of would have been deepest in the center of the openings
growth rate within the range of rates studied. in the deposit rather than at the edge of the openings.
If silicon is removed from the incompletely covered A series of (111) flame fusion spinel substrates was
flame fusion spinel substrates by dissolution in an prepared simultaneously with the sapphire samples
aqueous HF-HN0 3 etch, one finds that the shape of described in the following section. When examined by
the silicon islands is imprinted on the substrate in the replication electron microscopy, the morphology of
form of recessions which correspond to the edge of the the silicon growth on spinel at 1000 and 1100C was
removed silicon islands (Cullen and Dougherty, 1972). essentially identical to the morphology observed in
Such a pattern is not observed unless the growth is silicon on sapphire shown in Figure 2.20. (The differ-
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.18 Scanning electron micrographs of the early growth of silicon deposited in hydrogen on flame fusion spinel. (a)
After 1 sat 2 J.tmlmin; (b) after 3 sat 2 J.tmlmin; (c) after 20 sat 0.3 J.tmlmin; (d) after 30 sat 0.3 J.tmlmin. Original magnification
20,000x; beam-sample angle 70. The ellipse shows the effect of foreshortening. From Cullen and Dougherty (1972)
42 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
the substrate was observed at the edge of the growth Early growth as a function of surface preparation
islands. It is interesting to note that the general liquid- and the chemical nature of the substrate
like three-dimensional nucleation and coalescence
observed by Linnington is very similar to the nature of A number of investigators have adopted the procedure
growth observed in silicon deposited from silane at of "annealing" the substrate surface in a hydrogen
similar temperatures and rates. The low pressure and ambient for 20 min at 1150C (see Section 2.3). This
absence of silane do not appear to have played a procedure is compatible with the silicon deposition
significant role. systems and can be carried out immediately prior to
Linnington points out that in the early stages of the silicon growth. This avoids the possibility of con-
growth the nature of development of the silicon film taminating the surface between annealing and deposi-
can be characterized by the size and distribution of the tion. The influence of annealing the substrates in air
islands. As the islands coalesce into nonequilibrium for 2 hr at 1600C has also been investigated. This
shapes, the size-measuring parameters are no longer latter procedure received some attention in attempts
useful, and the growth can be expressed only in terms to use the Czochralski-grown spinel substrates.
of the film thickness and percentages of surface cover- No difference in the nature of the early growth is
age. In order to circumvent this restriction, Linning- seen between hydrogen-annealed or air-annealed Czo-
ton characterized the distribution of silicon on the chralski sapphire and flame fusion spinel. Micrographs
surface in terms of various spatial frequencies present of the silicon growth on these four substrates are
by digitizing the island pattern and numerically essentially identical to Figure 2.20 for both deposition
extracting its Fourier transform. The transform was temperatures (Corboy, 1976).
found to be circularly symmetric, and thus the silicon Differences have been observed, however, between
distribution was reducible to a radial mean frequency silicon deposited on hydrogen- and air-annealed Czo-
distribution. In order to carry out this analysis, the chralski spinel (Cullen et a!.). Scanning electron
micrographs of the early growth were digitized using a micrographs of the early growth of silicon after 1 s of
high-resolution television camera, and the digitized growth at an overall rate of 2 ILmimin and at 11 00C is
data processed with a computer. The results were shown in Figure 2.21. The deposition was carried out
analyzed in terms of existing theories of nucleation simultaneously on a polished surface (Figure 2.21a), a
and coalescence. surface which had been annealed in hydrogen for 20
0 .5 'sec.
2 sec.
4 sec.
FIGURE 2.20
Replication electron micrographs of the
early growth of silicon on sapphire after
0.5, 2, and 4 s of growth at 1000 and
1100C 1100C. From Corboy (1976)
44 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Prepamtion and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
~fF/ff:i1
described by Schlotterer (1976) and Kiihl and cowork-
ers (1976B) is related to the silicon formed prior to
complete coverage of the substrate surface.
E
In discussing the effect of thermal processing on the
film properties, it should be kept in mind that the
nature of bonding and the oxidation state of the alumi- FIGURE 2.22 A schematic presentation of the nature of
num incorporated during growth of the silicon must be early growth and the incorporation of substrate reaction
different from aluminum introduced by diffusion. products in the deposition of silicon on insulating substrates
46 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
Corboy, 1972; Druminski and Schlotterer, 1972; Man- has proven to be -l00C higher than that commonly
asevit, 1974; Manasevit et al., 1976; Druminski, 1976). employed for the deposition of silicon on sapphire
(Cullen et al., 1969).
Growth temperature
Growth rate
In open-flow (atmospheric pressure) systems, good
crystallinity has been observed in heteroepitaxial sili- At low deposition rates ( <0.5 f.Lm/min) autodoping is a
con deposited from silane at growth temperatures as problem fordeposition temperatures above ~950C.
low as 920C (Druminski, 1976). Below 920C, the The autodoping decreases with increasing growth
crystallinity of the deposit degrades. Considerably rates. As previously discussed (Section 2.7), it is rea-
lower temperatures can be used in the vacuum deposi- sonable to assume that incorporation of substrate
tion of heteroepitaxial silicon; this is discussed in reaction products takes place, for the most part, prior
some detail in Section 2.9. In general, temperatures to complete coverage of the substrate surface. Appar-
between 950 and 1000C (at rates between 2 and 3 f.Lm/ ently the largest effect of a high growth rate in the
min) have been adopted for the routine growth of suppression of autodoping is to rapidly seal off the
silicon on sapphire (Cullen et al., 1970A,B; Durnin et substrate surface and minimize the time during which
al., 1970; Gottlieb and Corboy, 1972). These investiga- the evolution of gaseous reaction products takes
tors found that the crystalline quality (as inferred from place. Under these circumstances, the optimum
electrical properties) decreased below deposition tem- growth rate is different prior to complete coverage of
peratures of 950"C. It is interesting to note that Dru- the substrate from that after the substrate has been
minski (1976) observed that the sensitivity of the crys- completely covered. The growth rate (unlike the
talline quality (as determined by optical absorption growth temperature) can easily be abruptly changed,
measurements) to gaseous impurities increases with and therefore procedures have been adopted wherein
decreasing temperature. This suggests the possibility the first portion of the silicon is deposited at a relative-
that deposition in the 950-IOOO"C range constitutes a ly high growth rate, and the rate is then quickly
trade-off between suppression of reaction with the decreased and the film grown to the desired thickness.
substrate and sensitivity to source gas impurities. Gottlieb and Corboy (1972) deposited 1 f.Lm of silicon
Within this temperature range autodoping has proven at a rate of 2 f.Lm/min (at 1000C), and then continued
not to be a serious problem, and the carrier concentra- the growth at a rate of 0.3 f.Lm/rnin to a total film
tion can be controlled to levels above lQ1 5/cm3 by the thickness of 1.5 f.Lm. Improvement in mobility over
addition of dopants in the gas stream. As the deposi- those realized when the entire film was deposited at 2
tion temperature is increased above -1050"C, the as- f.Lm/min was observed. Although the influence of the
deposited carrier concentration becomes independent final growth rate on the film properties was not investi-
of the intentionally added dopant as the result of gated between deposition rates of 0.3 and 2.0 f.Lm/min,
incorporation of electrically active substrate reaction there is the implication that subsequent to the sub-
products (aluminum in various oxidation states), and strate surface coverage the optimum silicon-on-silicon
the effect of the added dopant is seen only after the growth rate by the pyrolysis of silane at lOOO"C is less
unintentionally added species are deactivated or than 2 f.Lm/min. It seems possible that the optimum
removed (at least partially) by a thermal oxidation of 1 growth rate (after coverage of the surface) is relatively
hr at l100C (Durnin and Robinson, 1968A; Cullen et low because the defect content of the film near the
al., 1970B). Electrical properties usable for device substrate is high, and a low growth rate provides the
application have been realized in silicon deposited on condition necessary for the improvement of the film
the temperature range 1050-1100"C (growth rate 2 with thickness (as inferred from electrical properties).
f.Lm/min) if the deposits are "homogenized" at 1100"C Similar growth rates are employed, however, for the
in oxygen for 30 min and nitrogen for 2 hr (Manasevit homoepitaxial growth of silicon from the chlorinated
et al., 1976). As the deposition temperature is silanes. In the deposition of silicon on spinel at
increased above -1150"C, the crystallinity is degrad- 1100"C, after-oxidation mobilities in 1.5-f.Lm-thick
ed, unwanted orientations appear, and the films are films have been improved by employing overall
heavily autodoped by substrate reaction products. At growth rates in excess of 5 f.Lm/rnin (Cullen, 1971).
-1300C only gaseous products of reaction between Since the optimum growth temperature for the deposi-
silicon and the substrate are formed, resulting in no tion of silicon on spinel is higher than for the deposi-
deposition of silicon and only erosion of the substrate tion of silicon on sapphire, no meaningful conclusion
surface (Filby, 1966). At equal deposition tempera- can be drawn on the effect of the crystallographic
tures the silicon on flame fusion spinel is less auto- orientation of the substrate on the optimum deposition
doped than silicon on sapphire (Robinson and Durnin, rate.
1968), and therefore the optimum temperature for the Although it appeared from Gottlieb and Corboy's
growth of silicon on the flame fusion spinel (llOO"C) work (1972) that the mobilities of the 1.5-f.Lm-thick
2.8. Epitaxial growth conditions: temperature and rate 47
timers to control electrically actuated values, the remove the work damage from the substrate surface, it
growth rates and sequence of growth rates are very was possible to employ lower growth temperatures.
reproducible. 5. With the introduction of the deep-depletion MOS
transistor fabricated in silicon on sapphire, the need
The trend toward high-rate low-temperature arose for the preparation of thin films (< 1.0 ~tm)
deposition conditions doped to carrier levels between 1 and 5 x l015/cm3
This provided the need to further suppress the auto-
Historically one finds that as the technology for the doping below that which had been achieved to date
heteroepitaxial growth of silicon developed, there was and thus led to the effort to further decrease the
a clear trend toward the use of lower deposition tem- growth temperatures and increase the growth rates.
peratures and higher growth rates. It is interesting to We have recently noted that acceptable heteroepi-
ask why the low-temperature/high-rate conditions taxial deposits may be achieved at lower deposition
were not established during early development of the rates than had previously been thought possible. On
conditions for the deposition ofheteroepitaxial silicon. work-damage-free substrates, and in a clean gas
The following comments in this regard may contribute ambient, at IOOOOC films with acceptable semiconduct-
to an appreciation of the chronology of the ing properties may be deposited at rates as low as 05
development. ~tmlmin (Cullen, 1977). The range of acceptable tem-
1. Early investigations were carried out on relative- peratures has also increased, but to a lesser extent (-
ly thick (>3 ~tm) deposits; as device technology 15C). The conclusion reached is that the deposition
advanced, the demand arose for the thinner films, to rate, temperature, and surface finish are highly inter-
the point where MOS transistor structures are now active. The presence of work damage in the substrate
being fabricated in films as thin as 0.5 ~tm. The semi- surface may be compensated for. to some degree, by
conducting properties of 0.5-~tm-thick films are con- deposition rate and temperature. At the higher growth
siderably more sensitive to deposition parameters temperatures it is possible that the substrate sub-
than are the properties of the > 3 ~tm deposits. surface work damage is removed by reaction between
2. The after-oxidation (i.e., after device processing) the silicon and the substrate (Cullen and Dougherty,
semiconducting properties are considerably more sen- 1972). But at higher temperatures, the higher growth
sitive to the depostion parameters than are the as- rates must be employed. If work-damage-free sub-
deposited properties. (This is strikingly shown in strates are employed, the silicon deposit properties
Table 2.10.) The chemists suffered some very frustrat- become less sensitive to rate within the low range of
ing times in delivery of what appeared to be films with deposition temperature. Conversely, at the higher
excellent semiconducting properties to be processed growth rates, some level of substrate work damage
into devices, only to find that the properties were appears to be tolerable. These conclusions are based
seriously degraded during processing. Until the auto- primarily on device mobility measurements. The
doping was suppressed to the point where little change effects of the preparative parameters on the more
was observed during device processing, a standard subtle device properties, such as channel leakage,
technique was adopted of evaluating the electrical have not yet been unambiguously established. Some
properties both before and after exposure of the films useful clues on the rather complex interaction
to dry oxygen at 1100C for 1 hr. (In early work, between the substrate surface condition, and the
1200oc was employed, but as the maximum device- deposition temperature and rate come from examina-
processing temperature was decreased, so was the tion of the properties of heteroepitaxial growth of
temperature of the standard test.) silicon by vacuum evaporation. Under vacuum condi-
3. The technology for the construction of gas-tight tions, heteroepitaxy is realized over wider ranges of
systems improved, and the purity of the commercially temperature and rate than has been the case in the
available source gases also improved (in particular, chemical vapor deposition of silicon. The vacuum
the silane-hydrogen and dopant gas-hydrogen mix- heteroepitaxial technology is therefore discussed in
tures). As has been previously mentioned, below some detail in Section 2.9. Since the promise of the
about l100C the surface of the silicon cannot readily use of chemical vapor deposition temperatures signifi-
be freed of the oxide by reaction between silicon and cantly less than 1000C in a helium ambient has not
Si02 to form volatile SiO, and therefore oxidizing been realized (at least with sapphire substrates), lower
impurities must be rigorously excluded from the depo- growth temperatures appear to be achievable only at
sition system. deposition pressures less than 1 atmosphere. Less
4. The deposition temperature at which the opti- than atmospheric pressures have been used to advan-
mum electrical properties are realized appears to be tage in the chemical vapor deposition of homoepitaxial
related to the amount of work damage present on the silicon. The low pressure has been employed both to
substrate surface. As the methods improved to modify the thickness of the boundary layer and to
2.8. Epitaxial growth conditions: temperature and rate 49
1976)
The deposition rate of silicon from silane is a function 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
of the concentration of silane in the carrier gas (hydro- DEPOSITION TEMPERATURE 10 4 IT "K
z. 6.-----------------~--------------------~
i
LLJ
~
a:
z
Q
l-
en
0
a..
LLJ
Cl
FIGURE 2.25
0 o' Silicon deposition rate at llOO"C as a function of the
0 6 silane concentration of the gas stream. After Cullen et
SILANE CONC.,% BY VOLUME al. (1970A)
is given in Figure '2.25. The leveling off of the rate at has been directed toward the exclusion of specific
about 5 ~-trnlmin is assigned to the onset of homogene- impurities in "moderate" oo- 8 -10- 7 torr) vacuums
ous gas-phase decomposition of the silane in the tur- [for instance, Weisberg and Miller (1968)], but in gen-
bulent region of the gas passage. This conclusion is eral "clean" conditions are related to "ultrahigh"
supported by the observation of some deposit of reac- (<lo-s torr) vacuum conditions. The costs, complexi-
tion products (not silicon) on the cold reactor walls at ty, and time required for vacuum evaporation increase
the higher silane concentrations and by the fact that a rapidly with decreasing pressure below a level of
slight increase in the temperature results in a decrease -10- 7 torr. A number of investigators have argued
in the maximum deposition rate. It is also noted that that, under certain deposition conditions, low-pres-
the deposition rate levels off at a value of -6 ~-trnlmin sure vacuum systems are not required for the hetero-
if the total gas throughput is increased from 5000 to epitaxial growth of silicon. For instance Stadnik and
7000 cm3/min. coworkers ( 1972) deposited thick (> 5 ~-tm) silicon with
In the small-passage flow-through-type reactor sys- useful semiconducting properties at pressures as high
tems there is no difficulty in achieving growth rates as 5X 10-4 torr. The thinnest films (- 2~-tm) that exhibit
desired for the deposition of the thin heteroepitaxial (as-deposited) carrier mobilities similar to bulk silicon
deposits. In the "bell jar" reactor system the input have, however, been deposited at a pressure of -10- 10
silane is strongly diluted by the large volume of recir- torr (Chang, 1971).
culating gases, and some effort in the adjustment of One finds a good deal of disagreement in the vac-
the input system may be required to achieve the uum heteroepitaxial growth literature on the effect of
desired growth rate (see Section 2.10). the various deposition variables on the semiconduct-
ing properties of the silicon. This can be attributed, at
least in part, to an unfortunate emphasis on the prepa-
2.9. Vacuum growth of silicon on sapphire ration of films ;;;:2~-tm in thickness and on the measure-
and spinel ment of the electrical properties only in the as-deposit-
ed condition. In the development of CVD
The choice between open-flow CVD and vacuum heteroepitaxial silicon, it has been observed that the
deposition electrical properties of the thicker (>2~-tm) as-deposit-
ed films are relatively insensitive to the deposition
The commercial growth of both homo- and heteroepi- conditions. By contrast, the properties of deposits ,; 1
taxial silicon is at present carried out exclusively in ~-tm in thickness that have been oxidized during device
open-flow atmospheric-pressure "chemical vapor processing are a strong function of the deposition
deposition" systems. Probably the main reason why conditions (see Section 2.4). There is every reason to
vacuum deposition has not received wider acceptance believe that the same effect is operative in vacuum-
is that very clean vacuum conditions are required to deposited silicon.
deposit silicon as free of contaminants as is achievable In one of the earlier investigations of the vacuum
in open-flow systems. This may be attributed both to deposition of heteroepitaxial silicon, Fraimbault and
the purity of available source (Sil4) and carrier (H2 ) coworkers (1965) employed a 1000-A-thick layer of
gases used in the CVD process and to the fact that at evaporated silicon to minimize the reaction with the
the higher deposition temperatures commonly sapphire during the chemical vapor deposition of an
employed in CVD many of the undesirable impurities overlayer using a halide silicon source. Unfortunately,
are volatile and therefore present at the growth inter- the thin-vacuum-deposited silicon was not individ-
face in low concentrations. Recently, more attention ually characterized. Although this approach was not
2.9. Vacuum growth of silicon on sapphire and spinel 51
pursued using evaporated silicon as an intermediate conditions employed for vacuum deposition, and the
layer, Druminski and Schlotterer (1972) covered the electrical properties realized by a number of investiga-
substrate with a thin layer of silicon deposited from tors, are briefly summarized in Table 2.5.
silane prior to deposition of silicon from a chloride
source. Pressure, rate, and temperature. The pressure, rate,
Because of the emphasis on the preparation and and temperature of vacuum deposition are sufficiently
characterization of the thick unprocessed silicon, one interdependent that it is impractical to discuss the
cannot glean from the available literature vacuum influence of these variables separately. In the follow-
deposition conditions appropriate for the preparation ing discussion, an emphasis is put on semiconducting
of silicon films useful in MOS transistor applications. properties as a measure of the film quality both
The research, nonetheless, provides useful and inter- because of the sensitivity of the semiconducting prop-
esting information that contributes significantly to an erties to deposition conditions and because the orien-
understanding of the silicon/insulator composite sys- tation here is toward application in electronic device
tem. In view of the results that have been achieved, structures.
one cannot exclude the possibility that further devel- The rate of deposition is more limited in a vacuum
opment of the vacuum deposition technology will lead than at atmospheric pressure by the mechanics of
to the preparation of heteroepitaxial silicon useful in exposing the substrate to the source silicon. Sublima-
device applications within the thickness range of cur- tion rates are inherently limited by holding the silicon
rent interest (0.5-1.0 fLm). at temperatures below the melting point. In the evapo-
The use of vacuum conditions for the heteroepitaxi- ration of silicon, there are problems involved in the
al growth of silicon offers several inherent advantages, containment of silicon at temperatures above the melt-
particularly in relation to developing an understanding ing point. Crucibles are universally avoided because,
of the basic processes involved in the heteroepitaxial in the presence of the highly reactive molten silicon
growth of silicon. The crystal structure of the sub- (chemically reducing), they are a major source of
strate surface can be studied by methods such as low- contamination. At low pressures, the rate of evapora-
energy electron diffraction, and the presence of trace tion is limited by the rate of removal of heat (Salama
constituents can be examined with Auger spectrosco- and coworkers, 1967), and thus in general the evapo-
py. Deposition can be carried out in the same system rated rate available is proportional to the deposition
without exposure of surface to contaminants after pressure. Yasuda and Ohmura (1969) state that they
characterization of the surface. These techniques have were able to maintain an evaporation rate of 1500 A;
been employed by Chang (1971) to develop some of min (at a relatively high pressure of 2 x w-s torr) with
the most definitive information available on the prepa- an electron bombardment heater specifically designed
ration of the substrate surface (removal of work dam- to achieve high evaporation rates. It is the opinion of
age), the specific crystallographic nature of the sub- this author that the very much higher rates, particu-
strate prior to deposition, and the effect of substrate larly at the lower pressures, reported by several
orientation on the nature of the deposited silicon. It authors (see Table 2.5) are open to some question.
should also be noted that in clean vacuum deposition Low deposition rates are associated with low pres-
conditions the only constituents present are the sub- sures and low temperatures. At the lower growth
strate and the silicon, with no involvement of carrier temperatures, the low rates are permissible because of
gases, by-products of the pyrolysis of silane, or impur- the suppression of the reaction between silicon and
ities present in the source and carrier gases. the substrate and de'sirable because of the relatively
low mobility of silicon on the substrate surface. Using
The influence of vacuum deposition condition low growth rates, the low pressures are needed to
on the properties of the heteroepitaxial silicon exclude from the growth surface contaminants which
are volatile at the higher growth temperatures. The
The variables involved in the vacuum deposition of most significant aspect of low-pressure heteroepitaxial
silicon are the deposition rate, temperature, and pres- growth is the possibility of minimizing the silicon/
sure; the type of pumping system as related to the substrate reactions by the use of low deposition
presence or absence of hydrocarbons; the purity of the temperatures.
source silicon; and the manner in which the substrate Chang (1971), using ultrahigh (l0- 10 torr) vacuum
surface is prepared (if done under vacuum conditions). conditions and low deposition rates (-60 A/min) real-
Common to vacuum and chemical vapor deposition ized single crystal growth at unusually low tempera-
are the substrate-related variables; the manner in tures on carefully characterized vacuum-annealed
which the substrate surface is prepared (if done out- substrates. The temperature ranges within which sin-
side the vacuum chamber); and the chemical nature gle crystal growth was observed, for the various sub-
and crystallographic orientation of the substrate. The strate orientations, are shown in Figure 2.26. It can be
TABLE 2.5 A Summary of the Conditions Employed and the Electrical Properties Realized in Vacuum-Deposited
Heteroepitaxial Silicon by a Number of Investigators
Type of Vacuum
System; Rate of
Background Pressure During Deposition (AI Substrate Substrate Surface
Literature reference Pressure (torr) Deposition (torr) min) Temperature (C) Conditioning
F. Gassmann et al. (1972) "Ultrahigh" 5 x 10- 10 3600-18,000 900 Pyrophosphoric acid at
400C
A. V. Stadnik et al. (1972) Oil diffusion 5 x 10--5 x 10-s 1000 850-1350 (depos- Si etched 13500C
10-7 Ion get- its as temperature
ter 5 X 10-s decreasing)
Chuan C. Chang (1971) "Ultrahigh" -J0-10 Capability: 80 500-1000 Vacuum anneal 14000C
2-5 x 10-1o Used: -60
Yukio Yasuda (1971) Oil diffusion 2 x 10-6 -25 900-1000 Sapphire: H 2 anneal
1300C Spinel: H.so.:
HN0 3 at 180C
R. W. Lawson and D. M. "Ultrahigh" 5 X 10-8-5 X 10-7 1000-30,000 930-1150 Diamond polished and
Jetkins (1970) and oil H 2 annealed at 1500C
diffusion
T. Itoh eta!. (1969) 3 X 10-s 5 X 10-8-5 >< 10-7 120 850-1000 (950 Vacuum annealed
optimum) 10000C for 1 hr
Y. Yasuda andY. Oil diffusion 2 x 10-6 1500 1050 3:1 H 2 SO.: HNOa at
Ohmura (1969) l00C or H2 anneal
13000C for 30 min
C. T. Naber and J. E. "Ultrahigh" 10-s-1o- 50-700 500-1000 Vacuum anneal l200C
O'Neal (1968) H 2 anneal 1350C or Si
etch 1200-1300C (Si
etch 1300C best)
L. R. Weisberg and E. A. Ultrahigh'' 5 X 10-s -1000 780-1075 (1000 H 2 anneal 12000C
Miller (1968) 10- optimum)
SUISIUH
IAIURE Of IKE SlliCO OEP0$11
from etching the substrate surface with silicon to
TIP OIIIUI
deposition of silicon on the surface as the temperature
SILl COl
IIIII ~ lXI i~n lXI
"'"' decreased. An interesting feature of this work is the
I 1001 ~1x11
Ullll)
~~
GOO~ I 11001 ! X I
lXI
"'"' insensitivity of the properties of the deposited silicon
I-- lXI to the presence of contaminants. Stadnik and his col-
POlltRlSI INE fill\ jCUil n IIIII I fiCfT UCK!O: ETC~ EO:
leagues claimed that if this " high-temperature nuclea-
SAPPHIRE ~ lXI lXI
'I 'I
lXI fiLM
'""
UIIJ IIIII (Ill) JM.,~ fACElEO
100011
"---
lXI lXI lXI POLISK!O tion" procedure were employed, the films could be
IIHI ~. 1 ~~~11~ 1 a~!.~n I 1101
111201 AOI Pl!f lXI lXI fACET deposited without degradation of the crystallographic
500 600 100 aoo 900 1000 properties even in the presence of 1 x 10-s torr of
SUBSTRATE TEMP. I'CI
oxygen and in the presence of hydrocarbons charac-
FIGURE 2.26 The crystalline nature of vacuum-deposited teristic of oil diffusion pump systems. The crystallo-
silicon on sapphire and silicon as a function ofthe substrate graphic nature of the films was derived from x-ray
temperature and orientation. The deposition rate was 1 A!s rocking curve data. Stadnik et al. point out that the
on a substrate with an equilibrium structure as determined by background defect density of the heteroepitaxial sili-
LEED. The abbreviations used are as follows: con was -1 x 109/cm2 and that the presence of oxygen
at a level resulting in a defect density of -1 x l07/cm2
7' : (I 11~ (1 124)
in homoepitaxial silicon does not have an observable
Tw: Primary (I 11) twin
Dbl: Double domains rotated g' effect against the background of the highly defected
Arc: Diffraction spots appear as arcs heteroepitaxial silicon. Although silicon as thin as 2.5
Rot: All rotations about the surface normal JLm was deposited, the semiconducting properties
Pref: Several preferred orientations were reported only for films thicker than -5 JLm. Hole
mobilities of 250 cm2/V -s and electron mobilities of
After Chang (1971) 525 cm21V-s were realized at high carrier concentra-
tions (> 1 x 1017/cm3) .
seen that the temperature range for single crystal
In the work of Stadnik and his coworkers it can only
growth is a function of orientation. The largest tem-
be stated that the silicon was deposited at some tem-
perature range was observed on the (1102) sapphire.
perature between 850 and l350C. A high constant
Below a substrate temperature of 600C all films were
deposition temperature of 1050C and a relatively high
polycrystalline, and between 800 and 925oC the sub-
deposition rate of 1500 Almin were employed by
strates were etched, leaving a polished surface.
Yasuda and Ohmura (1969) . As with the work of
Between 650 and 850C, the deposits were single crys-
Stadnik et al. the carrier concentrations in the deposit
tal, twinned, or faceted, depending on the substrate
were high, and similar hole mobilities at similar thick-
orientation. At a temperature of 775C, single crystal
nesses were observed (250 cm2/V-s at 6 JLm) . An oil
filn:s were observed on the (I 102), (1123), (0001) and
diffusion pump system was employed, with back-
(1120) substrates. It is interesting to note that (under
ground pressures of -2 X J0-6 torr.
the conditions employed by Chang) the lowest tem-
It is clear that high deposition rates must be
perature for the homoepitaxial growth of silicon is
employed at the high substrate temperatures. Salama
only 50oC lower than the minimum temperature for the
and coworkers (1967) reported that they were not able
gr~wth of heteroepitaxial silicon [both (100)] on the
to achieve deposition of silicon at ll00C with a depo-
(1102) sapphire.* In deposits 2 to 20 JLm in thickness,
sition rate of 400 A/min (with an oil diffusion system
the hole and electron mobilities in the vacuum deposit-
background pressure of 7x I0- 7torr). Under their vac-
ed silicon were similar to bulk (to carrier concentra-
uum conditions, at 850C the properties of the deposits
tions as low as -5 x 1015/cm3) .
were dominated by defects, at 950C the carrier con-
On the opposite extreme of the temperature-rate-
centration could be controlled by the doping level of
pressure scale is the work of Stadnik and coworkers
the source, and at 1050C all the films were p-type as
(1972). These investigators deposited silicon at a rate
the result of autodoping. It is interesting to note that
of - 1000 A/min on the substrate as it cooled from
Salama and his coworkers found it difficult to explain
1350C at pressures in excess of 1 x I0-5 torr. In the
the observation that the mobility increased with
presence of silicon vapor, the conditions were shifted
decreasing deposition temperatures (within the single
crystal range) but that the crystalline quality (derived
*It is recognized that Jona (1966) observed homoepitaxial
growth of (111) silicon at 400"C, and the growth of an from optical absorption) increased with increasing
"ideal" (no superlattice spots) structure in (100) silicon temperature. The implication here is that autodoping
deposited presumably at considerably lower temperatures dominates the carrier mobility more than the crystal-
(the substrate was heated only by the evaporated silicon in a line quality above some minimum level of crystalline
LEED system). The films examined were, however, 4 to 5
mon?layers thick deposited at a rate of 0.3 monolayer/min. quality. This is analogous to compensation effects
The 1mpact of these interesting results on practical silicon observed in bulk silicon. This effect, however, has not
epitaxy is still to be developed. been reported by other investigators.
2.9. Vacuum growth of silicon on sapphire and spinel 55
Reynolds and Elliot (1967) found that at every tem- (1971), who employed crystallinity as a measure of the
perature investigated (within the range 880 to 975C) quality of the deposited silicon, reported no difference
there was a rate at which the conditions shifted from in the film properties between pressures of 1 X 10-s
deposition of silicon to etching of the substrate with and 2 X 10-6 torr, and Lawson and Jefkins report that
silicon vapor. This rate was, for instance, 120 A/min at films deposited at a pressure of 2 x 10-5 torr were
950C (with a background pressure from a sorption! indistinguishable from those produced at 5 X 10- 7
vacuum-ion system of 10-7-l0-6 torr). As did Chang torr.
(1971), these investigators found that the temperature
range for single crystal growth on the (0001) sapphire Cleanliness of the vacuum atmosphere. In the vac-
was less than 100C, and that even within this range, uum heteroepitaxiai growth work, oil-free vacuum
the films were faceted at the higher temperatures. The systems have, for the most part, been employed. A
hole mobilities in films deposited at temperatures near number of investigators, however, used oil diffusion
the etching condition (975C) were very low and pump systems. Stadnik and coworkers, who
increased to -150 cm2/V-s (in 7.4-tLm-thick films, na employed both vac-ion and oil diffusion pump sys-
-5 x 1015/cm3) at a deposition temperature of 880C. tems, state that the formation of SiC always occurred
The achievement of the optimum mobilities at the low- (at temperatures between 800 and 1200C) in the oil
temperature end of the single crystal growth tempera- diffusion-type system unless the "high-temperature
ture range is in agreement with the work of Salama nucleation" procedure (already discussed) was
and his coworkers (1967) but appears to be in disagree- employed. Even if this technique was used, at low
ment with the work of Stadnik and coworkers (1972). deposition rates (50 Aimin), the silicon deposits con-
A possible explanation is that under "clean" vacuum tained inclusions of polycrystalline silicon carbide.
conditions the optimum semiconducting properties are They stated that the influence of the hydrocarbon
realized at the lower end of the single crystal-growth background cannot be avoided by baking and
temperature range, while in the presence of contami- trapping.
nants (such as hydrocarbons and oxygen) the upper Yasuda and Ohmura (1969), Yasuda (1971), and
end of the temperature range is favored. Salama et al. (1967) also employed oil diffusion-type
Lawson and Jefkins (1970), in a manner similar to vacuum systems (at pressures between 7 x 10-7 and 2
the work of Reynolds and Elliot (1967), also investi- X w- 6 torr). As has already been discussed, the depo-
gated the etching/deposition boundaries. The bounda- sition rates and temperatures used by these two
ries were found to be a function of the substrate groups are among the highest reported. It appears that
orientation. The optimum deposition regimes were the high-temperature high-growth rate conditions
displaced from the etching/deposition boundaries to make the properties of the deposit as insensitive as is
higher rates and lower temperatures. These investiga- possible to the presence of hydrocarbon contami-
tors proposed that the crystalline quality of the silicon nants. It is not clear, however, that oil diffusion pump
decreased as the etching boundary was approached systems can be tolerated at all in the heteroepitaxial
because random nucleation resulted from deposition growth of silicon. Both of the groups of investigators
on a silicon-etched surface. In silicon deposits >5 ILm who employed the oil pump systems reported carrier
in thickness, hole mobilities as high as 75 percent of mobilities in -1-tLm-thick films considerably lower
bulk were observed in (111) silicon on (0001) sapphire, than those observed in CVD films of similar thickness.
while hole mobilities of 45 percent of bulk were Yasuda and Ohmura observed that the silicon adjacent
observed in (100) silicon on (1102) sapphire (na = 4-6 to the substrate surface (within 800 A) contained more
x 1016/cm3). The electrical properties in the (100) sili- than one orientation. Although it is tempting to relate
con proved to be considerably more reproducible than this to the presence of silicon carbide, Yasuda later
in the (111) deposits. These films were typically depos- reported that only one orientation was observed in the
ited at a rate of 1 fLm/min and at pressures between 5 growth of silicon on spinel in the same vacuum sys-
X 10-7 and 5 X 10-s torr. tem. In silicon deposits thicker than 5 fLm, Lawson
It is interesting to note that several experimentalists and Jefkins (1970) did not observe a difference in the
who used a range of deposition pressures have noted properties of silicon deposited in ion-pumped (5 x
no improvement in the film properties if the lower 10-7 to 5 X 10-8 torr) and oil-pumped (2 X 10-5 torr)
pressure of their range was employed. The most dra- systems.
matic claim is that of Stadnik and coworkers (1972), Weisberg and Miller (1968) (who employed an oil-
who stated that no difference was observed (using the free vacuum system) emphasized the importance of
"high-temperature nucleation conditions") at pres- the total exclusion of oxygen. They reported that the
sures between 5 X w-s and 5 X 10-4 torr. Weisberg quality of heteroepitaxial silicon increased dramatical-
and Miller (1968) found no difference in film properties ly if oxygen-free silicon was used as the source. These
with deposition pressures of 10-9 and w-s torr if investigators observed hole mobilities as high as 290
oxygen-free silicon was used as the source. Yasuda cm2/V -s in 8-tLm-thick films deposited at 1000C at a
56 Chapter 2.. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
rate -6 JLmlhr. In light of the independence of the (0001) sapphire at deposition temperatures between
presence of oxygen reported by Stadnik and cowork- 700 and 900C and growth rates between 150 and 450
ers (1972), it should be noted that Weisberg and Miller A/min. In the "high-temperature nucleation" process
deposited at temperatures below which silicon used by Stadnik and coworkers (1972) it appears that
reduces silicon dioxide to a volatile intermediate-oxi- the substrate surface is conditioned by etching with
dation-state silicon oxide, while Stadnik et al. deposit- silicon.
ed at the higher temperatures at which this reaction Weisberg and Miller (1968) prepared the substrate
can take place. surface by annealing in H2 at l200C, and Yasuda and
Lawson and Jefkins (1970) reported that no influ- Ohmura (1969) and Yasuda (1971) annealed in H 2 at
ence of the presence of oxygen was observed to oxy- 1300C. This procedure is similar to that which has
gen partial pressures as high as w-s torr using a been most commonly used to condition the substrate
standard (i.e., not oxygen-free) silicon target. The surface prior to CVD growth of silicon.
temperature at which this study was carried out was Gassmann and coworkers (1971, 1972) removed the
not provided. work damage from flame fusion and Czochralski-
grown spinel surfaces by etching in pyrophosphoric
The influence of substrate surface conditioning on the acid (H4 P20 7) at 400C. Acid etching is not peculiar to
properties of vacuum-deposited heteroepitaxial silicon the vacuum deposition technique and has been dis-
cussed in Section 2.4 of this chapter. The main point
Chang (1971) employed low-energy electron diffrac- to be made here is that Gassmann and coworkers cited
tion to monitor the crystallinity of the substrate sur- the crystallographic quality of the etched substrate
face and Auger spectroscopy to monitor the constitu- surface as a key factor in achieving good semiconduct-
ents present on the surface. He observed equilibrium ing properties (in 2-JLm-thick films) at a deposition
diffraction patterns from the surface after vacuum temperature 2oooc lower than the optimum CVD
annealing at 1400C for 30 s. After the 1400C vacuum deposition temperature (900C as compared to
anneal, only Al and 0 Auger peaks were detectable, ll00C). It must also be pointed out, however, that a
and he therefore concluded that the carbon concentra- contributing factor could have been the low deposition
tion was less than 5 x 1013/cm2 No advantage was pressure (5 x IQ-to torr).
observed in annealing the substrate above 1400C. It is interesting to note that Lawson and Jefkins
Chang observed the onset of annealing at tempera- (1970), in their rather detailed study of the vacuum
tures as low as 600C. At this temperature, most deposition of silicon on sapphire, concluded that the
contaminants other than carbon were removed. As the crystalline perfection of the substrate surface had little
annealing temperature was increased from 600 to influence on the deposit quality. Most of the films
1400C, the equilibrium diffraction patterns became studied, however, were between 5 and 12 JLm thick.
more dominant. At 900C, however, a large carbon They did observe that the nature of the surface finish-
Auger peak was still observed, and even at l200C, ing influenced both the autodoping level and the
small amounts of carbon remained on the surface. It is reproducibility in the electrical properties, at least in
clear from this work that care must be taken to the (100) silicon deposited on the (1 l02) sapphire.
exclude carbon contamination of the surface even in Unfortunately, it is difficult to draw conclusions on
an oil-free vacuum system. This study also brought the influence of the deposition temperature from this
out the point that the smoothness of a mechanically study since the electrical results are expressed as a
polished surface can be maintained while the subsur- function of the ratio of the substrate temperature to
face work damage is removed by annealing. If the the temperature of the etching-deposition boundary
work damage is removed from the as-polished sub- (for a particular deposition rate).
strate by chemical etching (such as with phosphoric A number of the experimentalists involved in the
acid), the surface may be roughened by preferential vacuum heteroepitaxial growth of silicon made no
etching of the more heavily damaged areas. effort to remove the subsurface work damage from the
Naber and O'Neal (1968) investigated the effect of mechanically polished substrates. Yasuda and Ohmu-
vacuum annealing at l200C, H 2 annealing at 1350C, ra (1969) were able to grow single crystal films on both
and etching of the substrate surface in silicon vapor at H 2 SOrHN03-cleaned surfaces (180C) and H 2 -
temperatures between 1200 and 1300C. Based on the annealed surfaces (1300C), even though clear differ-
microscopic examination of the topology of the sub- ences were seen in the crystallographic quality of
strate surface and reflection electron diffraction exam- these surfaces on examination with reflection electron
ination of the deposited silicon, these investigators diffraction. They concluded that the substrate surface
concluded that the optimum substrate surface prepa- quality did not play an important role in the growth of
ration was etching with silicon at 1300C with a silicon single crystals, but the semiconducting properties of
impingement rate less than 100 A/min. Single crystal silicon deposited on the substrate surfaces condi-
silicon was achieved on silicon-etched (ll 02) and tioned by the two methods was not provided.
2.9. Vacuum growth of silicon on sapphire and spinel 57
Although a number of investigators active in the of the flame fusion substrate materials would lead to
vacuum deposition of heteroepitaxial silicon have the degradation of the electrical properties of the het-
reported that the film properties are insensitive to eroepitaxial silicon, this is the only report of the reali-
substrate surface condition, investigators in the field zation of higher mobilities (measured by the Hall
of the chemical vapor deposition of heteroepitaxial method) on the Czochralski-grown spinel. Cullen and
silicon are in general agreement that the deposit prop- Wang (1971) had found that Czochralzki-grown spinel
erties are a strong function of the crystallographic was less stable in the presence of the hydrogen carrier
condition of the substrate surface (see Sections 2.4 gas used in the CVD of silicon on spinel and that the
and 2.12). This apparent discrepancy can be explained electrical properties of the silicon were degraded by
by the observation that essentially all of the deposits the incorporation of substrate reaction products.
studied in the vacuum deposition literature have been Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that
"as-deposited" films more than 2 J.Lm in thickness, better films have been achieved by avoiding the pres-
even in work carried out since 1970. During the same ence of hydrogen through the use of either vacuum
period, the emphasis in the CVD heteroepitaxial conditions or helium as the carrier gas in atmospheric
growth literature has been on the preparation and pressure CVD (Cullen and Dougherty, 1972). In the
characterization of thermally oxidized deposits :;;:; 1.5 analysis of the differences between silicon deposited
J.Lm in thickness which are used in device application. on the spinels grown by the two methods it must be
It is in the thin, oxidized deposits that the semicon- kept in mind that the chemical compositions ofthe two
ducting properties are a strong function of the deposi- spinels are different (see Section 2.3).
tion conditions and the substrate crystallinity.
The semiconducting properties of vacuum-deposited
The influence of the substrate type and orientation heteroepitaxial silicon as a function of thickness
on the properties of vacuum-deposited heteroepitaxial and thermal oxidation
silicon
There is little information to be found in the vacuum
Chang (1971) found that the widest temperature range silicon heteroepitaxial growth literature on the semi-
for single crystal growth was observed on the (ll 02) conducting properties of thin silicon films (:;;:;2 J.Lm in
sapphire, and that therefore the conditions for single thickness) as a function of the film thickness or ther-
crystal growth are most easily satisfied on this orienta- mal oxidation. Yasuda and Ohmura (1969) measured
tion (see Figure 2.26). This has been the orientation the hole mobility and hole concentration (of uninten-
most commonly employed in the CVD of silicon. At a tionally doped films) as a function of thickness. The
temperature of 775C, Chang realized single crystal films were deposited with a substrate temperature of
growth on all of the four orientations investigated. 1050C at a rate of 1500 A/min in an oil diffusion
Under the optimum deposition conditions, the semi- vacuum system at a pressure of 2 x 10-s torr. These
conducting properties of the silicon (for thickness investigators employed both "cleaning" and H 2
between 2 and 20 J.Lm) on the four orientations investi- annealing for surface preparation but did not specify
gated were similar. Weisberg and Miller (1968) found which method was used to prepare the substrates used
that the mobilities in the (111) Si on (0001) sapphire for examination of the semiconducting properties. At
were higher than the mobilities observed in the (100) a thickness of 6.1 J.Lm, Hall hole mobilities of -250
Si on (l l02) sapphire (for film thicknesses between 4 cm2/V -s were observed in (111) silicon on (0001) sap-
and 20 J.Lm). phire. The mobility decreased linearly with decreasing
ltoh and coworkers (1969) realized hole mobilities thickness to a value of -150 cm2/V-s at -1.5 J.Lm.
of 353 cm 2/V-s and electron mobilities of 800 cm 2/V-s Below -1.5 J.Lm the mobility decreased rapidly to a
in relatively thick (8 J.Lm) (111) silicon on (111) spinel value of -10 cm2/V -s at 0. 7 J.Lm. The hole concentra-
(at carrier concentrations -2 x 1016/cma:J. The deposi- tion decreased from a value of 3 x 1017/cm3 at 0.7 J.Lm
tion was initiated at a temperature of 950C, and the to -4 x 1016/cm3 at 6.1 J.Lm. From these results it
temperature was allowed to drop to 900C during the appears that even at the rate of 1500 A/min, which is
deposition. A rate of 120 A/min was employed at a relatively high for vacuum evaporation, at a substrate
pressure between 5 X 10-8 and 5 X 10-7 torr. temperature of 1050C films less than 1 J.Lm in thick-
Gassmann and coworkers (1971) found that the ness are heavily autodoped.
mobilities of silicon deposited on the Czochralski- Salama and coworkers (1967) reported hole mobili-
grown (111) spinel were typically 100 percent of bulk ties between 10 and 30 cm2/V -s (for hole concentra-
silicon mobility (in films between 2 and 5 J.Lm in thick- tions <1 x 10 16/cm~ in films between 0.35 and 1.7 J.Lm
ness) but that on the flame fusion grown spinel the in thickness. The silicon was deposited at a rate of 400
mobilities were less reproducible and fell between 60 A/min with a substrate temperature of 850C in an oil
and 100 percent of bulk. Although it has commonly diffusion vacuum system at 7 x 1o- 7 torr. The mobili-
been assumed that the grain boundaries characteristic ties are surprisingly independent of thickness within
58 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
the range studied. The substrates used in this study vacuum-tight metering and flow systems (He leak
were mechanically polished. Therefore, the low hole tested at to- torr), the purity of the commercially
mobilities, as well as the insensitivity of the mobility available silane improved, and methods were devel-
to film thickness, may have been the result of poor oped to reproducibly remove the substrate work dam-
film crystallinity associated with a work-damaged sub- age. With these improvements, it was possible to
strate surface. The relatively low autodoping observed lower the deposition temperature with no loss in crys-
can be associated with the relatively low substrate talline quality but with improved properties as the
temperature. result of the suppression of the reaction between sili-
Gassmann and coworkers (1972) have observed con and the substrate.
hole mobilities of 350-380 cm2N -s in 2-4-J..tm-thick A similar trend is observed in the development of
(111) boron-doped (na = 1-2 x 1016/cm3) silicon conditions for vacuum heteroepitaxial silicon growth.
deposited (in a vacuum of 5 x w-to torr) on phosphor- In most of the early work little attention was given to
ic acid-etched spinel. It would appear that the the preparation of the substrate surface, the deposi-
suppression of the autodoping and stability of the tion temperatures were similar to those used in CVD,
electrical properties during the thermal processing and the rates employed were as high as could be
observed in this study were the result of the use of a achieved at the relatively high pressures. Under these
substrate temperature (900C) lower than the optimum conditions, reaction between silicon and the substrate
CVD deposition temperatures. was a major cause of degradation of the electrical
properties of the films. At the relatively high evapora-
An overview of the vacuum heteroepitaxial growth tion pressures and low deposition rates, the electrical
of silicon properties of the thinner films were inferior to those
achievable with CVD. As the vacuum deposition tech-
The most significant feature of the vacuum growth of nology progressed, attention was given to the prepara-
heteroepitaxial silicon is the realization of single crys- tion of the substrate surface, "cleaner" (lower-pres-
tal films at lower substrate temperatures than has ~een sure) vacuum conditions were employed, (\nd it was
possible to date in the heteroepitaxial growth of silicon found that lower temperatures could be used to advan-
by CVD. At the higher growth temperatures (greater tage. The key difference between the course of the
than -950C), it is not clear that there is any advan- progress in the vacuum and CVD technology was that
tage to be gained by vacuum evaporation, and there is with "ultrahigh'' vacuum equipment it was possible to
the disadvantage that the rate at which silicon can be deposit silicon with usable electrical properties at
supplied by evaporation is less than rates of supply deposition temperatures significantly lower than
ordinarily obtainable by the pyrolysis of silane. At obtainable by CVD. The limited growth rate available
vacuum deposition temperatures below 950C, there is in the low-pressure systems, which is a disadvantage
the clear advantage that the reaction between silicon at the higher substrate temperatures, is a necessity at
and the substrate is suppressed. At intermediate tem- the low substrate temperatures. In the examination of
peratures (850-950C), the films are less autodoped, the crystallographic and chemical nature of the sur-
and in the lowest temperature range [650-850C for face by LEED and Auger methods, the vacuum condi-
(1 102) sapphire (Chang, 1971)], there is an added tions became an advantage rather than a liability, and
advantage that the erosion of the substrate is suffi- important contributions were made to an understand-
ciently low so that the crystallographic surface of ing of the heteroepitaxial interface. An unanswered
annealed substrates is maintained during the early question at the current state of the technology is: At
growth of the silicon. The lower substrate tempera- what pressure/rate combination can the low tempera-
tures are associated with low deposition rates; as the tures be maintained for the deposition of thin, thermal-
surface mobility of the silicon decreases with tempera- ly stable, silicon layers? For application in commercial
ture, the growth rate must also be lowered to maintain heteroepitaxial growth systems this is a key question,
the growth of single crystal silicon. At the lower depo- since the expense and time involved in vacuum depo-
sition temperatures, low pressures are required to sition are strongly related to the deposition pressure
avoid the condensation of contaminants which would required.
interfere with the positioning of the silicon ad-atoms It has been argued that the low-temperature limit of
on the proper lattice sites. the CVD process is determined by the kinetics of the
There are a number of analogies that can be made silicon source reaction. It has been observed, how-
between the progress made in heteroepitaxial silicon ever, that at temperatures at which the rate of the
growth by CVD and by vacuum evaporation. Early in pyrolysis of silane exceeds the rate of evaporation of
the development of the CVD technology, deposition silicon in clean vacuum systems [i.e., 900-950C; see,
temperatures in excess of llOO"C were considered to for example, Gottlieb and Corboy (1972)], the proper-
be optimum (see Section 2.8). As the technology ties of vacuum evaporated silicon are superior to the
developed, contaminants were excluded by building properties of CVD silicon. Extrapolation of the availa-
2.10. Deposition techniques 59
ble data on the kinetics of the pyrolysis of silane these deposition systems are discussed in some detail
(Joyce and Bradley, 1963) suggests that the crossover in Chapter 7. Aspects of the deposition techniques
point of the available deposition rate of silicon by specific to the growth of the heteroepitaxial silicon are
pyrolysis of silane and by evaporation is at pyrolysis discussed in the following sections.
temperatures well below 900C. It can be concluded.
therefore, that the low-temperature limit of the CVD Types of deposition reactors
of heteroepitaxial silicon is more defined by the pres-
ence of contaminants on the substrate surface and by The four types of deposition chambers which have
the maintenance of the proper substrate surface crys- commonly been employed for the heteroepitaxial
tal structure than by the kinetics of the pyrolysis of growth of silicon on the insulating substrates are sche-
silane. Although use of the lowest vacuum heteroepi- matically shown in Figure 2.27. In all of the systems
taxial growth temperature reported [ 650C on the shown the substrate is heated by contact with (and
(1 102) silicon; Chang (1971)] would be precluded in radiation from) a susceptor in which the heating cur-
CVD by the rate of the pyrolysis of silane, the rents are induced by an RF field. Reaction chambers
achievement of silicon heteroepitaxy by CVD at tem- heated externally by conventional resistance tube fur-
peratures well below 900"C is not outside the realm of naces have also been employed, but particularly when
possibility. silane is used as the source gas, it is desirable to
suppress homogeneous gas phase reactions by holding
NoTE. Vacuum-deposited silicon has been discussed in the substrate (and susceptor) as the hottest part of the
some detail in the thesis work ofP. F. Linnington (under the system. The simple pedestal-type reactor (Figure
direction of A. Howie), Cambridge University (1971) and A. 2.27a) has been, and still is, used for experimental
G. Cullis (under the direction ofR. Booker), Oxford Univer- runs when it is not necessary to prepare more than one
sity (1972). The former investigation was carried out in col- sample at a time and when the maintenance of thick-
laboration with Lawson and Jefkins (1970). This investigation
ness uniformity across the sample is not critical.
has been discussed in this section. The emphasis in both of
the thesis investigations was on the microstructure of the
In small (< -1.5 inch-diameter) pedestal reactors,
heteroepitaxial silicon. These results are discussed in Section and in the horizontal-type (Figure 2.27b) and barrel-
2.11. type (Figure 2.27c) reactors, the gas makes essentially
one pass over the growth surface, and recirculation
over the growth surface due to thermal effects is held
to a minimum. The nature of flow in the horizontal and
2.10. Deposition techniques barrel reactors is amenable to analysis on the basis of
known fluid flow relationships (see Chapter 7). The
The development of deposition techniques geometry of the gas passage between each face of the
barrel susceptor and the reactor wall is essentially the
The techniques developed for the homoepitaxial same as the geometry of the gas passage of the hori-
growth of silicon from silicon tetrachloride are not zontal reactor, and thus from the standpoint of fluid
directly applicable to the heteroepitaxial growth of flow dynamics these two reactors are very nearly
silicon from silane. Due to the differences in the chem- (with the exception of edge effects) equivalent. We
ical nature of the two source materials, and the com- have experimentally verified that gas-flow relation-
paratively low deposition temperature of the heteroe- ships developed in a horizontal reactor [for instance,
pitaxial growth, it has been necessary to develop by Eversteijn et al. (1970)] are applicable to the barrel
methods specific to heteroepitaxial deposition on the reactor. Figure 2.28 is a photograph of a barrel reactor
insulating substrates. The different procedures are during a run in which the temperature was held above
required mainly because of the tendency for silane to the normal deposition temperature to purposely
pyrolyze in the gas stream as well as on a hot surface induce gas phase decomposition in order to observe
and because oxygen must be rigorously excluded the gas-flow pattern. The silicon "smoke" can be seen
when deposition temperatures are used at which sili-
con dioxide is stable in contact with the silicon.
Also, because of the differences in the kinetics of *Both the small pedestal (generally less than 2 inch-diameter)
and the larger pancake (generally larger than 8 inch-diame-
the silane pyrolysis as compared to the silicon tetra- ter) have been referred to as "vertical" reactors (i.e., the
chloride reduction, different reactor geometries are gas input is normal to the growth surface). In some foreign
required to realize acceptable uniformity of the depos- literature (for instance, Japanese) the terms "horizontal"
it thickness and carrier concentration. The effort to and "vertical" is assigned to the systems to designate the
achieve uniformity in the deposits less than 1 JLm in direction of gas flow with respect to a horizontal surface;
using this terminology, both the barrel and pancake systems
thickness doped to well under l016/cm3 has resulted in are vertical reactors. To avoid this confusion, the terms
a new appreciation of the role of gas-flow dynamics. pedestal, horizontal (the one reactor with the horizontal gas
The fundamentals of gas-flow dynamics as applied to flow), barrel, and pancake are used here.
60 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
Cooling of the walls also suppresses the deposition One finds that details of the reactor geometry (of
of pyrolysis products on the walls (see Figure 2.28). noncommercial reactors) are seldom defined in the
Wall deposits are to be avoided since they may be literature, and thus it is not surprising that the various
swept onto the growth surface and because they investigators report different properties in films depos-
change the thermal gradient by reflection of radiation ited under what might appear to be similar growth
from the susceptor. conditions. It would be highly desirable if, short of
providing the details of the reactor geometry, the
The influence of reactor types on deposition variables investigators in the field would specify at least the
linear gas-flow velocity across the growth surface, in
The optimum conditions for heteroepitaxial growth addition to the deposition temperature and rate. In the
are a function of the reactor geometry. In the horizon- pancake reactor the linear gas-flow velocity across the
tal and barrel reactors the uniformity of the deposit in growth surface is not easily extracted from a knowl-
the direction of the gas flow is strongly dependent on edge of the input velocity and the reactor geometry,
the angle between the susceptor surface and the reac- and under these circumstances a more complete
tor wall and on the linear gas-flow velocity. In the description of the system geometry is necessary to
pancake reactor, the uniformity of the deposit is uniquely define the growth conditions.
strongly dependent on the nature (number and size of The general relationships bearing on gas-flow
orifices) of the gas inlet and on the input gas velocity. dynamics and thermal gradients just discussed may
In the barrel reactor the susceptor is rotated to aver- serve as a background for the quantitative analyses of
age out differences in the spacing between the suscep- these factors presented in Chapter 7.
tor and the wall which occur due to the difficulties
involved in fabricating precise quartz parts. The uni- RF Susceptors
formity of the deposit thickness is more commonly
achieved through manipulation of the geometry of the Since the susceptor is the hottest part of the reactor
gas passage and of the gas-flow velocity rather than by system, efforts must be taken to assure that the sus-
imposing thermal gradients in the direction of the gas
flow, mainly because the former procedures are inher-
ently more reproducible .
In the horizontal and barrel reactors, because of the
narrow gas passages, efficiency is relatively high and
deposition rates in excess of 7 J.Lnlfmin are readily
achieved (see Section 2.8). In the pancake reactor the
input reactant gases are diluted by mixing with the
relatively large volume of recirculating gas within the
chamber. Thus, while high linear gas-flow velocities
are used to achieve thickness uniformity in the hori-
zontal and barrel reactors, the high flows are neces-
sary in the pancake reactor to achieve the desirable
growth rates (;;.2 p.nlfmin).
It had been originally predicted that the recircula-
tion of gases in the pancake type of vertical reactor
would lead to higher, but more uniform, autodoping in
the silicon on sapphire. There are compensating
effects, however, such as turbulence and a relatively
high overall gas throughput. Differences in the level of
autodoping, if present, have not to date been unambig-
uously established. The differences in semiconductor
properties of the heteroepitaxial silicon deposited
(under the optimum growth conditions) in the various
reactors are subtle, and in a practical sense they can
be characterized only by collecting rather extensive
data on devices fabricated in the silicon deposited in
FIGURE 2.28 A water-cooled RF-heated barrel reactor,
the various systems. The problem here is that not photographed during a run in which the temperature was held
many organizations have more than one type of reac- above the normal growth temperature in order to produce a
tor on stream to produce a sufficient number of visible silicon "smoke." Note the nonturbulent streaming
devices to develop meaningful trends, and data on from the downstream (bottom) end of the susceptor and the
reproducibility and yield are usually proprietary. absence of deposit on the water-cooled reactor walls
62 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
The flow scheme of the most simple gas metering and Gas sources and purification
manipulation system is schematically shown in Figure
2.29. While the flow control can be effectively carried It has not been possible to maintain adequate purity of
out with conventional manual valves and rotameters, hydrogen carrier gas stored in metal cylinders. It is
the electronic flow control devices are particularly common practice to purify the hydrogen by passage
useful to introduce the very low volumes (1-10 cm 3/ through a hot palladium-silver membrane. Using the
min of a I 0 ppm mixture) of dopant gas mixtures. The palladium purifiers moisture can be tolerated in the
electronic flow controllers consist of an electrically unpurified hydrogen, but a combination of moisture
actuated metering valve and a mass flow meter con- and trace amounts of halides results in damage to the
nected in a closed-loop system (Applied Materials purifier. The presence of hydrocarbon impurities in
Inc., Santa Clara, CA and Tylan Corporation, Torr- the unpurified hydrogen leads to a decrease in the
ance, CA). Use of the flow controllers also provides efficiency of the metal membrane, but this can gener-
reproducibility and the possibility of automated ally be recovered by burning the hydrocarbon reaction
sequencing. products off the metal at higher than normal operating
The outlet network shown in Figure 2.29 is designed temperatures.
2.10. Deposition techniques 63
FIGURE 2.3 1 A gas manipulation system built around F IGU RE 2.32 An automatic gas manipulation system built
manual control and glass floating ball gas-flow meters. around electronic closed-loop gas-flow devices. System
System designed at the RCA Laboratories designed at the RCA Laboratories
64 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
which the semiconducting properties are a strong of devices in which the electrical properties can be
function of the thickness. In the horizontal reactor the used for quality control.
thickness and growth rate can be continually moni- In the relatively poor heteroepitaxial deposits, cor-
tored by sighting a conventional IR pyrometer, with relation can be observed between the semiconducting
an appropriate filter, through the deposit and substrate properties and the crystalline quality as measured by
and onto the hot susceptor (Durnin, 1967 A). As the methods such as x-ray and electron diffraction and
film increases in thickness, the spacing between the optical absorption. In this regime of crystalline quali-
two surfaces passes through values which lead to the ty, however, the carrier mobilities (as compared to
interference of the radiation from the susceptor. The bulk silicon) are low and not useful for application in
constant level (at temperature) output of the pyrome- device structures. In an intermediate range of crystal
ter is nulled out, and the small changes in the pyrome- quality, it is reasonable to relate improvements in the
ter signal are fed to a time-based recorder. This results semiconducting properties to improvements in the
in time-dependent "interference" patterns as shown crystalline quality, but the small changes in the crys-
in Figure 2.23. This method is described in more detail tallinity are not easily measured by established tech-
in Chapter 5. niques. It is clear that in this regime the semiconduct-
The thickness uniformity across the substrates ing properties are more sensitive to the structure than
included within a single deposition run is established are most of the analytical techniques. Above some
through manipulation of the gas-flow patterns. Appre- level of crystalline quality (difficult to define quantita-
ciation of gas-flow dynamics discussed in Chapter 7 is tively), the semiconducting properties of the film
useful in maintaining the thickness variation within the appear to be more dominated by impurity effects than
desired limits. It is clear that the difficulty in achieving by the crystalline quality. In this regime the crystalline
the desired thickness uniformity increases with the perfection may be essentially constant while the semi-
length of the susceptor in the horizontal and barrel conducting properties vary considerably. It is in this
reactors and with the diameter of the susceptor in the regime that the observation has been made that the
pancake-type reactors. after-oxidation (after device processing) semiconduct-
ing properties are a strong function of the deposition
and substrate parameters, whereas the semiconduct-
2.11. The crystalline quality of ing properties of the as-deposited films are indepen-
heteroepitaxial silicon dent of the deposition and substrate parameters over a
wide range. This has been an important consideration
An overview of the characterization of the crystal in the development of the technology, and has been
character of heteroepitaxial silicon discussed earlier in some detail (see, for instance,
Table 2.9). It has even been suggested that above
From a materials point of view the development of a some minimum level of crystalline perfection the car-
detailed understanding of the silicon-on-insulator com- rier mobility may be increased under conditions that
posite system depends on establishing correlations may lead to some sacrifice in the crystal quality (Sala-
among the deposition parameters, the physical proper- ma et a!., 1967). If this is true, it must be peculiar to
ties, and the semiconducting properties of the silicon. the situation in which a compromise must be made
This has been particularly difficult to do in the case of between deposition conditions leading to the suppres-
heteroepitaxial silicon technology. A large body of sion of contamination by substrate reaction products
quantitative information has been generated on the and conditions conventionally leading to good crystal-
relationship between the deposition (and substrate line perfection (see Sections 2.6 and 2.8).
parameters) and the semiconducting properties; some The crystalline nature of the heteroepitaxial silicon
semiquantitative relationships have been established on sapphire and spinel and the nature of the substrate
between the deposition (and substrate parameters) surface have been studied by a variety of analytical
and the crystal quality; but little definitive information techniques: X-ray diffraction, reflection (high-energy)
is to be found in the literature on the relationship electron diffraction (RHEED), low-energy electron
between the crystalline structure and the semicon- diffraction (LEED), optical absorption, replication
ducting properties of the thin silicon film. As with bulk electron microscopy (REM), transmission electron
and homoepitaxial silicon, the relationship between microscopy (TEM), and ion channeling. Most of these
crystalline structure and semiconducting properties in methods are discussed in some detail in Chapter 5.
device structures is complex and difficult to establish. The crystalline quality has also been inferred from the
It is highly desirable to develop such relationships, film semiconducting properties, particularly in the
both to isolate and understand the key variables case where the semiconducting properties have been
involved and to have available nondestructive in-line measured as a function of distance from the silicon/
quality control of the materials prior to the fabrication substrate interface (see Section 2.12).
2.11. The crystalline quality of heteroepitaxial silicon 65
The ease of making the measurement and the infor- lytical techniques is discussed in the following
mation content of the physical characterization tech- sections.
niques are important considerations, particularly
where reproducibility has been a problem and large The characterization ofheteroepitaxial silicon by x-ray
numbers of samples must be characterized in order to and electron diffraction
accumulate sufficient data to develop real trends. For
the most part the information content is inversely In the early work on the heteroepitaxial growth of
proportional to the ease of making the measurement. silicon it was not unusual to verify the nucleation of
X-ray diffraction and optical absorption are particu- single crystal films on the various substrate materials
larly convenient in that they are used at atmospheric and substrate orientations and to provide rough indi-
pressure and can be nondestructive. For the film cation of the crystalline perfection with Laue x-ray
thicknesses of interest here, the crystalline quality is back-reflection patterns and x-ray diffractometer
integrated over the entire thickness of the film in both traces [for instance, Manasevit et al. (1965), Manasev-
x-ray diffraction and optical absorption. Examination it and Forbes (1966), Wang et al. (1969)]. In a more
of the crystal structure by electron diffraction has the detailed examination of the microstructure in which x-
disadvantage that a vacuum environment is required, ray diffraction was correlated with surface structure
and the method is therefore time consuming and (as examined by replication electron microscopy)
destructive. An advantage in examining very thin films twins were observed to be the dominant defect struc-
and the substrate surfaces is that only about 50 A of ture in thick films deposited on sapphire from silicon
the material near the surface is sampled. This is partic- tetrachloride (Nolder et al., 1965).
ularly useful in the examination of the nature of the Reflection (high-energy) electron diffraction pat-
substrate surface, where bulk defects play a role only terns were also commonly displayed in the literature
if they intersect the surface. Optical reflectivity mea- to establish the existence of heteroepitaxy [for
surements are useful in that they can be made at instance, Joyce et al. (1965), Salama et al. (1967),
atmospheric pressure and are nondestructive. In Naber and O'Neal (1968), Wang et al. (1969)]. Where-
establishing relationships between the microstructure as diffraction techniques have been useful in establish-
of the composite structure and the electrical proper- ing orientation relationships, in silicon more than -0.5
ties, all of these methods must be classified as semi- ~m in thickness deposited by current technology they
quantitative in their present states of development. are not sensitive to defect structure at a level signifi-
These semiquantitative optical, x-ray, and electron cantly influencing the semiconducting properties.
diffraction techniques have contributed significantly to Electron diffraction has proven particularly useful,
the heteroepitaxial silicon technology. The optical however, in the examination of the microstructure of
methods offer the possibility of in-line quality control the silicon adjacent to the silicon/substrate interface.
(Duffy et al., 1976). Yasuda and Ohmura (1969) examined the crystallinity
Low-energy electron diffraction has been useful in of silicon evaporated onto (0001) sapphire. Prior to
establishing substrate surfacing procedures and in complete surface coverage, a number of orientations
characterizing the overall structures of the substrate were observed [all with (111) parallel to the substrate
and the heteroepitaxial orientation relationships. Ion- surface] in -300 A growth islands. At 800 A, but still
channeling spectroscopy stands in a classification of prior to complete coverage of the substrate, the
its own both from the standpoint of method and nature islands recrystallized into a single crystal.
of information derived. Correlations have been Kiihl and coworkers (1974, 1975A) have concluded,
observed between results obtained from ion channel- on the basis of electron diffraction (in conjunction
ing and the more established methods. with optical absorption), that an intermediate layer of
Of the well established methods, transmission elec- aluminum silicate i~ present at the substrate/silicon
tron microscopy appears to offer the greatest possibili- interface. Cullen and coworkers (1975A) have
ty of accumulating information on the physical struc- observed that the crystalline perfection of the silicon
ture of the thin heteroepitaxial films in sufficient detail within -0.2 ~m of the interface is strongly dependent
to develop correlations between preparative variables, on the rate of deposition of the silicon during the
structure and semiconducting properties. TEM is, period that the substrate surface is not completely
however, the most difficult method to employ because covered. These latter two studies are discussed in
of the need to thin the samples for penetration of the more detail in Section 2.6.
electron beam (-5000 A for silicon, <3000 A for Some correlation appears to have been seen
sapphire using a 100-kV beam). The skill required for between x-ray diffractometer linewidths and Hall
gathering and interpreting the data is matched only by mobilities measured in silicon deposited on spinel.
low-energy electron diffraction. Some of the more Gassmann and coworkers (1971), using a conventional
pertinent information gathered using the various ana- (i.e., single crystal) diffractometer, measured ''inte-
66 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
grallinewidths" [of the (111) diffraction trace] of ~3 .1 calculated background dislocations ~1Q9/cm2 from the
min for bulk silicon, between 7.5 and 10 min for good rocking curve data. The details of their analysis, how-
deposits of silicon on spinel, and as high as 15 min on ever, were not provided. Although it is reasonable to
poorer deposits. The integrallinewidth was defined as assume a relationship between dislocation density and
the width of a rectangle determined by setting the the w-mode linewidths (Kane and Larrabee, 1970),
height at the maximum trace intensity and setting the experimental correlations in the heteroepitaxial silicon
area of the rectangle equal to the area under the trace are yet to be experimentally established.
for the (111) reflection. Within the range characteristic Both the 0:20 and w-scan modes were employed by
of the better deposits, a linewidth of 7.8 min was Cullen and coworkers (1975A) to examine the effect of
associated with the hole mobility of 373 cm 2/V-s (in a the early growth rate (i.e., growth prior to complete
3.60-pm-thick film) while a linewidth of 13.2 min was surface coverage; see Section 2.8) on the change in
associated with a mobility of 252 cm 2/V-s (in a 2.15- crystal perfection with distance from the silicon/sap-
p,m-thick film). In the 0:20 scan mode employed here phire interface. The half-widths of the silicon are
(i.e., the sample rotated at the angle 0 and the detector shown as a function of the early growth rate and
at 20 in relation to the beam) the broadening of the thickness in Table 2.6. Also shown in the table are the
diffraction profile can be assigned essentially to a half-widths of the substrates employed. It can be seen
variation in lattice spacing. that the half-widths decrease significantly with
Attempts have also been made to correlate deposi- increase in the film thickness to a thickness of ~1p,m.
tion parameters with the crystalline nature of silicon The relatively small differences observed between the
on sapphire by the x-ray rocking curve technique. In 1- and 2-p,m-thick films are attributed to the entire
this method the axis of the sample is held in a fixed deposit being sampled by the technique. In the depos-
diffraction angle () in relation to the beam, and the its less than 0.5 p,m in thickness, the half-widths are
sample is rotated (rocked). The method is also also a function of the rate of growth. No correlation is
referred to as thew-scan mode. The broadening of the observed between the half-widths of the deposit and of
diffraction profile in the w mode is related to the the substrate. This is attributed to the bulk (rather
presence of a' 'mosaic'' structure in crystal (i.e., local- than the surface crystallinity) of the substrate being
ized areas that are misoriented as compared to the sampled by this method. In heteroepitaxial silicon,
surroundings). Using a double-crystal spectrometer, variations in the lattice spacing (0:20 mode) and local
Stadnik and coworkers (1972) have observed line- misorientation (w mode) appear to be closely related,
widths of ~10 min for bulk silicon and ~800 min for and essentially the same conclusions can be drawn on
vacuum-deposited silicon on sapphire. These workers examination of the x-ray data collected by the two
2.11. The crystalline quality of heteroepitaxial silicon 67
scan modes. Because of the difficulties involved in (between 1100 and 950C) while the crystal perfection,
making mobility measurements in silicon less than 0.5 as inferred from the optical absorption measurements,
p,m in thickness (see Chapter 8), attempts to establish decreased. Salama and coworkers interpreted the data
a relationship between the mobilities and the x-ray on the basis of degradation of conduction in the grain
results were not fruitful. boundaries and a shift in the doping level and size of
Weitzel and Smith (1976) have been able to show a the "grains" with deposition temperature. Other
correlation between the 0:20 half-width and transistor investigators have observed that within a narrow
mobilities fabricated in 0.6-p,m-thick silicon. The sili- range of crystalline perfection, the carrier mobility is
con was deposited at a rate of 1.8 p,m/min at IOoooc on more dominated by scattering from aluminum com-
hydrogen-annealed (1200C) sapphire substrates. A plexes than by the overall crystallinity and that the
particularly interesting aspect of this investigation was mobility decreases with increasing temperature as the
the observation that the 0:20 half-widths measured in autodoping increases (see Section 2.8). Such an effect
the silicon deposit are a function of the magnitude and is characteristic of the situation in which the deposit
direction of misorientation of the substrate surface. reacts with the substrate.
Between misorientations of + 2 and -2 parallel to The effects reported by Salama and coworkers
the mirror plane of the sapphire, the 0:20 half-width appear to be characteristic of the specific vacuum-
values change monotonically. Thus, the transistor deposition conditions and temperature range studied
mobilities can be related to the misorientation of the by them. The optical absorption (near the band edge)
substrate surface. For example, ann-channel mobility of chemicallv vapor-deposited silicon has heen mea-
of 5% cm2/V-s and a p-channel mobility of 285 cm2/V- sured as a function of film thickness and deposition
s were observed in silicon deposited on a substrate temperature by Durnin and Robinson (1968B). These
misoriented by =2. In silicon deposited on a substrate investigators found that the optical absorption
misoriented = -1, the corresponding n- and p-chan- increased. in 0.2-p,m-thick films. with a decrease in
nel mobilities were 457 and 232 cm2/V-s, respectively. temperature by Durnin and Robinson (1968B). These
A positive misorientation conceptually involves rota- investigators found that the optical absorption
tion around the a-axis in the direction to bring the c- increased, in 0.2-p,m-thick films, with a decrease in
axis more parallel to the (1 102) plane. temperature from 1050 to 1000C. In this investigation
the higher optical absorption could be associated with
Film crystallinity: low-energy electron diffraction degraded carrier mobilities. The same trend was
observed in thicker (8-p,m) deposits. It was also
The crystal structure of the heteroepitaxial silicon, as observed that the optical absorption decreased with
determined by low-energy electron diffraction, has increasing film thickness for thicknesses between 0.2
been examined as a function of the substrate orienta- and 30 p.m. This observation is in agreement with
tion and temperature and is given in Figure 2.26. The other measurements indicating that the defect density
interpretation of LEED patterns is somewhat com- decreases rapidly with distance from the film/substrate
plex; details of the nature of the structures observed interface.
may be found in the literature [see, for instance, Druminski and coworkers (1976) and Kiihl and
Chang (1969)]. Although the LEED studies have coworkers (1976A) have demonstrated a relationship
proved to be particularly useful in defining the influ- between an optical "absorption factor" (FA) and
ence of such parameters as substrate pretreatment, channel mobility in transistors fabricated in silicon on
orientation, and temperature on the overall crystal sapphire. The absorption factor, derived from optical
structure, this method is less applicable to characteriz- reflectance measurements, is proportional to the linear
ing the defect structure of silicon than are other meth- slope of the absorption edge and the absolute value of
ods described in this section. the absorption constant (Kiihl eta!., 1974) at a prede-
termined wavelength (this is discussed in more detail
Optical absorption and reflection in Chapter 5). This "quality factor" is considered to
be a measure of lattice perfection of the deposit.
The optical absorption of heteroepitaxial films near The channel mobility as a function of the absorption
the absorption edge of silicon has been examined by a factor is shown in Figure 2.33 (Druminski and Wieczo-
number of investigators. In relatively thin (0.35 to 1.7 rek, 1975). The absorption factor of the heteroepitaxi-
p,m) vacuum-deposited silicon, Salama and coworkers al silicon was measured prior to processing the transis-
(1967) observed a sharpening of the absorption edge tor structures. It is clear that the correlation between
(i.e., an increase in slope of the absorption vs. wave- the absorption factor and the device mobilities, at
length plots) with increasing substrate temperature least for electron mobilities, falls outside the limits of
between temperatures of 880 and 1100C. A somewhat error of the mobility measurement. The absorption
surprising conclusion reached here was that mobility factor was also shown to correlate well with ion back-
increased with decreasing substrate temperatures scattering yields, and "fair" correlation was seen with
68 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
', j1
500 tortion in the sapphire. The requirement to derive
absolute values is avoided by taking, as a quality
factor, the ratio of the reflectance at a wavenumber
~7 lo~iltt.
> sensitive to lattice distortion and the reflectance at a
f-
:::i 300 relatively insensitive wavenumber ( -450 cm- 1). An
1ii
0 interesting conclusion of these investigations is that
:;;;:
....l
changes are not seen in the semiconducting properties
w of the heteroepitaxial silicon unless the substrate sur-
z
z
~ 100 face is damaged to a degree considerably greater than
u originally anticipated.
0 The crystalline quality of the heteroepitaxial silicon
100 150 200 10 6cm-2 250
was studied by the same group of investigators using
ABSORPTION FACTOR
absorption in the UV range. As compared to the work
FIGURE 2.33 Channel mobility as a function of the optical of Druminski and Kiihl, described above, these latter
absorption factor in silicon on sapphire. (Note that the investigators employed wavelengths in the region well
Siemens investigators use the acronym ESFI, epitaxial above the absorption edge of silicon corresponding to
silicon films on insulators, for both silicon on sapphire and a photon energy of 4.3 eV. In this region the refractive
silicon on spinel.) After Druminski et al. (1976)
and absorption indexes are more sensitive to crystallo-
graphic changes in the silicon. Experience has shown
a "subjectively defined" factor derived from electron that these two factors are generally interrelated. Com-
diffraction. bining the results from the IR measurements on the
The Siemens* investigators (Druminski eta!., 1976) sapphire and the UV measurements on the silicon,
also have measured the optical absorption as a func- these investigators conclude that the current state-of-
tion of thickness and related these values with mobili- the-art substrate surface finish is adequate, and that
ty as a function of thickness. In Figure 2.34 the further improvement in the crystalline quality of the
absorption constant and the mobility are plotted as a heteroepitaxial silicon will come from a study of prep-
function of the thickness of a deposit of silicon on
spinel. The absorption constant is shown both as a
cm 2/Vs
mean value measured in the deposit subsequent to
successive thinning by etching and as a value obtained 750
by computer differentiation of the absorption constant
with respect to the thickness. The absorption constant
at a particular wavelength is used here rather than the
Jl.n( X)
a(d}
EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTAL
i
Jl.n
arative parameters other than the substrate surface has been employed to examine the thicker silicon
finish. deposited from silane on sapphire (Robinson and
The measurement of film quality by optical absorp- Mueller, 1966) and spinel (Wang et al., 1969). It is fair
tion is particularly attractive because it is nondestruc- to say at this point, however, that with the exception
tive and thus offers the possibility of being used in in- of the examination of the heteroepitaxial deposits
process quality control. These methods warrant fur- prior to complete coverage of the surface, there is
ther calibration and development. Druminski and little information to be derived from the examination
coworkers (1974) reported that of a number of analyti- of the "as-deposited" surface structure of less than 1-
cal techniques examined, only optical absorption, ion JLm-thick silicon deposited from silane (under opti-
backscattering, and carrier mobility measurements mum deposition conditions). We have observed that
were sufficiently sensitive to distinguish between even the effect of the discrete island formation during
small differences in the relatively good quality hetero- the early growth is lost immediately with the complete
epitaxial deposits. coverage of the surface (see the micrographs in Sec-
The examination of the optical transmission and tion 2.7). Schli:itterer (1976), however, reports that
reflection of the silicon on spinel composite in the surface roughness was observed at thicknesses about
wavelength region away from the band edge provides twice those of surface coverage.
more information on the thickness and uniformity of The microscopic examination of chemically etched
thickness than on the crystalline structure (Stein, surfaces has been widely employed to evaluate the
1972). An interesting conclusion of this work, how- defect density of both bulk silicon [see, for instance,
ever, is that excess reflectivity near a wavelength of Kane and Larrabee (1970)] and the substrate single
900 cm- 1 suggests that the silicon growth alters the crystals (see Section 2.4). In the examination of the
composition of the substrate adjacent to the silicon/ microstructure of etched bulk silicon, faceted etch pits
substrate interface. As interest increases in under- are developed by exposing-typically for a period of
standing the microstructure of the material near the minutes-the surface to standard etchants. A similar
silicon/substrate interface, the significance of reflec- treatment of the heteroepitaxial silicon results in the
tion measurements in this wavelength region warrants complete removal of the thinner deposits ( < 1 JLffi) and
further attention. the development of deep nonfaceted furrows in the
thicker deposits. Structure with obvious directional
Surface microscopy relationships may be brought out by etching the heter-
oepitaxial films for very brief periods (i.e., seconds).
In the early work on heteroepitaxial silicon, during the Mter the brief etching, little is to be seen with optical
period when the emphasis was on the preparation of microscopy, and the higher magnification available
the thicker films (> 5 JLm) from halide source mate- with scanning or replication electron microscopy must
rials, surface features were readily observed by opti- be employed. As the density of defects increases in
cal microscopy. In the presence of the halides, during the material near the silicon/substrate interface, char-
deposition an equilibrium is set up between deposition acterization by microscopic observation of the etched
on and erosion of the silicon surface. This has the surfaces becomes more difficult. Ai thicknesses of
effect of bringing out crystallographic surface fea- interest for device application (< 1 JLffi), the etched-out
tures, which become more evident as the film grows structure may have directional features but generally
thicker. is not faceted.
As the less-corrosive silicon source materials were In deposits greater than 2 tim in thickness, disloca-
sought, replication microscopy was used to examine tion counts of 1-2 x lOS lines/cm2 have been derived
the differences in the films deposited from SiC1 4 and from the microscopic examination of Dash-etched
SiH 4 on sapphire (Manasevit et al., 1965; Nolder et a!., (111) silicon on (111) spinel [Durnin and Robinson,
1965), from SiHC1 3 and SiH 4 on sapphire (Bicknell et 1968A; Hasegawa et al., 1969 (evaporated silicon);
a!., 1966), from SiC1 4 and SiHC1 3 on spinel (Heywang, and Krause, 1970]. Yasuda and Ohmura (1969)
1968), and from SiC1 4 and SiH 4 on spinel (Zaminer, observed evidence of stacking fault lamellae, disloca-
1968). It became evident that the crystal structure of tion pits associated with low-angle grain boundaries,
the heteroepitaxial silicon improved with the reduc- and random dislocation pits by replication microscopy
tion of the halide content of the growth atmosphere of Dash-etched evaporated silicon on sapphire.
and with increasing growth rates. It was also noted The thinner deposits are more difficult to analyze by
that the substrate surface was covered more rapidly microscopic examination of etched surfaces. The
when SiH4 was used as the source than when SiC1 4 defect density as a function of thickness was clearly
was the source (Manasevit et al., 1965). Subsequent to demonstrated in silicon deposited on spinel from sili-
these investigations the pyrolysis of SiH 4 has been con tetrachloride at 1200C (Schli:itterer and Zaminer,
generally employed as the silicon source for deposi- 1966). Deposits were examined between thicknesses
tion of sapphire and spinel. Replication microscopy of I and 30 JLffi. After Sirtl etching (Sirtl and Adler,
70 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
1961), the surface features exhibit crystallographic priately used in the final phases of evaluating films for
relationships, as observed by replication electron application in device structures. The influence of dif-
microscopy. In conjunction with correlating the ferent types of crystalline defects cannot be isolated
results of the ion-channeling investigations with the by ion channeling; in the analysis one must assume
more conventional analytical methods, Picraux and that all defects are equivalent. Picraux and Thomas
Thomas (1973) examined etched surfaces of silicon on (1973) have studied the relationship between ion chan-
spinel. The surfaces were Sirtl etched for periods neling and scattering data and the characterization of
between 1.5 and 4 s. In (100) silicon on spinel, lines the heteroepitaxial silicon by surface etching and
aligned in the (110) direction (as determined by x-ray transmission electron microscopy.
diffraction) were observed. These investigators point Protons (from 450 to 1340 ke V) directed in specific
out that the (110) direction is consistent with the crystallographic directions of silicon (for instance,
intersection of (111) fault planes with the (100) surface. along the ( 10~ and ( 111) axes) undergo scattering
The defect density as a function of thickness in chemi- essentially only from atoms displaced from their nor-
cally thinned samples was examined. Defect densities mal lattice positions. Thus, the comparison of the
of 3 x 107 , 6 x 107 , and 20 x 107/cm2 were measured number of back-scattered ions from two samples of
in films 2.2, 1.3, and 0.6 ~-tm thick. The etch features the same crystal type and thickness provides a qualita-
on the (111) silicon surface were triangular, consistent tive measure of the relative crystalline quality. In
with the intersection of the three (111) planes, which order to derive the crystalline perfection as a function
are inclined to the (111) surface. At a thickness of 2.1 of thickness, the back-scattering yield is measured as
fLm, the defect density observed on the (111) surface a function of the back-scattered ion energy. An analy-
was typically 2 x 108/cm2 From TEM studies, how- sis of the depth profile is complicated by the fact that
ever, the (111) silicon on spinel appeared to contain the back-scattered beam represents ions that have
less defects than the (100) silicon on spinel. It should been scattered off of displaced atoms as well as
also be recalled that the mobilities measured in (111) dechanneled atoms deflected from the atoms in their
silicon have always been higher than in the (100) normal lattice position. The analysis of the depth pro-
silicon on spinel. Picraux and Thomas explain the files in the heteroepitaxial thin films has been verified
apparent discrepancy between the etched surface and by carrying out measurements as a function of the
the TEM data on the basis of a greater etching efficien- sample temperature and thickness and the incident
cy of fault planes in the (111) silicon. The fault planes beam energy (Picraux, 1973).
are inclined at a greater angle to the surface in the A plot of the heteroepitaxial film defect density as a
(111) silicon than in the (100) deposit. It was also function of the distance from the silicon/substrate
observed that whereas consistent results were interface derived from ion-channeling data is shown in
obtained on the examination of various sections of a Figure 2.35. It is quite clear that the film improves
single sample, the defect densities might change by a rapidly with distance from the interface. The defect
factor of 2 when different samples were examined. It density near the interface, and the rate of decrease
is clear from these results that the derivation of quanti- with distance from the interface, is a function of both
tative data from the observation of etched heteroepi- the nature of the substrate material and the deposition
taxial surfaces must be done with caution. (or substrate surface finishing) parameters. Since the
samples in this study were obtained from commercial
Ion channeling/backscattering suppliers (Union Carbide, San Diego, CA and Inselek
Corp., Princeton, NJ) the differences in deposition
Ion channeling/backscattering have been used to eval- conditions were not reported. It should be kept in
uate the crystalline quality of silicon on both sapphire mind, however, that the stoichiometric Czochralski
and spinel (Picraux, 1972, 1973; Picraux and Thomas, spinel substrates used in this study had proven to be
1973). The sensitivity to the defect content is limited, relatively chemically reactive and that unless the sur-
and the establishment of quantitative correlations is faces were treated in a manner specific to the chemical
complicated by the somewhat difficult analysis nature of the material, the electrical properties were
required. Nonetheless, the method has proven to be found to be degraded (see Sections 2.6 and 2.7).
useful for comparative analysis of silicon on sapphire Although the data collected by ion scattering would be
and spinel deposited under various deposition condi- useful (at least on a comparative basis) for the devel-
tions and for an evaluation of the defect density as a opment of preparative and substrate variables, they
function of the film thickness. Pic raux (1973) has char- are not likely to be employed to a great extent because
acterized the method as filling in an "evaluation gap" of the rather specialized equipment required.
between the realization of silicon heteroepitaxy and Druminski and associates (1974, 1976) have also
the growth of high-quality films and suggests that carried out ion backscattering investigations in silicon
electrical and optical measurements are more appro- deposited on sapphire and spinel. They have observed
2.11. The crystalline quality of heteroepitaxial silicon 71
':'
s 20 (1001 EPITAXIAL SILICON
....E><
.!,!
~ 0
~
~
u Si/SPINEL
""
c
;:
tl.08J.Im
~
~
V>
z
0
;:::
~
....
....
"'"-
~
....0 FIGURE 2.35 The density of imperfections as a
function of distance from the silicon/ substrate
~
V>
interface. The data were derived from ion-
....z
0
channeling measurements. The samples were
obtained from commercial suppliers (see text). After
DISTANCE FROM EPITAXIAL INTERFACE IJ.Im) Picraux and Thomas (1973)
good correlation between the backscattering results ever, it is difficult to develop quantitative relationships
and optical absorption measurements previously between the nature of the defects and the electrical
discussed. properties.
In general, the increase in the carrier mobility with As attempts were made to improve the properties of
increasing distance from the silicon/substrate interface the heteroepitaxial silicon by the examination of the
(see Figure 2.31) can be related to a decrease in the microstructure as a function of the deposition condi-
defect density with film thickness. A number of inves- tions, several investigators in the field turned to the
tigators have attempted to draw more specific correla- use of transmission electron microscopy. It is interest-
tions between the defect density and the electrical ing to note that electron microscopic methods were
properties. It is a reasonable assumption that the deg- employed very early in the heteroepitaxial silicon
radation in the carrier mobilities and lifetimes in the technology to examine the influence of the use of the
heteroepitaxial silicon are related to defect-associated various silicon source materials, the influence of the
charged trapping centers (Schlotterer and Zaminer, chemical nature of the substrate on the film properties,
1966; Schlotterer, 1967, 1968; Durnin and Robinson, and the influence of growth rate. After this early
1968A,B). Durnin and Robinson (1968B) suggested activity, there appeared to have been a hiatus in the
that the defect density was proportional to the differ- electron microscopic investigations. Historically this
ence between the electron and donor concentrations was a period in which the deposition and substrate
in the silicon. The "electrically active" defect density variables were examined in detail, numerous samples
was estimated to be between 10' 5 and 10' 6/cm 3 Durnin were generated over short periods of time, and the
(1971) has pointed out that the density of the electri- semiconducting properties were in general used as a
cally active defects could be changed by as much as rapid measure of film quality and of the influence of
two orders of magnitude by heating the films in a HCl- the variables investigated. It would have been difficult
02 ambient. This suggests a rather complex interac- to keep up with the progress using the more laborious
tion between the carriers and the defect structure and time-consuming transmission electron microscop-
which is still not completely understood and also ic techniques. A factor that has seriously impeded the
points out the pitfalls involved in drawing quantitative use of TEM has been the difficulty involved in thin-
relationships between the electrical properties and the ning the sample. Now that preparative reproducibility
physical defect structure. has been considerably improved and the number of
The differences between the bulk and heteroepitaxi- variables decreased, it has become worthwhile to
al silicon carrier mobility as a function of temperature examine ''characteristic'' samples in detail by electron
(Schlotterer, 1968; Durnin and Ross, 1970; Stein, 1972; microscopy, and the interest in this area has been
see also Section 2.12) also suggest that the mobilities rekindled.
in the heteroepitaxial silicon are limited more by In the early work in which TEM was used to exam-
defects than by lattice scattering. Here again, how- ine the heteroepitaxial silicon it was established that
72 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
the halide-bearing silicon source gases reacted with slip (commonly associated with strain relief) was
the substrate and led to formation of highly defected observed in the silicon. The conclusion was drawn,
films. The information content was increased by therefore, that the stress resulting from cooling from
examining the deposit prior to complete coverage of the deposition temperature had been relieved by
the substrate surface (Tamura and Nomura, 1966). ''reconfiguration'' of the interface rather than by prop-
Preparation of the silicon-on-insulator composite for agation of defects in the "bulk" of the film and that the
TEM was expedited by the use of ion bombardment to reconfiguration was operable at temperatures below
thin the samples (Schlotterer and Zaminer, 1966). which defects in the silicon are immobile.
Both of these techniques continue to be useful in Cullis (1972), also using TEM, examined the micro-
characterizing heteroepitaxial silicon. Using the ion- structure of silicon vacuum deposited on the virgin
thinning technique, it was possible to select material surface of (0001) platelets of sapphire. The platelets
for examination at various distances from the silicon! were grown by chemical vapor deposition [White,
substrate interface. Attempts were made to relate the 1972 (as cited by Cullis, 1972)]. The silicon was depos-
semiconducting properties with the various defects ited in an ultrahigh vacuum at substrate temperatures
observed (for instance, primary and secondary growth of 900 and lOOOoC. In the films grown at 900C, Cullis
twins). The results of these pioneering investigations also failed to observe strain-relieving defects. Evi-
are not discussed in more detail here because the dence for reaction with the substrate was observed,
material studied was relatively thick silicon deposited which was more evident at a growth rate of 0.5 A!s
at 1200C from halide sources. The nature and distri- than at 20 A!s. The early silicon growth centers were
bution of the defect structure in these deposits is quite found to be composed of approximately equal propor-
different from that in silicon deposited using current tions of two 60 rotational twins. Also observed were
preparative and substrate conditioning technology. stacking faults and microtwins on inclined planes. In
The microstructure of vacuum-evaporated silicon general the films less than 1 JLm in thickness were
on sapphire has been examined by TEM in some detail described as being polycrystalline in nature. It should
by Linnington (1971). The films studied were deposit- be recalled that, in general (Section 2.12), it is more
ed in an ultrahigh vacuum on annealed (150<fC in difficult to achieve usable semiconducting properties
damp H2) substrates at a substrate temperature of in the (111) silicon on the (0001) sapphire than in the
950C and at a deposition rate of 0.2 JLm/min. More (100) silicon on the (ll02) sapphire. Cullis investigated
than 1 JLm from the silicon/substrate interface, regions only the former orientation because of the availability
of orientation differing from that of the silicon matrix of the naturally occurring basal plane facet on the
and twinned regions were observed. Essentially no CVD sapphire platelets.
free dislocations were detected. As the silicon/sub- Picraux and Thomas (1973) attempted to establish
strate interface was approached, the planar defects correlations between the microstructure observed by
increased sharply. The micro twins were observed to TEM (1 MeV), ion channeling, and the scanning
terminate by intersection with other faults, with an microscopic examination of etched surfaces. The (111)
associated increase in the density of free dislocations. and (100) silicon deposited by chemical vapor deposi-
Weak-beam electron microscopy (Howie and Basin- tion on both sapphire and spinel were examined. The
ski, 1968) was used in an attempt to resolve the defect ion channeling and SEM results have been previously
structure near ( <1 JLm) to the silicon/substrate inter- discussed. Using TEM these investigators observed,
face. Pyramids of stacking faults which originated as have the previous workers already discussed, that
from regions less than 20 A in diameter were the most prevalent defects in the silicon were micro-
observed. Since it proved to be impossible to resolve twin lamellae and stacking faults and that the fault
the details of the structure of the silicon directly adja- density decreased rapidly with distance from the sili-
cent to the interface, it was concluded that the struc- con/substrate interface. They point out that it has been
ture in this region was highly disoriented. Estimates previously observed (Booker and Stickler, 1962) that
were made from the TEM studies of the (planar) the intersection of two stacking faults can result in the
defect density as a function of the distance from the partial or complete cancellation of the faults and pro-
silicon/substrate interface. On a plot of the log of the pose that this is one mechanism by which the fault
defect density as a function of the distance from the density decreases with distance from the substrate.
interface, the data fall on a straight line between a Using conventional methods to prepare samples for
density value of -1.5 x 109/cm 2 at the interface to -I transmission electron microscopy, the composite
x 107/cm 2 at a distance of 1 JLm from the interface. structure is thinned, and the observations are carried
Linnington concluded that the origin of the defects in out in a direction normal to the plane of the substrate
the silicon near the silicon/substrate interface resulted surface. Using this technique it is extremely laborious
from etching of the substrate by silicon during the to derive the defect density of the heteroepitaxial
deposition. It is interesting to note that no evidence of silicon as a function of distance from the silicon/sub-
2.11. The crystalline quality of heteroepitaxial silicon 73
strate interface. Each datum point on the density vs. tion of chemically vapor-deposited (100) silicon on
distance plot is collected from a sample carefully (li02) sapphire is shown in Figure 2.36. The silicon
thinned to include the silicon at the location of inter- was deposited from silane at a rate of 2 p.rn/min at
est. If the density vs . distance from the interface l000C on hydrogen-annealed substrates (Cullen and
relationship is to be examined for any number of Corboy, 1974). Included in the micrograph is the sili-
preparative or substrate variables, the task becomes con/sapphire interface and about 6 JLm of the silicon.
so tedious and laborious as to be unfeasible . To alle- The sapphire is featureless. Dislocations, microtwins,
viate this problem, Abrahams and Buiocchi (1974) and isolated stacking faults are observed in the silicon
developed a technique to thin epitaxial deposits in deposit. It is clear that the fault density in the silicon
such a way that the sample constitutes a cross section deposit is a strong function of the distance from the
of the deposit that includes the substrate/deposit inter- silicon/sapphire interface. A log-log plot of the fault
face. The preparation of the cross-sectional samples density as a function of the distance from the interface
was originally applied to the examination of chemical- is shown in Figure 2.37. Only edge-on faults were
ly vapor-deposited III-V materials. Although the counted. The fault density decreases from a value of 7
method is simple in concept, it is difficult in execution x 105/cm at 0.044JLm to 2 x 103/cm at a distance of 4.3
and takes a good deal of patience and skill. It is clear, JLm from the interface. At greater distances from the
however, that the information content of the cross- interface the fault density is ,;:; 102/cm (the limit of
section sample is very large indeed, and in the long run detection). There appears to be a break in the plot
it is a less laborious method to study the crystallo- (using a least-squares fit) at - 0.2 JLm from the inter-
graphic characteristics of the deposit as a function of face. The fault density presented in the work of Abra-
distance from the deposit/substrate interface. hams and Buiocchi is approximately an order of mag-
A transmission electron micrograph of a cross sec- nitude greater than the values reported by Linnington,
74 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
o ABRAHAMS a BUIOCCHI
e LINNINGTON
but the shapes of the plots are similar. The origin of cence are not dominated by surface energies. These
the break in the curve is not understood at this time. investigators speculate that nucleation on silicon on
The TEM examination of the cross-sectional samples sapphire occurs by a homogeneous surface mecha-
of the silicon on sapphire provides a means of estab- nism and that debris and crystallographic defects are
lishing a physical relationship between the preparative not involved in the nucleation process.
variables (substrate and deposit) and the semiconduct-
ing properties of the heteroepitaxial deposit.
Abrahams and coworkers (1976) have also exam- 2.12. The semiconducting properties of
ined the formation and coalescence of the early silicon on sapphire and spinel
growth islands. In this case, observations were made
normal to the substrate surface. In order to realize Electrical properties of interest for device application
control over deposition of the silicon prior to complete
coverage of the substrate surface, the silicon was For the fabrication of MOS transistor structures in
deposityd at a rate of 0.4 ,.unlmin. The morphology of either bulk or heteroepitaxial silicon, the magnitude of
the growth was examined after deposition periods of the carrier mobility (at the desired carrier concentra-
0.5, 1.0, 2.5 and 3.5 s of growth (at 1000C). It was tion) is of primary concern. The transistor transcon-
observed that { 110} domains nucleate independently ductance (i.e., the time required for the carrier to
of the (100) domains on the (1 102) sapphire surface. travel from the source to the drain) is proportional to
The two domains grow at the same rate, but eventual- the mobility. Thus, every effort is made to optimize
ly the { 110} domains are entrapped by the (100) the magnitude of the mobility.
domains. The volume percentage of the { 110} For the fabrication of bipolar transistors, the magni-
domains prior to surface coverage differ from sample tude of the carrier lifetime is the electrical property of
to sample. Attempts are in progress to relate the most concern. In bipolar structures, the minority car-
appearance of the { 110}-domains with preparative riers injected from the emitter into the base region
variables. It is possible that this spurious orientation is must live sufficiently long to be swept across the base
the origin of the different physical and electrical prop- to the collector. Some minimum, but not well defined,
erties previously observed in the silicon/substrate value of lifetime is required to fabricate bipolar tran-
"interface layer." Blanc and Abrahams (1976) have sistors in the heteroepitaxial silicon.
developed a model for the early growth of silicon on Because of the current emphasis on the application
sapphire based on their TEM examinations. An inter- of heteroepitaxial silicon in MOS transistor structures,
esting conclusion is that under the high supersatura- the mobility -as a function of the preparative parame-
tion commonly employed for heteroepitaxial growth ters and film thickness-is treated in more detail than
of silicon on the insulators. the growth and coales- are considerations involving the lifetime. Also, a con-
2.12 The semiconducting properties of silicon on sapphire and spinel 75
siderably greater body of information has been devel- (lpri, 1972A,B) by the relatively high impurity content
oped on mobility than on lifetime for heteroepitaxial and poor crystallinity. The net result is that the Hall
silicon. mobility decreases with decreasing carrier concentra-
tion as the undepleted region is narrowed to material
Mobility measurements near the silicon/substrate interface.
The analysis of measured carrier concentration in
Mobilities are measured by the Hall method (see lightly doped films is complicated not only by the
Chapters 5 and 8) in heteroepitaxial silicon thin films possibility that the local carrier concentration is a
in an effort to evaluate the applicability of the films in function of the distance from the silicon/substrate
MOS transistor structures. Measuring carrier mobility interface but also by the limitation (by the space
this way is mechanically relatively simple and there- charge) of current to only a portion of the film, even
fore provides rapid feedback to materials scientists though the entire film thickness is used in the calcula-
involved in the development of silicon-on-insulator tion of the carrier concentration. Note that (unlike the
growth technology. There are factors, however, in the mobility) the film thickness must be known in the
measurement of the Hall mobility, and in the relation- calculation of the carrier concentration. Ham (1972)
ship between Hall and MOS transistor mobilities, that has demonstrated the influence of the surface charge
warrant some comment in regard to the significance of by measuring the Hall voltage in a gated structure in
mobility values. The Hall measurement is complicated which the film can be biased to flat band. This pro-
by the fact that in the heteroepitaxial deposits the local vides "bulk" values (i.e., values unaffected by surface
mobility and carrier concentration are a strong func- charges) wherein it is assumed that the current flow is
tion of the distance from the silicon/substrate inter- evenly distributed throughout the thickness of the
face, particularly for thicknesses less than 1 1-lm. The sample.
values derived from Hall measurements in thin films If the mobility is measured in MOS transistor struc-
may also be influenced by depletion of low carrier tures, only carriers remote from the silicon/substrate
concentration silicon ( < 1 x 10' 6/cm3 ) by charge interface participate. This is true in both the enhance-
trapped at the silicon/silicon dioxide and the silicon/ ment mode and deep-depletion transistors, although
substrate interfaces. Thus, particular caution must be for different reasons. In the conventional (ungated)
exercised in the analysis of Hall measurements made Hall measurement, the properties near the silicon/
in thin, low-carrier-concentration films. substrate interface are weighted in thin (<11-lm) light-
The influence of these factors has been brought out ly doped ( < 1 x 1016/cm 3) films. In the gated-Hall-bar
in attempts to explain the decrease in Hall mobility measurement (when the film is biased to flat band) the
with decreasing carrier concentrations for concentra- characteristics derived represent an integrated value
tions less than about 1 x 1016/cm 3 . Schlotterer (1968) of properties throughout the thickness of the film.
had attributed this effect to scattering by space charge Therefore, significantly different values for the trans-
regions around crystalline imperfections in the silicon. port properties may be derived using the different
This was suggested by analogy to a model previously measurement techniques.
offered by Weisberg (1962) to account for a similar For the reasons outlined above, the Hall mobility
effect observed in epitaxial III-V materials. It was vs. carrier concentration (unbiased) relationships can-
proposed that, as the carrier concentration decreases, not be used on an absolute scale to compare thin,
the effective space charge region increases, resulting lightly doped films with bulk silicon properties. On the
in degradation of the carrier mobility. In addition. other hand, if the surface charge is fixed immediately
Ham (1972) has suggested that the effect is associated prior to the measurement by stripping the oxide in an
with carrier depletion in the thin lightly doped films by aqueous HF solution (Ham, 1972), the Hall values are
surface charges at (or near) the silicon/silicon dioxide reproducible and characteristic of the specific deposi-
interface. If the films are partially depleted by surface tion conditions, film thickness, and type of substrate.
charge, one cannot make the assumption that the Thus, on a relative scale, the unbiased Hall values are
current is evenly distributed throughout the thickness useful in the development of deposition conditions and
of the sample. For any fixed value of surface charge, in the evaluation of the effect of film thickness and
as the carrier concentration decreases the thickness of substrate orientation and composition.
the layer depleted from the silicon/silicon dioxide The oxide/semiconductor surface charge is com-
interface increases and the thickness of the layer in monly minimized and held relatively constant in
which the Hall measurement is made (i.e., the unde- device processing by employing "clean" methods to
pleted region) effectively decreases. While the aver- grow a thermal oxide. Such a procedure could be used
age Hall mobility is independent of measured film prior to making an ungated Hall measurement, but this
thickness, in silicon on insulating substrates the mobil- obviates the possibility of making an "as-deposited"
ity is degraded near the silicon/substrate interface mobility measurement. Useful information on the
76 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
...uen
>
...... 100
"'uE
I
>- 80
!:::
..J
iii 60
0
:E
..J 40
..J
ct
o AS DEPOSITED
:I:
20 e AFTER OXIDATION
effect of deposition conditions is derived by compar- that a mobility value is meaningful only if the film
ing Hall mobility measurements made before (in the thickness, the carrier concentration, and the post-
"as-deposited" film) and after a thermal oxidation. deposition thermal treatment of the sample is explicit-
For this evaluation, the oxidation conditions are ly stated. Since one finds that all of these factors are
designed to simulate the thermal treatment commonly often not specified in the literature, it has been difficult
employed during the processing of MOS transistor to compare the electrical properties of heteroepitaxial
structures. The before- and after-oxidation Hall mea- deposits prepared under different deposition condi-
surement can be carried out within hours of the com- tions within various organizations.
pletion of a deposition run, and it therefore provides
much more rapid feedback than is possible if gated- The change in properties on thermal oxidation
Hall-bar or MOS transistor mobilities are measured.
Many of the problems in making meaningful Hall In 1968 Durnin and Robinson reported on the carrier
mobility measurements can be avoided if only films mobilities in 2 ~m thick (100) silicon on (1102) sap-
thicker than about 1.0 ~m with carrier concentrations phire as a function of the carrier concentration and
greater than about 2 x l016/cm3 are used in the devel- thermal oxidation. The hole mobilities reported by
opment of the deposition parameters. The optimiza- these authors are shown in Figure 2.38, and the elec-
tion of thin low carrier concentration films has been tron mobilities are shown in Figure 2.39. This work
important, however, for application in deep-depletion brought out a major problem that had to be solved in
MOS transistor geometries, and it is desirable to fabri- the preparation of the heteroepitaxial films for practi-
cate devices in deposits less than 1 ~m in thickness for cal device application: on exposure to thermal pro-
a number of reasons discussed in Section 2.13 (the cessing similar to that used in device fabrication (at
current standard thickness for device fabrication is 0.6 that time I hr in dry oxygen at l200C) the hole
~m). The properties of the films become more sensi- concentration decreased by as much .as an order of
tive to the deposition parameters with decreasing film magnitude (depending on the initial "as-deposited"
thickness and carrier concentration. It is important to value), and the electron mobilities increased by almost
note that the properties of the after-oxidation films are 100 percent with accompanying increases in the active
very much more sensitive to deposition parameters electron concentration. At a carrier concentration of
than are the properties of the as-deposited silicon. about 1 x 1016/cm 3 , the after-oxidation hole mobility
Despite these considerations, which cloud the rela- of 120 cm 2/V-s in the 2-~m-thick heteroepitaxial film
tionship between Hall and device mobilities in the represented about 30 percent of the bulk hole mobility
heteroepitaxial silicon films, good device characteris- (for a similar carrier concentration) while the after-
tics have been realized in films developed by optimiz- oxidation electron mobility of 550 cm2 /V -s represented
ing the Hall mobilities, and therein lies the justification approximately 50 percent of the bulk value. Although
for making Hall mobility measurements in the heteroe- less specific in regard to the deposit thickness and
pitaxial thin films. thermal oxidation, Hart and coworkers (1967) report-
The basic method used to measure Hall mobilities is ed similar hole mobilities at about the same time.
described in Chapter 5, and factors influencing Hall Durnin and Robinson (1968A) referred to the thermal
mobilities, briefly outlined above, are discussed in oxidation as "aluminum removal" on the assumption
more detail in Chapter 6. It is important to emphasize that aluminum (in an undefined oxidation state) was
2.12 The semiconducting properties of silicon on sapphire and spinel 77
introduced into the deposit as the result of the reaction presumably because of poor crystallinity. The after-
between silicon and the substrate and subsequently oxidation mobility value of the film deposited at 975C
segregated into the silicon oxide during thermal represents approximately 34 percent of the bulk
oxidation. mobility. The after-oxidation mobilities for films
In the following sections the change in electrical deposited between 1000 and 1050"C were typically 55-
properties during and after thermal oxidation is used 65 percent of bulk. Above 10500C the effect of auto-
as an important quality factor in the optimization of doping was observed, and the after-oxidation mobili-
the preparative procedures [see also Ross and War- ties were similar ~o the values observed in films depos-
field (1969)]. ited at 97SC. It is not unusual for the after-oxidation
mobility values to be more reproducible than the as-
The effect of temperature and rate of deposition deposited values. The as-deposited mobility value of
on the carrier mobility 265 cm2 /V-s for one of the fiims deposited at 1000"C
was unusually high, while the after-oxidation value
The changes in electrical properties during thermal was within the range expected. In such a case, the
oxidation have been suppressed by a combination of absolute value of the after-oxidation value is more
lowering the deposition temperature and increasing meaningful than the magnitude of the change during
the deposition rate (Durnin et al., 1970; Cullen et a!., oxidation. In general, the after-oxidation mobilities
1970B). The chemical considerations involved in are the highest and the change in both the mobility and
adjusting these deposition parameters have been dis- carrier concentration the lowest for films deposited at
cussed in a previous section. The influence of deposi- 10000C. The relatively large change in both carrier
tion temperature on the hole mobilities and change in concentration and mobility observed for the film
hole mobilities caused by thermal oxidation in 1.5-~m deposited at 10900C can be associated with contamina-
thick silicon on sapphire is shown in Table 2. 7. These tion of the film by substrate constituents at the rela-
data were collected during the development of the tively high deposition temperatures. Therefore, a
"dual-rate" deposition technique, whereby a high deposition temperature of -10000C had been adopted
growth rate was initially employed to rapidly cover the as the optimum temperature for the deposition of (1 00)
surface subsequently lowered during the latter part of silicon on the (1102) sapphire.
growth of the film. It is noted that a good deal of Using similar procedures, a temperature of l100C
scatter is observed in the characteristics of the hetero- was adopted as the optimum temperature for the
epitaxial silicon films deposited at this state of devel- growth of silicon on the flame fusion alumina-rich
opment in the technology. This is observed in the spinel (Cullen eta!., 1969). That a higher growth tem-
reports of efforts to optimize both the temperature and perature could be used for deposition on the flame
rate of silicon deposition. Nonetheless, sufficient fusion spinel substrates than for deposition on sap-
trends were observed to indicate the most favorable phire may be associated with the observation that the
growth conditions. In hindsight, the scatter can be flame fusion spinel is less reactive (on exposure to the
associated largely with variation in the quality of the silicon deposition ambient) than the sapphire (Robin-
substrate surface finishing. The resistivities of the son and Durnin, 1968). In the spinel substrate system,
films deposited at temperatures below 975C were too the chemical reactivity of the surface proved to be a
high to make meaningful Hall mobility measurements, function of the method by which the substrate was
.,u
Cl)
>
'E
N
>-
1-
..J
CD
0
:::li o AS DEPOSITED
..J
..J e AFTER OXIDATION
~ 100
grown (Cullen and Wang, 1971), and it has therefore tion temperature data, the significant value to examine
been necessary to take into consideration the specific is the after-oxidation hole mobility. Although the
chemical nature of the various substrates in the devel- absolute mobility values realized in this series are
opment of the deposition conditions (Cullen and lower than those observed in Table 2. 7, it can be seen
Dougherty, 1972). that the after-oxidation mobilities peaked and were
The influence of the growth rate on the hole mobili- reproducible at a value of 45-46 percent of bulk using
ty in 1.5-J.tm-thick (100)Si!(ll02)Al 2 0 3 is shown in a deposition rate of 2 ~.trnlmin.
Table 2.8. The rate shown is the rate used for the first Similar hole mobility vs. growth rate data are shown
30 s of growth of the dual-rate method. As was for 1.5-J.tm-thick (111)Sil(lll)spinel in Table 2.9. In
observed on examination of the mobility vs. deposi- this case the rates shown were employed for the depo-
TABLE 2.8 Effect of Growth Rate on the Electrical Properties of Silicon on Sapphire
Decrease in
Growth Hole Percentage of
Rate Thermal Concentration, na Mobility, 11- Percentage of Bulk Mobility
( /)-m/min) Treatment (1/cm 3) (cm 2/V-s) Bulk Mobility on Oxidation
0.5 As deposited 1.6 X 1016 115 33
oxidized 1.3 X 1016 60 17 16
1.5 As deposited 4.9 X 10 15 125 34
oxidized 8.2 X 1015 110 31 3
2.0 As deposited 1.2 X J016 220 64
oxidized 1.9 X J016 150 46 18
2.0 As deposited 5.7 X 1015 185 51
oxidized 1.0 X J016 160 46 5
2.0 As deposited 2.2 X 1015 210 56
oxidized 5.2 X 1015 165 45 11
3.0 As deposited 1.3 X 1016 175 51
oxidized 2.9 X 1016 115 35 16
Source: Gottlieb and Corboy (1972).
Substrate: (1 102) Czochralski sapphire.
Film thickness: 1.5 11-m.
Deposition temperature: l000C.
Deposition rate: as stated for 30 s, then 0.3 11-rnlmin to thickness.
2.12 The semiconducting properties of silicon on sapphire and spinel 79
TABLE 2.9 The Effect of Growth Rate on Stability During Thermal Oxidation in Silicon on
Spinel with Similar As-Deposited Properties
Decrease in
Growth Hole Percentage of
Rate Thermal Concentration, na Mobility, f-L Percentage of Bulk Mobility
(~/min) Treatment (llcm 3) (cm 21V-s) Bulk Mobility on Oxidation
0.4 As-deposited 4.5 X 10 15 350 95
oxidized 1.5 X 1015 55 13 82
0.8 As-deposited 5.6 X 10 15 335 92
oxidized 4.2 X 10 15 225 60 32
2.0 As-deposited 4.9 X J015 330 91
oxidized 4.0 X 10'5 300 82 9
Source: Cullen eta!. (1%9).
Substrate: (Ill) flame fusion spinel.
Deposit thickness: 1.5 f-Lm.
Deposition temperature: 1100"C.
Oxidation: 1 hr in dry 02 at 1100C.
sition of the entire deposit. It should be noted that the mobilities were not degraded, and similar values are
as-deposited hole concentrations and mobilities were observed for rates as high as 5.4 ~Lmlmin (Cullen,
very similar and that the deposition rate had a striking 1971).
influence on the change in the mobility during thermal
oxidation. Using a growth rate of 0.4 ~Lmlmin, the The effect of the silicon thickness
mobility decreased from a value of 350 to 55 cm2 /V-s
on oxidation; while using a growth rate of 2.0 ~Lmlmin, The effect of the heteroepitaxial silicon thickness on
the hole mobility decreased only from 330 to 300 cm2 / hole mobility is summarized in Figure 2.40 for data
V-s on oxidation. It has been demonstrated (Section collected prior to 1971. Although there has been fur-
2. 7) that the thickness at which the surface is covered ther optimization of the electrical properties of the
(-200 A) is similar between growth rates of 0.4 and films less than 1/Lm in thickness since that time, there
2.0 ~Lmlmin, and therefore the decrease in the degra- has been very little data reported since 1971 for the
dation of mobility with increasing growth rate must be thicker films, presumably because of the inapplicabili-
related primarily to the duration of exposure of the ty of the thicker films in MOS transistor structures.
partially covered substrate. Whereas the mobilities of The carrier concentration of then- and p-type (lOO)Si/
silico"n on Al203 appeared to have peaked at a rate of (ll02)sapphire and (111)Si/(lll)spinel films shown in
2.0 /-(-m/min, in silicon on spinel the after-oxidation Figure 2.30 were all between 1 and 5 x 1016/cm3 It is
800r---.---~----r---.----.----r---.----.----r---,
.0.-p-TYPE SILICON ON SAPPHIRE
1.-n-TYPE SILICON ON SAPPHIRE
t
*
o-p-TYPE SILICON ON SPINEL
-n-TYPE SILICON ON SPINEL
...
u 600 I. ,,
, DUMIN AND ROBINSON '68
1..0. GOTTLIEB ET AL. '71
N
>
I
.... J
I
!I
;I'
/ o CULLEN ET AL. '69
SCHLOTTERER '68
";MERCIER '70A
*
e i::J: DUM IN ET AL. '70
u
I <> CHIANG AND RICHMAN '71
I
1
)o 400 0
1- 0
0
:J 0
iii
0 ./"
2l
..1
/
..1
4
:r
/
f(t{ * FIGURE 2.40 The hole and electron
mobility in as-deposited (100) silicon
'
on sapphire and (111) silicon on spinel
as a function of the film thickness. The
carrier concentrations are between 1
0o:----=2----~4----~6----~8~--~10~--~12~--~14L____I6L-___ILB--__j20 and 5 xI 016/cm 3 Figure is after Cullen
SILICON THICKNESS p.m I ( 1971); data sources are as shown
80 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
800
P-TYPE N-TYPE
600 He
v
H2
., 0
(IOO)Si/SAPP.
"'I (Ill) Si/SP.
> (IOO)Si/SAPP. - - -
....
N
E
0 400
>-
I _..
...--~-
......
/
1-
:::i ,. ....---+~
/
/
,_,'!
~
lD
0 I /
/
!.'
,f
::;;
200 I I
I
I
'k=-
...J I ' f
...J
<f I FIGURE 2.41 The Hall mobility as a function
I of thickness in silicon deposited in hydrogen and
;
/,,-,.,,.--
I _..,
helium ambients. He ambient data: Chiang and
Looney (1973); H 2 ambient data: Cullen and
Corboy (1974). H 2 ambient data are extended to
0
0 05 I 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 2 !Lm thickness from data included in Cullen et
DEPOSIT THICKNESS (fLm) al. (1%9) and Gottlieb and Corboy (1972)
interesting to note that the hole mobilities in silicon on A summary of the mobilities observed in
sapphire increase to values similar to bulk values at a 0.5- and 1.0-~-tm-thick silicon on sapphire and spinel as
thickness -6 JLm, whereas the silicon-on-spinel hole a function of carrier concentration
mobilities are similar to bulk at thickness of -3 J.tm. In
this case the (111) orientation of silicon on spinel was The Hall mobility values as a function of carrier con-
compared to the (100) orientation of silicon on sap- centration for 1.0- and 0.5-J.tm p- and n-type silicon on
phire because the highest mobility values were sapphire and spinel are summarized in Figures 2.42
observed in these orientations on the two substrate through 2.47. A growth rate of 2 J.trnlmin was
materials. employed in the development of these data. Although
More recent data for the Hall mobility in deposits it had proven to be advantageous to employ the dual-
less than 2 JLm in thickness on both sapphire and rate method (Gottlieb and Corboy, 1972) for films 1.5
spinel are shown in Figure 2.41. Silicon was deposited JLm thick, this procedure is difficult to execute for
on hydrogen-annealed spinel in a helium ambient films 1 J.tm and less in thickness (i.e., the growth
(Chiang and Looney, 1973) and on air-annealed spinel duration is 30 s for the 1-J.tm-thick films and 15 s for
in a hydrogen ambient (Cullen and Corboy, 1974). In the 0.5-J.tm-thick films). A growth temperature of
both studies the sapphire substrates were hydrogen 1000C was employed for the deposition of silicon on
annealed. The carrier concentration of the silicon sapphire and l100C for the deposition of silicon on
deposited in helium was 1-8 x 1016/cm3 , and in hydro- spinel. The mechanically polished sapphire substrates
gen -1 x l016/cm3 For these levels it is assumed that were annealed in a hydrogen ambient for 30 min at
the influence of the surface charge (Ham, 1972) is 1300C, whereas the flame fusion spinel substrates are
negligible even for thickness less than 1 J.tm. It is annealed for the same period in hydrogen at 1150C.
evident that the Hall mobility is a strong function of Spinel substrates grown by the Czochralski method
the thickness in all the deposits for thicknesses less were also included in the collection of these data. The
than 1 J.tm. No advantage was seen in depositing highest mobilities observed on these substrates were
silicon on sapphire in a helium rather than a hydrogen similar to those observed on the flame fusion spinel if
atmosphere. This is consistent with the observation, the Czochralski spinels are annealed in air for 5 hr at
previously discussed, that the chemical erosion of 1500-1600C.
sapphire can be assigned to the reducing action of Before- and after-oxidation mobility values have not
silicon rather than hydrogen. The hole mobilities of been presented in the figures because, under the depo-
silicon deposited on (Ill) spinel were significantly sition conditions described, the change in mobility on
higher for films deposited in helium than in hydrogen. thermal oxidation has been suppressed to levels
More modest increases were seen in the hole mobili- acceptable for device fabrication. The changes can be
ties of silicon deposited in helium on the (100) spinel summarized as follows: in 1.0-J.tm silicon on both
and electron mobilities on the (111) spinel. sapphire and spinel, for carrier concentrations greater
2.12 The semiconducting properties of silicon on sapphire and spinel 81
u
!I 150 ___::---:---:-"ac
:::
....__ .
>
N~ 0 -------rr--~~-
.........-0
.- N
E a
.e 120 :200
,_ /
..__:.-. ...:J
D 00
... //
;;;! 90 ~ ~
8
,. I.OJLm Si!IIOOI
i
0
.J_~INEL
w
5 100
---- --------:-~
~ 60
~ "'
~-..-:-----.--~
0.5JLm Si/1100) SPINEl!" ~.
oL--L-L~LLLU..,---L--L-~-LLL~~~
1016 1016 1017
CARRIER CONCENTRATION (1/cm) CARRIER CONCENTRATION (I/ em!)
FIGURE 2.42 Hall mobility as a function of hole FIGURE 2.44 Hall mobility as a function of hole
concentration in 0.5- and 1.0-JLm-thick (100)Si(ll02) concentration in 0.5- and 1.0-JL-thick (I ll)Si/(lll)spinel.
sapphire. After Cullen and Corboy (1974) Curves for (IOO)Si/(IOO)spinel are included (without data
points) for reference. After Cullen and Corboy (1974)
than about 2 x 1016/cm 3 , the carrier mobility typically
changes by less than a factor of 1.5 on thermal oxida- p.m-thick (100) silicon on (1 i02) sapphire (Figure
tion. In films less than 1 pm in thickness, and for 2.45), (100) silicon on (100) spinel (Figure 2.46), and
carrier concentrations less than 2 x 1016/cm 3 , the (111) silicon on (111) spinel (Figure 2.47). As with the
magnitude of the changes on thermal oxidation is p-type data, the curves of Figure 2.45 are superim-
scattered and difficult to use as a "material quality" posed on Figure 2.46, and the curves of Figure 2.46
factor. Clear conclusions in this respect must be are included in Figure 2.47. At the time the data were
derived from device data. taken, comparable mobility values had not been
Typical hole mobilities, as a function of the hole reported in (111) silicon on sapphire.
concentration, are shown for 0.5- and 1.0-p.m-thick
(100) silicon on (1 i02) sapphire (Figure 2.42), (100) A comparison of Hall and MOS transistor mobilities
silicon on (100) spinel (Figure 2.43), and (111) sillicon
on (111) spinel (Figure 2.44). In order to facilitate The Hall mobilities are summarized and compared
comparison of these data, the curves presented in with effective (MOS transistor) mobilities in Table
Figure 2.42 are reproduced (without data points) in 2.11. Also included are the percentage of bulk mobility
Figure 2.43, and the curves of Figure 2.43 are repro- values. Hall mobilities of 120 cm2 /V-s are typically
duced in Figure 2.44. observed in 1-p.m-thick p-type (100)Si!(li02)sapphire.
Typical electron mobilities, as a function of the On the other hand, the effective mobilities of MOS
electron concentration, are shown for 0.5- and 1.0- fabricated in films of the same thickness are typically
210 cm21V-s. Although significantly lower Hall mobili-
.-- .
N
~ 120
...,_
E 450 - - 0
~ _....,.., .. -+ ,______ .. - -
,_ 400 __ 0 -~
----
~
~
90 j
,.8 300
350
/ ..
~ 60
~
z 250
...IE
// '
:-------
2oo
30
0~-L-L-L~~~--_J---L_L-L~~~--~
.. fd
-'
w
150
100 o I.OJLm IIOOlSi/(li02) SAPPHIRE
0 O.SJLm (100lSi/lli02) SAPPHIRE
50
1016 1017
CARRIER CONCENTRATION (1/cm) olol4 1015 1016
CARRIER CONCENTRATION (I! em)
FIGURE 2.43 Hall mobility as a function of hole
concentration in 0.5- and 1.0-JLm-thick (lOO)Si/(IOO)spinel. FIGURE 2.45 Hall mobility as a function of electron
Curves for (IOO)Si/(Il02)sapphire are included (without data concentration in 0.5- and 1.0-JLm-thick (lOO)Sil
points) for reference. After Cullen and Corboy (1974) (ll02)sapphire. After Cullen and Carboy (1974)
82 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
700,--,-,-,.,~,--.-.-.rnTn---.-r,~Tn
(I OO)Si/(ll 02)sapphire, this relationship does not hold
650 .0. = I.OJLm( 100)51/(100) SPINEL
.t. 0.5 m(IOO) Si/(100) SPINEL in the n-type films. The Hall electron mobility in 1.0-
usoo
1-Lm-thick (111)Si!(lll)spinel of 480 cm 2/V-s is very
:550
-y------._
----- -
I.OJLm
'
>500 similar to the values of 500 cm 2/V-s typically observed
N~45Q Si/SAPPHIRE --------
in (100)Si!(ll02)sapphire. As was previously ob-
;400 ~- '--.... served, the Hall mobilities in the silicon on spinel are a
~ 350
---4---~
___
,.~ 300 0.5JLm /. .0. 6 .0. strong function of the thickness, and the Hall electron
z 250
0
~ 200 /
v
51/SAPPHIRE
.
.
/ /
/ /IS-c-
...
.0.
.........~..!...
mobility of 200 cm2 /V-s in 0.5-~-tm (lll)Si/(11l)spinel
is less than half that observed in the 1.0-~-tm-thick film.
frltso
Since the unbiased Hall mobility measurement is
-'
UJ 100
50
-._...--~-
f"
weighted by the properties of the material near the
silicon/substrate interface, and the (enhancement
01014
1015 1016
CARRIER CONCENTRATION (1/cm)
mode) device measurement is characteristic of the
carrier mobilities only within about 500 A of the sili-
FIGURE 2.46 Hall mobility as a function of electron con surface most remote from the silicon/substrate
concentration in (IOO)Si!(IOO)spinel. Curves for (IOO)Si/ interface, it is not unexpected that the device mobili-
(IOO)sapphire are included (without data points) for ties are significantly higher than the Hall mobilities for
reference. After Cullen and Corboy (1974)
holes in silicon on both sapphire and spinel and for
electrons in silicon on spinel. It is more difficult to
ties of 80 cm2 /V-s are observed in 1-~-tm-thick (lOO)Si! explain, however, why the device electron mobilities
(lOO)spinel, the effective mobilities of MOS transistors in the silicon on sapphire are lower than the Hall
fabricated in 1-~-tm-thick silicon on the two substrates electron mobilities measured in equivalent films. In
are similar. The mobilities in (100) silicon on spinel general, processing results in the degradation in the
degrade more rapidly with decreasing film thickness carrier mobility even in bulk silicon devices.
than do the mobilities in (100) silicon on sapphire. In Expressed in terms of the percentage of equivalent
0.5-~-tm-thick films, hole mobilities are typically 90 values observed in bulk silicon, the percentage of
cm2 /V-s in (100)Si!(ll02)sapphire and 30 cm2 /V-s in effective device mobilities is in every case consider-
(lOO)Si/(100) spinel. Insufficient data have been col- ably in excess of the percentage of the Hall mobilities.
lected in p-channel MOS transistors fabricated in the It is interesting to note that the Hall mobilities in
0.5-~-tm-thick (n-type) films to make meaningful com- 0.5- and 1.0-~-tm-thick films are more similar in silicon
parisons between the effective device and Hall mobili- on sapphire than in silicon on spinel. It seems reasona-
ties in these films. ble to relate this to the nature of surface coverage,
Relatively high (Hall) hole mobilities of 240 cm 2/V-s discussed earlier (Section 2.7). The thickness of the
are typically observed in (lll)Si!(lll)spinel, but as in heavily contaminated silicon formed prior to complete
the case of the (lOO)Si/(100)spinel, the electrical prop- surface coverage is -300 A in the silicon on sapphire
erties are a strong function of the film thickness, and and -lOOOA in the silicon on spinel. The spinel sub-
the mobilities drop to 50 cm 2/V-s in 0.5-~-tm-thick strates used in this study were annealed at 1500-
(111)Si/(111)spinel. 16000C for 5 hr in order to minimize the differences
As in the case of the hole mobilities, the effective
electron mobilities in the 1-~-tm-thick films of 420 cm2/
V-s in (100)Si!(ll02)sapphire and 350 cm2/V-s in 650 C = I.O~J.m (Ill) Si/(111) SPINEL
U GOO "'0.5,u.m(lll) Si/(111) SPINEL
(100)Si/(100)spinel are more similar than the Hall elec-
~ 550
tron mobilities of 500 cm2/V-s and 300 cm 2/V-s, >
N....._ 5QQ
respectively. The effective n-channel mobilities are E
2 450
lower than the Hall electron mobilities in (lOO)Si! ~ 400
o/
----;- --
observed in the 0.5-~-tm-thick silicon, except that with 0
~ 200
the degradation of the Hall electron mobilities in the
u
~
w
150
1.0/'m/
-/./
thinner (0.5-~-tm) (lOO)Sil(lOO)spinel, the effective p- 100 Si/(100) ...--------~O.Sp.mSi/(100) SPINEL
SO SPINEL
channel value of 250 cm2/V -s is 1.8 times the Hall
0 L..._L.L..J....l..LUI.L-,01;;;-5---'.--'-l.....L.L.l..J.J..I'-;01<6---'.---'.....L.L..L.LLLI'-;0177-
electron mobility of 140 cm2/V-s. The corresponding
CARRIER CONCENTRATION (1/cm)
values in the 0.5-~-tm-thick (100)Si!(ll02)sapphire are
p-channel mobility of 340 cm2/V -s and a Hall electron FIGURE 2.47 Hall mobility as a function of electron
mobility of 430 cm2 /V-s. concentration in (lll)Si/(lll)spinel. Curves for (IOO)Si!
Although the Hall hole mobilities in 1.0-~-tm-thick (lOO)spinel are included (without data points) for reference.
(11l)Si!(lll)spinel were double the values observed in After Cullen and Corboy (1974)
2.12 The semiconducting properties of silicon on sapphire and spinel 83
TABLE 2.10 Typical Carrier Mobility Values for 1.0- and 0.5-p.m Silicon on Sapphire and
Silicon on Spinel for a Carrier Concentration of~ 1x 1<Y 6 /cm3
Film Hall Effective
Film Thickness Substrate Composition Mobility Percentage Mobility Percentage
Type ( pm) and Orientation (cm 2/V-s) of Bulk (cm 2/V-s) of Bulk
p-type Bulk silicon 350 200
p-type 1.0 (100)Si/(ll02)sapphire 120 34 210 100
p-type 0.5 (lOO)Si/(1 i02)sapphire 90 26
p-type 1.0 (111)Si/(111)spinel 240 69
p-type 0.5 (lll)Si/(lll)spinel 50 14
p-type 1.0 (1 OO)Si/(1 OO)spinel 80 23 210 100
p-type 0.5 (lOO)Si/(lOO)spinel 30 9
between the silicon deposited on the flame fusion and number of sapphire orientations some years ago, the
on Czochralski-grown materials. It should be men- electrical properties of the (111) silicon on (1014) and
tioned that the thickness at which the spinel is com- (1120) sapphire have only recently been reported by
pletely covered with silicon is a function of the anneal- Manasevit and his coworkers (Ruth et al., 1973; Man-
ing treatment. asevit et al., 1974; Manasevit et al., 1976). In 2-JLm-
thick (111) silicon deposited at 107.5"C, hole mobilities
Carrier mobilities in silicon deposited on of -290 and 260 cm2/V-s were observed, respectively,
sapphire orientations other than (li02) on (1120) and (1014) sapphire (the hole concentrations
were in the 1Q1 6/cm3 range after a 30-min exposure to
The (lOO)Si/(1 102)Al20 3 composite orientation has, to 02 and 120-min exposure to N2 at llOO"C). These hole
date, been the most widely investigated and utilized in mobilities are the highest reported to date in silicon, of
MOS device structures. As has been discussed in equivalent thickness, on sapphire (compare with Fig-
previous sections, relatively high carrier mobilities ure 2.31). In then-type films, the magnitude of mobili-
and low autodoping levels have been realized in thin ties decreases with substrate orientation: (1120) >
(:;:;;; 1 JLID) silicon deposited on the (1102) sapphire. Of (1 102) > (1014).
the various other sapphire orientations on which sin- Considering the background of information devel-
gle crystal silicon has been observed (see Section 2.2), oped on the effect of autodoping at the higher growth
definitive electrical properties have been reported temperatures, it is interesting to note that Manasevit
only for (Ill) silicon deposited on (0001), (112.Q), and and coworkers (1976) have claimed that the electrical
(1014) sapphire. It is evident from the work of Durnin properties of 2-J.(.m-thick (100) silicon deposited on the
(l967B) and Manasevit and coworkers (1968, 1974) (1 102) sapphire at timperatures as high as llOO"C are
that the deposition temperature at which the optimum as good as the best properties realized in films deposit-
electrical properties are achieved in silicon on sap- ed at 1050"C if they are exposed to the 0 2-N2 anneal. It
phire is a function of the sapphire orientation. Hole was also noted that the mobilities of both the (100)Si/
mobilities of 200 cm2/V-s and electron mobilities of (1 102)Al20a and (lll)Si/(1120)Al20c were nearly inde-
300 cm2/V-s have been observed in thick (>4 JLID) pendent of growth temperature between temperatures
(Ill) silicon deposited on the (0001) sapphire at tem- of 1040 and llOO"C. It would be interesting to examine
peratures -I200"C (Durnin, 1967B). More recent whether or not these relationships hold true for depos-
efforts to achieve useful semiconducting properties in its less than 1 JLID in thickness.
the thinner (-I JLID) silicon films deposited on the In films less than I JLm thick there has been no
sapphire basal plane have not proven to be fruitful; the report to date of carrier mobilities in (111) silicon on
high growth temperatures required for deposition on the (1120) or (1014) orientations significantly in excess
this substrate orientation have been associated with of mobilities observed in the (I 00) silicon on the (I 102)
heavy autodoping. Although Manasevit and cowork- sapphire, Nonetheless, the preliminary work on the
ers (1968) identified single crystal (111) silicon on a (1120) and (10]4) orientations is promising, and the
84 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
possibility of achieving thin (Ill) silicon on sapphire ness of the current-carrying portion of the deposit
with useful semiconducting properties warrants fur- without physically altering the structure. The gated-
ther investigation. This orientation could be particu- Hall-bar structure (Ham, 1972) has previously been
larly useful in providing flexibility in the integration of discussed for the measurement of "bulk" mobilities
silicon with other heteroepitaxial materials on sap- (i.e., mobilities uninfluenced by surface charges) in
phire substrates. In a number of applications of the the thin silicon deposit. Using this same structure, the
heteroepitaxial III-V and II-VI materials, the device silicon below the gate can be inverted to controlled
characteristics are more a function of the deposit ori- depths by the application of gate voltage (lpri,
entations than is the case for MOS transistors (see 1972A,B; Elliot and Anderson, 1972). This procedure
Chapters 3 and 4). It should be noted, however, that is, of course, similar to the operation of one type of
the density of states at the silicon/ silicon oxide (gate MOS transistor, except that the silicon is depleted to
oxide) interface is a function of the silicon orientation controlled depths rather than completely to the sili-
and decreases in the following order: (Ill) > (110) > con/substrate interface. The relation between the gate
(100) [see Grove (1967)]. bias and the depletion depth is determined by capaci-
tance measurement techniques. The average electron
Gated-Hall measurement mobility of the silicon under the inverted layer, for
various thicknesses of the inversion layer, is shown in
In order to determine the effect of deposit thickness Figure 2.48. Data for four 1-~Lm-thick samples, doped
on the electrical properties, mobility and carrier con- to 2-4 x 1016/cm3 , are shown in the figure. Under the
centrations have commonly been measured in heter- conditions used, and for this doping level, the silicon
oepitaxial silicon deposited to various thicknesses. could be inverted only to a depth of -0.3 ILm. It can
The assumption is made that the properties of a 0.5- be seen that as the 0.3-~Lm layer of material most
~Lm-thick film are the same as the properties within 0.5 remote from the silicon/sapphire interface is excluded
ILm of the interface of a thicker film and that reprodu- from carrying current, the average mobility decreases
cibility is achievable from one deposition run to anoth- by more than 50 percent. From these data the average
er. On the other hand, in order to avoid the possibility carrier concentration in the uninverted portion of the
that the properties are influenced by these variables, silicon can be calculated. The average net donor con-
and to reduce the labor involved, attempts have been centration, normalized to the thickness of the con-
made to derive electrical properties as a function of ducting portion of the deposit, is shown as a function
thickness by thinning the heteroepitaxial silicon by of the thickness of the inverted region in Figure 2.49.
chemical and mechanical methods or by sputter ero- Similar plots have been developed for the hole mobili-
sion. It has proven to be very difficult to thin the ty and concentration.
highly defected silicon films and maintain thickness In an effort to develop an understanding of the
uniformity, surface smoothness, and freedom from origins of the change in electrical properties with dis-
surface work damage, and the use of these procedures tance from the silicon/substrate interface, Ipri and
has therefore resulted in the introduction of more Zemel (1973) measured the carrier concentration and
variables than have been avoided. Recently, methods mobility as a function of both the depth of the inverted
have been developed to electrically control the thick- region and temperature. The normalized (in relation to
c 371C6
371C3
o 371 C2
371C6
300
8 371CI
\
371C2
6 o 371C3
'\'-.
a 371C4
f..
5 '\' 371C5
"''x~'\~ '\.,h..~
X 371C6
.
\
...... 4
.....
~
I
"'t
...... 3
I~ ).. FIGURE 2.49 "N" type doping concentration x the
a.._ ~,~ conducting film thickness as a function of distance from
2 ..,_ ~ the film surface. The product ofthe donor doping level
and the thickness of the conducting portion of the film
.... ) , X '
as a function of the depth of the inverted layer. The
1011 t t
j_
I X
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 numbers refer to 1-~-tm-thick samples doped to an
DISTANCE FROM Si-Si01 INTERFACE (pmJ average level of 2-4 x 10'6/cm3 After Ipri (1972A)
thickness) electron concentration as a function of the (prior to complete coverage of the surface) as the
reciprocal temperature, for various depletion layer result of the reaction between silicon and sapphire.
widths, is shown in Figure 2.50. It is interesting to The presence of aluminum-oxygen complexes has
note that, as the depleted region is forced deeper into also been proposed by Durnin and Ross (1970). The
the silicon (by applying potential to the gate), the presence of the silicon-oxygen complexes is invoked
curves become characteristic of the presence of two by these investigators to explain the leveling off of
ionization levels. lpri and Zemel associate the shallow mobility at lower temperatures. Here again, the effect
level (ei = 0.052 eV) with the intentionally added is a function of thickness in the film (see Figure 2.51).
arsenic, whereas the deeper ionization state (e 1 = 0.1 It is suggested that at the lower temperature the com-
eV) is associated with a silicon-oxygen complex. It is plex is not ionized and acts as a neutral scattering
reasonable to assume that this complex, which center impurity.
increases in density with depth into the silicon layer, is The normalized hole concentration was also mea-
associated with constituents introduced into the film sured as a function of the reciprocal temperature. In
this case, there is no evidence of an acceptor level
other than that characteristic of the intentionally
added boron. As in the case of n-type films, however,
it was observed that the hole mobilities level off with
decreasing temperature, and that the extent of the
leveling is a function of the depth of the depletion
layer. lpri and Zemel attribute this effect to the pres- stress in silicon deposited by the pyrolysis of silane on
ence of a boron-SiOt complex, which is expected to (ll02) sapphire by measuring the circular composite's
influence the mobility but not significantly alter the degree of bowing. Schlotterer (1968) calculated the
hole concentration. stress from the bowing of silicon deposited from silane
Similar mobility vs. temperature characteristics for on both (100) and (111) magnesium aluminate spinel.
films of various thicknesses (depletion of the films was Kamins and Meieran (1973) calculated the stress in
not employed) have been observed by Durnin and silicon deposited from silane on (ll02) sapphire from
Ross (1970). deviation of the lattice parameter of the heteroepitaxi-
Tihanyi (1972, 1973) has also studied the electrical al silicon from the bulk value. Considering the differ-
properties of the heteroepitaxial silicon deposits as a ences in method of deposition, the nature of the sub-
function of film thickness, using inversion of a portion strate, and method of measurement, unusually good
of the layer to control the thickness of the current- agreement was obtained by all of these investigators;
carrying region. In the MOS transistor test structure all values reported fall within the range 5-11.5 x 1()9
employed, Tihanyi was able to extend the depth of the dyne/cm2 It is quite clear that the crystallographic
inverted region by making electrical contact to the natures of both the silicon and the substrate examined
inversion layer and applying additional voltage in the by these investigators are markedly different. This
direction normal to the substrate surface. Using this demonstrates that the overall residual room tempera-
technique he has measured the mobility and carrier ture stress in the silicon is not strongly dependent on
concentrations completely to the silicon/substrate the crystalline defect structure of the silicon deposit.
interface. He has concluded that the donor concentra- Ang and Manasevit (1965) point out that the theoret-
tion of a 0.9-~Lm-thick deposit is homogeneous ical yield strength of silicon is -2.5 times the stress
throughout the thickness at a level of 4 x 1015/cm3 but values measured [reference is made to Menter and
that the mobility is at a minimum in the silicon near the Pashley (1959)]. They also point out that the tensile
interface and increases to values similar to bulk MOS yield strength of silicon (8 x 109 dyne/cm2 ) is similar to
mobilities in the silicon just below the gate electrode. the stress values measured in the silicon on insulators
On the issue of the doping profile, there is some [reference is made to Sylwestrowicz (1962)]. Fortu-
disagreement between the work of lpri and Tihanyi nately, the coefficient of thermal expansion of both
that cannot be easily reconciled on the basis of the sapphire and spinel is larger than that of silicon, and
differences in the measurement techniques. therefore the thin films are under compression and are
Hynecek (1974B) also used MOS Hall measure- crack free.
ments wherein the sample is forced into inversion or Schlotterer (1968) calculated that the piezoresistive
accumulation. He analyzes the results in terms of two effect is expected to lead to a degradation of Hall
carriers (i.e., Al from autodoping and the intentional- mobility in n-type (100) silicon and enhancement of
ly added As or P). Making the assumption that both n the mobility in the p-type (Ill) silicon. He shows
and p mobilities are independent of the carrier concen- agreement, above carrier concentrations =l017/cm3 ,
tration, Hynecek calculates an average Hall mobility between calculated strained silicon values and experi-
as a function of the sheet resistivities. The "true" mentally measured (by the van der Pauw method) in
electron mobility (extrapolated to sheet resistivity =0) 20-~Lm-thick n-type (100) silicon and p-type (111) sili-
is 450 cm2/V-s. con on spinel. Although the establishment of (111)
hole mobility values in heteroepitaxial silicon signifi-
Stress effects; degradation, enhancement, and cantly higher than bulk silicon values seems somewhat
anisotropy in Hall mobilities tenuous, it seems reasonable that the piezoelectric
effect may compensate (to some extent) for degrada-
Because of the differences in the thermal contraction tion by grown-in defects and contribute to relatively
of the silicon and the substrate, stress is induced in the high experimental hole mobilities reported by Schlot-
silicon film when composite is cooled from the silicon terer and later observed in thinner (1.5-~Lm) heteroepi-
deposition temperature to room temperature. At the taxial deposits (Cullen et a!., 1969). lpri and Zemel
lower temperatures, stress cannot be relieved by the (1973) also analyzed the degradation of the Hall elec-
formation of dislocation networks (see Chapter 8) and tron mobility in (I 00) silicon on (ll 02) sapphire in
thus can be relieved only by bending of the composite. terms of the piezoelectric effect but pointed out that
A number of investigators have measured the residual theoretically the compressive stress should have no
room temperature stress in silicon on the insulating effect on the Hall mobility of p-type films of the same
substrates. Ang and Manasevit (1965) derived the orientation. This is in agreement with the calculations
stress from the deformation of a composite made up of of Schlotterer (1968). lpri also suggested that whereas
silicon deposited on a basal plane sapphire whisker. it is generally assumed that the thin silicon films are
The silicon was deposited by the hydrogen reduction free of shear stress, shear stress should influence the
of silicon tetrachloride. Durnin (1965) calculated the Hall voltage and, if present, could contribute to the
2.12 The semiconducting properties of silicon on sapphire and spinel 87
differences observed (Boleky, 1970) in the Hall mobili- always enhanced, and the ratio between the
ties (measured in a magnetic field) and the MOS tran- unstressed and stressed hole mobility may theoretical-
sistor mobilities (measured with no magnetic field ly be as great as 2.4. It is quite clear that this work has
imposed). considerably contributed to a basic understanding of
Thorsen and Hughes (1972) pointed out that within at least one important facet of the influence of orienta-
a specific substrate plane the thermal contraction of tion on the electrical properties of heteroepitaxial sili-
sapphire may be anisotropic and thus lead to differ- con. In a practical sense, the problem (and the chal-
ences in carrier mobilities depending on the orienta- lenge to the experimentalist) is to realize good
tion of the direction of current flow within the plane. crystallinity in the silicon deposits on the theoretically
They constructed Hall patterns in the silicon deposit desirable substrate orientations. It has commonly
in such a manner that the mobility could be measured been observed that the crystalline quality of the
at 18 intervals around a circle in the plane of the deposits becomes highly defected with deviation from
substrate. In (100) silicon on (ll02) sapphire, differ- a limited number of specific substrate orientations (see
ences of approximately 90 percent were observed Section 2.2).
between the maximum and minimum electron mobili- Hynecek (1974A) has also investigated the elas-
ties measured as a function of angle (Hughes and toresistance effect in silicon on sapphire. Strips with
Thorsen, 1973). In (221) silicon on (1122) sapphire the the long axes oriented in the (010), (100), and (110)
electron mobility anisotropy proved to be about 40 directions were cut in n-type (100) silicon on (1 102)
percent (Thorsen and Hughes, 1972). The silicon films sapphire wafers. MOS Hall bridges were fabricated in
investigated were deposited at 11 OOC, using a rate of 2 the silicon, and the strips were bent in a specially
~.trn!min, and subsequently annealed at ll00C in 0 2 constructed jig. The Hall voltage was plotted as a
for 30 min and N2 for 2 hr. The net donor concentra- function of the gate bias for the three crystallographic
tion was in the range 2-7 x J{)1 6/cm3 The maximum directions. Large differences in the Hall voltage were
stressed electron mobilities in the (221) silicon of -700 observed, and elastoresistance coefficients (different
cm2 /V-s are greater than the unstressed mobilities and from bulk values) were calculated. Hynecek shows
also significantly greater than the maximum electron that, because of lateral stress, the energy band minima
mobilities of -450 cm 2/V-s observed in the (100) sili- in the direction normal to the surface increase, "caus-
con. These investigators proposed, therefore, that ing almost all the carriers to be transferred out to
optimization of the orientation might lead to signifi- remaining energy surfaces.'' This is an intrinsic effect
cantly enhjrtlced carrier mobilities in the heteroepitaxi- and not specific to silicon on sapphire. He proposes,
al silicon device structures. The maximum mobilities however, that this effect can account for the degrada-
observed in these 1.9- to 2.5-~.tm-thick films are not, tion in the electron mobility in silicon on sapphire and
however, in excess of mobilities measured in (100) suggests that if schemes could be devised to reduce
silicon (of equivalent thicknesses) by other investiga- the stress in silicon on sapphire, the electrical proper-
tors (see Figure 2.31). Hughes and Thorsen have dem- ties could be significantly improved.
onstrated excellent agreement between theory and
experiment and thus can account for the anisotropy in Carrier lifetime
the electron mobility on the basis of thermally induced
stresses only. They point out, however, that the influ- The carrier lifetime is more sensitive to crystalline
ence of crystalline defects must be invoked to account perfection and impurity content of the silicon than is
for the observation that the unstressed mobilities are the carrier mobility. Crystalline defects and uninten-
considerably lower than bulk silicon values. Hughes tionally added impurities are associated with energy
(1975) has proposed that the room temperature stress levels introduced into the forbidden gap, which act as
in the heteroepitaxial silicon is predominantly the recombination centers and thus lead to the degrada-
result of thermal contraction of the substrate rather tion of the carrier lifetime [see, for instance, Grove
than stresses induced by crystallographic lattice mis- (1967) ]. Therefore, the lifetimes in silicon on sapphire
matches or other growth effects. He has extended the and spinel deviate from bulk silicon values consider-
model, which deals with mobility anisotropy within a ably more than do the mobilities.
specific plane, to calculations of mobilities in specific Lifetime is difficult to measure and results are diffi-
crystallographic orientations not yet investigated. cult to interpret in thin silicon films on sapphire and
Hughes cites specific orientation regimes that warrant spinel because of the relatively low values involved,
further investigation in an effort toward maximizing the influence of the two close interfaces as sources or
the mobility in heteroepitaxial silicon. In n-type sinks of carriers, the series resistance of the thin
deposits, the mobility may be either enhanced or silicon films, and the nonuniformity of lifetime and
degraded by stress effects. The ratio of stressed to carrier concentration throughout the thickness of the
unstressed electron mobility falls within the range deposit. The lifetime in most of the measurement
between 0.4 and 1.3. In p-type silicon the mobility is methods employed (derivation from reverse-bias
88 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
diode characteristics is the exception) is the product of doping in order to minimize the diffusion of the dopant
an observed response time and a parameter which away from the interface region during subsequent
may not be accurately known, such as the carrier device processing. It was also observed that the life-
concentration. Under these circumstances, relative time increased exponentially with the silicon film
values of response time measured by one technique thickness. The lifetime increased from a value of -6 x
are more meaningful than absolute values measured 10-9 S in a 4.3-j.tm-thick composite structure to -2 X
by different methods. In considering the validity of a 10-6 s in an 18-~.tm-thick composite structure (of Si,
lifetime value, the measurement technique and the N D = 5 x 1016/cm 3 deposited on the 3-J.tm Si; N D = 1
variables involved must be taken into consideration. x 1018/cm 3 , arsenic doped). The pulsed MOS capaci-
Durnin and Silver (1968) derived lifetimes from dif- tance technique was employed to measure the
fused diode characteristics and from pulsed charge- lifetime.
injection measurements on a single set of samples. In most of the minority carrier lifetime measure-
The values agreed only within a factor of 3, which they ments the lifetime and the carrier concentration
considered to be within experimental error. (usually involved in the lifetime calculation) are inte-
Heiman (1967), using the pulsed-MOS capacitor grated over the thickness of the films. This contributes
technique (capacitance is measured as a function of to the inaccuracy of the measurement and makes it
time) measured a 4.5-ns lifetime in 5-~.tm-thick silicon difficult to compare the characteristics of silicon
on sapphire. About the same time, Hart et a!. (1967), deposited under different conditions with different
working with silicon on sapphire, and Schlotterer lifetime and impurity profiles. Durnin and Silver (1968)
(1968), working with silicon on spinel, estimated life- measured the lifetime profiles from the characteristics
times -1 ns from the characteristics of diodes fabri- of diodes fabricated in mechanically thinned silicon on
cated in thick (>4 J.tm) films. Although higher values sapphire. The lifetimes increased from -0.1 ns in
have been reported subsequent to these early investi- -0.5-~.tm-thick films to -2.0 ns in 10-~.tm-thick films.
gations, Norris (1972) recently derived lifetimes of In this work the lifetime was derived from the reverse-
about 0.2-0.3 ns, in 4-~.tm-thick silicon on spinel films, biased characteristics of diodes in which the diffusion
from the observation of the transient conductance did not reach the silicon/sapphire interface. It was
subsequent to exposure of the silicon to electron irra- noted that the lifetime measured in diodes in which the
diation. Mueller (1970), Durnin (1970), and Robinson diffusion did not reach the substrate was a factor of 3
and Heiman (1971) found that the minority carrier to 10 greater than in the "through-diffused" diode
lifetime in silicon on sapphire can be increased by an structures. This emphasized the role of the silicon/
order of magnitude by impurity gettering techniques. substrate interface in recombination processes. A
Lifetimes of about 50 ns were reported. Cullen et a!. good deal of progress has been made in improving the
(1969) observed a 40-ns lifetime in a 4-~.tm-thick get- physicochemical nature of heteroepitaxial silicon
tered silicon deposit on spinel. Cullen and coworkers since this work was done, and although the earlier
(1973A) also observed that the lifetime in thinner sili- results may not be quantitatively applicable to current
con on sapphire films can be increased by more than technology, the overall trends observed in lifetime as a
an order of magnitude by rapid coverage of the sap- function of the film thickness are still qualitatively
phire surface (the "burst" growth method has been relevant.
described earlier in this chapter). Lifetimes of 1.7 to Tihanyi (1972, 1973) calculated lifetimes at various
3.1 ns were observed in 1-~.tm-thick films; these life- distances from the silicon/sapphire interface with the
times were determined by measuring the source drain same test structure employed to derive the carrier
current (of a deep-depletion MOS transistor) as a concentration and mobility as a function of the film
function of time. Schroder and Rai-Choudhury (1973) thickness (i.e., contact was made to the depletion
reported minority carrier lifetimes as high as 1.5 JLS in region under the gate in an MOS transistor structure).
2-J.tm-thick silicon films deposited on a 1-J.tm-thick The conductance transient (between the source and
heavily phosphorus-doped (-Hf 0/cm3 ) layer of silicon the drain) is measured after application of a negative
on sapphire. Rai-Choudhury and coworkers (1974B) voltage step to the gate. The generation rates and the
observed that the aluminum contamination in silicon related lifetimes are calculated from these data. Tihan-
"piles up" in the heavily phosphorus-doped layer yi concluded that the lifetime in a 0. 9- ~.tm-thick deposit
adjacent to the silicon/sapphire interface, leaving the (N d = 4 x 10l5/cm3 ) is -5 ns within 0.1 ~.tm of the
second-deposited n-layer (in the 1016/cma:J doping silicon/sapphire interface, and greater than 30 ns in the
range) relatively free of aluminum. McGreivy and remaining portion of the film more remote from the
Viswanathan (1974) have observed an improvement in highly defected interface region.
lifetime by about a factor of 10 in silicon deposited on Kranzer (1974) has also dealt with the problem of
a 3-J.tm-thick arsenic-doped (-1018/cma:J layer of sili- the variation of lifetime and carrier concentration with
con on sapphire. These investigators pointed out that distance from the silicon/substrate interface. He
it is desirable to employ the lower level of arsenic points out that measurements of reverse-biased diode
2.13. Device application 89
..,.
...J
"'0
z
0
FIGURE 2.52 A comparison of the speed
~
"' and power dissipation of CMOS transistors
~
0
0:
fabricated in silicon on sapphire with other
a. technologies. The technologies are
categorized according to their applicability in
large scale integration (LSD and medium
scale integration (MSD. After Scott and Ipri,
POWER DISSAPATION (WATTS I GATE) (1977)
characteristics yield lifetime values integrated over the reduction of power dissipation in MOS transistor
"bulk" (of the thin film) depletion region and the structures. A comparison is made in Figure 2.52
silicon/sapphire interface (in the case where the silicon between the propagation delay time and the power
thickness is >4 JLm), whereas the MOS capacitor dissipation of various technologies as applied to digital
technique yields lifetime values integrated over the devices. It can be seen that the power consumption of
"bulk" of the silicon and the silicon/Si02 interface. the bulk CMOS transistor structures is several orders
Kranzer electrically (i.e., without physically thinning of magnitude less than that observed in bulk silicon
the silicon) determined the lifetime profile by measur- bipolar device technologies such as transistor-transis-
ing the gate capacitance and reverse current of gate- tor logic (T2 L) and emitter coupled logic (ECL). The
controlled diodes fabricated in the heteroepitaxial p-channel MOS (PMOS), n-channel MOS (NMOS)
films. Within the region of the 1-JLm-thick films mea- and integrated injection logic (PL) are intermediate in
sured, it was observed that the lifetime decreased regard to power consumption. By fabrication of the
monotonically with distance from the silicon/Si02 complementary pair MOS transistor structures in het-
interface. For example, in a film with an electron eroepitaxial silicon, the speed associated with the bulk
concentration of 2.5 x 1015/cm 3 , the lifetime decreased complementary pair technology is maintained, while
from a value of -20 ns at a depth of 0.1 JLm to -8 ns at the power dissipation is considerably reduced.
a depth of 0.2 JLm. The profile, as well as the absolute The support of the basic MOS transistor structure
values, proved to be dependent on the carrier concen- by the insulating substrate also offers stability in hos-
tration. In a film with a carrier concentration of 1 x tile radiation environments. Radiation effects are asso-
1016/cm3 , the.lifetime decreased from -2 ns at 0.1 JLm ciated with processes occurring in the depleted region
to 0.3 ns at 0.25 JLm depth. within a diffusion length of the junction (the photocur-
The carrier lifetime is a particularly sensitive mea- rent collection region). In bulk CMOS structures, the
sure of the crystallinity and impurity content of the region in the bulk silicon substrate adjacent to the
heteroepitaxial films. As the bipolar transistor technol- bottom of the source and drain regions acts as photo-
ogy in films is advanced (probably with impetus from current collection areas. With the elimination of the
ion implantation), it appears very likely that lifetime bulk silicon support, the photocurrent collection area
measurements will be further understood, standard- is limited to the silicon adjacent to the vertical junc-
ized, and employed. It would be very useful to devel- tions. Radiation effects at the silicon/substrate inter-
op clear-cut lifetime profiles as a function of deposi face are a subject of current investigation.
tion and processing parameters. Factors such as ease of production, yield, and relia-
bility are clearly considerations in the choice of the
various technologies for specific applications. Trade-
2.13. Device application offs must be made, for instance, between speed and
cost. In this regard, the CMOS/SOS technology com-
The applicability of heteroepitaxial silicon in CMOS/ plements rather than supplements the various bulk
SOS structures silicon technologies. In considering the ease of pro-
cessing and yield, it is interesting to note that process-
As has been discussed previously, the reduction of ing errors (such as local mask failures and diffusion
parasitic capacitance by use of an insulating substrate spikes) which would short out portions of the device
leads to an increase in the operational speed and to the semiconducting substrate in bulk silicon, do not
90 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
lead to failure of the device when an insulating sub- should be noted that while the crystallinity of the
strate is employed. It is also interesting to note that entire film plays a role, the crystallinity at the surface
should a failure occur in processing which degrades an is again weighed more heavily because it is only the
unacceptably large percentage of devices on a sub- spacing within the 1000 A of the silicon/gate oxide
strate, the silicon can be removed from the sapphire interface that determines the speed of the device. The
and the substrate can be re-used. spacing may vary in the "bulk" of the film as long as
One of the earliest applications of CMOS/SOS cir- the source and drain are not shorted. Early in the
cuitry was in electronic wrist-watches. Here the low development of the technology, when relatively high
power consumption is desirable in a compact battery deposition temperatures and low deposition rates
operated device, and the high frequency capability were employed, anomalously rapid diffusion of
permits the use of small oscillator crystals. Early inter- dopants near the silicon/substrate interface resulted in
est in military applications has been in portable field closure of the channel. This mode of failure is not
communications and radiation resistant electronics. common, however, in the more recent heteroepitaxial
An emerging field of application is in very dense high- silicon.
speed LSI components. The density of components
on a chip is now sufficiently high that dissipation of the Problems related to processing MOS transistors in
power in bulk silicon circuitry is a very real problem. silicon on sapphire
For this reason it is anticipated that CMOS/SOS com-
ponents will prove to have an important impact on the Control of the characteristics of the starting material is
microprocessor and memory technology. As the func- frequently a problem in the development of a new
tional advantage of the SOS technologies is realized, technology. Since the physical and electrical proper-
efforts are increased to minimize the substrate costs ties of the heteroepitaxial silicon film vary with dis-
by optimization of the crystal growth techniques. In tance from the silicon/substrate interface, the proper-
conjunction with developments in packing density and ties of the silicon are more difficult to specify and
yield, SOS circuitry will become cost competitive with measure than is the case with bulk silicon. It is unfor-
bulk silicon technology. tunate that a complete characterization of the semi-
conducting properties of the heteroepitaxial silicon is
The fabrication ofMOS circuitry in silicon on sapphire possible only after the processing of the device struc-
ture has been completed, particularly when low car-
In order to realize the speed inherently in the SOS rier concentration thin films are employed (see discus-
devices, the effective channel mobilities and the sions in Section 2. and Chapter VIII). In-line process
source-drain spacings must be similar to those cur- controls, for the most part based on analytical tech-
rently achievable in bulk silicon. These factors are niques discussed in Chapter V, are under develop-
clearly related to the crystalline quality of the hetero- ment. Much of the effort in the preparation of the
epitaxial silicon. It is fortunate that the characteristics silicon-substrate composite, which serves as the start-
of MOS transistor structures are primarily related to ing material for processing of devices, has been direct-
the semiconducting properties of the silicon within < ed toward the maintenance of reproducibility. Shaping
1000 A of the gate dielectric; this is the silicon most the substrate crystal by methods which minimize the
remote from the silicon/substrate interface in the het- introduction of work damage, and finishing the sub-
eroepitaxial structure. There is ample evidence, from strate surface by chemical-mechanical methods has
examination of the film physical and electrical proper- contributed significantly to control of the substrate
ties, that the crystalline quality of the silicon improves surface and reproducibility in the film properties. With
very rapidly with distance from the substrate surface. low temperature growth of the silicon, the variability
In fact, at the current state of development we are in the electrical properties associated with autodoping
very near to the point where the channel mobility of has been minimized to acceptable levels. While satis-
MOS transistors fabricated in silicon films (> 0.6 JLm factory control of the carrier concentration can be
in thickness) is more dominated by effects of charge at achieved by introduction of the dopant during the
(or near) the silicon/silicon dioxide interface than by growth of the film, ion implantation offers even more
the crystalline perfection of the silicon in and near to precise control of doping. This proves to be particu-
the surface inversion layer. A number of years ago larly useful at the low carrier concentration levels
effective (channel) mobilities greater than 80% of the required for fabrication of the deep-depletion MOS
mobilities observed in equivalent devices fabricated in device structures.
bulk silicon had been observed in NMOS transistors The source-drain leakage currents observed in
fabricated in 1.0 JLm thick silicon on sapphire (Boleky, MOS/SOS devices are typically =0.1 to 10 nA/mil at 5
1970). In regard to the capability to fabricate source- V with a source-drain spacing of 0.2 mil (Ham, 1973),
drain spacings (channel lengths) in silicon on sapphire which is more than an order of magnitude greater than
comparable to the spacing in bulk device structures, it is commonly observed in similar devices fabricated in
2.13. Device application 91
bulk silicon. The origin of the leakage currents is not ALUMINUM CONTACTS
well understood, and therefore this is the subject of GATE ELECTRODE
considerable research effort.
The leakage-currents characteristic of the transistor
structures fabricated in the silicon on sapphire places
certain limitations on the application of the heteroepi-
(a)
taxial silicon devices. For instance, due to the d.c.
power consumption associated with the leakage cur-
rents, the CMOS/SOS devices would not be the most
appropriate choice in an application where the circuit
is to be held in a powered stand-by mode and (b)
addressed infrequently.
An additional problem characteristic of MOS/SOS FIGURE 2.53 A cross-section schematic of CMOS
structures fabricated in silicon on sapphire is a shift in transistors fabricated in silicon on sapphire. (a) The
the threshold voltage associated with effects at the complementary pair fabricated in discrete n- and p-doped
ramped edge of the silicon islands. In the removal of silicon deposited by the two-stage (double-epi) process, and
the unwanted silicon from the substrate, preferential in (b) lightly doped p-type silicon. The p+;p-;p+ is a deep
(orientation sensitive) etches are used so that the depletion device, the others are enhancement mode
transistors
edges of the silicon are (111) planes at - 5T to the
substrate surface. Angling of the edges minimizes dis-
continuities in the evaporated metal contacts. Discon- Mueller (1970) has proposed that bipolar structures
tinuities may occur if the edges of the silicon islands can be fabricated in silicon on sapphire with lifetimes
are vertical, or even worse, undercut at the substrate. in excess of -so nsec, and indeed experimental oper-
The gate electrode (metal or poly silicon) runs across ating bipolar transistors have been constructed in the
the oxidized (111) edge to the oxidized ( 100) surface. heteroepitaxial silicon (Heiman and Robinson, 1968;
This, in effect, creates an MOS transistor in (100) Ronen and Robinson, 1971). Kokkas [in Cullen et al.
silicon in parallel with a similar transistor in (111) (1973)] points out that bipolar performance may be
silicon (Flatley and Ham, 1974). Due to the differences more limited by the emitter efficiency than by the
in the charges at (or near) the silicon-silicon dioxide carrier lifetime. It should also be noted that the narrow
interface adjacent to the (100) and (111) silicon orienta- junction spacings characteristic of the bipolar struc-
tions, the two transistors may switch at different tures (typically 2000 A) are controlled by diffusion or
threshold voltages. Instabilities associated with the epitaxial growth, while the junction spacings charac-
edge effect can be minimized by preferential doping of teristic of MOS transistor structures are determined
the edges or by the use of an appropriate dielectric by photolithographic techniques. Thus, the processing
between the gate and the oxide (Flatley and Ham, technology which would be brought to bear on the
1974). fabrication of bipolar structures in silicon on sapphire
There is a problem associated with maintaining the is considerably different than those already employed
continuity of metal (or poly silicon) strips which must for the processing of MOS transistors. This is also an
run over the edges of the 0.6 J.Lm thick silicon islands. area in which ion implantation is expected to have a
Due to shadowing effects, these materials may be thin significant impact on the silicon on sapphire technolo-
or discontinuous over the juncture of the epitaxial gy. Alternative dielectric isolation techniques oriented
silicon and the substrate. To avoid this problem, the toward the fabrication of dielectrically isolated bipolar
processed surface is maintained nearly planar by use devices are discussed in Section 13 .4.
of the local oxidation silicon-on-sapphire process
(LOSOS) (Capell et al., 1977). Using this process, the CMOS transistor processing and the related materials
areas between the final silicon islands are thinned by requirements
etching, and the remaining silicon is oxidized. The
oxide fills the area between the islands to the level of The advantages offered by the silicon on sapphire
the islands. composite are realized to the maximum extent in the
The problems discussed above are related specifi- complementary-pair MOS transistor configuration
cally to the fabrication of MOS transistor structures in (see Figure 2.53). The complementary pair is made up
silicon on sapphire. The fabrication of bipolar devices of either two enhancement-mode transistors or an
in silicon on sapphire is complicated by the relatively enhancement-mode transistor paired with a deep-
low carrier lifetimes observed in the thin (:;,: 1.0 J.Lm) depletion device.
films (see Section 12.11.). There is not agreement, The N-MOS enhancement mode transistor operates
however, on the minimum lifetime required for the in the usual manner; the application of a positive gate-
application of the SOS material in bipolar structures. source voltage (VGs) equal to or greater than the
92 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
r-----r-----.---.-.--.-rrn
1.0 ~----,----,--.,'\,...,.......,......,. . 1.4
\
10 -2
Nss 5xl0 em
Tox 1400A
AI GATE
threshold voltage of the NMOS (VTN) inverts the sur- electrode (aluminum)-silicon work
face of the p-type silicon and establishes a conducting function difference
channel between n+ source-and-drain regions. The XoM - the maximum possible value of Xo
operation of the deep-depletion mode transistor VTN - the threshold voltage of an NMOS transistor
depends on the fact that the gate electrode (aluminum as a function of NA, the acceptor concentration. For
or poly-silicon) to silicon work function potential dif- this plot a surface state concentration (Nss) is assumed
ference (Vasd is of such a polarity to deplete silicon to be 5 x 1Q1/cm2 The lower limit of acceptable
near the surface of the film, creating a surface space- carrier concentration (NA - l015/cm 3) is set by the
charge region composed entirely of immobile ionized condition that VTN ;;:, 0. It is seen that for a film
atoms. It is necessary that the width of this space- thickness of 0.5 J.Lm, the upper limit of the carrier
charge region be at least equal to the film thickness concentration is -2.4 x 1015/cm3 It is also evident
(Ts) in order that negligible source-drain current flows from this plot that if films less than 0.5 J.Lm in thickness
when Vas = 0. In the aluminum gate technology, the can be used, higher (and more easily controlled) car-
channel region is lightly boron doped silicon, and the rier concentrations are acceptable, whereas if thicker
application of small negative Vas removes the gate silicon deposits are employed, the range of acceptable
electrode induced depletion region and accumulates carrier concentration narrows. The range appears to
the surface with holes. The PMOS transistor, there- be exceedingly narrow, and difficult to realize. In
fore, operates in a manner similar to a conventional practice, however, the usable range has not proven to
enhancement-mode PMOS with a very low threshold be as narrow as illustrated in Figure 2.54. This is, at
voltage. The requirement that the zero gate-bias width least in part, due to the fact that electrically the
of the surface space charge region extend through the "apparent" film thickness is less than the measured
film determines the upper limits on the thickness and physical thickness. Since the defect density increases
doping of thin p-type silicon film. with distance from the silicon/gate oxide interface, so
The epitaxial growth of silicon films for the deep- does the resistivity of the film, with the result that the
depletion CMOS technology constitutes a compro- thickness of film that can be depleted is greater than
mise between the film thickness and the carrier con- calculated on the basis of the surface carrier concen-
centration. The carrier concentration which is accept- tration. This provides some latitude in the usable
able is inversely proportional to the film thickness. range of carrier concentration, so that emphasis can
The range of acceptable thicknesses and carrier con- be placed on the control of the threshold voltage
centrations for the simultaneous fabrication (using the rather than on the depletion to the silicon/substrate
Al gate technology) of NMOS transistor (enhance- interface. With the use of relatively low temperature
ment-mode) and a PMOS transistor (deep-depletion deposition and processing, and closed-loop feedback
mode) in a single p-type silicon film is shown in Figure electronic flowmeters to control the introduction of
2.54 (Boleky, 1970). (Similar relationships have been the dopant during deposition or ion implantation sub-
developed for n-type films.) This figure is a plot of sequent to deposition, it has been possible to achieve
calculated values of: the required control of the carrier concentration in
X0 - the thickness of p-silicon depleted by the gate films as thin as 0.5 J.Lm. The deep depletion transistor
2.13. Device application 93
structures were originally fabricated in lightly doped doping by diffusion from oxides and ion implantation
p-type films using aluminum gates (Heiman, 1966; can be employed (see, for instance, Ipri and Flatley,
Hofstein, 1966). If polycrystalline silicon is used as the 1976).
gate electrode, the deep depletion device can be
formed in lightly doped (=1 x 1015/cm3 ) n-type films. Alternative dielectric isolation schemes
Since the silicon adjacent to the silicon/substrate inter-
face is more resistive inn-type than p-type films (lpri, A number of schemes have been employed to thin
1972B) (presumably due to compensation by the p- bulk silicon and support it with a dielectrically isolated
type aluminum autodoping), it was proposed (Sarace structure (see, for instance, Bean and Runyan, 1974).
and lpri, 1974) that the source-drain leakage currents In most of these schemes the dielectric is grown sili-
could be minimized by using n-type silicon as the con dioxide, and the mechanical support is polycrys-
starting material for the deep-depletion technology. In Otalline silicon. Conceptually, the dielectric isolation
this case the deep depletion n-channel device has N+ schemes are simple; it is in the execution that they are
source and drain areas, an N- channel, and a p+ poly complex.
silicon gate, and the enhancement mode transistor is a In a typical dielectric isolation sequence, isolation
conventional p-channel device. moats are formed in the surface of a bulk silicon wafer
An outline of a typical sequence for the processing to provide separation between the individual islands.
of the C-MOS/SOS deep depletion devices, using a p+- Selective etches are employed so that the depth of the
poly gate, is shown in Figure 2.55 (Sarace and lpri, moats is limited by the width of the opening in a
1974; lpri and Sarace, 1976). The use of the poly protective oxide layer. The oxide is stripped, and the
silicon gate also provides "self-alignment" of the gate junction of the device is formed horizontal to the
electrode with the edges of the channel, and thus surface either by epitaxial growth or diffusion. Silicon
eliminates the capacitance associated with the overlap oxide, which provides the dielectric isolation, is then
of the (aluminum) gate and the source and drain grown on the surface. A thick layer of polycrystalline
regions. Self-alignment is also available with ion silicon, which acts as the mechanical support for the
implantation, using a number of metals for the gate structure, is deposited on the oxide. The original sili-
electrode. con is mechanically abraded and chemically-mechani-
Devices with relatively low threshold voltages may cally polished to the desired thickness. The dimen-
be fabricated using the deep depletion devices, and
therefore this approach is used where low-voltage
operation is required, such as in watch circuits.
When low threshold voltages are not required, the a.
all-enhancement mode C-MOS structures are com-
monly employed. The control of processing is eased
by the higher carrier concentrations employed in these b.
structures. The early enhancement mode C-MOS
devices were fabricated by the "two-stage" epitaxial
process (Scott and Bums, 1970). Using this method,
c.
discrete n- and p-doped islands were formed. Silicon
was deposited over the entire sapphire surface using
in situ doping (from a gaseous source) of one type,
typically starting with p-type in the low 1Q16 /cm3 d.
range. The silicon to remain was masked, and the
unwanted material etched from the substrate. The n-
type material was then deposited over the entire struc-
ture, doped typically in the mid 1015/cnf range. While e.
the n-islands were formed by conventional masking
and etching, the previously formed p-type films were
protected by an oxide layer. This process provided
f.
excellent control, but was subsequently replaced by
processing employing the single epitaxial growth step.
The enhancement mode devices are now formed using
doped oxides as the dopant source. The processing g.
scheme is similar to that shown in Figure 2.55, except
that the channel regions are appropriately doped from FIGURE 2.55 The deep-depletion poly-silicon gate CMOS
the oxide sources. Clearly various combinations of processing sequence
94 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
sions of the isolation moats serve as a measure of the been very few experimental data in which direct corre-
thickness of the bulk silicon. The removal of the lation between the physical structure and the semicon-
unwanted silicon must be carried out with great preci- ducting properties has been established. Some of the
sion, and in a manner to minimize the introduction of evidence found in the literature that bears on limiting
work damage into the remaining thin layer of silicon. mechanisms is contradictory. It is difficult to compare
The precision lapping can be eliminated by the the properties of films prepared at various locations, at
selective electrochemical removal of the silicon. The least in part because the films may have been deposit-
rate of the electrochemical etch is a function of the ed under very different (and not always well defined)
type and concentration of the doping, and thus the conditions. This latter factor impedes analysis
etching can be terminated at a p-n junction (van Dijk because it has clearly been demonstrated that the
and de J onge, 1970). To form the dielectrically isolated influence of any one limiting factor is highly dependent
thin film structure by preferential etching (van Nielen on the preparative conditions.
and coworkers, 1970) a p-type silicon layer is epitaxi- As was mentioned earlier in this chapter, the factors
ally deposited on an n+ substrate. The dielectric sili- commonly invoked as limiting the properties in heter-
con oxide is then grown from the epi p-type layer, and oepitaxial silicon are (1) degradation of the thin-film
the polycrystalline silicon support is deposited on the crystallinity as the result of the spatial mismatch
oxide. The unwanted n+ silicon is then removed elec- between the crystalline lattice of the substrate and the
trochemically back to the p-n junction. Under the overgrowth, (2) contamination and degradation of the
proper conditions, the electrochemical etch stops at crystallinity of the film as the result of reaction
the junction, and thus the thickness of the isolated thin between the substrate and the deposition constituents,
film is determined by the position of the junction. An and (3) stress in the film resulting from differential
epitaxial n layer grown to the desired thickness prior contraction of the film and substrate as the composite
to thinning completes the structure, and devices are cools from the deposition temperature. The success in
formed in the composite structure by conventional constructing fast, low-power MOS transistors in thin
processing. In addition to avoiding precision lapping heteroepitaxial silicon can, to a large extent, be attrib-
and polishing, the introduction of work damage char- uted to the effect of the first two limiting factors
acteristic of lapping is avoided by use of the selective decreasing rapidly with distance from the silicon sub-
electrochemical etch. strate interface: the density of defects decreases rapid-
The principal advantage of the methods which ly with distance from the interface, and the impurities
involve thinning of bulk silicon is that the crystallo- introduced primarily prior to complete coverage of the
graphic and semiconducting properties of the isolated substrate surface are concentrated near the interface.
silicon are more similar to unprocessed bulk silicon Therefore, in MOS transistor structures fabricated in
than is heteroepitaxial silicon. Even when the semi- silicon as thin as 0.6 ~otm, the circuit characteristics for
conducting properties are degraded by the mechanical some applications are more limited by junction leak-
shaping, the properties of the silicon in the junction age, which is associated with the silicon near the
area are adequate for the formation of bipolar device substrate surface, than by the channel mobility, which
structures. The disadvantage is that the processing is associated with the silicon within about 200 A of the
schemes require many steps, and always include more silicon/silicon dioxide interface.
than one vapor phase silicon growth operation. While
considerable effort has been put forth in recent years Limiting factors at the extremes of
in the development of the various dielectric isolation the deposition conditions
schemes, to date they have been used only in very
specialized applications, such as radiation hardened In silicon films deposited at the extremes of the prepa-
military circuitry (Bean and Runyan, 1974). rative conditions, the limiting factors can be readily
identified. The critical preparative parameters are the
deposition temperature and rate, the substrate prepa-
2.14. Discussion: limiting factors ration, and the purity of the ambient. At deposition
temperatures in excess of -1150C the films are heavi-
The identification of limiting factors ly contaminated by substrate reaction products. At
chemical vapor-deposition temperatures less than
With the aim toward improving the semiconducting -950C, the crystalline quality is poor as the result of
properties of thin heteroepitaxial silicon films, it is low surface mobility of the ad-atom. In the upper
useful to identify the key limiting factors. It is also range of temperatures used for heteroepitaxial silicon
useful to define which limiting factors are inherent growth (>1050C), low rates (<1.0 ~-tmlmin) lead to
characteristics of heteroepitaxial deposits and which degradation of the semiconducting properties by con-
are amenable to further development. This is a diffi- tamination with substrate reaction products. The
cult task for a number of reasons. To date there have deposition rate at which the crystallinity is degraded
2.14. Discussion: limiting factors 95
by too rapid growth does not appear to have been graphically imperfect silicon adjacent to the sub-
unambiguously identified. The presence of oxygen in strate surface, is a strong function of chemical-
the deposition atmosphere leads to degradation of the thermal conditions employed during device pro-
crystalline structure. The crystalline nature of the sub- cessing (Ham, 1975).
strate surface will limit the crystallinity of the deposit It has been observed by transmission electron
if the subsurface work damage is not eliminated by microscopy that the silicon adjacent to the sub-
chemical or thermal processes. In the preparation of strate surface is highly defected and that the
heteroepitaxial silicon by vacuum evaporation, the density of the defects decreases rapidly with dis-
factors that limit the properties at the extremes of the tance from the substrate (Picraux and Thomas,
preparative conditions are similar but fall within differ- 1973; Linnington, 1974; Abrahams and Buiocchi,
ent ranges of rate, temperature, and ambient purity. 1975).
This has been briefly discussed in Section 2.9. The mobility vs. carrier concentration relation-
ship characteristic of silicon on the insulators has
Limiting factors within the extremes of been theoretically explained on the basis of car-
the deposition conditions rier scattering by the defect structure character-
istic of silicon on the insulators (Schlotterer,
In recent years a number of investigators have adopt- 1968; Hasegawa et al., 1969; Pod or, 1970; Schlot-
ed deposition conditions that provide usable semicon- terer, 1970; Eemisse and Norris, 1972).
ducting properties in thin ( ~ 1.0 JLm) heteroepitaxial
silicon films. These properties do not, however, equal Characteristics that relate to contamination of the
the properties of bulk (or homoepitaxial) silicon. It is deposit by substrate constituents.
within this range of conditions that the key limiting
factors are more difficult to identify. Although many The after-oxidation (after device processing)
of the characteristics observed in silicon on sapphire semiconducting properties of heteroepitaxial sili-
can be related to a number of limiting factors, for con are much more sensitive to deposition condi-
purposes of discussion it is useful to attempt to catego- tions than are the as-deposited properties (Cullen
rize some of the more salient characteristics that have et al., 1969).
been observed. The hole concentration (associated in part with
aluminum autodoping) may decrease or increase
Characteristics relating to crystallinity: lattice mis- following thermal oxidation, depending on the
match, orientation, and substrate surface preparation. deposition rate (Gottlieb and Corboy, 1972).
Carrier mobilities are degraded by thermal oxida-
Usable semiconducting properties in thin (~1 tion; the amount of degradation is a strong func-
JLm) heteroepitaxial silicon have been realized tion of the deposition conditions and the carrier
only on sapphire and spinel, but these substrates concentration [for instance, Durnin and Robin-
are not of the same crystalline structure (La son (1968A), Ross and Warfield (1969), Cullen et
Chapelle et al., 1967; Filby and Nielson, 1967; al. (1969), Gottlieb and Corboy (1972)].
Cullen 1971). The level of the net carrier concentration (in the
Within fairly wide limits, the semiconducting absence of intentional doping) is a function of the
properties of heteroepitaxial silicon have not chemical reactivity of the substrate material
been associated with the grown-in defect density (Robinson and Durnin, 1968).
of the substrate (Hart et al., 1967; Druminski and It has been reported that mobilities have
Kiihl, 1974; Peel and Barry, 1976). increased by decreasing the (vacuum) deposition
The semiconducting properties of heteroepitaxial temperature even at some sacrifice to the hetero-
silicon are closely associated with the presence epitaxial film crystalline quality (Salama et al.,
of subsurface work damage in the substrate 1967).
(Naber and O'Neal, 1968; Cullen, 1971; Gass- Carrier lifetimes can be improved (in some, but
mann et al., 1972; Maurits, 1974, 1976). not all deposits) by "gettering" oxidized hetero-
The structure at the surface of an annealed sub- epitaxial silicon in an HC1 atmosphere (Durnin,
strate may not be the same as in the bulk of the 1970).
crystal (Chang, 1971). Carrier lifetimes are a strong function of the
The highest reported carrier mobilities are simi- distance from the silicon/substrate interface and
lar for several silicon/sapphire orientations in rel- may be improved by heavily doping the silicon
atively thick (4 JLffi) vacuum-evaporated silicon adjacent to the substrate interface with phospho-
(Chang, 1971). rus (Schroder and Rai-Choudhury, 1973; Rai-
The magnitude of the MOS transistor leakage Choudhury et al., 1974B) or arsenic (McGreivy
current, which is associated with the crystallo- and Viswanathan, 1974).
96 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
The semiconducting properties of very thin het- (Chang, 1971). Simply because the properties of hom-
eroepitaxial silicon (.:;0.5 ~-tm) can be related to oepitaxial silicon are superior to those of heteroepitax-
the thickness at which the substrate is complete- ial silicon even under optimized preparative condi-
ly covered with silicon (Cullen and Corboy, tions, it is clear that lattice mismatch is an important
1974). limiting factor in the heteroepitaxial system; but the
It should be noted that the characteristics confidence in understanding and predicting lattice-
described in the earlier literature apply to the matching effects has faded. This is discussed in more
entire range of deposition conditions investigated detail in Chapter 7. It appears that the lattice mis-
and may be less applicable to the current opti- match obscures effects related to the propagation of
mized low-temperature high-rate conditions. grown-in defects in the substrate into the heteroepi-
taxial deposit. With the exception of discrete grain
Characteristics that relate to the influence of strain in boundaries in the substrate, no direct correlation has
the heteroepitaxial silicon. been established between the defect density of the
substrate and the deposit (within the range of defect
The stress derived from the experimentally mea- densities commonly observed in the currently availa-
sured values of strain in silicon on sapphire is ble substrate crystals). In regard to sapphire sub-
about 0.4 of the theoretical yield strength of strates, the challenge is more in the area of maintain-
silicon (Ang and Manasevit, 1965). ing control of the surface-finishing process than in
The experimentally measured strain levels in sili- improving the crystallographic quality of the "bulk"
con on sapphire appear to be independent of the of the substrate. Crystal quality considerations are
crystalline perfection of the deposits (see Section new to the commercial fabrications of refractory oxide
2.ll). materials.
The unusually high hole mobilities (higher than With the observation of the strong relationship
bulk) observed in 20-~-tm (Ill) silicon on (Ill) between deposition rate and temperature and film
spinel are in agreement with values calculated on properties came the realization that reaction between
the basis of a stress-induced piezoresistance the substrate and the deposition constituents was a
effect (Schlotterer, 1968). limiting factor at least equal in importance to the
The anisotropy in mobilities (100) silicon on lattice mismatch. After silane was adopted as the
(1102) sapphire and (221) silicon on (0112) sap- source gas in preference to the more reactive (in
phire have been explained completely on the relation to the substrate) chlorinated silanes, it became
basis of anisotropies in the thermal stress clear that, of the various constituents of the deposition
induced from the trigonal substrate (Thorsen and ambient, deposited elemental silicon was primarily
Hughes, 1972; Hughes and Thorsen, 1973; responsible for the erosion of both the sapphire and
Hughes, 1975). spinel substrates (Cullen and Dougherty, 1972). Ele-
mental silicon at the commonly used deposition tem-
Contribution by the various limiting factors: peratures is a strong chemical reducing agent. The
an overview refractory oxide substrates, with the cationic constitu-
ent in the maximum oxidation state, are susceptible to
Early in the development of heteroepitaxial thin-film reduction by silicon. It also became evident that the
technology, the degradation of deposit properties was oxidation/reduction reaction between silicon and the
assigned primarily to the crystallographic lattice mis- oxide substrate takes place primarily prior to the com-
match between the substrate and the silicon. One finds plete coverage of the substrate surface during the time
in the early literature a variety of lattice-matching period in which gaseous intermediate oxidation state
schemes. Much of the degradation assigned at that oxides of both aluminum and silicon can escape from
time to lattice mismatch, at least in silicon on sapphire the site of the reaction (Cullen and Corboy, 1974).
and spinel, was probably caused more by the presence Reaction between silicon and substrate influences
of work damage introduced during fabrication of the the deposited silicon properties as the result of (l)
substrate and by the reaction between silicon and microroughening and faceting of the substrate surface
substrate. and the associated growth of defected and off-oriented
As methods to remove the substrate surface work silicon; (2) distortion of the crystalline structure of
damage improved, and reactions between the sub- silicon by incorporation of reaction products, particu-
strate and the deposit were suppressed, the issue of larly in the deposit adjacent to the substrate grown
lattice mismatch became more clouded. Equivalent prior to complete coverage of the substrate surface;
electrical properties were observed in composite and (3) the introduction of reaction products into the
structures with very dissimilar lattice matches, and it "bulk" of the silicon deposit, some of which are
was appreciated that what was presumed to be a good electrically active (autodoping).
lattice match might not be due to reconstruction of the After having established the conditions in which
crystal structure at the termination of the bulk lattice single crystal silicon could be deposited, the most
2.14. Discussion: limiting factors 97
obvious effect on the film properties resulting from mobilities in thinner ( <0.6 ~-tm) deposits and in devel-
reaction between the substrate and the silicon was oping an understanding of the properties of heteroepi-
autodoping. This led to lack of control of the carrier taxial silicon.
concentration and to large and unacceptable changes The incorporation of electrically active impurities
in both the carrier concentration and mobility during may, however, still be a factor that seriously limits the
device processing. In the heavily autodoped silicon application of heteroepitaxial silicon in minority car-
deposited at relatively high temperatures and low rier device structures. It has been shown (Rai-Choud-
rates, the change in the electrical properties during hury et al., 1974B; McGreivy and Viswanathan, 1974)
thermal oxidation was associated primarily with trans- that the increase in lifetime with silicon film thickness
fer of the aluminum-bearing species from the silicon can be significantly altered by heavy doping of the
into the silicon oxide (Durnin and Robinson, 1968A; silicon near the silicon/substrate interface. The impli-
Ross and Warfield, 1969). It is this author's view that cation here is that the lifetime is more limited by the
the changes in the electrical properties of the more impurities from the substrate than by the crystallo-
lightly doped silicon deposited at the lower tempera- graphic defects (or that the defects are less active in
ture and higher rates are associated more with the the absence of the impurities). Rai-Choudhury and
change of the charge of the aluminum-bearing species coworkers explain their results on the basis of a "get-
trapped in the lattice than with segregation of the tering" effect of phosphorus. There is some similarity
aluminum from the silicon into the silicon oxide (Cul- here to the improvement of lifetime as the result of
len and Corboy, 1974). The change in the charge of the HCl gettering of the silicon on sapphire (Mueller,
complex can be associated with a change in the oxida- 1970; Durnin, 1970; Robinson and Heiman, 1971).
tion state of the aluminum. In the analysis of the Interpretations of the modification of the aluminum (in
deactivation or removal of autodopants, caution must unspecified oxidation states) distribution by phospho-
be exercised in drawing analogies between impurities rus near the interface based on secondary ion mass
incorporated during the growth of the Bilicon and spectrometric (SIMS) data may be open to some ques-
impurities diffused into the silicon subsequent to the tion unless the influence of the presence of oxygen is
deposition (for a treatment of the latter, see for accounted for. Kokkas, on the basis of lifetime mea-
instance Rai-Choudhury et al., 1974A). From a chemi- surements made in the presence of a potential applied
cal point of view, it is very likely that the nature of the from the back of the substrate [cited in Cullen et al.
dopants (for instance, oxidation state) and the manner (1973A)], and Redfield (1975), on the basis of the
in which they interact with the defect structure are enhancement in lifetime by dopants not known to act
strong functions of the manner in which they were as getters, have suggested that the effect of doping the
introduced into the film. This point is brought up here silicon near the interface may be attributed to shield-
because it appears to be neglected by many investiga- ing the material more remote from the interface from
tors involved in the analysis of the semiconducting generation-recombination centers in the heavily
properties of heteroepitaxial silicon. defected silicon near the interface.
During the early development of the silicon-on-insu- The effects of incorporation of reaction products in
lator device technology, reproducibility in device fab- the silicon near the silicon/substrate interface are more
rication was seriously impeded by autodoping. It is of subtle and difficult to identify. The influence of this
historic interest that the development of methods to region on the device mobilities is indirect, because the
suppress autodoping was significantly delayed until it carriers in the MOS transistor structures are active
was appreciated that the after-oxidation (after-device only near the surface most remote from the interface.
processing) semiconducting properties of heteroepi- Incorporation of foreign species prior to complete
taxial silicon are very much more sensitive to the substrate coverage can be related to the observation
preparative variables than are the as-deposited prop- that the increase in mobility with distance from the
erties (Cullen et al., 1969). This observation also led to substrate within 0.6~-tm of the substrate is significantly
the conclusion that, during that stage in development greater in (111) silicon on spinel than in any orienta-
of the heteroepitaxial silicon technology, the proper- tion of silicon on sapphire, whereas at the same time
ties were more limited by autodoping than by crystal- the hole mobilities (within the same thickness) in the
lographic defects per se. Through the development of (111) silicon on the (111) spinel are lower than in
preparative techniques, postdeposition treatments and silicon on sapphire (see Figure 2.41). The relatively
modification of device-processing procedures, good low mobility at 0.5 ~-tm in thickness in the (111)Sil
control of the doping level has been achieved. At least (111)spinel can be attributed to the observation that
for applications of heteroepitaxial silicon in field effect surface coverage is realized at 1000-2000 A (depend-
devices, autodoping as related to the control of the ing on the substrate annealing treatment) in silicon on
carrier concentration is not now considered to be a spinel and at 300-500A in silicon on sapphire (see
serious limiting effect. The interaction of both electri- Section 2.7). The observation that a relatively good
cally active and inactive species with the defect struc- crystalline structure is propagated beyond the 0.5-~-tm
ture continues to be a factor in the optimization of highly defected layer can be qualitatively explained by
98 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
assuming that the reaction products of the substrate carrier concentrations above -1()16/cm3 whereas the
(oxides of aluminum) are trapped during surface cov- latter mechanism is operative below this carrier con-
erage, and for a brief period thereafter as the species centration level. From this analysis of the electrical
are depleted from the gas phase, and that they do not data, defect densities were extracted of 2-4 x Hf/cm2
redistribute throughout the film to any great extent in silicon on spinel and 2-5 x 1Q9/cm2 in silicon on
during subsequent heat treatment. It is apparent that sapphire (thickness unspecified).
there is an inherent driving force leading to a rapid Schlotterer (1970) has developed an overview of
improvement of the crystallinity as the deposit grows several of the models that have been proposed to
away from the material degraded by the lattice mis- explain the dependence of the mobility in the heteroe-
match and the trapped substrate reaction products. pitaxial silicon on the temperature and carrier concen-
Leakage currents and radiation effects in MOS tran- tration. He assumed the carrier scattering by defects
sistors fabricated in heteroepitaxial silicon are also to be independent of impurity and lattice scattering
associated with the nature of the silicon directly adja- and used the general approximation
cent to the silicon/substrate interface. In the heavily
defected silicon near the interface, it appears that the 1._=...!...+..1__
IL! /LD /LB
characteristics observed are related to a complex (and
as yet undefined) interaction between the autodoping where IL 1 is the measured mobility, ILn is the mobility
species and the defect structure rather than to the associated with the defects, and ILn is the bulk mobili-
effect of the defect structure per se (i.e., the properties ty. Schlotterer points out that the various models have
of the heteroepitaxial films cannot be analyzed on the led to a similar formulation:
basis of the effect of known crystallographic effects in nbrc
bulk silicon). This is supported by the observation ILD = Nv
(Ham, 1975) that the level of leakage currents in MOS
transistor structures is strongly related to device pro- where Nv is the observed dislocation density, Tis the
cessing variables (more specifically, with the oxida- temperature, n is the carrier concentration and the
tion processes). exponents b and c depend on the specific model: for
There has been a good deal of effort to develop neutral dislocations (Dexter and Seitz, 1952) b = 0, c
models to bring together the effects of the physical = 1; for space charge scattering (Weisberg, 1962;
defect structure and the complex interaction with Hasegawa et al., 1969), b = 1/a, c = - V2; for scattering
impurities to explain the degradation mechanisms in by charge cylinders (P6d6r, 1966, 1970), b = 1/2, c = 1.
the heteroepitaxial silicon. Both Schlotterer (1968) and These models do not, however, provide a good
Cullen et al. (1%9) invoked defect-related space quantitative fit to the experimental data. Schlotterer
charge scattering to explain the anomalous decrease in (1970) has pointed out that one source of the inaccura-
both the hole and electron mobility with decreasing cy is that the defects are assu~ed to be homogeneous-
hole and electron concentrations below -10 16 carriers/ ly distributed, which is not the case in the heteroepi-
cm 3 This model had been originally proposed by taxial silicon. For low carrier concentrations the
Weisberg (1962) to explain a similar effect in III-V distances between twin boundaries or rows of disloca-
compounds. It is interesting to note here that Redfield tions observed in the silicon on insulators may be less
(1975) has proposed that the low carrier concentration than the radius of the space charge region, and there-
mobilities are more adequately explained by a com- fore the interaction between adjacent defects must be
pensation effect (Redfield, 1974) than by space charge taken into consideration.
scattering. Hasegawa and coworkers (1%9) have con- Eemisse and Norris (1972) have also invoked scat-
sidered defect-related current-limiting mechanisms in tering by space charge regions in silicon on spinel but
some detail. These investigators have calculated have proposed that the space charge regions are asso-
mobilities on the assumption that the mobility is limit- ciated with defects agglomerated into clusters, rather
ed by space charge scattering above 200K and dislo- than uniformly distributed. Using this model, the cal-
cation scattering below 100"K. On the basis of their culations become insensitive to the defect density.
model, space charge scattering should suppress the Ham (1975) has also avoided invoking homogeneously
electron mobilities more than the hole mobilities. This distributed defects in the film. He has analyzed the
is in agreement with experimental observations in degradation in the carrier mobility in heteroepitaxial
both silicon on sapphire and silicon on spinel. In a silicon on the basis of transport across energetic bar-
related analysis, P6d6r (1970) attributed the degrada- riers associated with planar (rather than line) defects
tion in mobility in the heteroepitaxial silicon to scatter- in the heteroepitaxial films. Planar defects (stacking
ing by a potential field associated with stress around faults and twins) have been observed in the heteroepi-
dislocations and space charges around dislocations taxial films by transmission electron microscopy (see
resulting from trapping of carriers on dislocations. He Section 2.13). In this model, analogies are made to the
has proposed that the first mechanism predominates at transport properties that have been observed in poly-
2.14. Discussion: limiting factors 99
crystalline silicon. This point of view, and the relation- broadened, the properties of the silicon near the sili-
ship to other models, is discussed in Chapter 6. con/substrate become of more concern. The challenge
Some comment is appropriate in this overview on of the future is to understand, gain further control of,
the issue of stress specifically resulting from the differ- and learn to live with the gradients (normal to the
ence in thermal contraction between the substrate and substrate) in the defect structure and semiconducting
the deposit. The influence of the stress-induced piezo- characteristics, particularly in the silicon within less
resistive effect is more obvious in the enhancement than 0.5 t-tm of the silicon/substrate surface.
than in the degradation of mobilities. It is difficult to It is not very speculative to predict that improved
account for the unsually high hole mobilities observed semiconducting properties would be realized on sub-
in the (111) silicon on (111) spinel by other than the strates with a significantly better lattice match to sili-
piezoresistive effect (Schlotterer, 1968). On the other con, less reactivity in the presence of silicon, and
hand, the degradation of electrical properties is so better thermal contraction match to silicon than is
complicated by the complex structural/impurity observed with sapphire and spinel. It seems unlikely,
effects discussed earlier that it is not possible in any however, considering the number of single crystal
real sense to separate out the piezoresistive effect, materials that have been examined for possible use as
except in the case of the anisotropy in the carrier heteroepitaxial substrates, that a known (available)
mobilities observed within one crystallographic plane material will prove to be a better substrate. Nor is it
(Thorsen and Hughes, 1972; Hughes and Thorsen, likely that the properties of the known materials can
1973; Hughes, 1975). In this case the anisotropy can be sufficiently modified with respect to lattice spacing,
be accounted for by the piezoresistive effect alone, reactivity, or thermal expansion without unacceptable
while degradation in the zero stress value within the distortion of the crystalline lattice. For the foreseeable
plane can be associated with the defect/impurity future, these factors must be accepted as inherent
effects. In the (100) silicon on the (1102) sapphire, properties of the heteroepitaxial silicon/refractory
which is of most interest at present for device applica- oxide materials system.
tions, the mobility anisotropy associated with the This does not lead, however, to pessimism in regard
piezoelectric effect is small. It seems reasonable to to the possibility of further improving the semicon-
conclude at this point, therefore, that the thermally ducting properties ofheteroepitaxial silicon. Consider-
induced stress is not a major limiting factor in heteroe- ing the highly defected silicon at the silicon/substrate
pitaxial silicon. In extending the theory of the piezo- interface, it is encouraging that the electrical proper-
electric effect from anisotropy within a plane to a ties of the silicon within a micron of the interface are
comparison of the maximum mobilities possible in as good as they are. It has been demonstrated that
silicon deposited on any sapphire orientation (Hughes, MOS transistors with field effect mobilities 80 percent
1975), it is tempting to anticipate that major improve- of the values commonly observed in processed bulk
ments will be realized by the choice of the proper silicon have been fabricated in heteroepitaxial silicon
substrate orientation. On the other hand, there is a less than 1 t-tm in thickness. These mobilities are
problem in matching the theoretically desirable orien- adequate to realize the advantages offered by the use
tations with the experimental realization of good crys- of the insulating substrate. Bipolar structures have
tal structure. After a considerable amount of effort been prepared in heteroepitaxial silicon -4 t-tm in
throughout the years, acceptable crystallinity in heter- thickness. The use of ion implantation offers a flexibil-
oepitaxial silicon has been achieved only on a limited ity in the fabrication of bipolar devices that was not
number of substrate orientations. It seems unlikely, anticipated in the early development of heteroepitaxial
therefore, that significant enhancement of the mobili- silicon technology.
ties will be achieved by the piezoresistive effect. Rather than ask, "How similar to bulk silicon can
we make the heteroepitaxial silicon?" it may be more
Limiting factors: summary appropriate at this point in the development of the
technology to ask, "How do we prepare heteroepitax-
With the data collected to date on the characteristics ial silicon in which the electrical properties improve
of heteroepitaxial silicon, it is not possible to assign in more rapidly with distance from the substrate than is
a quantitative manner the contributions of the various the case at present?" There appears to be real latitude
limiting factors discussed above. In general, however, for an advance in the technology here. It is this
one can conclude that with the development of the author's view that such an improvement will come
technology the basic limiting factor in heteroepitaxial from a more detailed understanding of the processes
films has shifted from autodoping to crystal structure. involved in the initial nucleation of the silicon, of the
This is true at least for application of the films in M OS manner in which the silicon grows during the period
transistor structures, wherein the transport properties prior to and immediately after the complete coverage
in the silicon most remote from the substrate dominate of the substrate, and how the nature of the early
the device characteristics. As the applications are growth relates to the physical and electrical properties
100 Chapter 2. G. W. Cullen. The Preparation and Properties of Heteroepitaxial Silicon
of the silicon directly adjacent to (within 0.2 p,m of) ical Society Meeting, Toronto, Canada, 1975; Abstract:
the silicon/substrate interface. During the period in the J. Electrochem. Soc. 122: 82C (1975); Extended
development of the technology when the semicon- Abstract 75-1, No. !55 (1975).
ducting properties were dominated by autodoping and Berman, P. A., Jet Propulsion Lab., Quarterly Tech. Review
2, No. 4 (January 1973).
the properties were highly irreproducible, the factors
Bicknell, R. W., J. M., Charig, B. A. Joyce, and D. J.
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Chapter 3
Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization
of Compound Semiconductors
C. C. Wang
Trimethyl (Ch,),B 25.86 -153 -21.8 0.625 (-IOO"C) - Ignites spontaneously Stable at room tempera- Releases unusual pungent
boron upon exposure to air; ture; decomposes ther- odors.
does not react with mally only above
water in the absence of 200"C.
o,.
Triethyl (C,H,),B 98.10 -92.9 95 0.696 (23C) 12.5 (O"C) Ignites spontaneously Stable at room tempera- Releases unusual pungent
boron 42.6 (20"C) upon exposure to air; lure; decomposes ther- odors.
108 (40"C) does not react with mally only above
water in the absence of 200"C.
0,.
Trimethyl (CH,),Al 72.08 15.4 126 0.752 (20"C) 8.4 (20"C) Highly pyrophoric; Stable at room Liquid exhibits high viscosity;
aluminum 68.5 (60"C) ignites spontaneously temperature. molecules in dimeric form.
332 (IOO"C) upon exposure to air:
reacts violently with
water; Al-alkyls are the
most reactive of all the
group III alkyls.
Triethyl (C,H,),Al 114.16 -52.5 207 0.837 (20"C) 0.8 (60"C) Highly pyrophoric; Stable at room Liquid exhibits high viscosity;
aluminum 13 (IIO"C) ignites spontaneously temperature. molecules in dimeric form.
110 (140"C) upon exposure to air;
reacts violently with
water.
Trimethyl (CH,),Ga 114.82 -15.8 55.7 1.151 (I 50 C) 8.9 (-3~SC) Pyrophoric; ignites spon- Stable at room Exhibits higher vapor pressure
gallium 64.5 (0C) taneously upon expo- temperature. than (C,H,)3Ga: vapor can
221.8 (25C) sure to air; reacts vio- be conveniently generated at
lently with water. or below room temperature.
Triethyl (C,H,),Ga 156.91 -82.3 142 1.0583 (30"C) 16 (43C) Pyrophoric; ignites spon- Stable at room See above for (CH,),Ga.
gallium 62 (720C) taneously upon expo- temperature.
72 (II8C) sure to air; reacts vio-
Iently with water.
Trimethyl (CH,),In 159.93 88.4 135.8 1.568 (IO"C) 7.2 (30"C) Reactive with both air Stable at room In solid form at room tempera-
indium 72 (70"C) and water; In-alkyls are temperature. ture; preferable (C,H,),In
less reactive than the which is in liquid form but
corresponding com- less stable
pounds of Ga.
Triethyl (C,H,),In 202.40 -32 144 1.538 (20"C) 3 (54C) Reactive with both air Gradually decomposes by See above for (CH,),In.
indium 12 (83C) and water. light at room
38 ()I SOC) temperature.
Trimethyl (CH,)3As 120.02 -87.3 51 1.124 (22C) - Moderately pyrophoric; Stable at room tempera- High toxicity containing As.
arsine ignites in air; not sensi- lure; should avoid stor-
tive to water, hydroly- age near its boiling
sis proceeds with point.
difficulty.
Triethyl (C,H,),As 162.11 - 140 1.079 (I SOC) 15.5 (37"C) Moderately pyrophoric; Stable at room High toxicity containing As.
arsine 93 (73C) ignites in air; not sensi- temperature.
live to water, hydroly-
sis proceeds with
difficulty.
Trimethyl (CH,),Sb 166.86 -'01.6 80.6 1.528 (15C) - Moderately pyrophoric; Stable at room Releases characteristic
stibine not sensitive to water. temperature. unpleasant odor.
Triethyl (C2 H,)3 Sb 208.94 -98.0 160 1.324 (16C) - Moderately pyrophoric; Stable at room Releases characteristic
stibine not sensitive to water. temperature. unpleasant odor.
Dimethyl (CH3),Cd 142.88 -4.5 105.5 Pyrophoric; ignites spon- Stable at room Releases characteristic
cadmium taneously upon expo- temperature. unpleasant odor.
sure to air; decompos-
es in water.
Dimethyl (CH,),Zn 95.45 -42 46 1.386 (IO'C) 124 (OoC) Pyrophoric; ignites spon- Stable at room tempera- Some photodecomposition
zinc taneously or detonates ture; decomposes rap- may occur in strong light
upon exposure to air; idly near its boiling over long periods.
decomposes violently point
in water.
Diethyl zinc (C,H,),Zn 123.50 -28 118 1.182 (180C) 15 (20'C) Pyrophoric; ignites spon- Stable at room Some photodecomposition
27 (30'C) taneously or detonates temperature. may occur in strong light
91 (60'C) upon exposure to air; over long periods.
decomposes violently
in water.
Sources: E. G. Rochow, D. T. Hurd, and R. N. Lewis, The Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds, New York: John Wiley and Sons (1957). Technical Brochure, Organometallics for Electronics, Alfa
Inorganics, Inc., Beverly, MA. (1970) Technical Brochure, Alkyl-Metals for Semiconductors, SumitomaChemical Co., Osaka, Japan (1974). Research and Development Product Data Sheets, Texas Alkyls Inc.,
Houston, TX (1971).
112 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
~ ~~~~~
Q9 ON-OFF }
EB METERING VALVE
ED 3-WAY
DEWAR .-1
I I
WATER I I I
OUT I 1 I
L_j
' (CH 3 ) 3 Go
SOURCE AND
TEMPERATURE
REGULATOR
He
FIGURE 3.1 Epitaxial growth system using organometallic process. After Wang eta!. (1974A)
the exhaust. The AsH 3 gas valve is then turned off, in Figure 3.2 showing the surface crystalline struc-
and the substrate is slowly cooled at an average rate of tures. It is seen that the surface crystalline quality
about 50C/min in the H 2 ambient. improves with spinel orientation in the order of (100)
< (110) < (111). The oriented single crystal growth of
Growth parameters (111) and (100) GaAs films was obtained on respec-
tively, (111) and (110) spinel surfaces, but not on (100)
The important growth parameters affecting heteroepi- orientation. The (100) surface is so sensitive to surface
taxial film characteristics are substrate orientation, preparation and other growth variables that only poly-
substrate crystallinity and surface preparation, growth crystalline films with isolated regions of single crystal
temperature, gas flows, reactor geometry, source (100) GaAs were grown. It was also found that smooth
material quality, and growth procedure. The effect of single crystal GaAs films (Figure 3.2d) could be grown
the various parameters on the layer properties on (100) spinel with only slight misorientation of 1 or
depends on the growth process and may vary also greater. The GaAs grown on the misoriented (100)
from one material system to another. In the discussion spinel exhibits an unexpected (111) orientation. For
that follows, major emphasis is placed on the growth the (111) and (110) substrates, (111) and (100) films,
of GaAs on various oxides by the organometallic pro- respectively, with improved surface crystallinity have
cess in order to illustrate the effect of the growth been grown on slightly off-oriented (1-3 degree) sub-
parameters. strate surfaces.
The effect of substrate orientation on the film
Substrate orientation. Substrate orientation plays a growth characteristics was also studied in the GaP/
major role in the ease with which the epitaxial com- spinel system (Wang et al., 1974B). This system is
pound semiconductor layers grow. In the GaAs/spinel similar to the GaAs/spinel system in that the ease of
system, it was found (Wang et a!., 1974A) that the growth increases with spinel orientation in the order
epitaxial growth of GaAs on (111) spinel is less sensi- (100) < (110) < (111). However, it differs from the
tive to substrate surface quality, and also depends less GaAs/spinel system in that the GaP epitaxial films
critically on the growth temperature and other varia- grown on (110) spinel substrates are composed of both
bles, than is the growth of GaAs on other major cubic (110) and (100) grains, instead of (100) orientation only
spinel orientations. Scanning electron micrographs of as found in GaAs/spinel epitaxy. The results indicate
GaAs films simultaneously grown at about 700C on that two orientations of the GaP overgrowth fulfill the
the three major cubic spinel orientations are presented condition for a single substrate orientation. Therefore,
3.3. Epitaxial growth 113
the GaP film is not a single crystal but is still epitaxial. single crystal silicon films can be conveniently grown
Similar situations are encountered in other film/sub- simultaneously on the major cubic spinel surfaces or
strate systems as listed in tables in Section 3.4. The on several common sapphire orientations. Another
GaP/spinel system also differs from the GaAs/spinel interesting aspect is that the film/substrate epitaxial
system in that the GaP films exhibit no significant orientation relationships (Section 3.4) are different
difference in growth characteristics (surface orienta- between the Si/oxides and GaAs/oxides systems
tion or crystallinity) as a function of the degree of despite the similar crystal structure and lattice param-
substrate off-orientation. eters of Si and GaAs. This suggests that the film/
The strong dependence of GaAs film crystalline substrate interfacial bonding is quite different between
quality on substrate orientation has also been the Si!oxide and GaAs/oxide composite systems.
observed in the GaAs/sapphire and GaP/sapphire sys-
tems (Manasevit and Simpson, 1969; Wang and Substrate crystallinity and surface preparation. As a
McFarlane, 1972). Film growth on the (0001) sapphire general rule in heteroepitaxy, the maximum crystal-
basal plane is least sensitive to surface preparation line perfection which may be achieved in the film is of
and to growth conditions. The characteristics of (111) the same order of magnitude as the substrate. For
GaAs films grown on (0001) sapphire have been the example, epitaxial GaAs, under certain growth condi-
most extensively studied (Manasevit and Thorsen, tions, may be prepared approaching the perfection of
1970; Thorsen and Manasevit, 1971). In contrast to the Ge substrate. However, the heteroepitaxial materials
(0001) orientation, it is relatively difficult to grow sin- grown on oxide substrates with large structural differ-
gle crystal GaAs and GaP of good quality on other ences generally exhibit far less crystalline perfection
sapphire orientations. In the GaAs/BeO system, than the substrates.
among nine substrate orientations studied, it was The dependence of the film crystalline perfection on
found that the (lOll) and (1122) BeO surfaces tend to the substrate bulk crystallinity has been studied for
yield better quality of, respectively, (111) and (100) the GaAs and GaP heteroepitaxial films grown on
GaAs films (Thorsen et al. , 1974). oxide substrates (McFarlane and Wang, 1972; Wang
It is interesting to note that the dependence of the and McFarlane, 1972; Wang et al., 1974A and B). The
ease of heteroepitaxial semiconductor film growth on results revealed that the general orientation of the
substrate orientation is much less critical for the ele- epitaxial layers follows the .orientation of large grains
mental semiconductors (such as Si) than for the com- in the substrate. Films grown on substrate oxides
pound semiconductors (s.uch as GaAs). For example , prepared by different growth methods (Czochralski ,
FIGURE 3.2
Scanning electron micrographs of
GaAs films (- 20 ~tm thick); beam-
sample angle 45; (a) on a (Ill)
spinel substrate; (b) on a (110)
spinel substrate; (c) on a (100)
spinel substrate; (d) on !0 off-
oriented (100) spinel substrate.
(c) (d) From Wang et al. (1974A)
114 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
TABLE 3.3 Departure of (111) GaAs from Exact Contamination introduced into the substrate crystals
Parallel Epitaxy from the !lux (Wang and McFarlane, 1968) is released
Misorientation at the film growth temperatures.
from Exact Substrate surface preparation is one of the most
Substrate Parallel Epitaxy important growth parameters. The quality of the
mechanical polishing has a direct effect on the film
Flux spinel 0.15"
Czochralski spinel 0.32 growth and electrical characteristics. Surface scratch-
Flame fusion spinel 0.43 es on the substrates generally provide preferential
nucleation sites. Absorbed layers and impurity aggre-
gates on the substrate surfaces can cause various
flux, and Vemeuil) exhibit differences in physical defects in the epitaxial films. In an effort to improve
appearance. GaAs grown on Vemeuil spinel exhibits the substrate surface quality, the effect of various
the subgrain structures originating from the sub- treatments of substrate prior to growth has been inves-
strates, whereas films grown on Czochralski (or flux) tigated for the growth of GaAsloxide and GaP/oxide
substrates do not show the decorating subgrain systems using the organometallic processes. The
structures. treatments include thermal annealing (Cullen, 1971;
GaAs films grown on spinel substrates prepared by Wang, 1969) and chemical polishing (Reisman et al.,
different methods also exhibit a difference in the 1971) of the substrates. However, experimental
departure from exact parallel epitaxy with respect to results to date indicate that films grown on substrates
the substrates. Experimental results from x-ray dif- with treatments other than just mechanical polishing
fraction studies are shown in Table 3.3. It is interest- followed by standard wet-solvent cleaning are general-
ing to note that the flux spinel exhibits high crystalline ly not superior in quality and that the growth charac-
perfection without lattice distortion and that the GaAs teristics are generally not reproducible. These results
grown on the flux spinel exhibits the least misorienta- may not necessarily be fundamental but only repre-
tion from exact parellel epitaxy. sent the present state of the art. Improved substrate
Despite the differences in crystalline properties surface preparation techniques remain the important
described above, there does not appear to be a signifi- objective to be accomplished in the area of heteroepi-
cant trend of critical dependence of film electrical taxy. Heteroepitaxy using the organometallic growth
characteristics on substrate bulk crystalline perfec- processes in the III-V compound/oxide systems has
tion. This is because the bulk imperfections in films been achieved on substrates that had not been
grown on various substrates are similar (see Section annealed or etched after the final mechanical polish.
3.4). Consequently, factors other than the substrate This may be attributed to chemical reactions between
crystallinity (such as surface quality and impurity con- the constituents in the vapor phase and the substrate
tamination) may play a dominant role on the film surfaces at the growth temperatures, which lead to the
electrical characteristics. As shown in Table 3.4, the exposure of single crystalline substrate surfaces. For
electrical characteristics of GaAs grown on Vemeuil example, it was found (Wang et al., 1974A) that AsHa
spinel are comparable to those of GaAs grown on etches spinel at a temperature of about 700"C, and the
Czochralski spinel. Films grown on flux spinel sub- etched single crystal surfaces promote the epitaxial
strates exhibit generally inferior electrical properties. growth of GaAs on spinel.
(by weight). These impurities may cause significant GaAs grown on (111) spinel is far superior to that of
unintentional doping of the GaAs films. Analysis of the (100) GaAs grown on (110) spinel. The (100) GaAs
(CH 3)a0a samples by infrared spectroscopy also so grown exhibits fairly well defined band or strip
revealed that there are hydrocarbons (degradation structures (Figure 3.5) across the crystal with a high
products) present in some samples with widely vary- degree of crystallite misorientation.
ing concentrations from sample to sample. In order to achieve the growth of high-quality (100)
To date (CH 3)3Ga and other organometallics of con- GaAs on spinel, which is desired for certain devices, a
trolled quality for epitaxial growth of compound semi- new growth procedure has been developed. It consists
conductors are not commercially available. The nomi- of a three-step nucleation, annealing, and steady state
nal high-purity materials are generally tested for growth process. In performing a growth run by this
acceptance by growing the epitaxial films and then technique, the initial growth is the same as in the one-
measuring the electrical characteristics. GaAs films step procedure. After the predetermined initial nuclea-
grown from defective (CH 3hGa exhibit very high tion stage (typically 40 s to 1 min), the (CH 3)3Ga feed
resistivity(> 103 0-cm) independent of thickness. The is isolated from the system, and the thin GaAs grown
films are highly compensated and contain localized p-n on spinel is annealed at the growth temperature
junctions. Further discussions of the effect of source ( -700C) for a period of time (typically 10 min) under
materials on film electrical properties are in Section the AsH:r H 2 atmosphere. Mter the annealing, film
3.4. growth is continued by reintroducing the (CH 3)3Ga
The growth of doped heteroepitaxial GaAs and GaP source into the system. (100) GaAs films of good
has been reported using (C 2H 5)zZn [also (C2Hs)Cd] quality have been consistently prepared by this three-
and H 2S (or H 2Se) as the p- and n-dopants, respective- stage process. The band structure generally associated
ly (Manasevit and Thorsen, 1972; Wang et al., with the (100) GaAs films has not observed in films
1974A,B). The techniques of handling the organome- prepared by this new method. Moreover, ( 100) GaAs
tallic dopants are the same as that used for (CH3 hGa films of fairly good quality can be grown by this
as discussed before with the flow rates adjusted to technique even on (110) spinel substrate of relatively
yield the desired doping levels. For n-type doping, the poor surface quality (high scratch density or poorly
control of the degree of doping was found more diffi- polished surfaces).
cult for H2Se than for H2S because H2Se is not chemi- It is probable that for certain film/substrate orienta-
cally stable in storage. tions the annealing promotes the atomic rearrange-
ment or interactions (or both) at the film/substrate
Growth procedure. As described above, the ease of interface so that oriented nuclei are formed for further
film growth depends to a large extent on the substrate single crystal growth. Beside the GaAs/spinel system,
orientation, using the normal growth procedure in the three-step growth procedure was also applied to
which the growth is initiated and continued at a con- the GaP/spinel system with positive effects as evi-
stant rate for the desired length of growth. For exam- denced by the GaP electroluminescent properties
ple, in the GaAs/spinel system the quality of the (111) described in Section 3.5 .
FIGURE 3.5
Lang x-ray topographs of a (100) GaAs layer (-20
J.Lm thick) grown on a (110) spinel substrate [silver
radiation, (022) reflection]. The crystal was rotated
0.4 between topographs. From McFarlane and
Wang (1972)
3.3. Epitaxial growth 117
Early growth stage studies the organometallic growth process. In certain material
systems, films grown by the two processes exhibit a
The nature of the initial film growth of GaAs on significant difference in properties. For example, in
sapphire has been examined by means of electrical the AlN-on-sapphire system films grown by the. chlo-
measurements and electron diffraction and electron ride process on (01 l2) sapphire exhibit at least three
microscopy techniques (Manasevit and Thorsen, orientations: (1120), (3035), and (1127) (Yim et al.,
1970). The early stage of growth, under conditions 1973). AlN grown on (01 12) sapphire by the organo-
consistent with epitaxial film formation, appears to be metallic process exhibits only (1120) orientation (Man-
by the formation of many discrete nuclei which coa- asevit et al., 1971; Duffy et al., 1973). (1120) AlN
lesce to form large islands and eventually produce grown on (01 l2) sapphire (organometallic process) and
complete surface coverage. A similar growth mecha- (1120) GaN grown on (0112) sapphire (chloride pro-
nism was found also in the GaAs-on-spinel system cess) have been extensively studied for potential
(Wang et al., 1974A). The scanning electron micro- applications in, respectively , surface acoustic wave
graphs in Figure 3.6 show the growth islands of (111) and electroluminescent devices (see Section 3.5).
GaAs on (111) spineljust before complete coverage of For the phosphides, aresenides, and antimonides,
the substrate. A slight difference is seen in the per- epitaxy on oxide substrates has been reported only for
centage of coverage for substrates grown by different films grown by the organometallic process. Among the
methods. This may be due to differences in surface group III-phosphides , GaP has received the most
perfection. study because of its well known electroluminescent
Electron diffraction studies revealed evidence of a properties. Epitaxial GaP has been successfully grown
high density of defects near the film/substrate inter- (Wang and McFarlane, 1972) on sapphire , spinel, and
face with a considerable improvement in crystal quali- Si on sapphire using the organometallic process
ty as the film thickness increases. Films at the inter- [(CH3hGa + PH 3]. A vapor/liquid two-stage process
face exhibit p-type conductivity which may be related of growing (Ill) GaP on (Ill) spinel has been success-
to the defect structures near the film/substrate fully developed (Wang et al. , 1974A) with improved
interface results (see Section 3.5). AlP can be grown by the
reaction between (CH3 ) 3 Al and PHa on the oxide sub-
Growth of 111-V compounds strates (Manasevit, 1972; Wang and Dougherty, 1974),
but the films are unstable (hydrolyze) in air. The
During the last decade, a large number of 111-V semi- stability improves upon forrning solid solutions with
conductors and their alloys have been successfully GaP, and Al1 - xGaxP (x = 0.3-0.6) films have been
grown on several insulating oxide substrates by chem- grown on sapphire and spinel substrates (Wang and
ical vapor growth processes. The film and substrate Dougherty, 1974). InP has been grown on sapphire by
materials, their orientation relationships, and the the reaction between (C2 H 5 )aln and phosphine (Mana-
growth processes are listed in Tables 3.5 to 3.7. Elec- sevit and Simpson, 1971A,B).
trical characteristics and potential device applications Epitaxial growth and properties of GaAs films
of the films are presented in Sections 3.4 and 3.5. grown on oxides have been most extensively studied,
The epitaxy of group Til-nitrides on oxide sub- as described throughout the whole chapter. High-qual-
strates, as described earlier in this section, can be ity films can be obtained using the organometallic
achieved by both the chloride transport process and process [(CH3)aGa + AsH3 ] with the following film/
118 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
P-TYPE L PE
N-TYPE LPE
N+ TYPE LPE
VPE
the heated substrate forming the single crystal growth. can be complemented by the LPE method, which
The surface structures and a Laue x-ray back-reflec- offers the advantages of automatic control of stoichi-
tion pattern of a single crystal ZnSe film grown on ometry, gettering of impurities, and convenient incor-
(111) spinel are shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8, respec- poration of dopants. Furthermore, the LPE layers
tively. The II-VI heteroepitaxial films reported in liter- often show improvement in crystal perfection (Ladany
ature to date generally exhibit high resistivities (see et al., 1969) over the substrates on which they are
Table 3.11), and little is known about their electrical grown. A cross section of a GaP-on-spinel composite
characteristics and potential device applications. junction structure is shown in Figure 3.9.
Studies on the crystallinity and growth characteris-
Two-stage epitaxial growth tics of the Ill-Y films grown by the 2-stage method
have shown that the LPE layers generally exhibit
A 2-stage process has been used to form grown-in p-n better surface quality (higher reflectivity and uniformi-
junction electroluminescent diodes in both GaAs and ty) and bulk perfection (larger grain size) than the
GaP (the two conventional LED materials) on sap- parent OVP layers as shown, respectively, in Figures
phire and spinel substrates (Ladany and Wang, 1972; 3.10 and 3 .11. The film perfection of LPE III-V layers
Wang et al., 1974B). The process consists of the on various substrates increases in the order
organometallic vapor-phase (OVP) deposition of lay- (l1l)spinel > (OOOI)sapphire > (llO)spinel.
ers onto the oxide substrates, followed by liquid-phase The heteroepitaxial growth of GaP was found to be
epitaxial (LPE) growth (Nelson, 1963) of two appro- more difficult to control than that of GaAs . The GaP
priately doped layers to produce the junction. This epitaxy is more sensitive to oxide substrate surface
approach was chosen because the OVP technique has preparation and to the gas-flow conditions. Although
the distinct advantage over the liquid-phase technique OVP GaAs of good quality may be routinely prepared
of easier nucleation and initial growth. However, the by the conventional one-step growth procedure (no
control of stoichiometry and doping are difficult. This change or discontinuity during the growth) for further
FIGURE 3.10
Scanning electron micrographs of GaAs
on spinel. (a) OVP GaAs; (b) LPE GaAs .
Beam-sample angle, 45. From Ladany
(a) (b) and Wang (1972)
120 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
FIGURE 3. 12
Scanning electron micrographs of
epitaxial (Ill) GaP films grown on
spinel substrates; beam-sample angle,
45. (a) One-step VPE layer; (b) LPE
layer grown on (a) ; (c) 3-step VPE
layer; (d) LPE layer grown on (c).
From Wang et al. (19748).
LPE growth, the OVP GaP prepared by this way is not teristics of the composites are discussed in Section
reproducible in quality. To improve the OVP GaP, the 3.4.
conventional one-step growth procedure was modified
to a 3-step nucleation, annealing, and growth process
(Wang et al., 1974B). 3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics
To perform a growth run by the modified procedure,
the (CH3)aGa feed into the growth system is interrupt- Crystalline perfection
ed after a predetermined initial nucleation stage (typi-
cally 40 s to 1 min), and the thin GaP is annealed at the A general and preliminary assessment of the crystal-
growth temperature ( -800C) for a period of time line perfection of heteroepitaxial films grown on oxide
(typically 10 min) in the PH:/H2 atmosphere. After the substrates may be conveniently made by conventional
annealing, film growth is continued by reintroducing methods such as Laue x-ray back reflection, low-angle
the (CH3)aGa source into the system. (111) GaP films electron diffraction, and various microscopic tech-
of improved surface and bulk perfections were consis- niques. In addition, the techniques of x-ray diffraction
tently prepared by this 3-step procedure. It is probable topography are particularly useful in obtaining infor-
that the annealing promotes the atomic rearrange- mation about the nature of defect structures in the
ment, interactions, or both at the film/substrate inter- bulk of the films and, sometimes, about the effect of
face, facilitating the formation of oriented nuclei for substrate defects on film imperfections. Several epi-
further single crystal growth. Scanning electron taxial Ill-V film/oxide substrate composites have been
micrographs of (111) GaP films by the two different characterized by the topographic methods with inter-
procedures are presented in Figure 3.12; also shown esting results (McFarlane and Wang, 1972).
are the LPE overgrowths. The surface appearance is The use of Lang transmission topography (Lang,
improved by the modified 3-step VPE procedure over 1959) to characterize heteroepitaxial systems usually
the conventional one and by the LPE process over the has been confined to the examination of layers after
VPE one. LPE growth on 3-step VPE (lll)GaP/ removal from the substrate. However, for the 111-V
(111)spinel has yielded the most successful results. compounds (such as GaAs and GaP) grown on sap-
Electrical and optical characteristics of the GaAs and phire and spinel substrates, the topographic studies
GaP electroluminescent diodes are discussed in Sec- can be made on the as-grown sample and allows sepa-
tion 3.5. rate imaging of the layer and substrate. This is due to
In addition to the LPE layers, second epitaxial lay- the high linear x-ray absorption coefficient (~J-) of the
ers have been grown by the chloride vapor-phase relatively thin GaP or GaAs layer and the low linear
method on the OVP first layers grown on oxide sub- absorption coefficient of the thick substrate. Thus, the
strates forming microwave device structures. Charac- product of the linear absorption coefficient and thick-
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 121
FIGURE 3.13
Lang x-ray topographs of a (0001)
sapphire substrate [silver radiation, (1210)
reflection]. The crystal was rotated 0.1
between the two topographs. From Wang
(a) (b) and McFarlane (1972)
ness (f.Lt) is less than one for both layer and substrate radiation of a (111) GaP film (20 f.Lm thick) grown on a
and meets the criterion of f.Ll < 1 for Lang topogra- (0001) sapphire substrate. The film was grown by the
phy. For example, the f.Ll values for 20-f.Lm-thick organometallic process (Section 3.3). The two topo-
GaAs and GaP layers are 0.36 and 0.18, respectively, graphs of the sapphire substrate shown in Figure 3.13
and for 0.5-mm-thick spinel and sapphire substrates, were taken at crystal settings 0.1o apart and clearly
f.Ll is 0.30 and 0.35, respectively. Because the two show the presence of at least two subgrains in the
crystalline components of the heteroepitaxial system crystal. Figure 3.14 shows topographs obtained from
have different lattice parameters, it is possible to the GaP film, again at a crystal setting difference of
obtain separate topographs of the layer and substrate 0.1 o between the two topographs. It is evident that the
by appropriate orientation of the composite, first at GaP layers in Figures 3.14a and 3.14b follow the
the Bragg angle for a set of diffracting planes in the orientation of the sapphire grains shown in Figures
substrate, then at the Bragg angle for a set in the layer. 3.l3a and 3.13b, respectively. Note also in Figure 3.13
Examination by x-ray topography reveals that the the clear distinction between the areas where the sap-
III-V heteroepitaxiallayers shown to be overall mono- phire grain is present or absent. However, in Figure
crystalline by Laue methods are composed of small 3.14, the GaP film orientation is much less sharply
crystallites ( -10 f.Lm large) and most are misoriented defined. That is, in the top part of Figure 3 .l3a, a
in a range 0.1 from the nominal orientation of the sapphire grain exhibits strong diffraction contrast, and
layer. Further, the general orientation of the layers there is no diffraction from this same region in Figure
follows the orientation of large grains in the substrate. 3.13 b. The GaP film in the top part of Figure 3 .14a also
Figures 3.13 and 3.14 are topographs taken with silver exhibits strong diffracted contrast, and the image
FIGURE 3.14
Lang x-ray topograph of a (Ill) GaP layer
(20 p.m thick) grown on the substrate
shown in Figure 3.13 [silver radiation,
(022) reflection]. The crystal was rotated
0.1o between the two topographs. From
(a) (b) Wang and McFarlane (1972)
122 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
appears to be due to a high density of small crystal- monocrystalline. However, the dark image is not uni-
lites. In Figure 3.14b, this same region still exhibits form, and the small whiter areas over the entire topo-
diffracted intensity from a small number of crystal- graph are small regions that are misoriented from the
lites. Thus, the x-ray topographs show that the GaP nominal crystal orientation. The white lines in the
film is composed of small crystallites which generally GaAs topographs can be seen to correspond to
follow the orientation of the grains in the substrate but scratches visible in the topograph of the substrate.
are misoriented from each other by 0.1. This indicates that the GaAs grown on the scratches is
Another example is the topographic examination of misoriented from the rest of the layer. That many of
(100) GaP grown (by the organometallic process) on a the lines visible on the GaAs topographs are not evi-
(1 00) Si/(l I 02) sapphire composite. The Si is 0.3 p.m dent on the substrate topograph shows that the GaAs
thick. Figure 3.15a is a topograph of a (1012) sapphire growth is influenced by inperfections (scratches) in the
substrate, and Figures 3.15b and 3.15c are topographs surface of the substrate that do not have large enough
of the (100) GaP layer (20 p.m thick) taken at a crystal strain fields to be imaged by x-ray topography.
setting difference of 0.1. Since the film/substrate com- Heteroepitaxial GaN films grown on sapphire by the
posite is bent, the crystal does not remain in proper chloride process (see Section 3.3) were examined by
alignment for diffraction from the Ka 1 component of both reflection and transmission x-ray topography and
the incident x-rays as the crystal is translated in the found (McFarlane, 1974) to exhibit the same kinds of
beam. Thus, the two vertical bands of strongly dif- defect structures as seen in the GaAs and GaP films
fracted intensity in Figure 3.15a are caused by diffrac- discussed above. Figure 3.17 shows a transmission
tion from both the Ka 1 and Ka2 components of the topograph of a (1120) GaN film grown on a (1102)
incident beam. No grains were observed in topographs sapphire substrate. The film is composed of small
taken of this wafer, but the general dislocation density grains and is strikingly similar to the structure of the
is too high to resolve individual dislocations. As in the other heteroepitaxial films.
case of (111) GaP, the topographs of the (100 GaP
layer in Figure 3.15b and 3.15c show contrast caused Deformation and stress
by small crystallites. This (100) layer appears, how-
ever, to have less spread in the range of misorientation The heteroepitaxial films grown on oxide substrates
than was observed on the (Ill) layer. are strained and generally under compressive stress.
Topographs of the substrates usually show polishing This is because of the difference in thermal expansion
scratches and grown-in defects. The polishing scratch- behavior between the film and substrate and the ele-
es are also visible in topographs of the layers as lines vated growth temperatures. The residual stress (<T 1)
of no diffracted intensity, indicating that crystallites may be estimated, to a first order approximation, by
grown on the scratches are misoriented from the sur- the expression (Budo and Priest, 1963)
rounding layer. Topographs of a (111) GaAs/(111)
(3.4)
MgAb0 4 composites are shown in Figure 3.16. The
GaAs (3.8 p.m thick) was grown by the organometallic where a. and a 1 are, respectively, the coefficients of
process. The topograph of the spinel substrate is thermal expansion of the substrate and the film , Y 1 is
shown in Figure 3.16a. Several polishing scratches are the elastic modulus of the film, and 11T is the tempera-
visible as lines of darker diffracted intensity. Note that ture change. The thermal expansion coefficients of
there is a uniform background of dislocations but the most 111-V and II-VI semiconductors are less than
density is too high (> 106 lines/cm2) to resolve individ- those of the commonly used oxide substrates such as
ual dislocations. The topograph of the GaAs film is sapphire, spinel, and beryllia, and therefore the con-
shown in Figure 3.16b. The diffracted image over the traction of the substrate upon cooling forces the film
entire area of the layer is evidence that the layer is into compression. The film/substrate composite is
FIGURE 3.15
Lang x-ray topographs (silver
radiation) of a (1012) sapphire
substrate and a (100) GaP deposit. (a)
Sapphire substrate, (0112) reflection;
(b) and (c) GaP layer, 20 f.Lm thick,
(022) reflection. The crystal was
rotated 0.1 between the two
topographs. From Wang and
(a) (b) (c) McFarlane (1972)
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 123
(3.5)
~ '-t~-o-6
(..)....J
LJ.I - -
samples of different film thickness along two perpen- a: 200 =l 7. 0~o.0 (1014)
dicular crystallographic zones as indicated in the o-f fL 0 '0- R=-6.6M
o-o-o"C-0-o"' 2
0 _ ( I I0 )
insert stereographic projection. It is clearly seen that 00 I 2 3 4 5 6 R=-11.5M
the deformation is anisotropic as might be expected
DISTANCE ACROSS CRYSTAL (mm)
because of anisotropy of the elastic and thermal
expansion properties of the rhombohedral-on-hexago- FIGURE 3.19 Plots of angular orientation of(ll02) Al2 0 3
nal system. The strain in AlN films becomes excessive substrates (with AIN film), for x-ray diffraction from planes
indicated, as a function of distance across substrate for two
samples (measurements made on back of substrate). The
radius of curvature along each of two zones is indicated in the
u inset stereo graphic projection of (1 I 02) A12 0 3 Film thickness
a:
<[ is indicated in graph. From Duffy et al. (1973)
"-
0
(/)
0
z at thicknesses above about 4 JLm. In some cases films
0
f.d
shattered when subjected to a relatively small temper-
(/)
ature gradient or mechanical stress for film thickness-
w
> es in the range 5-10 JLm (Duffy et al., 1973).
f=
<[
...J
w
a: Film/substrate orientation relationships
z
0 In Tables 3.5 to 3.8, the film/substrate orientation
f=
~ relationships of compound semiconductor/oxide com-
z
w posite systems are listed according to the classification
Ci'
0 of the film compounds. The classification is divided
...J
~
into group III-nitrides (Table 3.5), group III-phos-
,..
(/)
a:
phides and group III-arsenides (Table 3.6), III-V
u alloys (Table 3.7), and II-VI compounds (Table 3.8).
The composite systems discussed here are limited to
those in which the epitaxial growth is achieved by
chemical vapor-phase growth processes (see Section
3.3), as specified in Section 3.1. The orientation rela-
tionships were experimentally determined principally
0 I 7 by x-ray diffraction as described in the original work
DISTANCE ACROSS CRYSTAL (mm) cited in the references. The growth processes used
FIGURE 3.18 The change in angular setting of a spinel to achieve the epitaxy for each system are cited
substrate (with GaAs film) for the maximum intensity of a in the tables. Stereographic projections of several
particular reflection as a function of distance across the film/substrate systems are presented in Figures 3.20
crystal. The radius of curvature and film thickness are shown to 3.23, illustrating the complete epitaxial relation-
in the graph. From McFarlane and Wang (1972) ships. The systems include (111) GaAs/(0001)
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 125
sapphire, (100) GaAs/(100) spinel, (111) GaAs/(100) that a unique parallel epitaxial relationship exists
spinel, and (100) GaP/(100) Si/(1 i02) sapphire. between the film and substrate as in the case of Si on
It is seen that the orientation relationships are quite spinel (see Chapter 2). However, the experimentally
complicated. There are systems (such as GaAs on determined relationships are:
spinel) exhibiting unusual parallel orientation relation-
(111)GaAsiiO 11)MgA120 4;
ships llexpected from a general physicochemical
point of view. Moreover, there are films in which the (100)GaAsii(100)MgA1204;
and
crystal structures and lattice parameters are similar
but exhibit distinctively different parallel orientation (lOO)GaAsp 10)MgAl204.
relationships with respect to a common substrate An apparent (lll)GaAspOO)MgA120 4 relationship has
material. For example, GaAs and GaP are well known also been observed when the (100)MgA120 4 substrate
to be closely related in structure (complete miscibility; is off oriented by 1 or more.
belong to the same III-V class). GaAs and ZnSe are Concurrently, it was found that the spinel substrate
isoelectronic and exhibit similar lattice parameters. orientation plays a critical role in the ease with which
All the three compounds exhibit the same cubic struc- the GaAs epitaxial layers can be grown (see Section
ture. However, the observed orientation of the films 3.3). This is, again, in contrast to the Si-on-spinel
grown on spinel substrates with the same (110) orien- growth case in which simultaneous epitaxial growth of
tation are distinctively different: Si can be achieved in spinel substrates of different
orientations (see Chapter 2). The ease of GaAs growth
(100)GaAslf010)MgAl20 4; increases with spinel orientation in the order (111) >
(100) and (110)GaPp10)MgAl204; (110) > (100). The epitaxy of (100)GaAs on (llO)spinel
and is more sensitive to substrate surface quality and to
growth temperature than that of (111)GaAs on
(110)ZnSeiiO 10)MgA1204.
(111)spinel. The growth on (lOO)spinel is most difficult
The GaAs/spinel orientation relationships (Wang et in that polycrystalline films [with isolated (100)GaAs
al., 1974A) are described partially in Section 3.3. The single crystal areas] are generally formed under var-
epitaxy is unusual from the point of view of crystal ious growth conditions. However, with a substrate
structure. Since both GaAs and MgA120 4 are cubic off-orientation as small as one degree, the growth is
and belong to the same space group, one would expect enhanced remarkably with (111)GaAs formed on the
126 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
TABLE 3.6 Film/Substrate Epitaxial Orientation Relationships III-V Compounds (Phosphides and
Arsenides)/Oxides
Film Substrate Parallel Orientations Film/Substrate Reference Remarks
AlP aAlzOa (111)/(0001) (1) Films unstable (hydrolyze) in air
AlP MgAlzO (111)/(111) (1) Films unstable (hydrolyze) in air
AlAs a-AlzOa (111)/(0001) (1),(2) Films unstable (hydrolyze) in air
AlAs MgAlzO (111)/(111) (1),(2) Films unstable (hydrolyze) in air
GaAs a-Alz0 3 (111)/(0001) ; [ 1i 0]/[ 1120] (3),(4),(5),(6) (0001) substrate yields best quali-
ty GaAs among all sapphire
orientations
GaAs a-Alz0 3 (111)/(1123) (4)
GaAs a-A120 3 (111)/(1125) (4)
GaAs a-AI; 20 3 (111)/(1126) (4)
GaAs a-AlzOa (111)/(0112) (4)
GaAs MgAlzO (111)/(111) ; [01i]/[011] (3),(7) Details of GaAs/spinel epitaxy in
text
GaAs MgAI204 (100)/(110) ; [011]/[i 10] (3),(7)
GaAs MgAlzO (100)/(100) ; [010]/[010] (3),(6),(7)
GaAs MgAlzO (111)/(1 00) ; [01 i]![i 10] (7)
GaAs BeO (100)/(lOiO) (8)
GaAs BeO (100)/(1122) (8) (1122) BeO yields the best quali-
ty (100) GaAs
GaAs BeO (111)/(101 1) (8) (I Oil) BeO yields the best quali-
ty (111) GaAs
GaAs BeO (111)/(lOii) (8)
GaAs BeO (111)/(0001) (8)
GaAs BeO (11)/(000i) (8)
GaAs BeO (111)/(1121) (8)
GaAs BeO (111)/(1121) (8)
GaAs BeO (100) and (111)/(1120) (8) Films exhibit both (111) and (100)
orientations
GaAs Th0 2 (100)/(100) (4)
GaP a-AI20a (111)/(0001) ; [liO]/[ 1120] (4),(9)
GaP a-Al20 3 (111)/(01i2) (9)
GaP Si/a-Al20 3 (100)/(100)/(01 i2) (9) (100) Si (< 1 ~m) grown on
(0112) sapphire yields (100)
GaP
GaP MgAlz04 (111)/(111) ; [Oli]/[01 i] (9),(10)
GaP MgAlzO (100)/(100) ; [li0]/[010] (11)
GaP MgAl20 4 (100) and (110)/(110) (10) Films exhibit both (1 00) and (11 0)
orientations
InP a-AlzOa (111)/(0001) (12)
InAs a-AlzOa (111)/(0001) (12)
Sources: (1) Wang (1973); (2) Manasevit (1971); (3) Manasevit and Simpson (1969); (4) Manasevit (1972); (5)
Rai-Choudhury (1969); (6) Gutierrez et al. (1970); (7) Wang eta!. (197 4A); (8) Thorsen et al. (1974); (9) Wang and
McFarlane (1972); (10) Wang et al. (1974B); (11) Wang (1974); (12) Manasevit and Simpson (1971~).
"In this table, all films were grown using organometallic processes, except in the cases (Gutierrez et al., 1970)
of ((111)GaAs/(0001)a-Al20 3 and (100)GaAs/(100)MgA120 4 using the chloride process.
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 127
ito
ill
ii2 OliO
Oli2
001
-
011
0!1 1210
iiOl
Ill
Oil I
!00
121 1100
1012
tio
FIGURE 3.20
0 SAPPH,fiE(hki\l Stereographic projection of (111) GaAs
on (0001) sapphire. From Wang and
/'!,. GoAs(/JitiJ McFarlane (1972)
oio 00/
Ill
101
Ill
110
0Oil-
Ill
00/ 0/0
FIGURE 3.21
0 SPINEL ( hKI)
Stereographic projection of (100) GaAs on
(110) spinel 0 GaAs (IlK/)
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 129
FIGURE 3.22
0 -SPINEL (hkl) Stereographic projection of (111) GaAs on
6.- GaAs (hk/1 (1 00) spinel
00/
011 01/
0001
tfl
ii04
0/0
oio
2110 1120
0
!If
Ill
i010
off Oli
off-oriented (lOO)spinel. The ease of growth of the achieve the (lOO)GaAs epitaxy on any sapphire orien-
(111)GaAs on off-oriented (tOO) spinel is comparable to tations investigated. A further consideration is that a
that of the (111)GaAs on (111)spinel. layer as thin as 1 11-m grown on a structurally different
Manasevit and Simpson (1969) have also reported substrate material may exhibit poor crystallinity. A
that different epitaxial relationships exist in Si-an- third buffer layer such as GaP grown in between the
sapphire and GaAs-on-sapphire systems. They sug- GaAs film and sapphire substrate may be feasible
gested that the bonding at the GaAs-Al2 0 3 interface since GaP is optically transparent and structurally
involves an As bridge between metal ions at the sub- similar to GaAs. The (lOO)GaP/sapphire epitaxy is
strate surface and the succeeding Ga layer in the film. achieved (Wang and McFarlane, 1972) through an
This mechanism is different from that of Si on sap- intermediate thin Si (-2000 A), and thus the desired
phire, in which the bonding was proposed (Manasevit multilayer composite substrate is (lOO)GaP/(lOO)Si/
et al., 1968) to be related to a filling-in of metal ion (1 i02)sapphire. (100)GaAs epitaxy has been achieved
sites with bonding to the oxygen ions. (Wang et al., 1974A) on this composite substrate.
Experimental results obtained from infrared specu-
lar reflection measurements of several compound- Optical properties
semiconductor/oxide systems (see also Chapter 5)
indicate that the nature of interfacial bonding in a The heteroepitaxial III-V and II-VI compounds in
composite system may vary from one mechanism to general have large refractive indices, strong lattice
another depending on the film/substrate orientations. vibrational absorption bands, and band gap absorp-
In spite of the unusual orientation relationships tions (direct and indirect) that occur in a wide uv to IR
found in some systems, a few generalized range. Optical properties of the films and a compari-
trends can be derived from the compound-semicon- son between the film and bulk optical properties are of
ductor/oxide heteroepitaxial relationships observed. scientific interest as well as practical importance for
First, for films with cubic crystal structures, the consideration in device applications. Published infor-
(111)filmll(0001)sapphire and (lll)filffii(l 11)spinel rela- mation in this area, however, is scanty. Materials that
tionships have generally been found. In fact, for many have been investigated and reported in literature for
film materials, the (111) epitaxial films can be grown some detailed aspects of the optical properties include
more easily than any other orientations under a wide GaAs on spinel (Wang et al., 1974A), AlN on sapphire
range of growth conditions. Second, of the compound
semiconductor films investigated to date, more epitax- 3,4
ial films have been successfully grown on the
3.2 >C
(OOOl)sapphire orientation (the basal plane) than on
any other substrate orientations. In some material 3.0 I
>C
systems, such as GaAs on sapphire, the (0001) surface
is the only orientation that yields films of good quality.
2.8
I
>C
....J
A 0.4 I'-m GaAs
used to yield films of good quality. The (0001) sapphire -;:... 2.2
LIJ
has been most popularly used to date for many film 0
z
2.0
materials and conceivably is the most logical first ~
1-
choice for the study of film growth of new heteroepi- i 1.8 /
taxial materials. "'z
<( 1.6
ac-M-M_M_JC_ ~--JC--
I
a::
The film/substrate orientation relationships have s I
1.4 I
practical significance in the consideration of the feasi-
'
C)
0
_.____..... "
bility of specific device structures. From the crystal- .J 1.2
linity point of view, a substrate orientation should be ./
-----
1.0
chosen so that the best film epitaxial growth may be
08
achieved. On the other hand, there are devices in
which a certain orientation is desirable (see Section 0.6
'I\
90
A the heteroepitaxial film does not diverge grossly in
80
stoichiometry or crystal structure from the bulk.
x 14,.mGaAa Ellipsometric measurements were made at a wave-
51'm GaAa
"'
IIJ 70 length of 5461 A on epitaxial GaAs grown on spinel.
6 0.4,.m GaAa ..1
c The optical constants (the real and imaginary parts of
CJ
100 Cl) 60 the refractive index n -ik) and the dielectric constants
>-
1-
e1 and e2 (the real and imaginary parts of the complex
90 >
j:::
50 dielectric constant e1 - i eJ were derived from the mea-
CJ
IIJ
surements. Typical values of n, k, e~> and e2 of the
80 40
..1 films are compared with those obtained on epitaxial
~XXX\ SCALE 3
II.
IIJ
GaAs grown on bulk GaAs, as shown in Table 3.9. It
IIJ
xxx a::
..1 70 xxx xxx xx}t, 30
c
CJ
is apparent that the optical and dielectric constants of
h
IIJ
..1 40 10-30 ~-tm) spectra of heteroepitaxial AIN grown on
II.
)
IIJ
a:: sapphire are shown, respectively, in Figures 3.26 and
30
~~
3.27. In Figure 3.26 data (Pastnak and Roskovcova,
20 I 1968) obtained from single crystal bulk material are
included for comparison. From these data, Yim and
10 coworkers (1973) concluded that AIN is a direct band
'~ gap material with a value of about 6.2 e V at room
0
600 500 400 300
temperature.
WAVENUMBER (CM- 1) Optical specular reflection measurements in the
infrared region (see Zanzucchi, Chapter 5) of thin ( <1
F'IouRE 3.25 Reflection characteristics of GaAs films in the ~-tm) semiconductor films grown on oxide substrates
faLtice band regions. From Zanzucchi and Wang (1974)
may provide information on the nature of film/sub-
strate interfacial bonding and on the defect and disor-
der of the substrate surfaces. In the composite struc-
(Yim et al., 1973), and GaN on sapphire (Pankove, ture, reflections from both the air/semiconductor and
1973). the semiconductor/substrate interface contribute to
Transmission characteristics near the band gap the spectrum. For AIN on sapphire, AIN has a res-
region of heteroepitaxial GaAs films (on spinel) of trahlen reflection band beginning at about 11 ~-tm and
various thickness are shown in Figure 3.24. The sharp- extending to about 15 ~-tm where the other strong
ness of the absorption edge increases with increasing modes of sapphire occur. Consequently, if the AlN
thickness, indicating that the crystallinity improves epitaxial layer is very thin ( <1 ~-tm in the present case)
with increasing film thickness. The apparent absorp- and thus very weakly absorbing and reflecting in the
tion observed below the band gap is caused, in part, wavelength region greater than 15 ~-tm, then the reflec-
by reflection losses (accounting for an optical density tion spectrum obtained through the AIN layer at those
of about 0.25) from the interfaces in the composite wavelengths represents almost exclusively the contri-
structure. Reflection measurements indicate that the bution from the first few hundred angstrom thickness-
apparent absorption is caused in large measure by es of the sapphire substrate at the AlN-sapphire inter-
light scattering from the as-grown surface structure face. Comparison of the reflection spectrum in the
(see for instance Figure 3.2), which become rougher wavelength region beyond about 15 ~-tm of the sap-
with increasing film thickness (Zanzucchi and Wang,
1974). The same behavior has been also observed in
heteroepitaxial GaP films (Zanzucchi and Wang, 1974) TABLE 3.9 Optical and Dielectric Constants of Epitaxial
and may well be a fundamental characteristic of the GaAs Films at ). = 5461 A
as-grown heteroepitaxial compound semiconductor (1 11) GaAs Films El q n k
films.
Film grown on spinel substrate 15.195 3.602 3.925 0.459
Reflection characteristics of the GaAs films in the
Film thickness = 25 !Lm
lattice band region are shown in Figure 3.25. The films
all exhibit a sharp transition in reflectivity near 300 Film grown on GaAs substrate 15.636 3.674 3.981 0.461
cm-1 consistent with the characteristics for bulk mate- Film thickness = 2 ILffi
132 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
100~------~-------r------~--------r-------,--------.------~
>-
---,
(OOOI) SAPPHIRE
I- I
>
i=
80 ,..,-~--~---- ,--,
u / I I
LLI I \ I I
...J
~ 60 (OOOI) AIN- \I
a:: (OOOI) SAPPHIRE IJ
\J
LLI v
> 40
~
...J
LLI
a:: 20
OL-------~------~------~------~------~------~------~
1000 900 BOO 700 600 500 400 300
WAVENUMBER cm- 1
FIGURE 3.27 Infrared reflection spectra at room temperature of(OOOl)AlN-(OOOI)sapphire and (OOOl)sapphire. From Yim eta!.
(1973)
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 133
2. In the region where 1.7 < hv < 3.0 eV, the absorp-
tion coefficient varies as (hv-1.7) 2 , corresponding
to a transition involving a deep center in the middle
of the gap.
3. Between 3.0 and 3.3 eV, the absorption coefficient
varies exponentially with hv.
4. Between 3.3 and 3.5 eV, a steeper exponential a I
(cm- 1 ) I
dependence is observed. I
I
The band structure of GaN was determined by I
I
Bloom (1971). Photoluminescence measurements I
I
made by Pankove and coworkers (1970) have shown I
I
that the near-gap emission occurs at 3.4 7 e V with I
1 exp
approximately 100 percent internal quantum efficien-
cy. The electroluminescence of GaN on sapphire is 10 1(~:)
discussed in Section 3.5.
Electrical properties
..
1/) (CALCULATED_.!..~-- measured was about 5000 cm2/V-s at a carrier concen-
>
N.._, 4000 /
_.,_., oo
~
/ 0 0
>-
!:: 2000
..J
iii
0
2 0o!--L-~4_..J~a!--L-~12~~~~s~~2o~~2~4~~28
THICKNESS ( p.ml
>' 7.0~
....
N ~
:::E s.oe;
(.)
z
Ill
>- 5.0 ~
1- 0
..J (.)
iii 4.0a:
0 !!!
FIGURE 3.31 :::E a:
Variation of carrier concentration and mobility with 3.0 ~
0 (.)
thickness in thick GaAs film on (1122) BeO substrate. 0 40
From Thorsen et al. (1974)
3.4. Physical and electrical characteristics 135
z
....
0
-
0::
"'0::
.
N
ii:
u
FIGURE 3.33
Electrical properties as a function of film
0.1 I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 thickness of an n-type (Ill) GaAs film grown
EPITAXIAL GaAs FILM THICKNESS ( J-Lm) on spinel
136 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
"'
::;;
X
z 3.0 0
(,)
....>-
(,)
(,) ~ 2
....' > >
0 N.._ ....
U>
z 1.0 U>
0
.... 0.8 ....>- "'"'
<l
...J
"'....z 0.6
"'0
::;;
"'z
(,)
0.4
0
(,)
"'~
"'
'!! 0.2
"'"'
<l
(,)
"'"'
<l FIGURE 3.34
(,)
Electrical properties as a function of film
0.1 thickness of a p-type (Ill) GaAs film grown
EPITAXIAL GaAs FILM THICKNESS (14m) on spinel
exhibited average mobilities usually less than 2000 films of suitable quality become increasingly available
cm2 /V-s, whereas films about 8-25~.tm thick had aver- in this growing field.
age mobilities of about 4000 cm2 /V-s for carrier con-
centrations of about 4 x 1016/cm3 n-type GaAs films
were grown on both (111) and (110) spinel using H2 Se 3.5. Potential device applications
and H2 S as the dopants. The control of the degree of
doping was found more difficult for H2 Se than for H2 S Transmission-mode photocathodes
because H2 Se was not chemically stable in storage.
Thick films (> 10 ~.tm) with carrier concentration in The achievement of single crystal growth of III-V
the range 2 x 1017 to 1 x 1019/cm3 were grown with compounds on transparent oxide substrates is desira-
mobilities ranging from 50 to 90 percent of the bulk ble for the realization of negative electron affinity
values. (NEA) photocathodes that can operate in the trans-
mission mode* in the wavelength ranges desired for
Other compound semiconductors In Table 3.11 the applications in photomultipliers, image tubes, and
electrical properties (known to date from literature) of camera tubes. The principle of negative electron affin-
several III-V and II-VI heteroepitaxial semiconductor ity and its development and use in III-V compound
films grown on oxide substrates are summarized. As electron emitters have been described in several
described before, many of these films have not been
characterized in detail, primarily because of the lack *NEA photocathodes are of two basic types; reflection-mode
cathodes, for which the light is incident on the cathode-
of well defined epitaxial films suitable for electrical vacuum surface, and transmission-mode cathodes, for
measurements at this time. It is anticipated that new which the light is incident on the substrate or back of the
experimental data will supplement the literature as cathode.
recent publications including a monograph (Bell, 1973) "hot" electrons excited to levels above the vacuum
and several review articles (Bell and Spicer 1970; level lose energy quickly (-10- 12 s) through interac-
Williams and Tietjen, 1971; Simon, 1972; Sommer, tions with phonons until they have been "thermal-
1973; Martinelli and Fisher, 1974). The NEA concept ized" at the bottom of the conduction band. As a
was first proposed in the early sixties. From the result, only those electrons can escape into vacuum
advent of this concept, the materials and device tech- that have been produced so close to the surface (a few
nology of electron emission have received new impe- hundred Angstroms) that their energy still exceeds the
tus, and significant improvements have been achieved value cp. The lower the electron affinity (Ea) at the
in many types of electron emission devices during the emitter surface, the larger the fraction of electrons
last few years. with sufficient energy to be emitted.
The basic difference between conventional electron By contrast, in NEA materials the vacuum level lies
emitterst (such as alkali antimonide) and NEA emit- below the bottom of the conduction band minimum in
ters (such as GaAs) can be shown through a compari- the bulk material (i.e., the effective electron affinity
son of the photoemission process for each case. Fig- (E';) is negative). In this case, the thermalized elec-
ure 3.35 shows the schematic energy band diagrams of trons have sufficient energy to escape, and because
the two kinds of emitters. In the case of the conven- they have long lifetimes ( -10- 9 s), they can diffuse
tional emitter, photoemission from the valence band from a considerable distance to the surface and still be
occurs for photons have a minimum energy cp, but the emitted. Thus, the essential difference between the
conventional (positive electron affinity) and the NEA
emitters is that the latter have an escape depth several
tFor a comprehensive review of the conventional photoemis-
sive materials, see Sommer (1968). orders of magnitude greater, resulting in a significant
increase in emission efficiency.
To obtain the NEA conditions, the work function of
VACUUM - - - -------r--'"1'""""-r-- a p-type semiconductor is reduced by the adsorption
POTENTIAL
of electropositive-and in some cases by a combina-
tion of electropositive and electronegative-elements
CONDUCTION
BAND on the surfaces. Cesium and oxygen are the elements
most commonly used to date. Addition of cesium or
cesium oxide to the surface causes a dipole potential
to be introduced at the surface of the semiconductor,
FERMI
LEVEL
which reduces the barrier normally present there. The
reduction occurs over atomic .dimensions. The addi-
tion of cesium may also produce band bending. The
SOLID VACUUM
complete NEA condition is achieved by combining
materials such that the conduction band minimum in
the bulk of the semiconductor lies above the vacuum
(a) potential and the semiconductor is sufficiently doped
so that the band-bending distance is small compared
with the hot-electron escape depth. If this condition is
achieved, the energy lost by an electron as it passes
VACUUM through the band-bending region determines the frac-
POTENTIAL tion of electrons that will be emitted into vacuum. This
fraction P is known as the surface escape probability.
FERMI As described above, the electron transport in the
LEVEL
NEA materials is by minority carrier diffusion. There-
fore, high-quality single crystalline materials with con-
trolled doping are desired for good device perfor-
SOLID VACUUM
mance, as imperfections in the crystal reduce the
electron diffusion length and thus reduce the large
escape depth which is the basis of the high efficiency
of NEA emitters. The crystallite size must be larger
than the escape depth. By contrast, conventional
(b)
emitters can employ small crystallites because the
FIGURE 3.35 Energy band diagrams showing (a) positive escape depth is small compared with the size of the
electron affinity and (b) negative electron affinity conditions microcrystals.
in relation to band gap energy E 0 work function cf>, electron The major effort in the development of NEA emit-
affinity Ea. and effective electron affinity E~ ters has been directed toward 111-V photoemitters
3.5. Potential device applications 139
R )e-" tanh ()
ed electrons can reach the emitting surface. For values
+(I+ 2 1
of a and L in the vicinity of 1 J.tm-1 (in GaAs, a = 1
tively insensitive to t. (2) For values oft ::; tm, Y1(A.) From the preceding discussion, the basic materials
increases with increasing a(A.), owing to the increased requirements for transmission photocathodes of high
number of photoexcited electrons, most of which can quantum efficiency* may be defined. For GaAs cath-
escape. For t >> tm. Y1(A.) decreases with increasing odes grown on oxide substrates (such as sapphire,
a(A.). The reason for this latter effect is twofold: First, spinel, and beryllia), there are the following
for small a, light absorption is approximately uniform requirements:
throughout the cathode, which means that there are an 1. The cathode thickness and doping level should be,
appreciable number of electrons generated within a respectively, 1 ~m and in the range of 5 x 1018 to 2
diffusion length of the NEA surface. As a increases, x 1019Jcma.
fewer electrons are generated near the NEA surface. 2. The GaAs films should exhibit a high degree of
Second, when a is small, there are multiple internal both surface and bulk crystalline perfection.
reflections, increasing the number of electrons gener- 3. The GaAs films should exhibit, preferably, (lll)b
ated near the emitting surface. As a increases, this or (100) surface orientations.
enhancement decreases. (3) For any combination of a, The first requirement can be satisfactorily met by the
S, and t, Y1(A.) is an increasing function of L. How- presently established growth and doping techniques
ever, increases in L beyond a certain value produce (see Section 3.3). However, the second and third
no significant improvements in Y1 For values of a requirements are difficult to meet, and they are the
near 1 ~m- 1 and t about 1 ~m, this value of L is about subject of current research in many laboratories. As
1.0 ~m when S > > 1.0 and about 3.0 ~m when S ::; described in early sections, the bulk crystalline perfec-
1.0. Values of L in the 1-3 ~m range are realistic. tion of heteroepitaxial III-V films grown on oxides
The minority diffusion length L is the parameter improves with increasing thickness. In the thickness
characterizing transport in the bulk of an NEA emit- range up to several microns near the film/substrate
ter. It is given by interface, the epitaxial films exhibit a very high den-
L = (~kT7/e) 112 , (3.10) sity of defects. In addition, experimental results have
shown that the (111) 111-V films grown on oxides
where ~ is the electron mobility, 7 is the carrier life- exhibit the unwanted (lll)A [rather than the desired
time, e is the electronic charge, k is Boltzmann con- (lll)B] surface orientation, and that, for many film!
stant, and T is the temperature. Since ~ and 7 both substrate combinations, the (111) epitaxial films can
depend on doping and crystalline perfection, L is be grown more easily or more perfectly than can any
strongly dependent on these two factors. L increases other orientations under a wide range of growth condi-
with improved crystalline perfection but decreases as tions. For instance, in the GaAs-on-sapphire system,
doping increases. With optimum doping (mid-10 18/cm3 the (0001) surface, also known as the basal plane, is
to low-1019/cm3 for GaAs), the diffusion length is deci- the only orientation that yields GaAs films of good
sively determined by the crystalline perfection which, quality. The films exhibit (lll)A orientation. It should
in tum, is largely affected by several factors including be noted that the "poor crystallinity" effect is proba-
the cathode/substrate lattice and thermal I expansion bly more dominant than the "wrong orientation"
matches, cathode/substrate orientation relationships effect, as a moderate photosensitivity [about 40 per-
(see Sections 3.3 and 3.4), cathode thickness, growth cent of the value obtained from the (111)B surface]
technique, and growth conditions. can be still obtained from the (111)A GaAs surface
In Equations (3. 7) and (3.8) the electron escape (James et al., 1971). The above discussions have
probability P enters into the expression for Y tA.) as a revealed that it is inherently difficult to attempt the use
multiplicative factor. Recall that P is the probability of GaAs thin films, directly grown on sapphire or other
that an electron, having reached the bent-band region, oxides, as transmission-mode photocathodes with
will traverse that region and be emitted into vacuum. high performance. This conclusion has been verified
It is determined, to a large extent by the band gap, from results reported in literature.
doping density, and crystallinity of the cathode mate-
rials. For a given material, P is related to the band-
bending effect (van Larr, 1973) such that it decreases
as the doping density decreases. In addition, P *In addition to transmission quantum efficiency, the resolu-
depends on surface crystallographic orientation, and tion and speed of response of a transmission photocathode
are important properties in imaging devices. Cathode
this dependence has a significant effect on the heteroe- parameters affecting resolution and response speed together
pitaxial photocathodes. Studies by James and cowork- with the optimization of the parameters are discussed in
ers (1971) revealed that, for GaAs:Cs-0 cathodes, the some detail by Bell (1973) and by Martinelli and Fisher
(lll)A, (100), (110), and (lll)B faces exhibit P values (1974). No attempt is made to further discuss these parame-
ters and properties in the present chapter. Qualitatively,
of 0.212, 0.317, 0.307, and 0.489, respectively, with resolution is determined by cathode thickness or diffusion
corresponding luminous sensitivity values of 810, length, whichever is smaller, and the response time is deter-
1225, 1125, 1837 ~A/lumen. mined by the minority carrier lifetime.
3.5. Potential device applications 141
the materials by a combination of growth processes mal injection and space charge recombination. At low
(see Section 3.3) including the organometallic vapor- or reverse biases, there is some evidence of nonradia-
phase method, the chloride vapor-phase method, and tive tunneling. The reported external quantum effi-
the liquid-phase epitaxial method. For a given film/ ciency is 0.1 percent for GaAs, 0.1 percent for GaP
substrate combination, one growth method may be (red), and 0.01 percent for GaP (green). In comparison
more suited than others. Discussions presented in with bulk materials, the heteroepitaxial films exhibit
Sections 3.3 and 3.4 may be helpful as a general guide lower light-emission efficiency. This is expected
for the selection of the optimum methods. because of the strains generated at the film/substrate
In addition to sapphire and other oxides, GaP has interface and the imperfections developed during the
been considered as a substrate for III-V transmission heteroepitaxial growth. Nevertheless, the efficiency
photocathode. To date GaP is the only III-V material reported is sufficiently high to make useful displays
available in large single crystal form and transparent with the special features discussed earlier.
to visible light (for A. > 0.55 fLm). Developmental In addition to GaAs and GaP, GaN films grown on
GaAs transmission-mode cathodes grown on GaP sapphire have been extensively studied in recent years
(with various III-V tertiary buffer layers) have been for electroluminescent applications. A review includ-
reported (Guttierrez and Pommerrenig, 1973; Fisher et ing comprehensive literature references, made by Pan-
al., 1974; Allenson et al., 1972; Hughes et al., 1974) in kove (1973), deals with material synthesis, optical
recent years with encouraging photoemission results properties, and electroluminescent device perfor-
(for details see the original references). mance of heteroepitaxial GaN.
The epitaxial growth of GaN on sapphire for elec-
Light-emitting diodes troluminescent devices has been most successfully
carried out using the vapor-phase reaction of Gael and
Light-emitting diodes (LED) have been fabricated in NH3 (Maruska and Tietjen, 1969). The (1 I02) sapphire
III-V compounds grown on oxide substrates (Ladany substrate is most frequently employed for GaN
and Wang, 1972, 1974; Pankove, 1973). The interest in growth, and the film/substrate orientation relationship
the heteroepitaxial composite systems for electrolumi- is (1120)GaNjj(l I02)sapphire; [0001]GaNii[Olll] sap-
nescence applications arises from new prospects phire. As grown, undoped GaN films are always n-type
regarding substrate size and cost, from the optical and highly conducting (carrier concentrations =
transparency of the substrate, and from the possible 10 18/cm 3 ; electron mobility= 130 cm 2/V-s). The film can
integration of more than one functional material on the be made insulating by adding such compensating
same substrate. dopants as zinc during growth. Optical measurements
GaAs and GaP electroluminescent diodes have been reveal that GaN has a direct energy gap of 3.5 e V. The
fabricated on sapphire and spinel substrates by a wide band gap offers the possibility of generating light
vapor/liquid two-stage epitaxial process as described over a large range of wavelengths, including the visible
in Section 3.3. and the near ultraviolet.
Emission spectra of typical GaAs and GaP film GaN electroluminescent diodes have been made
diodes are shown in Figure 3.38. The characteristics with metal-insulating n-type (MIN) structures. An
are very similar to those of standard bulk diodes. The undoped n-type layer is first grown on sapphire. Then
diode current (I)-voltage (V) curves are shown in a thin Zn-doped insulating layer is grown on the n-type
Figure 3.39. The curves exhibit the usual exponential layer. Finally, a metal contact is formed on the top.
voltage dependence caused by a combination of ther- The i-n diode passes a current when a sufficiently large
FIGURE 3.38 Emission spectra of heteroepitaxial GaAs and GaP diodes. From Ladany and Wang (1972, 1974)
3.5. Potential device applications 143
3.22eV.
3850A
v f"3.28eV.
3780A
1.68eV
7380A
. 2.20e 2.52e
5580A 4920A
2.83e~
4380A
fl
1\
I '~-\
v v v v I 1\ 1
I ,'' \
I ! I\I
I 1
I
1 I
11I
I / '\
I .' I:
I / \\
-t- / \:I I
I\
\\
\\ FIGURE 3.40
1\ Emission spectra of various GaN LEDs. Solid
\\ 1 lines are for i-n structures using Zn-doped
3.5
material. Dashed and dotted lines are for diodes
made of undoped GaN. From Pankove (1973)
material systems may provide the ultimate in subsys- material with the greatest scope and promise for use in
tem miniaturization of SAW devices including ampli- microwave devices. These include a high carrier
fiers, waveguides, delay lines, and signal-processing mobility (/Le = 8000 cm2N-s), a wide energy gap (1.4
devices. The heteroepitaxial materials for SAW eV), a direct interband transition, a high-temperature
devices have been reviewed by Collins and coworkers capability, and a negative resistance effect (Gunn
(1970). In the last few years, epitaxial growth and effect). In addition, GaAs can be made semiinsulating
integration of SAW materials have been actively stud- by Cr-doping with resistivities greater than 106 0-cm.
ied, and advancements have been made to the stage of This high-resistivity GaAs provides a host matrix for
fabricating active devices. For example, an acoustic homoepitaxial growth of GaAs active elements and
amplifier device structure was recently reported (Man- affords electrical isolation between components. The
asevit et al., 1974) having heteroepitaxial AlN and high-resistivity material is not sensitive to thermal
silicon, both grown on a common sapphire substrate. treatments and can be etched to desired patterns by
A state-of-the-art discussion covering the subject of conventional techniques.
SAW materials and integration is in a separate chapter Microwave integrated circuits can be made in mon-
of this book. olithic, quasimonolithic, and hybrid forms (Sobol and
Caulton, 1974). In the monolithic circuit, active
Microwave integrated circuits devices are grown on or in the semiconductor (semiin-
sulating) substrate, and passive Circuitry is deposited
on the substrate. The quasimonolithic circuit employs
The availability of high-quality epitaxial GaAs grown dielectric oxide substrates which provide for the het-
on dielectric oxide substrates provides the possibility eroepitaxy of the active elements. In the hybrid form,
of obtaining new device structures useful in micro- active devices are attached to a ceramic, glass, or
wave integrated circuits. In the GaAs/oxide composite ferrite substrate containing the passive circuitry.
structures, the substrates affdrd an excellent dielectric Detailed analyses and assessments have been made
isolation between components and make it possible to (Sobol, 1974; Sobol and Caulton, 1974) of the mate-
combine passive elements with monolithic devices on rials and processing techniques, circuit functions, per-
the same substrates. Furthermore, the heteroepitaxial formance requirements, and the advantages and disad-
composites may offer advantages in terms of substrate vantages of the monolithic and hybrid forms of
cost, thermal dissipation, film/substrate functional microwave integrated circuits. The results have
coupling, and subsystem integration. shown that the hybrid form of technology permits the
The development of microwave solid state materials use of many varieties of devices with fewer yield and
and devices has been reviewed in many articles [see, performance problems and fewer processing difficul-
for example, Scrupski (1967); Mehal and Walker ties than the monolithic approach. At present the
(1968), Minden (1969), Watson (1969), Bass (1970), hybrid circuits are used almost exclusively in the fre-
Young and Sobol (1974)]. The state of the art of quency range of 1 to 35 GHz. At high frequencies the
microwave integrated circuits has been discussed by monolithic approach is more desirable because of the
Sobol and Caulton (1974). At present, because of its reduction in parasitic inductance encountered in join-
unique properties GaAs is the one semiconductor ing the circuits and devices. The one inherent disad-
3.5. Potential device applications 145
vantage of the monolithic approach is that it permits active region be of good bulk perfection with high
the use of only those devices that can be grown on the carrier mobility and well controlled doping and that
substrate. Therefore, optimum combinations of mate- the film be of high surface quality for device process-
rials (such as GaAs and Si) for the integration of ing. The device structures employ either thick films (>
microwave subsystems cannot be utilized. 20 ~J.m), as required for Gunn oscillators, or thin films
The problem of integration of microwave subsys- (submicron to several-micron range) grown on thick
tems may be overcome by using the quasimonolithic semiinsulating films, as needed for Schottky-barrier
approach as, in principle, the heteroepitaxy of several field effect transistors and transferred-electron
materials (such as Si and GaAs) may be achieved on devices. The inherent characteristics associated with
the same substrate for a variety of devices. Moreover, heteroepitaxial films, including the interfacial p-
the quasimonolithic approach offers several other region, high defect density near interfaces, and the
advantages. For example, when sapphire is used to preferential growth of (lll)a on many substrates, are
replace the semiinsulating GaAs as the substrate mate- n9t considered to be severe problems.
rial, a substantial reduction of substrate cost may be The first heteroepitaxial GaAs microwave Gunn
achieved. Another advantage is the possibility of effect devices were fabricated by Owens (1970) in
obtaining improved power dissipation. In the epitaxial GaAs grown on sapphire. The films were grown by the
film/substrate device structures, an important proper- organometallic process. Presumably, the film and sub-
ty governing a device's power dissipation is the ther- strate were, respectively, (Ill) and (0001) oriented.
mal conductivity of the substrate material. Thermal The devices consist of undoped n-type films (25-34
energy generated in the active region of a device can ~J.m) with Sn ohmic contacts. The best sample exhibit-
be removed by conduction through the substrate, by ed the following characteristics: film thickness, 341J.m;
conduction through the electrodes on the device, and carrier concentration, 3 x 1015 /cm3 ; carrier mobility,
by radiation. Any heat loss by direct convection is 5300 cm2/V-s; oscillation frequency, 140 MHz; thresh-
extremely small. Page (1968) has shown that the heat old field, 1900 V/cm. The oscillation in the better
loss caused by substrate conduction is directly propor- samples was reported to be comparable with that seen
tional to substrate thermal conductivity and consti- in bulk material with similar characteristics.
tutes more than 90 percent of the total heat loss. Of the In addition to Gunn oscillators, Schottky-barrier
oxide substrate materials that yield single crystal field effect transistors (FET) have been fabricated in
growth of GaAs, beryllia (BeO) exhibits an extremely GaAs grown on BeO (Thorsen et a!., 1974). The
high thermal conductivity (7 times that of GaAs; about device structures, as shown in Figure 3.41, were fabri-
the same as Cu). Therefore, when beryllia is used as cated on double layers of (100) GaAs grown by the
the substrate material for epitaxial GaAs, improved organometallic process on either (1122) or (1010) BeO.
power dissipation (and, thus, device capability) is The (100) films were used because they exhibit higher
expected. A third potential advantage is the possibility mobilities than the (111) films (Thorsen et a!., 1974).
of obtaining a functional coupling between film and The layer next to the BeO substrate was semiinsulat-
substrate. For example, spinel (MgAI 20J is a material ing or of high sensitivity and about 15 IJ.m thick. The
exhibiting the lowest acoustic loss of any known mate- top, active layer, about 0.25 IJ.m thick, was n-type with
rial (Lewis and Patterson, 1968), and has a potential a carrier concentration in the 1017/cm3 range, in accor-
for microwave delay line applications. When spinel is dance with established design calculations (Statz and
used as the substrate for epitaxial GaAs, the intimate Munch, 1969) for operation at microwave frequencies.
contact between the semiconductor and the substrate The source and drain contacts were made of evapo-
offers an opportunity for low-loss coupling between rated Au-12 percent Ge thin films (1500 A thick) and
the microwave device and the acoustic circuit. One were rendered ohmic by sintering at 300-400C in He.
major area of system applications is in the develop- Schottky-barrier gate films were made by evaporation
ment of transferred electron amplifier-delay line of 3000-A-thick AI and were defined in the channel as
structures to replace the conventional traveling wave shown in Figure 3.41. Pinch-off has been attained in
tube in amplifier-delay line loop systems. the Schottky-barrier FET devices on a sample having
Although in principle GaAs/oxide heteroeptitaxial ann-type layer 0.25 IJ.m thick with a carrier concentra-
systems have characteristics desirable for applications tion of 1.2 x 1017/cm3 and an electron mobility of 935
in certain microwave devices, in practice the develop- cm2 /V-s. The pinch-off voltage was near 2.5 V. The
ment is at a very early stage. Many technical problems Schottky-barrier diode breakdowns for the devices
in the areas of materials growth, device processing, ranged from -5 V to -7 V. A maximum transcon-
and element integration need to be solved before ductance of 5.6 millimhos was measured. For some
major system applications can be anticipated. In the devices, loops in the current-voltage curves were
material aspect of heteroepitaxial GaAs, the principal seen because of trapping effects. The results have
requirements are that the epitaxial material in the demonstrated the possibility of fabricating Schottky-
146 Chapter 3. C. C. Wang. Heteroepitaxial Growth and Characterization of Compound Semiconductors
barrier PET devices in heteroepitaxial GaAs grown on Experimental results to date indicate that the epi-
BeO with properties approaching to those obtained in taxial growth has been most successfully and repro-
homoepitaxial material. However, further improve- ducibly achieved by the organometallic growth pro-
ments in GaAs characteristics are required for practi- cess; other conventional growth methods may be
cally useful devices. advantageously used to complement the initial epitaxy
A third kind of device, the transferred-electron achieved by this process. Epitaxial film growth char-
oscillator (Perlman et al., 1971), was fabricated in acteristics are largely affected by several key parame-
heteroepitaxial GaAs grown on spinel (Narayan and ters including the substrate orientation, substrate sur-
Wang, 1974). The device structure is shown in Figure face preparation, growth temperature, gas flow, and
3.42. The layer next to the (110) MgA12 0 4 substrate source material purity. These parameters may be
was p-type of high resistivity, grown by the organome- adjusted for a specific material system to achieve the
tallic process and exhibiting (100) orientation. Subse- optimum film characteristics. Because of the complex-
quent growth of the n+-n-n+ structure was carried out ity in the growth optimization, a large number of films
by the chloride process with thicknesses (3-11-4~-tm) have been prepared only in preliminary experiments,
and carrier concentrations (10 18/cm3-2 x 1015/cm3- as cited in the preceding sections. These films do not
1018/cm3), chosen to be typical of an X-band trans- exhibit optimum characteristics, and consequently,
ferred-electron device. Ag-Sn ohmic contacts were the in-depth characterizations of their properties
deposited on the two n+ layers using standard photo- remain to be accomplished. It is expected that more
lithographic techniques. The device structure was films grown under improved or optimum conditions
grown by the two-stage epitaxial process because the will become available and that the films will be fully
organometallic process offers the ease of nucleation in evaluated for potential device applications.
starting the growth, while the chloride process has Because of the lattice and thermal expansion mis-
been commonly used to grow the homoepitaxial matches between the film and substrate, the heteroepi-
devices with precise control of film thickness and taxial films are deformed under generally compressive
doping. The (110) spinel was chosen because it yields stress. Moreover, the films exhibit characteristic
the (100) GaAs which is an established conventional subgrain structures as revelaed by x-ray diffraction
orientation for growth using the chloride process. The topography (see Section 3.4). These inherent defects
device structure was evaluated under oc bias, and the are the main factors limiting consideration of the
current voltage characteristics demonstrated the cur- device uses of the films. The degree of the limitation
rent saturation characteristic of the transferred-elec- depends mainly on the specific film/substrate combi-
tron effect. When biased beyond the threshold volt- nation and on the film growth conditions. Experimen-
age, vigorous bias circuit oscillations were observed. tal results have shown that the electrical properties of
The results are preliminary in nature, yet they have the films are, as expected, inferior to the bulk material
demonstrated the feasibility of fabricating multilay- properties. For example, the highest electron mobility
ered device structures using the best features of differ- measured in GaAs films grown on sapphire is -6000
ent growth processes. cm 2/V-s, which is about 75 percent of the bulk value.
This value represents a measure of the degree of
limitation of heteroepitaxial GaAs films. GaAs of this
3.6. Conclusions quality is quite useful for a variety of device
The successful growth of epitaxial compound semi- applications.
conductor films on oxide dielectric substrates pro- The development of practical devices using heteroe-
vides a new class of composite material systems of pitaxial semiconductor films is still at a very early
technical interest for potential electronic device appli- stage. Future progress depends largely on the
cations. The interest in these heteroepitaxial films advancement of the associated material technology.
arises from the prospects regarding substrate size and The trend of device development is expected to be in
cost, dielectric isolation and improved thermal dissi- the areas of electroluminescence, photoemission,
pation, possible film/substrate functional coupling, microwave integrated circuit, surface acoustic wave
and subsystem integration. technology, and photovoltaic energy conversion.
AI SCHOTTKY-BARRIER GATE
Au-12"/o Ge SOURCE~ ~ N-TYPE GaAs
AND DRAIN GC~ON~li~'A~CT~S:_jE:~=t:=._ _....,___
r- ~'-" SI GaAs
~--------~
FIGURE 3.41
BeO Schottky-barrier FET in GaAs on BeO. From Thorsen
et al., (1974)
References 147
( 110) SPINEL
AcKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author is grateful to colleagues Duffy, M. T. and C. C. Wang, private communication, RCA
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Williams, B. F. andJ. J. Tieljen, Proe.IEEE 59: 1489 (1971). Yim, W. M., E. J. Stofko, P. J. Zanzucchi, J. I. Pankove, M.
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(1974).
Chapter 4
The Preparation and Properties of
Heteroepitaxial III-V and II-VI Compounds for
Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic
Devices
M. T. Duffy
4.1. Introduction tion in component size and makes possible the fabrica-
tion of both passive and active components in thin-film
Recent advances in the heteroepitaxial growth of var- materials heteroepitaxially grown or deposited on suit-
ious electronic materials on insulating substrates have able substrates. Likewise, the planar structure is com-
enhanced the possibility of attaining a wide range of patible with MOS photolithographic processing tech-
signal-processing operations in monolithic structures. niques involving device fabrication and inter-
The ability to combine compatible materials with dif- connections, thus further promoting the development
ferent functional properties on a common substrate of monolithic structures.
also offers the prospect of developing low-cost, minia- Interest in the use of microsome components is
turized, and high-speed communications systems. The related to the relatively low propagation velocity of
rapid development of microsonics and integrated sound waves, which travel about five orders of magni-
optics in recent years attests to the anticipated impor- tude more slowly than electromagnetic waves. Thus,
tance of these technologies. Both activities increasing- it is possible to obtain a few microseconds delay time
ly stress the importance of layered structures involv- in a 1-cm acoustic path length in a crystal, whereas a
ing piezoelectric and electrooptic films on low-loss 1-km transmission line is required to accomplish a
substrates for the generation, propagation, manipula- comparable delay in the case of electromagnetic
tion, and detection of surface acoustic waves and waves. The periodic nature of sound waves permits
coherent light signals. In addition, the planar configu- the use of gratings and transducer pattern arrays of
ration makes it possible to incorporate passive compo- various configurations for the generation, manipula-
nents and interface with the highly developed and tion, and detection of surface acoustic waves on
versatile MOS technology. piezoelectric materials. Such device functions as fil-
The information density carried by a transmission tering, pulse compression, convolution and correla-
medium is related to the signal wavelength; the shorter tion, and dispersive and nondispersive delay lines are
the wavelength the greater this density. Ultrasonic frequently cited in the literature. [For a review of
and laser wavelengths may be several orders of magni- applications and bibliography see, for example, White
tude shorter than the shortest electromagnetic micro- (1970), Carr (1%9), Stem (1969), Holland and Clai-
waves, thus providing engineering incentive for use in borne (1974), Maines (1974).] Although electromag-
communications and signal processing. Apart from the netic microwave circuits can perform essentially all
potential advantages of a higher information density, the functions of microsound components, the benefits
the thickness of the propagation medium can be as of reduced size, loss, and cost of the latter offer a
thin as one wavelength, or on the order of microme- valuable complement to current microwave technolo-
ters. In certain cases, such as ridge waveguides, the gy. The ability to operate acoustic wave delay lines
transverse dimensions can also be as little as a few and signal-processing devices at microwave frequen-
wavelengths. This factor permits a substantial reduc- cies without the necessity for frequency down-conver-
4.2. Heteroepitaxial growth of piezoelectric and electrooptic materials on sapphire 151
ing surface acoustic wave devices or electrooptic and cess. The preparation of (1120)-oriented GaN layers,
acoustooptic devices in such films. on the other hand, is feasible by either growth method.
Relatively little is known about the piezoelectric prop-
rreparation and acoustic properties of heteroepitaxial erties of these films. This may be caused by the low
AIN and GaN films resistivity of the as-grown films and the difficulty in
compensating them electrically to provide high-resis-
Growth process tivity samples for piezoelectric measurements. The
electrical properties of some typical GaN samples
Various methods have been reported for the prepara- prepared by the metal-organic process are presented
tion of aluminum nitride or gallium nitride including in Table 4.1. In some instances diethyl zinc
reactive sputtering (Noreika et al., 1969), plasma dis- [(C 2 H 5hZn] vapors were mixed with the reactants to
charge (Pastmak and Souckova, 1963; Cox et al., compensate the GaN films with Zn. It can be seen
1967; Kosicki and Kahng, 1969), sublimation (Taylor from this table that the carrier concentration of
and Lenie, 1960; Cox et al., 1967), and chemical-vapor uncompensated films is rather high (~ l019/cm3) and
deposition (CVD). The CVD technique has been the that high-resistivity films resulting from compensation
most widely used method for the heteroepitaxial with zinc are obtained only at the lower growth tem-
growth of these nitrides on various substrates. Alumi- peratures irrespective of the amount of diethyl zinc
num nitride films have been grown with single crystal added during the growth process. By contrast, GaN
character on Si, a-Al20 3 , MgA12 0 4 , and a-SiC (Cox et films prepared by the chloride process may have car-
al., 1%7; Chu et al., 1967; Noreika and Ing, 1968; rier concentrations lower by two orders of magnitude
Manasevit et al., 1971; Yim et al., 1973; Duffy et al., than those noted above, with a corresponding increase
1973; Lakin et al., 1974). Likewise, heteroepitaxial in carrier mobility (llegems and Montgomery, 1973),
gallium nitride films have been grown on substrates and may be compensated with zinc to provide suitably
such as a-Al20 3 , GaAs, and a-SiC (Kosicki and high-resistivity films throughout the growth tempera-
Kahng, 1969; Maruska and Tietjen, 1969; Wickenden ture range (Pankove et al., 1971A,B, 1973, 1974, 1975;
et al., 1971; Manasevit et al., 1971; Duffy et al., 1973). Jacob et al., 1976). From these observations it appears
In most of these studies the deposition process that the chloride process is currently the preferred
involved reaction at elevated temperatures between method for the preparation of high-resistivity epitaxial
either the metal chlorides (AlC13 or GaCl) and ammo- GaN films on sapphire. For a more detailed discussion
nia (NH3) [see Ban (1972)], or between the metal- on the preparation of group III nitrides, refer to Chap-
organic trimethyl compounds [(CH3)aAl or (CH3) 3 Ga] ter 3 and the above references.
and ammonia. It has been reported by Yim and Single crystalline films of these materials grown on
coworkers (1973) and later by Callaghan and cowork- (01 12)-oriented AbO a by the above preferred methods
ers (1974) that several orientations of AIN with vary- exhibit the following parallel and directional relation-
ing degrees of crystalline perfection may be produced ships, as shown for the case of AlN:
simultaneously on (01 12)-oriented sapphire substrates
by the chloride process. In contrast, AIN films grown
by the metal-organic process are (1120)-oriented A schematic representation of this configuration is
(Manasevit et al., 1971; Duffy et al., 1973; Lakin et al., depicted in Figure 4.1. The crystallographic c axis of
1974; Pizzarello and Coker, 1975; Liu et al., 1975). the film lies in the plane of the film and coincides with
This has been the orientation of greatest interest to the projection of the substrate c axis on the (0112)
surface acoustic wave applications (Collins et al., plane. One a axis of the film structure is normal to its
1970) and, thus, most acoustic measurements have surface. For surface acoustic wave applications, inter-
been performed on films prepared by the latter pro- digitated transducer patterns are aligned on the film
TABLE 4.1 Electrical Properties of GaN Heteroepitaxial Layers [After Duffy et al. (1973)]
Growth Film Carrier Resistivity.
Temperature Thickness Concentration n-type Hall Mobility
Composite (OC) ( fJ.In) (cm- 3) (D-cm) (cm 2N-s)
(1120)GaN/(O 1l2)Al20 3 1050 2.8 I X 1019 0.017 55
(1120)GaN/(01I2)Al20 3 !050 2.2 4 X 1017 0.306 51
(Zn-doped)
(1120)GaN/(ofi2)Al,0 3 850 4.8 3 X J019 0.003 75
(1120)GaN/Oll2)Ab0 3 850 5.0 Insulating
(Zn-doped)
4.2. Heteroepitaxial growth of piezoelectric and electrooptic materials on sapphire 153
I
y
FIGURE 4.1
Diagram showing heteroepitaxial
relationship of (llZO)AIN/(01 i2)Al2 0 3
y structure
smface so that acoustic wave propagation occurs par- together with that of an AlN film grown on (111)-
allel to the direction of the c axis, as illustrated in oriented silicon. In the latter case, the crystallographic
Figure 4.2. Before discussing acoustic properties, c axis of the film is normal to the film surface; the
however, it is necessary to examine such film proper- heteroepitaxial parallel and directional relationships
ties as crystallinity and surface topography which may being
influence the generation and propagation of surface
(OOOI)AlN!i(l I I)Si [l2l0]AINI![il0] Si.
waves. Not only are smooth surfaces required for
photolithographic definition of transducer patterns, It appears from the micrographs and the heteroepitaxi-
but surface roughness can contribute strongly to prop- al relationships given above that the surface structure
agation loss (Maradudin and Mills, 1976). Film crystal- is comprised of crystallites aligned in parallel fashion
linity as related to grain structure, misorientation of with the principal axis parallel to the direction of the
grains relative to the nominal orientation of the film, crystallographic c axis in the respective films. The
residual strain, and departure from parallel heteroepi- micrographs also suggest a mosaic structure to the
taxy may also impair sample performance. films. McFarlane and Wang (1972) have shown by
Lang transmission x-ray topography that other hetero-
Crystallinity and surface topography. A scanning epitaxial III-V compounds, GaAs/spinel and GaP/sap-
electron micrograph of an AlN film with the above phire, have a structure in which the grains are miso-
heteroepitaxial configuration is shown in Figure 4.3 riented 0.1 from the nominal orientation of the
ETALLIZED INTERDIGITAL
TRANSDUCER PATTERN
HETEROEPITAXIAL
PIEZOELECTRIC
Fl LM
FIGURE 4.2
Schematic diagram of surface acoustic wave delay line
or filter
154 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
FIGURE 4.3
Scanning electron micrographs of AIN
films ( ~ 10 J.l-ffi) on (a) (I 11) silicon
substrate; AIN c axis is perpendicular to
plane on film: (b) (01 l2) Al2 0 3 substrate;
AIN c axis is in plane of film. From
(a) (b) Duffy et al. (1973)
layer. A similar misorientation of grains relative to the porosity. The scanning electron micrograph of Figure
nominal orientation of the film may be expected also 4.6 illustrates this point. A (l120)AlN/(01 l2)Al20 3
for AlN films. The relatively low linear x-ray absorp- sample was broken along a direction parallel to the c
tion coefficient, J.L, of this material and the difficulty in axis of the film after scribing the back surface of the
growing films of suitable thickness, t, make similar sapphire, and SEM micrographs were obtained of the
measurements difficult in this case (J.Lf << 1). Noreika broken edge. Figure 4.6 shows a micrograph taken at
and lng (1%8) have shown, by transmission electron approximately 90 to the surface normal and viewed in
microscopy, that AlN films on silicon are composed of a direction perpendicular to the c axis of the film. Two
mosaic-like arrays of small crystallites. The crystallite strata are apparent: a coherent layer of AlN about 5
size depends strongly on the growth temperature as J.Lm thick, and a top porous structure of about equal
indicated by their plot of crystallite surface density vs. thickness. The film was characterized as single crys-
reciprocal growth temperature (Figure 4.4). Their
measurements were made on films between 500 and io'2 ,.-..,---T"'""'--,.--""T"--T"""-....,r"'"""""'11012
1000 A thick, as estimated from growth rate data.
They determined that the average linear dimensions of
the crystallites formed at 900"C were about 10 times
greater than those formed at l350"C (i.e., 1600 and 150
A, respectively). These authors point out that, unlike
the growth of metal films, processes involving agglom-
eration and recrystallization of crystallites are not
effective during the early growth stages of AIN films.
They attribute this to the refractory nature of AlN and
cite similar observations in earlier work on the growth
..
E
<.>
lUll
.....
of AlN on SiC (Chu et al., l%7). The similarity in the
surface structure of films grown on silicon and on
"'!:::
liJ
_I
sapphire, as shown in Figure 4.3, suggests that the _I
<
same consideration may hold for AlN films grown on 1-
talline by x-ray analysis. The picture was taken in a component, diminishes more rapidly than the intensity
region where a portion of the top porous layer had of the single crystalline component. It was found that
broken away from the coherent layer. The overgrowth films in this category invariably displayed much
shows structural features running parallel with the reduced piezoelectric activity or no activity at all. In
direction of the c axis of the film. The surface topogra- contrast, films characterized by the absence of a poly-
phy of such a film is depicted in the SEM micrograph crystalline component invariably displayed good
of Figure 4.7 showing overall surface texture. The piezoelectric activity. Accordingly, film examination
morphology of the crystallites has been described by by x-ray diffractometry for the presence of a polycrys-
Lakin and coworkers (1974). The exposed facets cor- talline component in the angular (20) region of 300 to
respond to the (0112) faces of AlN and, as indicated 400 and at high sensitivity can also be an effective
previously, the c axis of each crystallite is aligned means of screening samples. A relatively strong peak
with the sapphire c-axis projection on the substrate corresponding to single crystal material is usually
surface. The morphology shown above is characteris- obtained even for completely inactive films. The poly-
tic of films grown under "favorable" conditions. crystalline component is more often present in films
Under nonideal conditions, the surface structure may deposited at high growth rates and low growth temper-
consist of misoriented material ranging from polycrys- atures. For growth rates of :53 p.m/hr in the tempera-
talline to preferentially oriented crystallites. An exam- ture range 1200 to 1300C and with proper substrate
ple is shown in Figure 4.8, which shows the general preparation, the presence of a polycrystalline compo-
surface texture at high magnification, of the different nent is infrequent. At lower growth temperatures the
crystallites for this particular example. One feature of growth rate must be slowed considerably to maintain
concern relating to the morphology of piezoelectric or good crystallinity. It was also observed in these mea-
electrooptic films of this type is c-axis inversion, surements (pole-figure analysis) that an exact hetero-
which cannot be detected by x-ray analysis or electron epitaxial relationship, as depicted in Figure 4.1, did
diffraction but diminishes the piezoelectric or elec- not exist between film and substrate in several sam-
trooptic activity of the film. Evidence of c-axis inver- ples examined. The extent of this deviation depends
sion is apparent in the SEM micrograph shown in upon the initial misorientation of the sapphire surface
Figure 4.8. Pizzarello and Coker (1975) reported varia- and also on other factors which are not understood at
tion by a factor ofthree in the value of k 2 over a given this time. For example, a sapphire substrate that had
film surface. They were unable to correlate this varia- been cut and polished with horizontal and vertical
tion with the results of x-ray and electron diffraction components of misorientation of jE 8j ~ 0.01 and jEvj
analyses but were able to establish a correlation with ~ 0.01 resulted in the growth of an AlN film which
topographs, obtained by replication electron micros- had a deviation from parallel epitaxy of OS in the
copy, of the surface regions where transducer patterns surface plane between the film c axis and the projec-
had been arranged. They proposed a random variation tion of the sapphire c axis, while the deviation in the
defect structure that does not largely alter the single vertical plane was not more than 0.01. Other samples
crystalline character of the films. Among such crystal- with larger components of substrate misorientation
lographic imperfections as random inclusions of poly- deviated from parallel heteroepitaxy in an unpredicta-
crystalline particles and grain boundaries, they postu- ble manner. Among the commercially available sap-
lated c-axis inversion as a likely cause of the phire substrats used, orientation tolerances varied
degradation of P. Liu and coworkers (1975) have over a wide range: from 0.5 to 4 off-orientation.
dealt more explicitly with this problem, showing evi- An x-ray analysis of the heteroepitaxial relationship
dence of c-axis inversion in SEM micrographs and between film and substrate showed a correspondingly
demonstrated its influence on the piezoelectric proper- wide deviation from parallel epitaxy. In general, the
ties of AIN films. They also indicated that c-axis alignment of the c axis of the AlN film does not
inversion may or may not occur under apparently conform to that shown in Figure 4.1 but can diverge
similar growth conditions. by two degrees or more from exact parallelism
It has also been demonstrated by x-ray analysis between film c axis and the projection of the sapphire
(Duffy and Smith, 1974) that AIN films may have a c axis on the substrate surface. The problem is further
polycrystalline component occurring simultaneously complicated by the divergence having both normal
with a single crystal component. Figure 4.9 is an x-ray and horizontal components with respect to the plane
diffractometer trace (0:20 mode) showing the presence of the film. The safest procedure to follow in seeking
of a poly crystalline component in the angular range of parallel epitaxy is to start with substrates that are cut
30 to 40 and a strong peak corresponding to (1120)- and polished to a tolerance of about OS.
oriented material at 20 = 59.3 (Cu, K,,). When such a Most investigators involved in the heteroepitaxial
film is polished and reexamined, the intensity of dif- growth of AlN have witnessed film cracking caused by
fracted radiation, corresponding to the polycrystalline residual strain in the composite structures. Yim and
156 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
(b)
l112oiAIN 50
"
OEGRIEES
FIGURE 4.9 X-ray diffractometer trace (11:211 mode) of AlN/Al~ 3 composite showing polycrystalline component
coworkers (1973, 1974) have compared the lattice con- 4.10. The spectra were obtained in specular unpolar-
stants and thermal expansion coefficients of AlN and ized infrared-reflectance measurements on both the
sapphire and attributed cracking to the large mismatch polished back surface of the substrate and the interfa-
in lattice constants and expansion coefficients cial surface of the sapphire on which the AlN film (film
between the two materials. They indicated, however, thickness, -1.5 J.tm) was grown. As discussed in
that cracking can be eliminated by slow cooling from Chapter 5, reflectance from the interfacial surface
the growth temperature. The temperature variation of occurs through the transparent AlN film. Residual
lattic parameters and thermal expansion coefficients interfacial strain results in band splitting because of
of aluminum nitride, sapphire, and silicon, as reported perturbation in the normal vibrational modes of sap-
by Yim and coworkers, is presented in Table 4.2. The phire. Qualitatively, the interface spectra show band
curvature arising from residual strain in AIN/Al2 0 3 splitting and distortion associated with sapphire lattice
composites with different film thickness was discussed strain corresponding to all three growth temperatures.
by Duffy and coworkers (1973). Examples are given in As the growth temperature is increased, there is a
Figure 3.18. In this case the curvature increases quite noticeable increase in the observed distortion in the
rapidly with film thickness. It has been demonstrated wavenumber interval 600 to 900 cm- 1 . This has been
by Liu and coworkers (1975) that the presence of tentatively ascribed to a combination of increased
silicon as an impurity can give rise to polycrystalline strain and chemical reaction between film and sub-
growth, spurious nucleation, and increased mechani- strate at the higher growth temperatures. It should be
cal instability in the form of film cracking and peeling. noted that the spectra obtained from the back surfaces
In their experiments, they introduced silicon as an of these substrates do not represent ideal surfaces
impurity from a Si~ source but indicated that silicon since a high-quality surface finish was not applied to
is a major impurity in the growth apparatus, originat- the back surfaces. If a high-quality finish had been
ing from exposed quartz surfaces, from the inductive- applied, the difference in the spectra would be even
ly heated silicon carbide-coated susceptor, and as the greater. (An instrumental slit change occurs at 600
major impurity in the trimethyl aluminum source cm- 1 in each case giving rise to a vertical shift in the
material. spectra at this wavenumber.) Absorption edge mea-
Evidence of interfacial strain has also been obtained surements were made on the same set of samples to
from infrared reflectance measurements (see Chapter check for other differences in optical properties. Fig-
5) as described by Yim and coworkers (1973) for ure 4.11a shows curves of absorption coefficient
(OOOl)AlN/(OOOl)Ab0 3 heteroepitaxial composites. A (obtained at room temperature) vs. photon energy for
similar evaluation was also performed by Duffy and AIN grown at the various temperatures. Similar data
Zanzucchi (1973) on (1120)AlN/(OI12)Al 20 3 compos- have been published previously for (0001)-oriented
ites prepared at different growth temperatures. Spec- AlN films by Yim and coworkers (1973) and are
tra corresponding to three growth temperatures included here for completeness (Figure 4.12). An
(1000C, 1125C, and 1260C) are shown in Figure interesting feature of each curve is the absorption
158 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Eiectrooptic Devices
TABLE 4.2 Temperature Variation of Lattice Parameters and Mean Expansion Coefficients of AIN, Sapphire, and Silicon
Measured lattice
parameter (A)
rms Mean Expansion
T Hexagonal Cubic Calculated Temperature Dependence of Lattice Deviation Coefficient (X J0- 6/
Material (C) ac Parameters (X Jo-A) C) 20-800C
a, a" a
AIN 18 3.1115 4.9798 ar = 3.1113 + 1.3130 X 10-5T + 4.147 X 10-9]"! 0.36
154 3.1134 4.9811 5.27 4.15
338 3.1162 4.9855 Cr = 4.9793 + 1.4789 X 10-5T + 7.255 X 10-91" 4.5
494 3.1187 4.9887
666 3.1219 4.9917
800 3.1244 4.9960
25 4.7576 12.9834 ar = 4.7569 + 3.3726 X 10-5T + 1.037 X 10-9]"! 1.8
156 4.7623 13.0000 7.28 8.11
350 4.7689 13.0205 Cr = 12.9815 + 11.2939 X 10-5T- 9.321 X 10-9T2 13
496 4.7739 13.0356 7.71 d 8.56d
650 4.7789 13.0485
803 4.7848 13.0675
8.17 9.06
Si 25 5.4309 ar = 5.4304 + 1.8138 X 10-5T + 1.542 X 10-9]"! 0.53
157 5.4332 3.57
356 5.4370
496 5.4398 3.90 1
651 5.4429
813 5.4461 3 .59"
Source: Yim and Paff (1974).
"Values shown here were calculated by using (205)-(220) lines for AlN and (054)-(330) lines for a-Al20 3
bValues shown here were calculated by using (302)-(205) lines for AIN and (1,1,15)-(4,0,10) lines for a-Al 20 3
ccalculated by using K. 1 and K., lines of(620), (533), and (444).
dCalculated from data of Wachtman eta!. (1962).
For the temperature range of 28-806C; as reported in Campbell and Grain (1961).
1Calculated from data of Hall (1961).
"tail," which is more pronounced at the higher growth mismatch, thermal expansion coefficient mismatch,
temperatures. Similar measurements made at liquid- impurity content, and rate of cooling. It has been
nitrogen temperature showed no appreciable change suggested by Liu and coworkers (1975) that changes in
in the shape of the absorption tail (see Figure 4.11 b), the flow kinetics of the reaction gases during growth
indicating no appreciable response from impurities. may also cause subtle changes in film strain. They also
Though the nature of the absorption tail is not under- estimate that the depth to which strain in AlN films
stood, it is interesting to note that infrared reflectance affects the acoustic properties is about 1 J.l.m.
measurements made at the AlN/Ab0 3 interface region Another factor which can degrade the piezoelectric
show parallel trends dependent on deposition temper- properties of AlN films is the defect density present in
ature. The above absorption behavior may be related the form of pits and inclusions. Manasevit and
to the existence of an interface compound. The results coworkers (1971) have discussed the formation of AlN
of Yim and coworkers show a similar variation in the from (CH 3)aAl and NH 3 These reagents react at room
absorption edge tail with film thickness; the greater temperature to form the solid addition compound
the film thickness, the more pronounced this tail. This (CH 3)aAl:NH3 Dealkylation occurs in a stepwise
again may be related to an interface reaction because manner with a mole of CH. being released at about
of the longer growth times required for thicker films. 60"C, a second mole at about 160C, and the final mole
Evidence of chemical reaction is also apparent micro- at some higher temperature. Vapor-phase reaction
scopically when AlN is etched from Ah03 substrates resulting in powder formation and incorporation of the
and is particularly noticeable if the growth of hetero- latter in the film is possible unless the reactants are
epitaxial silicon is attempted on the resulting surfaces. prevented from mixing until within the vicinity of the
The residual strain present in AlN films may, thus, heated substrate. Incompletely reacted material from
depend on the composition of the AlN/ Al2 0 3 interface the vapor phase may accumulate on adjacent surfaces
in addition to such other factors as lattice constant and become dislodged and incorporated in the film
4.2. Heteroepitaxial growth of piezoelectric and electrooptic materials on sapphire 159
WAVELENGTH, I'm
7.0 8.0 9.0 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 3540
100 100
80 80
~
~60
!:::
l,ooooc 60
>
t;
...w
~40
0::
20
0~-----,----~====~~---,-----,------,---+o
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 250
WAVENUMBER, em_, (a)
WAVELENGTH,
7.0 8.0 9.0 10 14 16 18 20 25 30 3540
100
80 80
~
~60
1,125C 60
1-
>
i=
u
~0 40
!!;
0::
20 20
0~------,--~~====~~---,-----,------,---+o
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 250
WAVENUMBER, em_, (b)
WAVELENGTH,
7.0 8.0 9.0 10 14 16 18 20 25 303540
100
80 80
~
~60 60
> 1,260"C
t
~40 40
0::
20 20
FIGURE 4.10
0~---------=~====~~--------.-----.---~0 Reflectivity as a function of wavenumber
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 250 on AIN/Al,, 3 composites prepared at (a)
WAVENUMBER, em_, (c) 1000C, (b) 1125C, and (c) 1260C
during growth. The problem is particularly serious at face prepared by the chloride process is shown in
fast growth rates when the concentration of reactants Figure 4. 13. It is evident from the micrograph that
is high. these films can be prepared with a greater degree of
Similar considerations apply to heteroepitaxial GaN horizontal continuity than AIN films. Surface faceting
films on sapphire. An SEM micrograph of a film sur- can be removed by polishing with silica sol in a similar
160 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
r
X
1000C
X
. 1125C Xo
10~1- X+
X 1270C
X ~
105 - -
X +
.
-+-
1- X
1
X +
X
X /
X +
X I
X +
+ ~
..
X
.::-
j
I X + 104 -
E +
XX
" 104 f-
-;; X
+
- 7
l
+
+ E
J:'"'
X
".,
.
.~ '
lo '
:
+ I /
X ol0 Q/,
o o .,a /'
103 1- o "'a ~
..
/; ~ - (( /
+ ,.
X I'
..!:
X ~'
10'
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
h v (eV)
50 6.0 70
. I'
I
'
:
I
102
I 0
(a) 3 4 5 6 7
h11(eVl
..
X
X +
X
I +
E X
" +
:104 X +
+
X +
...
+
+
X
+ +
103.~--~~----~----~----~----~--~
1.0 20 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 70
hv (eV )
(b)
manner to AlN and ZnO films, though the removal steering effects and variation in coupling efficiency
rate is much slower, probably because of the chemical with direction in the plane of the film. Lakin and
inertness of the material. A granular structure and coworkers (1974) and Penunuri and Lakin (1975) have
residual strain have also been recognized in GaN films also outlined other factors that can lead to low P
and used to explain certain optical, luminescence, and values even for high-quality films. They indicate that
electroluminescence properties of the films (Pankove surface waves propagating at an angle to the projec-
et al., 1971A; Matsumoto and Aoki, 1974). Although a tion of the sapphire c axis on the substrate surface
considerable amount of information is available on the plane may be attenuated by "leakage" into the sub-
optical and luminescence properties of GaN, relative- strate bulk. Thus, they predict diminished k 2 values,
ly little is known about the piezoelectric properties of increased propagation loss, and a velocity sensitive to
these films. Gallium nitride is not as refractory as AlN small changes in film thickness if the propagation
(Manasevit et al., 1971; Chu, 1971) and, therefore, is direction deviates from the c-axis projection and the
less compatible with semiconductor interfacing (Cul- ratio t!A is less than two. For propagation precisely
len et al., 1973). However, GaN has the hexagonal parallel to the substrate c-axis projection no leakage
Wurtzite structure characteristic of AlN and ZnO occurs, but they also emphasize the practical difficulty
films and, thus, of interest for the same applications. in accomplishing this parallelism because of trans-
As indicated previously, GaN films are semiconduct- ducer fabrication alignment errors and beam diffrac-
ing unless compensated during the growth process. tion effects. In addition, the transducer patterns used
Preliminary results on the piezoelectric properties of for the generation of surface waves may not be opti-
compensated GaN films (O'Clock and Duffy, 1973) mum in design for the given material and, because of
are disappointing because of the weak activity of the film thickness variation and velocity dispersion for t!A
films. These films, prepared by the metal-organic pro- < 2, the output transducer may not be exactly tuned
cess at the low growth temperatures at which compen- to the output signal, thus diminishing the value of k2
sation with Zn was possible, were highly strained and It is evident that several factors influence the magni-
frequently displayed microcracks. More recent stud- tude of the electromechanical coupling coefficient, not
ies on films prepared by the chloride process (Onysh- all of which are related to film morphology. Accord-
kevych and Duffy, 1975) indicate that more desirable ingly, it is reasonable to assume that only the maxi-
properties are possible as a result of this process. mum value of P, measured at a particular value of t!A,
Further research is necessary to establish the useful- approaches the intrinsic value of k 2 for high-quality
ness of GaN films in microsome applications. single crystal films (Pizzarello and Coker, 1975).
The dependence of the electromechanical coupling
Piezoelectric properties. It is not surprising, based coefficient of heteroepitaxial AIN on film thickness
on the preceding discussion, that there can be consid- has been studied by several workers. A summary of
erable scatter in the results of piezoelectric measure- recent data is presented in Figure 4.14 together with
ments on these materials. The porosity of the top references. The broken lines give an outline of the
surface, if not removed by polishing, may be expected envelope within which most data points lie. Differ-
to lead to increased waveguide propagation and inser- ences in the data of independent investigators within
tion losses depending on wavelength and other fac- this envelope are caused, in part, by differences in
tors. Very likely this also means a deterioration of data-collecting methods. For example, in some cases
acoustic properties with increasing film thickness P is measured for different film thicknesses keeping
beyond some coherent film thickness value which, in the value of A constant. In other cases, k 2 is measured
tum, depends upon growth conditions. The apparent for different values of A keeping film thickness con-
value of the electromechanical coupling coefficient, stant. This is accomplished by varying transducer line-
k 2 , determined for a given thickness to wavelength widths and spacings and measuring k2 at the corre-
ratio, t/A, may thus depend upon whether measure- sponding resonant frequency. Still others may have
ments were made at high frequency on a thin film or at compiled their data utilizing both methods. It is
low frequency on a thick film. Consequently, some unlikely that these methods give equivalent results
scatter may be expected in the results of measure- because of the porous surface texture of AIN films
ments made on films thick enough to have porous which, becomes more pronouned with increasing film
surface structures. The presence of a polycrystalline thickness. However, the results of the independent
component, c-axis inversion, residual strain, and pits investigators show a more consistent trend than the
and inclusions can diminish the value of P. A depar- scatter in results in Figure 4.14 would suggest. The
ture from parallel epitaxy can increase the uncertainty actual shape of the k 2 vs. t!A curve has been the
in the alignment of transducer patterns for acoustic subject of some speculation. In their publication, Piz-
propagation along the c axis of the film and lead to an zarello and Coker (1975) combined their results with
apparently diminished P value resulting from beam- those of O'Clock and Duffy (1973) and tentatively
162 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
0.6 4
.........
............ -.....-
x4 .....
.......
4 44,.""4
/,4 X
0.4 I 4
I
I
I{
I
t
I
,,
0.2r I
.,
I
I
4.
4 I FIGURE 4.14
Piezoelectric coupling coefficient, k 2 , vs. thickness
+t e ;t ' J J
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 to wavelength ratio, t/A., as determined by several
t/A investigators
suggested the occurrence of an auxiliary maximum in crystalline quality and surface continuity, and no dete-
the plot of k 2 vs. t/A. at t/A. = 0.05 followed by a rioration in properties was observed to a film thick-
minimum at t!A. = 0.07 before rising to a second broad ness of 6 J.Lm. The results of Ragon and coworkers
maximum. They cited theoretical considerations (1972) show a plateau at the position of the minimum
(Smith, 1971; Lakin and Penunuri, 1971; Penunuri and discussed above. Lakin and coworkers (1974), and Liu
Lakin, 1972) on the dispersion characteristics of lay- and coworkers (1975) have made a detailed study of k 2
ered systems predicting the occurrence of an auxiliary over a wider t/A. range up to a ratio of 0.75 and
maximum in k 2 vs. t/A. data. Experimental work by observed little piezoelectric activity below a ratio of
Pizzarello (1972) on heteropeitaxial (1120)-oriented 0.1. Their data show a sharp rise in k2 above t/A. = 0.1,
ZnO on sapphire, which is isomorphic with AlN, a slight dip near t/A. = 0.2 before rising to P = 0.8
showed the presence of such an auxiliary maximum percent near t!A. = 0.3, followed by a gradual decrease
(see Figure 4.26). The elastic and piezoelectric con- at higher ratios (see Figures 4.14 and 4.15). Liu and
stants for AlN have not been determined because of coworkers attributed the lack of piezoelectric activity
the difficulty in growing single crystals of AlN (Dug- at low t/A. ratios (<0.1) to the presence of interfacial
ger, 1974). Thus, because of scatter in the results, any strain. They also point out that the theoretical work on
conclusions as to the dependence of k 2 are speculative the dispersion characteristics of layered systems does
at this time. The results reported by O'Clock and not take into account interfacial strain, which they
Duffy were obtained at relatively low measuring fre- suggest influences the piezoelectric properties of the
quencies on relatively thick films (up to 10 J.Lm). There first micrometer of film thickness. On this basis the
is little doubt that surface porosity of the nature shape of the k2 vs. t!A. curve near the origin may be
described earlier and possible polycrystalline compo- determined by the frequency of measurement since
nents contributed to a deterioration of film properties the same value of t/A. may be obtained at high mea-
at higher film thicknesses. This may have been surement frequency on thin films or at low measure-
responsible, at least in part, for some of the fall-off in ment frequency on relatively thick films. Thus, it is
k2 for t!A. > 0.06 (i.e., t > 3.6 J.Lm). Recent unpub- important to note the measurement frequency or
lished results by Onyshkevych and Duffy (1975) are acoustic wavelength, A., when examining the shape of
included in Figure 4.14 and show no such fall-off in the the curve near the origin. This may be the reason for
value of k2 In this work greater attention was given to some of the scatter in individual results near the origin
4.2. Heteroepitaxial growth of piezoelectric and electrooptic materials on sapphire 163
in Figure 4.14. The data in Figures 4.14 and 4.15, the molten metal. The group VI element (S or Se) was
however, give an empirical assessment of the depen- introduced as the gaseous hydride (HzS or HzSe) in Hz
dence of kz over the frequency range 100-600 MHz diluent. Manasevit and Simpson (1971) employed the
and demonstrates useful piezoelectric properties even metal-organic compounds (diethylzinc and dimethyl-
for thin dispersive films of AlN. cadmium) as the source materials for Zn and Cd in
Velocity dispersion in AlN/ Alz0 3 composites was conjunction with the group VI hydrides (H2 S and
also studied by Lakin and coworkers, Liu and H 2 Se). Vapor transport was accomplished by passing
coworkers, and over a shortt!>.. range, by Onyshkev- a carrier gas through the liquid metal-organic com-
ych and Duffy. The results are presented in Figure pounds. Mixing of the vapors occurs in the vicinity of
4.16 and show reasonable agreement. Liu and the heated substrate. These authors report on the
coworkers also reported the temperature coefficient of growth ofZnS, ZnSe, CdS, and CdSe layers on Al20 3 ,
delay for these composites. Their results show a nega- MgAl2 0 4 , and BeO by this method. Despite the devel-
tive temperature coefficient dropping almost linearly opment of these heteroepitaxial processes, relatively
from about 47 ppmfOC at t!>.. = 0.15 to about 25 ppmfOC little information is available on the piezoelectric and
at t!>.. = 0.57. electrooptic properties of thin films of these materials
The piezoelectric properties of GaN films will not on sapphire substrates.
be discussed at this time because of the scant informa- Of the II- VI compounds, greatest attention has been
tion available. paid to ZnO films in this respect. In the early studies,
zinc oxide films have been grown by such methods as
Preparation and properties of heteroepitaxial ZoO reactive evaporation and sputtering. Films prepared
films by these methods were generally polycrystalline with
only preferred orientation. There was also a strong
Growth process. The literature contains several tendency for film orientation to be independent of the
papers describing the crystal growth of II-VI com- orientation and nature of the substrate. Polarity inver-
pounds on various substrates. Yim and others (1970, sion of adjacent crystallites parallel to the c axis was
1972) reported on the heteroepitaxial growth of II-VI also observed, leading to diminished piezoelectric
compounds on a variety of substrates such as GaAs, activity. Strictly speaking, films characterized in this
GaP, and sapphire by transporting the group II ele- manner cannot be classified as heteroepitaxial.
ment (Zn or Cd) vapor in Hz carrier gas passing over Although heteroepitaxial ZnO films have been pre-
1.0 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0.8
{1975)
'J-- ----
06 LAKIN ET AL {1974)
grown by the above technique. However, anisotropic has little effect. The most dramatic effects occur by
residual strain in the films, of the nature described by heating in 0 2 or air at temperatures from soooc to
Duffy and coworkers (1973) for the case of AlN, 85<J'C. Single crystal samples which display losses as
frequently results in cracking of the films at thickness- high as 70 dB/em for the lowest-order propagation
es of about 20 ILm. This depends upon the cooling rate mode before annealing may display values as low as
of the epitaxial composite and substrate thickness. about 1 dB/em after annealing. This step is essential to
As-grown ZnO films exhibit varying degrees of sur- the fabrication of reproducible low-loss ZnO optical
face smoothness depending upon growth conditions. waveguides. The duration of the anneal can be up to 1
Scanning electron micrographs of two samples of hr. The reason for the reduction in propagation loss
comparable thickness (-100 /Lm) are given in Figures with annealing is not well understood, but it is inter-
4.18 and 4.19. Surface topography is similar for both esting to note that Hammer and coworkers (1972)
samples but surface smoothness differs widely. The have tentatively suggested the presence of excess Zn
smoother surface corresponds to a growth rate of ions associated with the carrier concentration as a
about 1 ~Lrnlmin, whereas the other surface corre- possible source of scattering centers. The influence of
sponds to a growth rate of about 10 ~Lrnlmin. The annealing in an oxidizing ambient, in contrast to a
samples chosen are thick films in order to exaggerate reducing or inert ambient, in modifying these losses
surface topography. Similar surface structure occurs suggests a correlation between stoichiometry and
on a reduced scale at film thicknesses (-0.5 /Lm) propagation loss. It is also interesting to note that
suitable for optical waveguides. The slower growth Hammer and coworkers observed that the bulk film
rate was chosen for the latter purpose. The surface scattering losses increased with higher carrier
faceting observed in the micrographs runs parallel to concentration.
the direction of the c axis of the (1120)-oriented ZnO
film. In general, film surfaces are not sufficiently Postgrowth compensation. High-resistivity films are
smooth for the light-processing functions of optical essential for successful operation of active optical
waveguides and must be polished to minimize atten- waveguides in deflectors and modulators. As already
tuation of the guided light by surface scattering losses.
Chemical polishing is usually not satisfactory because
of preferential etching. The most successful method
employed by the author has been the use of silica sol
where the pH can be varied within limits allowing
adjustment of the relative rates of chemical and
mechanical polishing.
conductivity. Ui
Ll.l
Some qualitative measurements have been per- It: 0.1
formed in order to determine the sensitivity of the
films and a possible solution to the fabrication of high-
resistivity waveguides. Figure 4.21 shows the behav-
ior of a 2.0-pm-thick Li-compensated ZnO sample
which had been exposed to room ambient for about 6 FIGURE 4.21 Apparent resistivity of compensated ZnO
months. The resistivity after compensation had been film after exposure to room ambient for about 6 months.
in excess of 106 !1-cm. It can be seen that the apparent Horizontal segment: resistivity vs. time in room illumination;
resistivity had dropped as low as 300 11-cm in room sloping segment; resistivity vs. time after shielding from light
168 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
38.----.----,----,,----.----.----,----,
36
34
32
30
28
26
E
~ 24
-
""Q)(
22
20
Q...
>- 18
I-
> 16
i=
Cl)
iii
w
a: 12
8
6
4 0
2 A
FIGURE 4.22
00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Apparent resistivity of a ZnO sample (referred to in
TIME (min) Figure 4.21) after repeated polishing and measurement
cally as surface material is removed. Curve D corre- surface. No contacts were evaporated onto the film,
sponds to a total surface material removal of about thus avoiding further treatment of the ZnO surface.
5000 A, and the apparent resistivity of the sample in Changes in resistivity were registered as a resistance
the absence of light has not reached the >10 6 .O...cm change between two of the probes on a high-imped-
value measured in room lighting immediately after ance(> lOS fi) output monitor under the high-vacuum
compensation. In the 4-point-probe method of deter- conditions maintained in the system. Mass spectrome-
mining the resistivity it was assumed that the conduc- try data were obtained with a Varian partial pressure
tivity was uniform throughout the depth of the film. gauge capable of scanning the mass range 1 to 70.
Clearly, this is not so in the present case; the resistivi- Mass spectra indicated that water vapor and nitrogen
ty increases with increasing distance into the film. were the chief background constituents in the vacuum
Thus, the apparent value measured represents only an cell containing the sample.
average value for the film. The results indicate that The resistance of one of the samples chosen for this
various surface mechanisms may be involved when study was too high to measure (> 108 fi) under the
Li-compensated samples are exposed to the local prevailing vacuum conditions in the system prior to
ambient and that large resistivity changes can occur to the bake-out step. After bake-out the resistance had
appreciable depths within the film. dropped to -3 X 107 fi. Figure 4.23 shows the effect
of incident light on the measured resistance of the film
Mass spectrometry measurements. Simultaneous after bake-out. The sample was irradiated with a poly-
resistivity and mass spectrometry measurements have chromatic mercury radiation source. The resistance
been performed under high-vacuum conditions (Zan- dropped sharply by two orders of magnitude while a
zucchi and Duffy, 1973) at pressures near 1 x 10-9 torr sharp rise in the partial pressure of C0 2 in the system
in an ion-pumped stainless steel-glass vacuum sys- occurred simultaneously, indicating the evolution of
tem. Prior to ion pumping, samples were baked at C0 2 from the film surface. The rate of resistivity
-200C for 24 hr, in situ, using a doubly trapped change was a function of the intensity of the incident
mercury diffusion pumping system which can main- radiation (i.e., the higher the intensity of the incident
tain pressure near 5 x 10-9 torr. The samples under radiation, the sharper and greater the change in resis-
study were ion pumped, after baking, for four days at tivity). Similarly, the evolution of carbon dioxide
2 X w- 9 torr. A 4-probe feedthrough with spring- occurs more readily with higher-intensity radiation.
loaded nichrome wire was used to contact the ZnO Only part of the change is shown in Figure 4.23
4.2. Heteroepitaxial growth of piezoelectric and electrooptic materials on sapphire 169
r
-;::: 110 1.3-;;;
:I: E after the light source was turned off; spectrum C,
.."'
(!) ~
w100 1.2 0 recorded on a scale -10 times more sensitive than for
:I:
:.:: A orB, is representative of the vacuum background
<t 90 1.1 ~
lJJ prior to UV exposure and shows small amounts of CO
c.. 1(, en
0 80 I ', 1.0~ or N 2 and water vapor. Spectrum A shows the pres-
lJJ I ,, 0 ence of C0 2 (mass 44), CO (mass 28), H 20 (mass 18),
1- 0::
u I
o+ (mass 16) and c+ (mass 12). Hydrogen was also
!f
'l!.. 0.90..
''
lJJ
0::
z present but is not shown on this scale. The principal
'' x, ....,
0::
0
u I 0.8ltl
z I 3: constituents evolved were C0 2 and CO. The nature of
:::> I 0.7 G:i
--~\ the ZnO surface, the influence of adsorbates as extrin-
I
"'
(D
0 I \ sic surface states on the semiconducting properties of
u I \ 0.6 ~
0 I
\
\
z ZnO crystals, and the effects of photodesorption have
I \
lJJ
1- 30 I
\
\ 0.5~ been discussed by several authors (Collins and Thom-
1- \ en
~
\
\ iii as, 1958; Kokes and Glemza, 1965; Heiland and Kun-
lJJ 20 \
\ 0.4 ~ stmann, 1969; Williams and Willis, 1968; Morrison,
\
10
\
lc 0.3 1969, 1970; Arijs et al., 1969, 1973; Levine et al., 1972;
Iyengar and Codell, 1972); Arijs and Cardon, 1973;
0.2 Leysen et al., 1973; Fiermans et al., 1973. Though
2 4 6 8 10
TIME (min) most of the referenced work deals with the (0001) ZnO
polar surfaces of bulk single crystals, there is sufficient
FIGURE 4.23 Simultaneous monitoring of sample evidence to indicate that the surface reactivity of thin
resistance and C0 2 evolution as sample is irradiated with a
heteroepitaxial (1120)-oriented films on sapphire is
polychromatic light source in high vacuum ( ~ 10-9 torr). After
Zanzucchi and Duffy (1973)
qualitatively similar.
from the ZnO surface can cause large changes in film "'"'
~1.10
resistivity. It has already been demonstrated in en
lJJ
m
annealing and compensation studies that 0 2 can also 0
0::
have a major effect on the electrical properties of 0..1.05
ZnO. Consequently, in separate experiments 0 2 and z
lJJ
C0 2 were admitted to the high vacuum system to lJJ
3:
study film resistance changes (after irradiation) result- 1-
~1.00
ing from surface adsorption. Because of the nature of
lJJ
the vacuum experiment, however, the addition of 0 2 u
z
was carefully controlled so that a pressure of I o- 7 torr ~
en .95
was not exceeded, and no effect on resistivity of the en
sample was observed with the small quantities admit- lJJ
0::
ted. On the other hand, C0 2 was admitted to the cell
until atmospheric pressure was reached. The addition .90
of C0 2 produced a sharp initial increase in resistivity
followed by a steady gradual increase as shown in 0 15 18
Figure 4.24. Again the initial increase was not record-
ed because of the short duration of the change. FIGURE 4.24 Effect of C0 2 adsorption on film resistivity
Other species are also evolved from the ZnO sur- after irradiation with a mercury light source in high vacuum.
face during the irradiation process. Figure 4.25 shows After Zanzucchi and Duffy (1973)
170 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
required for longitudinal acoustic bulk wave trans- appears low if a value of k2 = 1.1 percent is expected
ducers. Denburg (1971) has reported a coupling factor based on data from Campbell and Jones. These results
of k 1 = 0.25 for films of this type which compares attest to the quality of the piezoelectric films prepared
favorably with a value of k = 0.28 reported by Reeder in this manner. Shuskus and coworkers have reported
and Winslow (1969) for single crystals of ZnO. Bulk a value for P of 0.4 percent obtained at t/A. = 0.11 on
shear wave transducers require that the c axis of the sputtered heteroepitaxial films of the same orientation
crystallites be aligned parallel to the plane of the on sapphire substrates which were heated to 700"C
substrate and parallel to each other. This is a much during the sputtering process. This data point also lies
more difficult task to accomplish. By the addition of close to the experimental curve in Figure 4.26 for the
certain impurities to the sputtering system and tilting corresponding value of the abscissa. The velocity dis-
of the substrate with respect to the sputtering source a persion data, according to Pizzarello, is shown in
certain degree of success has been obtained (Foster, Figure 4.27.
1969A, 1969B; Hada et al., 1971; Vuilloud, 1972).
Foster has reported a coupling coefficient k15 of
between 0.12 and 0.18 for shear wave transducers 4.3. Device applications
which is approximately half the value reported for
ZnO single crystals (k 15 = 0.32). In general, much of In the area of interest here, both active and passive
the work on piezoelectric films has been performed in waveguides for surface acoustic wave, electrooptics,
connection with the study of longitudinal bulk acous- and acoustooptics applications may be fabricated in
tic wave transduction, using films of about one-half heteroepitaxial films grown on sapphire substrates
acoustic wavelength in thickness (Olson, 1970). The with the prospect of combining silicon semiconductor
discussion here is concerned primarily with thin dis- functions on the same substrate through materials
persive heteroepitaxial (1120)-oriented ZnO films integration. In practice, however, the number of
grown on (01l2)-oriented sapphire substrates with the options are limited because of materials incompatibili-
directional relationships described previously. Most ty with respect to preparation and properties. In par-
preparative work on this configuration has been per- ticular, epitaxial aluminum nitride, zinc oxide, and
formed by chemical vapor transport. perhaps gallium nitride are potentially useful for
Collins and coworkers (1970) have studied the sur- microsonics applications. Zinc oxide has the added
face acoustic wave properties of relatively thick heter- advantage that it can be used for active optical wave-
oepitaxial ZnO films with the above configuration pre- guides and acoustooptic interactions and has interest-
pared by chemical vapor transport. They report a ing photoconductive properties. Both aluminum
value of P = 0.31 percent for the electromechanical nitride and gallium nitride have rather high optical
coupling coefficient at a film thickness of about 50 /LID. propagation losses and are, thus, unsuitable as optical
The operating frequency was about 175 MHz and the waveguides at the present time; the propagation loss
corresponding acoustic wavelength about 15 /LID. The in the visible region for epitaxial AlN films on sapphire
acoustic velocity was determined to be 2.65 x 105 em/
sec. The coupling coefficient was lower, however,
than the value of k 2 = 1.1 calculated from Campbell
and Jones data (1970) for bulk crystals. In these mea- 2.2
surements the film thickness-to-acoustic wavelength 2.0
ratio, t/A., was between three and four and past the 1.8
dispersion region (t/A. < 2). 1.6
Pizzarello (1972) has carried out an extensive study
'0 1.4
on thin dispersive films of ZnO also prepared by
chemical vapor transport. His data show the depen- X 1.2
N
.:.(.
dence of phase velocity, group velocity, and coupling 1.0
coefficient on the ratio t/A., in addition to delay time .8
versus frequency for dispersive delay lines. The cou- .6
pling coefficient dependence is shown in Figure 4.26
.4
together with a theoretical curve determined by Lakin
and Penunuri (1971). The experimental data show a
maximum corresponding to P = 2 percent at t/A. =
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
0. 78 and an auxiliary maximum corresponding to P =
t/X
0.9 percent at t/A. = 0.13. The theoretical and experi-
mental data are in good agreement except for the FIGURE 4.26 Experimental and theoretical curves for
asymptotic value at t/A. = 2. The theoretical value coupling constant k2 of the Rayleigh mode as a function of t !A.
appears somewhat high while the experimental value for Zn0/Al2 0 3 After Pizzarello (1972)
172 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. Ill-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
tion of the films has confined the frequency range to and may seriously degrade surface wave device
the region between about 200 MHz and 1 GHz. Per- performance.
haps the most successful application to date has been Adkins (1972) studied nonlinear interactions
in programmable analog matched filters reported by between oppositely directed surface waves on convol-
Hagon and coworkers (1973B) for spread spectrum vers fabricated from LiNb0 3 and AlN/sapphire. The
applications. In previous work, Wrigley and cowork- results of his investigation indicate that the convolved
ers (1972) and Hagon and coworkers (1973A) had signal derived from the interaction of the input surface
studied hybrid structures of ST-cut quartz tapped waves can be a significant source of spurious bulk
delay lines (TDL) with wire-bonded interconnections wave mode generation in LiNb0 3 , while evidence of
to silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) integrated control cir- bulk wave generation was not found in the case of the
cuits to provide programmable tapped delay lines AlN/Ab0 3 convolvers. In this respect epitaxial AlN
(PTDL). By an extension of this work, Hagon and holds a favorable position for nonlinear device appli-
coworkers were able to generate SOS control circuits cation. Apart from the disadvantage of spurious sig-
intraconnected with AlN multiply tapped acoustic nals, bulk wave generation constitutes an energy drain
delay lines by conventional photolithography. This on the desired convolved signal. However, the effi-
was accomplished by materials integration in side-by- ciency of the convolution process must also be consid-
side configuration on the same substrate. They report- ered. Adkins estimated a parametric conversion loss
ed on the performance of a 63 tap PTDL operating of 46 dB for AlN as compared with a value of 31 dB for
with a center frequency of 195 MHz and a chip rate of LiNb0 3 He indicated that the nonlinear interaction
20 MHz. Apart from the ability of a PTDL to process for AlN might be enhanced if thicker films were avail-
different codes, SOS technology offers high-speed able. It is also unlikely that the films were of optimum
capability necessary for real-time programming. A quality at the time of testing.
tapped delay line, functioning as a matched filter for Adkins (1973, 1974) extended his studies to AlN and
an incoming phase-coded waveform, may be switched Si on sapphire monolithic strip-coupled convolvers. In
rapidly enough to match another code without a this configuration the fields produced by oppositely
required time interval between the two received directed surface waves on AIN are coupled onto an
codes. The low parasitic capacitances associated with adjacent silicon film by means of multistrip metallic
SOS integrated circuits, by virtue of the insulating couplers located midway between the two input trans-
sapphire substrate, give a distinct advantage over oth- ducers and spanning the two films. The component of
er integrated circuits in this respect as well as a low- the electric field normal to the silicon surface and
power capability. In addition, the switching of individ- direction of propagation interacts nonlinearly with the
ual tap outputs (to change phase) poses certain restric- charge carriers in the silicon giving rise to an electrical
tions on switch capacitance in the open state for prop- output which is proportional to the convolution func-
er isolation because of the high output impedance of tion of the two input signals. Devices with the semi-
the transducer taps. Again, silicon on sapphire is suit- conductor placed above the surface wave interaction
ed to this purpose because of the low capacitance of
vertical junction diodes in the thin Si films (-1 !J-m)
performing the switching function. The spread spec-
trum application is of particular military interest and Si/A\N/A\203
the real-time programming capability offers security, 10.0
immunity to multipath problems, and multiplexing
capability. 'E
Hagon and coworkers (1972) have also demonstrat- u
I
8.0
ed the successful utilization of AlN on sapphire in the ~
fabrication of wide-band UHF compression filters and >-
1- 6.0
noted certain advantages over other piezoelectric
>
materials. For example, the high surface wave veloci- 1-
ty of AlN allows about a two-to-one increase in center en
en 4.0
frequency and bandwidth over quartz or lithium niob- UJ
a:
ate for a given interdigital transducer geometry. For
high-resolution radar system applications the wide 2.0
bandwidth is advantageous. Bulk mode generation by
interdigital transducer patterns on AlN/sapphire is
lower than for quartz, lithium niobate, or bismuth
0 ~ w 0 w ~ w
DISTANCE FROM THE EDGE OF THE A\N (lxl0"3 in.)
germanium oxide. This was also observed by Bristol
and coworkers (1971). Bulk waves may introduce spu- FIGURE 4.28 Resistivity, p, of Si as a function of distance
rious signals which appear at the output transducer from AIN-Al20 3 boundary
174 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
region and separated by an air gap ( -1000 A) had that a velocity uniformity of better than 0.1 percent is
previously been shown to have higher efficiencies than necessary for their application, however, and that for
surface wave materials alone (Kino et al., 1972; Smith less stringent applications AlN is a highly useful
et al., 1973). The utilization of a multistrip coupler material.
(Marshall and Paige, 1971) to couple the strain- In unpublished work, Hurlburt (1974) has studied
induced electric field to an adjacent region outside the the use of AIN/ Al2 0 3 composites in SAW oscillators.
beam path allows direct contact between the semicon- In this case the AlN surface wave oscillator was con-
ductor and the strips without interfering with the nected with a microstrip matching network to an
acoustic wave and eliminates the difficult-to-control external amplifier mounted on the same base. The
air gap. Both these latter approaches were examined thickness to wavelength ratio for AlN was approxi-
by Adkins. The efficiencies of both structures were mately 0.4. The same interdigital pattern was used on
measured and found to be in reasonable agreement quartz and LiNb03 for comparison. The fundamental
with theory. The evidence further indicated that, with resonant frequencies for the different oscillators are
optimum materials properties and design dimensions, shown in Figure 4.29, which also shows the variation
efficiencies comparable to those reported (Smith et in resonance frequency with temperature. The tem-
al., 1973) for LiNb0 3/Si air gap devices might be perature dependence is in general agreement with the
obtained. An efficient AlN/ Al2 0 3 convolver incorpo- data reported by Liu and coworkers (1975).
rating heteroepitaxial silicon offers several possibili-
ties for signal processing, such as pulse-compression
Zinc oxide
filters and programmable correlators and imagers, and
could be integrated with programmable tapped delay Zinc oxide is considered one of the most versatile and
lines described above. Optimization of the device useful overlay materials for acoustoelectric, acous-
structure with respect to fabrication was complicated tooptic, electrooptic, and photoconductive device
since it required considerable photolithographic pro- applications. In a recent novel application [see Col-
cessing. This resulted in low yields because of broken dren (1976)], it has also been utilized as an integral
strip couplers. part of MOS planar structures to serve as a charge-
Budreau and coworkers (1973, 1974) applied the storage memory medium with optical and bias sensi-
AlN/ Ab0 3 system to the development of a novel UHF tivity. Despite the apparent usefulness of ZnO films,
multiple-channel compact frequency synthesizer using
surface wave filters. The goal was to generate anum-
ber of equally spaced frequencies of high precision 4.---,----r---.---,.---,----.---,
suitable for secure communication and data-link sys-
tems. Such a system might substitute for the more
conventionally used quartz oscillators with frequency 0 3
z
multiplication to the microwave range. This technique <(
(f)
(Walther et al., 1973) involves the use of just one ::>
little information is available on the incorporation of are strongly dependent on such factors as growth rate
these films into SAW programmable devices such as and annealing process. The attenuation losses were
has been accomplished in the case of AlN films. This determined by measuring the intensity of light scat-
is probably due to film reactivity, low initial resistivity tered out of the waveguide directly above the surface
(except for sputtered films), and low surface wave of the film over the guided light by means of an optical
velocity as compared with AlN. In contrast, epitaxial fiber probe and photomultiplier (see above reference).
ZnO films on R-plane sapphire have received much The intensity monitored by the probe is proportional
greater attention as active optical waveguides where to the intensity of the guided light in the ZnO film
film crystallinity is more critical than for SAW applica- beneath the probe. Thus, a decrease in probe signal
tions. Hammer and coworkers (1972, 1973, 1975), along the propagation path represents a corresponding
Channin and coworkers (1975), and Duffy and decrease in waveguided light intensity. A curve
coworkers (1975) have carried out a critical evaluation depicting this is shown in Figure 4. 31, for the case of a
of the preparation and optical properties of ZnO films low-loss waveguide (lowest-order mode in this case)
for this purpose. Channin and coworkers have per- from Table 4.3. The slope of the curve gives the
formed a theoretical analysis of light scattering in attenuation coefficient, which is the sum of the bulk
these films. Table 4.3 summarized some of these and surface loss components for a given effective
results on different waveguides showing bulk and sur- index. When waveguides are prepared as described
face attenuation terms, abo and aasfaTJg, respectively. previously, samples comparable to the best in Table
Figure 4.30 shows attenuation of wave-guided light of 4.3, with respect to simultaneous minimization of bulk
wavelength 6328 A in three samples from Table 4.3. and surface scattering losses, can be obtained. It has
Each data point corresponds to a particular TE mode also been demonstrated in these studies that bulk
and is plotted versus the corresponding waveguide scattering losses show a A. - 4 dependence on wave-
index c/v. The experimental data are fitted by theoreti- length, indicating Rayleigh scattering, and that no
cal curves according to Channin. The term abO in appreciable difference in scattering loss occurs for
Table 4.3 is the measured loss of the lowest order propagation parallel and perpendicular to the film
mode near c!v = 2.0 and the term aa.la'Yiu is the crystallographic c axis.
measured slope of the curve in the linear region. It is Hammer and coworkers (1973) have reported on a
apparent from these results that surface scattering is fast, efficient light deflector and modulator utilizing
the dominant factor in determining propagation loss at these films. The device is based on an electrooptically
the higher-order modes and that bulk scattering losses induced Bragg phase grating in the ZnO waveguide
176 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. lll-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
\
ZnO- WG 3-2-72
fracted through an angle in the waveguide plane.
0 ZnO- WG 3-29-72 B When the angle subtended by the guided light and the
70
ZnO- WG 4-26-73 B fingers of the interdigital electrodes, 8, is adjusted to
the Bragg angle, 8 8 , light is diffracted through an angle
\
60 28 8 from the direction of the main beam with applied
electrode bias. The fractional diffraction as defined by
the above reference is I/ I 0 = sin2 B' V, where I 0 is the
50 intensity of the output beam without applied voltage,
E
0
..... 0
and I 1 is the intensity of the diffracted beam when a
CD
"0 voltage, V, is applied. The term B' is a function of the
~-~
optical constants of ZnO and the aperture of the inter-
0.,
a::
0
1-
o,o digital pattern. An example of the performance of a
.....
<t 30 low-loss ZnO optical modulator (Hammer et al., 1974)
::::l
z is shown in Figure 4.33. The data points correspond to
w
1-
1- 0~ - the TEo mode at the wavelength A.0 = 6328 A, and the
<t 20
solid curve is calculated from sin 2 B'V normalized to
the TEo mode data at 60 V. The voltage required for 80
10 percent modulation is about 80 V. The theory predicts
50 percent modulation at V = 41 V (Hammer et al.,
~0
0
1973). This is an excellent result when compared with
1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.40
bulk modulators which, for the same interaction
C/V
length of 0.3 em, would require a voltage about ten
times this value. When the angle, 8, as described
FIGURE 4.30 Attenuation vs. c/v for three samples above, deviates from the Bragg condition, the intensi-
showing theoretical curves fitted to the data and indicating ty of diffracted light decreases. An example is shown
the influence of processing changes on waveguide loss. After in Figure 4.34 for TE 1 and TE 2 modes as indicated.
Channin et al. (197 5) The halfwidth 118, corresponding to 50 percent reduc-
tion in deflected intensity, as 8 is varied about 88 , is
structure, as depicted in Figure 4.32. Prisms are used 0.6 for the TE1 mode and close to the theoretical
to couple the laser light in and out of the waveguide. A value of 0.58.
film of amorphous Ab0 3' about 1000 A thick extends Another potential application for ZnO/sapphire
over the surface of the ZnO except under the prism composites is in acoustooptic deflectors and modula-
couplers. When a voltage is applied between the ter- tors. In this case the guided light beam traverses
minals of the interdigital electrodes, a periodic varia- across a surface acoustic wave which may be ampli-
tion in index of refraction is generated in the ZnO tude modulated by the signal to be impressed on the
waveguide beneath the electrodes and acts as a dif- light beam. Diffraction of guided optical waves by
acoustic surface waves has been studied in several
film/substrate combinations, and acoustooptic device
functions based on deflection, modulation, and mode
conversion have been reported by several authors
I dB 1 - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (Kuhn et al., 1970, 1971; Chubachi eta!., 1973, 1974;
a:: Ohmachi, 1973A, 1973B; Schmidt eta!., 1973; Hillman
"'
~
0
and Seguin, 1974; Douglas and Hamilton, 1974; Sasaki
CL
et al., 1974; Kushibiki et al., 1975; Chubachi, 1976;
---
1-
3
----.._ ____ . Lean et al., 1976). Acoustooptic interaction can occur
J:
o~--~--~0~.2~5-_--o~.~50~-.-~o~.7~5--~,~.0~c-m-~
in several ways. Kuhn and coworkers (1971) reported
~
.14
(/)
I-
s 12
<Il
~ .I -
)-
1-- 08 -
(/)
z
LJJ
~ 06
0
~ 04
u
LJJ
--'
~ 02 -
0 FIGURE 4.34 Deflected intensity
(arbitrary units) as ()is varied around () B
Squares TE 2, 110 = 0. 73. Circles TE, 110
8-8 8 (MINUTES OF ARC) = 0.60. After Hammer et al. (1974)
178 Chapter 4. M. T. Duffy. III-IV and II-IV Compounds for Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrooptic Devices
INPUT OUTPUT
GRATING SAW GRATING
COUPLER DEFLECTOR COUPLERS
ZEROTH ORDER
(UNDIFFRACTED)
FIRST ORDER
1 (DIFFRACTED)
FIGURE 4.35
Schematic diagram of acoustooptic deflector
surface states, all of which necessitate a surface passi- waveguide structures for deflectors and modulators in
vation process for long-term stability; (3) chemical integrated optics (Hammer and Phillips, 1974). Much
reactivity of ZnO films in photolithographic process- more work is necessary to realize the full potential of
ing; (4) the occurrence of a faceted surface which also heteroepitaxial III-V and II-VI compounds on
requires a polishing step; and (5) incompatibility with sapphire.
silicon semiconductor device fabrication on the same
substrate. As described previously, compensation and
surface passivation are possible and, thus, not limiting References
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ics Symposium Proceedings (1973) p. 464.
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Pizzarello, F. A. and J. E. Coker, J. Electron. Mat. 4: 25 Vuilloud, J., J. Vac. Sci. Techno!. 9: 87 (1972).
(1975). Wachtman, J. B. Jr., T. G. Scuderi, and G. W. Cleek, J. Am.
Quate, C. F., C. D. W. Wilkinson, and D. K. Winslow, Proc. Ceram. Soc. 45, 319 (1962).
IEEE 53: 1604 (1965). Walther, F. G., A. J. Budreau, and P. H. Carr, Proc. IEEE
Reeder, T. M., and D. K. Winslow, IEEE Trans. Microwave 61: 1162 (1973).
Theory and Techniques MIT-17: 927 (1969). White, R. M., Proc. IEEE 58: 1238 (1970).
Reisman, A. and J. E. Landstein, J. Electrochem. Soc. J18: Wickenden, D. K., K. R. Faulkner, R. W. Brander, and B. J.
1479 (1971). Isherwood, J. Crystal Growth 9: 158 (1971).
Reisman, A., M. Berkenblit, S. A. Chan, and J. Angilello, J. Wille, D. A. and M. C. Hamilton, Appl. Phys. Letters 24: 159
Electron. Mat. 2: 177 (1973) (1974).
Rozgonyi, G. A. and W. J. Polito, J. Vacuum Sci. Techno!. Williams, R. and A. Willis, J. Appl. Phys. 39: 3732 (1968).
6: 115 (1969). Wrigley, C. Y., P. J. Ragon, and R. N. Seymour, IEEE
Sasaki, H., J. Kushibiki, and N. Chubachi, Appl. Phys. Ultrasonics Symposium Proceedings (1972) p. 226.
Letters 25: 476 (1974). Yim, W. M. and R. J. Paff, J. Appl. Phys. 45: 1456 (1974).
Schmidt, R. V., I. P. Kaminow, and J. R. Carruthers, Appl. Yim, W. M. and E. J. Stofko, J. Electrochem. Soc. ll9: 381
Phys. Letters 23: 417 (1973). (1972).
Shiloh, M. and J. Gutman, J. Crystal Growth 11: 105 (1971). Yim, W. M., J.P. Dismukes, and H. Kresse!, RCA Review
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T. M. Reeder, NTIS Report M951337-6, (1973) p. 20. Yim, W. M., E. J. Stofko, P. J. Zanzucchi, J. I. Pankove, M.
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Stem, E., IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. MIT-17,
835 (1969).
Chapter 5
Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film
Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
P. J. Zanzucchi
in measuring the trace element content of materials mum volume) of sample is required for a measure-
reflects the need to control the unintentional doping of ment. A general and somewhat approximate compari-
semiconductors by parts per million (ppm) to parts per son of the average depth of material required for
billion (ppb) of impurities. selected analytical methods is given in Figure 5 .1.
Elemental species are often present in semiconduc- Closed rectangular boxes indicate surface methods
tor and related materials as molecular complexes (excluding the use of sputter etch techniques), as well
(Newman, 1969). Furthermore, molecular species can as multilayer or bulk analysis methods, with fixed
be important in the preparation of thin-film semicon- depth of sampling. The open rectangular boxes are
ductors (Ban, 1971) as well as in device processing used to indicate a variable depth of sampling for some
(Olberg, 1971). To identify molecular species, the of the measurement techniques. In these cases, depth
techniques for bulk analysis, which include mass, of sampling is a parameter controlled by experimental
infrared, and x-ray spectrometry as well as the more variables. For example, the depth of ion beam pene-
recently developed surface analysis techniques of tration in Rutherford ion-scattering spectrometry is
electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) controlled by the energy of the incoming ion beam. In
(Siegbahn et al., 1967), are well established. Because ellipsometry, the depth of light beam penetration is
of the need for surface analysis, there have been many related to the absorption coefficient, which is often
recent developments in the use of these and related measured by this technique. For bulk analysis in
techniques for thin-film analysis. One example is the which the sample must be in solution or other form
development of inelastic electron-tunneling spectros- prior to analysis (e.g., with atomic absorption spec-
copy. From electron-tunneling data, the molecular trometry) the total weight of sample available for mea-
vibrational spectra of surface material of less than 20- surement is a more meaningful quantity than is depth
30 A thickness can be obtained (Lambe and Jaklevic, of sampling.
1968).
The identification of elemental or molecular species
is only one aspect of semiconductor characterization. 5.2. Characterization of thin-film
In this chapter, four selected aspects of semiconduc- epitaxial semiconductors
tor materials important in the preparation and produc-
tion of semiconductor devices are reviewed. Measure- Film thickness
ment of film thickness, dopant density, lattice
perfection, or impurity content contributes directly to Optical interference measurements. The film thick-
understanding or improving the performance of solid ness of micrometer-thick semiconductors on insulat-
state materials and devices. This chapter briefly ing substrates must be measured for meaningful corre-
reviews the importance of these factors in semicon- lation of electrical data, for precise doping by high-
ductor technology, with respect to heteroepitaxial temperature diffusion techniques, for precision etch-
composites in particular, and gives a summary ing of circuit elements, and for fabrication of protec-
description of the various specific measuring tech- tive layers. Although many techniques exist for mea-
niques. Although many techniques are described for suring micrometer film thickness (see Table 5.1), the
their general applications, it should be noted that the thickness of epitaxial semiconductors is most often
properties of heteroepitaxial semiconductors often are measured by optical interference methods. These
a function of film thickness. Consequently, under- methods are nondestructive, accurate to a fraction of a
standing the properties of these films requires, in wavelength of light, and relatively simple in
many cases, measurements that provide information procedure.
as a function of depth. Because silicon films for sili- Interference optical methods date back to observa-
con-on-sapphire (SOS) devices are nominally 0.5 to tions by Newton (Heavens, 1955) of color fringes
1.5 f.Lm thick, measurements of this type must provide produced by interference effects. Because the pres-
information from film regions only a few hundred ence of interference fringes depends on film thickness,
angstroms thick (e.g., by sputter etching combined the color of thin films is a convenient way of estimat-
with a surface analysis technique such as Auger spec- ing -0.1-1.0 f.Lm film thicknesses. Tables correlating
troscopy). In characterizing heteroepitaxial films, one color and film thickness have been published for Si0 2
important consideration is the thickness of material films on silicon (Pliskin and Conrad, 1964; Corl and
required to provide information. Wimptheimer, 1964) and for Si3N 4 films on silicon
As all measuring techniques have inherent detection (Reizman and van Gelder, 1967). In recent years the
limits, some minimum depth (more precisely, a mini- optical properties of thin films, in particular measure-
ment of film thickness, have been discussed in many
of materials can be obtained indirectly from techniques
primarily used for elemental analysis; see, for example,
publications. Reviews by Pliskin and Zanin (1970) and
Castle and Epler (1974) with regard to matrix effects in Gillespie (1967) are oriented toward epitaxial semicon-
Auger electron spectrometry. ductor thin-film measurements. More general discus-
184 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
DEPTH OF MEASUREMENT A
SURFACE PROPERTIES BULK PROPERTIES
"'
a:
<(Cil
..JW
::::~-
~~
II
I
SECONDARY ION
MASS SPECTROMETRY (SIMS)
I MOLECULAR ABSORPTION
SPECTROSCOPY
I
..JCI) <
ION PROBE MICROANALYSIS
0
II
:e ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY FOR
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS (ESCA)
a:
e0 ....,
z<( RUTHERFORD ION
r1 SCATTERING SPECTROMETRY
I SPARK SOURCE MASS SPECTROMETRY
> ..JC/l
<(I- I LOW ENERGY ION SCATTERING
SPECTROMETRY (ISS)
J
ATOMIC ABSORPTIONEMISSION SPECTROMETRY
I
I
1- <JZ
a: -w
...0w :e:e
ww
XRAY EMISSION SPECTROMETRY
<
...a:0
::t:..J ELECTRON PROBE MICROANALYSIS
I
<JW
J
NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS
I
w
a: AUGER ELECTRON
~ SPECTROSCOPY (AES)
<(
w .....
:e
ELLIPSOMETRY X-RAY TOPOGRAPHY
FIGURE 5.1 Comparison of measurement methods by the nominal depth of material required for analysis. Closed rectangular
boxes indicate the surface measurement methods as well as the bulk methods that have fixed depth of sampling. See text for an
explanation of open boxes
sions of the optical properties of thin films with com- If the interference fringes are recorded over a wave-
ments on the measurement of film thickness can be length range At to A2, which correspond to wave-
found in the books by Tolansky (1948), Heavens lengths for a maximum or minimum in fringe ampli-
(1955, 1970), and Vasicek (1960). tude, Equation (5.1) can be rewritten as
Optical interference involves the reflectance and
XAtA2
transmittance of light, as shown in Figure 5.2. The film t = 2(At - A2)(ni - sin 2 cf> 0)t 12 ' <5 2)
thickness, t, is related to the interference of reflected
rays R 0 and Rt by where X is the number of complete fringes in the
wavelength region At to A2 Use of this method for
(5.1) determining the thickness of homoepitaxial silicon on
silicon was first reported by Keck (1961) as well as
where N is the fringe order. From Equation (5.1) it is Spitzer and Tanenbaum (1961). A more detailed dis-
clear that either the angle of incidence, c/>0 , or the cussion of the method has been given by Albert and
wavelength, A0 , can be varied to determine film thick- Combs (1962). A standard procedure for measuring
ness. The characteristics of these two different optical the film thickness of silicon epita::<-ially grown on sili-
interference procedures have been reported. Reizman con is given by the American Society for Testing and
and van Gelder (1967) as well as Corl and Wimpfhei- Materials, ASTM Method F95-73 (1973).
mer (1964) have discussed constant-angle reflection Equations (5.1) and (5.2) imply that (1) in the inter-
interference spectroscopy (CARIS); Pliskin and Con- face region between the film and substrate there is a
rad (1964) have discussed variable-angle monochro- sharply defined junction between two materials with
matic fringe observation (V AMFO). Popova and Jor- different refractive indices, (2) the substrate does not
danov (1970) and Jordanov and Popova (1971) have absorb at the wavelength of the radiation involved in
reported on features of the two procedures. the measurement (i.e., in the wavelength range A1 to
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 185
d, and (3) the refractive index of the film and the film
thickness are uniform over the measured film region.
Reflection R 1 cannot occur if the film and substrate ).o
WAVELENGTH , p. m
llJ
(.)
z
i!1-
i
Ul
z
c(
a:
1-
llJ
>
~
..J
llJ
a:
4000 3500 2!500 2000
WAVENUMBER cm" 1
Y SCALE
0.1 p.m DIV-J FIGURE 5.3
Comparison of optical interference
- and mechanical (stylus) data for
determining the film thickness of a
X SCALE 10 MILS DJV"I heteroepitaxial silicon film on sapphire
(1968), and Severin (1970) have discussed calculations conditions a poor, textured silicon surface will form
of phase shift corrections for films on doped silicon and the effects of this cannot be ignored in measuring
substrates. In relation to this, Sato and coworkers film thickness. For example, the stylus in displace-
(1966) and Schumann (1969) have discussed the signif- ment-measuring devices is typically a micrometer in
icance of autodoping in homoepitaxial films by the diameter and is too large to resolve the surface texture
substrate dopant. Autodoping causes the homoepitax- of poor heteroepitaxial silicon films; i.e., it measures a
ial film/substrate interference to be less sharply film thickness relative to the "top" of the textured
defined, because the refractive indices of the film and surface. In contrast, optical techniques measure, for
substrate are related to the doping density. Autodop- example, interference fringes due to parallel bounda-
ing thus introduces errors in the measured film thick- ries, which will average to some region below the
nesses. Although autodoping occurs with heteroepi- "top" of the textured surface. Thus, in general, the
taxial films such as silicon on sapphire (Durnin and actual film thickness of a silicon film on an insulating
Robinson, 1966) and silicon on spinel (Robinson and substrate can be accurately measured by a variety of
Durnin, 1968), the optical reflection from the film/ methods as described in this section only when the
substrate interface is largely unaffected because of the surface texture is negligible.
large discontinuity in optical properties between sili- As indicated by Equation (5 .I), the thickness of a
con and metal oxide substrates. The refractive index film can be determined if the refractive index, n I> as
of silicon is approximately 3.3, while for sapphire or well as the angle of incidence and the wavelength are
spinel the refractive index is approximately I. 7. known. Refractive indices for many semiconductors
Comparison of mechanically and optically deter- are given in the publications by Moss (1959), Moses
mined film thickness of silicon on sapphire (Figure 5 .3) (1971), and Neuberger (1971). A review of the optical
shows, as expected, that the measurements are in properties of III-V compounds has been published by
good agreement. Moreover, for wavelengths between Seraphin and Bennett (1967). The optical constants of
approximately 0.2 and 5.0 Mom, in which both sapphire silicon have been published by Salzberg and Villa
and spinel are transparent, a substrate phase correc- (1957) and more recently by Schumann and coworkers
tion is not needed in order to calculate the film thick- (1971) for doped silicon. The optical properties of
ness. There is, however, the real possibility that sapphire have been reported by Malitson and cowork-
mechanical and optically determined film thicknesses ers (1958) and the optical properties of magnesium
will not agree because of silicon's surface structure. aluminate spinel have been reported by Wickersheim
As discussed in detail in previous chapters, nucleation and Lefever (1960) as well as Wang and Zanzucchi
and growth of the silicon film (on sapphire) proceed (1971). The optical properties of silicon on spinel have
through various forms of island growth. Under certain been published by Stein (1972).
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 187
reports that the film thickness of silicon films can be reflected light can be used to determine the film thick-
measured to 0.1~-tm in the range of0.1-15 ~-tm. In ness of very thin films as well as thick films on specu-
general, silicon for SOS technology is 0.5 to 1.5. ~-tm larly reflecting substrates. These ray components are
thick. designated p for the parallel ray component in the
In general, interference optical measurements are plane of incidence and s for the perpendicular compo-
simple to perform and accurate. The rate at which nent normal to the plane of incidence. If the phase
samples can be measured with dispersive spectrome- angle is given as {3 and the amplitude as A, then .:l is
ters is limited by the time required to record the defined as the change in phase while t/J is defined as the
interference fringes, a minimum of 30-60 s. In connec- arctangent of the amplitude ratio change. The terms .:l
tion with this problem, an interesting application of and t/J are given by Archer (1962) as
interferometry has been reported (Cox and Stalder,
d = ({3p - f3s)reflected - ({3p - f3s)incident (5.4)
1973) in which interference fringes are recorded using
a Michelson interferometer. Fourier analysis of the
data is required to obtain the film thickness. However,
t/J = arctan [( A
A v)
s eflected
- (AAv) ].
s mcident
(5.5)
in comparison to measurements made with dispersive Measurement of .:l and t/J by the ellipsometer involves
instruments, interferometry measurements can be angular adjustment of the incoming polarized ray to a
made more quickly and with an improved signal-to- reference position in the plane of incidence at the
noise ratio. Reported average times for such thickness sample surface (see Figure 5.6). Changes in polariza-
measurements are approximately 6 s with a long-term tion on reflection of the polarized light by the sample
precision somewhat better than the interlaboratory surface are measured by use of a quarter-wave plate
precision of the ASTM Method F95-73 (1973). In addi- and the analyzer polarizer. Once the equipment is
tion, for heavily doped substrates the phase correction calibrated, the measurement involves adjusting the
for free carrier absorption is easily included in the angular position of the quarter-wave plate and the
calculations. analyzer prism until a setting is reached at which there
is extinction of the reflected ray.
Light section microscope. For films exceeding one Both the thickness and optical constants of trans-
micrometer in thickness, a "light section" microscope parent, nonabsorbing films can be determined from .:l
can also be used to determine film thickness. This and t/J. The calculations, however, involve forms of
instrument measures the interval between a slit image the Drude equations and are tedious and complicated
reflected from the film surface R 0 and film/substrate (Heavens, 1955; also Zaininger and Revesz, 1964)
interface R 1 By mechanical adjustments, the dis- without some form of machine calculation. McCrackin
tance, t"" between the slit image rays R 0 and R 1 is (1969) published a useful Fortran program for calculat-
measured and correlated to film thickness, t, by use of ing n, k, and film thickness from ellipsometry data.
Equation (5.3): The program will evaluate the optical constants for a
multifilmed surface. An interpretation of the program
(5.3)
calculations is also included in the publication. When
Using this technique, the thickness of transparent used in a time-sharing system ellipsometry measure-
films can be measured directly. For the determination
of the thickness of opaque films, a step must be e
formed in the film to profile the film thickness. For
aluminum oxide and plastic films, Mansour (1963) has
compared the accuracy of the light section microscope
measurements to those obtained by other means.
Good accuracy, better than 2-3 percent, is possible.
If a step is etched through a film to the substrate,
and the surfaces are reflective (e.g., by evaporating a
thin coat of metal), optical interference arising from
the film/substrate reflection at fixed wavelength can be
used to determine the step height (Tolansky, 1948).
Although this procedure is destructive and depends on
the ability to etch the film but not the substrate, it
gives accurate results and is often used for opaque
films. FIGURE 5.6 Schematic diagram of an ellipsometer [after
Zaininger and Revesz (1964)]: a, mercury arc; b, filter; c,
Light ray polarization and film thickness, ellipsome- collimator; d, polarizer (Nicol prism); d', angular scale/
try. The measurement of the phase angle and ampli- positioning device; e, sample; f, quarter-wave plate; g,
tude of the two components of a ray of incident and analyzer; h, telescope; and i, detector
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 189
320
280
240
(f)
UJ 200
UJ
a:
(!) 0 90
UJ
Cl 160
<I
FIGURE 5.7
120 Ellipsometry data (incomplete) for an Si0 2
film on silicon. Ellipsometry curves are
80 45 cyclic, repeating for certain multiples of
65 70 75
film thickness. The film thickness is
40 determined from the angular values of
phase difference given on the curve by
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 using Equations (5.6) or (5.7). The origin, 0,
ljl, DEGREES corresponds to a film-free surface
ments are greatly simplified and oan be used to moni- The origin 0 of Figure 5. 7 corresponds to a film-free
tor surface properties of materials on a realistic time surface. Except for the extreme values of refractive
scale relative to on-going experiments. With absorbing index, measured ellipsometry values give unique solu-
films, a single ellipsometer measurement may not give tions for the optical constants and thickness of a film.
a unique value for thickness or the refractive index Zaininger and Revesz (1964) have reviewed the use of
(Archer, 1962). ellipsometry for surface studies, particularly for semi-
The procedure of an ellipsometer measurement is conductor surfaces. T. Smith (1968) has reported on
outlined in detail by McCrackin and coworkers (1963). ellipsometry measurements for surfaces with mono-
Calculations for various ll and !/J values give a series of layer films. Bootsma and Meyer (1969), Meyer and
points corresponding to various film thickness of a coworkers (1971) and Meyer (1971) have reported on
given refractive index. Such curves are cyclic; the ellipsometer measurements of silicon or germanium
curves repeat for multiples of film thickness and there- surfaces covered with thin films of adsorbed gases.
fore some independent measurement of film thickness Ellipsometry tables for silicon oxide films on silicon
is necessary for thicker films (>200 nm) depending on using either mercury or He/N e laser radiation have
the refractive index (Archer, 1962). Ellipsometer data been published by Gergely (1971). Note that ellipso-
have been reported by Saxena (1965) for Si02 on metry measurements are made on smooth surfaces-
silicon. Data for silicon oxide on silicon are given in surface texture as can occur on SOS will influence the
part in Figure 5. 7. The film thickness of the silicon ellipsometry measurement.
oxide film is calculated from the angular values of
phase difference given on the curve using Equation Nonoptical techniques. Sapphire and spinel are rela-
(5.6) tively inert at room temperature and epitaxial silicon
films can be readily etched from the metal oxide sub-
t = ( 2~) (ni- n~sin 2 cp)- 112 (o), (5.6) strates without etching the substrate. This means that
a step can easily be etched in the film allowing for
where t, the film thickness, is calculated from o, the mechanical step-height measurements, e.g., Talysurf
phase difference, which is experimentally determined measurements (Pliskin and Zanin, 1970).
by the ellipsometer measurement, as is n, the refrac- A summary comparison of selected methods for
tive index. The other terms, the angle of incidence, cp, measuring film thickness is given in Figure 5.8. These
and the wavelength of the incident light, t.., are known methods are compared by the range of film thickness
experimental parameters. Equation (5.6) is valid for associated with the use of each method. Inherently
thin films. This shows that the film thickness is such destructive methods appear on gray backgrounds. For
that orepresents a phase difference of 180 or less, the SOS devices, where silicon of about 0.5 to 1.5 JLm
zero order. For thick films, the phase difference is a thick is used, both optical and stylus displacement
multiple of 180 (i.e., m1r where m is the mth order). methods can readily be used to measure film thick-
In this case, the film thickness is given by ness. The light section microscope and similar tech-
niques are generally not used for films less than a few
micrometers thick. Finally, ellipsometry measure-
ments are adversely affected by surface texture.
190 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
LEGEND
I NONDESTRUCTIVE METHOD
1958; R. Smith, 1959; Putley, 1960) or estimated from where RH is the Hall constant, t is the film thickness,
resistivity measurements assuming a value for carrier V H is the average measured Hall voltage, I is the
mobility. From an easily measured Hall voltage, V H current, H is the magnetic field strength, n is the
generated in the presence of a current flow normal to a carrier concentration, p is the conductance, R is the
magnetic field (Figure 5.9) the dopant density can be measured resistance of the Hall sample, w and l are
calculated. The Hall constant, RH, is given by the width and length of the Hall bar as shown in Figure
5.9b, and p., is the carrier mobility. Use of Equations
R = t VH H (5.8) (5 .10)-(5 .13) implicitly assumes that only one type of
H I '
charge carrier is present in the test sample. The Hall
where t is the semiconductor film thickness, V His the and related measurements as well as sample prepara-
average Hall voltage, I is the current, and H is the tion procedures are outlined in the American Society
magnetic field. It can be readily shown [e.g., R. Smith for Testing and Materials Method F76-73 (1973).
(1959, pp. 100-107)], neglecting scattering effects, that With regard to Hall measurements on heteroepitaxi-
al films, it should be noted that Equation (5.10)
1
n, P = RHe' (5.9) assumes the current flow is uniform throughout the
film thickness, which as discussed in Chapters 2 and 7
where n and p are the number of electrons or holes, is not necessarily true for heteroepitaxial films. Evi-
respectively and e is the electronic charge. dence exists that, for silicon on sapphire, crystalline
The sample is etched to form the Hall bar, which perfection (which affects carrier mobility) and carrier
usually destroys it for other purposes, and contacts concentration are dependent on film thickness. Simi-
placed at (1,2) and (3,4) (Figure 5.9b) for duplicate larly, Equation (5 .13) assumes the semiconductor is
measurements to obtain an average Hall voltage V H uniform in its crystalline quality throughout the film
The resistance is also determined from current and thickness, but as mentioned in the foregoing discus-
voltage measurements on the etched Hall bar. sion, this is also not necessarily true for heteroepitaxi-
Because the free carrier density is a function of tem- al films. Finally, for Equation (5 .10) the film thickness
perature, its value must be noted. From the measured of the test sample must be measured and the calculat-
electrical data and the known film thickness, average ed RH will reflect the inaccuracies of this measure-
values of the Hall constant, carrier concentration, ment. The calculated mobility is, however, indepen-
conductance of the sample, and the electron or hole dent of the film thickness [see Equations (5 .10), (5 .12),
mobility can be calculated using the following relation- and (5 .13)].
ships, as they appear below, In addition to the Hall effect measurement, the
Common* Units
Hall Constant Usage MKSA or Sf
RH = t(cm) V ~V) (5 .10)
I (A) - H (gauss)[ V10~ . cm- 2 ]
gauss
Carrier Concentration
6.25 x 10 18 ee-l)
n = (5.11)
RH (cm 3 -C- 1)
Resistivity
R(fl) t(cm) w(cm)
!1-cm !1-m (5.12)
P = /(em)
Hall Mobility
/LH = jRHj (5.13)
p
where V 1 is the measured floating potential and I is the FIGURE 5.10 Schematic representation of the 4-point-
measured current. probe geometry. The two outer probes carry current while
Resistivity can be measured using a 3-point-probe the two inner probes measure the floating potential induced
geometry as well. The 3-point probe, described by by the current flow. Probe spacings are typically on the order
Brownson (1964), measures breakdown voltage of a of0.02 em
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 193
WAVELENGTH, 14m
8.0 9.0 10 12 14 16
100
Se DOPED GaAs
REFLECTION DUE TO
GaAs LATTICE BAND 80
>-
1-
~
1-
u
~
...J
LL
~
a::
~
>
~
...J
~
a::
FIGURE 5.12 Infrared reflection
spectra for selenium-doped n-type GaAs
epitaxial films. The wavelength at which
the minimum in reflectivity occurs is
WAVENUMBER, c m-1 related to the dopant density
sity with the wavelength of the minimum in reflectivity reflection losses), and t is the film thickness of the
have been reported for p-type GaAs by Murray and doped semiconductor film (Black et al., 1970)
coworkers (1966), Riccius and Bertie (1966), and Obviously, if the substrate is heavily doped, the
Rheinliinder (1973); for n-type GaAs (see Figure 5.13) absorption is very high and this method cannot be
by Riccius and Ulbricht (1965), Jones and Hilton used. It is also assumed that the dopant density is
(1965), Okada and Oku (1967), and Schumann uniform through the film.
(1970A); and for p- and n-type silicon by Gardner and As dopants can exhibit strong free carrier absorp-
coworkers (1966) as well as Schumann (1970A). tion in the infrared region, infrared imaging has also
By the plasma frequency technique, the dopant con- been used to measure the distribution of free carriers
centration measured is averaged over the depth of in semiconductors. This method is similar to an
material sampled. This depth can be estimated from infrared technique used by Dash (1956) to observe
copper precipitation at dislocations in silicon. With
1
fp = ~ (5.19) recently developed infrared methods, slightly magni-
fied images of free carrier and defect absorption are
where tv is the nominal penetration depth of a reflect- obtained over large surface areas with high resolution
ed light ray and a is the absorption coefficient. For (i.e., -30-JLm features can be resolved). Sherman and
shallow doped layers, the depth of penetration of the Black (1970) and Gupta and coworkers (1971) have
ray is a significant factor in the measurement. Proce- employed a 3.39-JLm or 1.1-JLm infrared laser to raster
dures for measuring the dopant concentration in shal- scan a 1.2 x 1.2 cm2 area with a 30-JLm-diameter
low layers have been discussed by Abe and Kato beam. Contrast changes on the oscilloscope-recorded
(1965) and Abe and Nishi (1968). image are due to differences in free carrier absorption
In general, the reflectivity method requires some or defects (e.g., inclusions which cause a change in
independent means of calibrating the wavelength at transmittance). In this way a type of topograph is
which a minimum in reflectivity occurs in terms of obtained characteristic of the uniformity of starting
dopant density. Once the calibration is established, materials or arrays of completed semiconductor
the reflectivity method does not require other data in devices. Using this technique, Jungbluth (1970) has
order to determine the dopant density. reported on the quality of arsenic-doped silicon;
By comparison, in order to correlate free carrier images he obtained clearly show arsenic precipitates,
absorption to dopant density, the film thickness must and these data correlate with x-ray diffraction topog-
be known. The film thickness is used to calculate the raphy. Sunshine and Goldsmith (1972) have shown
absorption coefficient, that a silicon vidicon can be used with incandescent
illumination of the sample to provide high-resolution
In (I rJI)
a=--- (5 .20) visual monitoring of dopant distributions, precipitates,
t '
or decorated dislocations.
where / 0 is the transmittance without the sample, I is In summary, electrical methods can be used to
the transmittance with the sample (corrected for measure the dopant density of epitaxial semiconduc-
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 195
tor films in discrete regions with varying in-depth Lattice structure, crystalline perfection, and stress
resolution. Either surface or bulk dopant densities can are related. Stress arises from lattice mismatch
be measured nondestructively by optical methods. between the epitaxial film and substrate material and
Optical techniques can also be used to obtain unique from differential contraction of the composite while
infrared topographs of dopant as well as defect cooling from the growth temperature. Lattice mis-
distributions. match is often relieved by formation of dislocations
and stacking faults at the growth temperature and thus
Lattice perfection and stress limits the crystalline perfection of the epitaxial layer.
Differential contraction usually leads to curvature of
The crystalline perfection of either a substrate or an the composite structure because other mechanism to
epitaxial film is influenced by factors such as the relieve stress, such as the formation of dislocations,
growth and processing conditions of the materials cannot occur very readily at temperatures much below
(Rai-Choudhury and Takei, 1969; also Durnin and the growth temperature.
Henry, 1971). In both homoepitaxial and heteroepitax- The electrical properties of epitaxial semiconduc-
ial film growth the quality of the substrate, in particu- tors are significantly affected by the degree of crystal-
lar the substrate surface, is a critical factor in produc- line perfection and stress in the semiconductor com-
ing defect-free epitaxial films. It has been shown that posite. Durnin (1970, 1971) has shown that the carrier
in the homoepitaxial growth of silicon on silicon (Men- mobility in either heteroepitaxial germanium and sili-
delson, 1964) stacking faults in the epitaxial layer form con on sapphire or spinel substrates is dependent on
at defects such as microscratches or surface impurities the crystalline perfection of the epitaxial semiconduc-
on the silicon substrate surface. Using LEED-Auger tor. The crystalline defects introduce scattering cen-
techniques to study the sapphire surface, C. C. Chang ters which decrease carrier mobility. Jefkins (1970)
(1971) has shown that annealing at temperatures near and Schlotterer (1968) have reported theoretical and
1200C is required to remove surface contaminants experimental data relating compressive stress of epi-
and to produce sharp LEED patterns of the surface taxial silicon on insulating substrates (sapphire and
structure. It is generally thought that the lattice perfec- spinel) to the properties of the silicon film. In particu-
tion of the substrate limits the perfection obtainable in lar, Schlotterer (1968) has discussed the effects of
an epitaxial film. stress on the electrical properties of the semiconduc-
tor film.
Stress, in particular the stress-related curvature of
heteroepitaxial composites, is readily measured by x-
"''e ray techniques and optical microscopy. Lattice per-
u
fection can be determined by x-ray measurements as
~ well as by Rutherford MeV ion back scattering and
~ channeling technique. From Rutherford scattering
a:
1-
z measurements, lattice perfection can be determined as
w a function of depth for epitaxial or bulk material.
(.)
z These techniques and measurements are discussed in
0
(.)
..."
0
to the reflection spectrum. The reflection spectrum as
1100 a function of beam polarization is shown in Figure
(!)
z 5.15b. Measurements with polarized infrared radiation
i= give qualitative information about the orientation of a
1- 800
LLI
Ill sapphire wafer.
a: Barker (1963) has shown that the forbidden Al 20 3
C[ 600 lattice modes appear in the sapphire reflection spec-
...1
;::)
(!) trum when the Al 20 3 surface is stressed or damaged
z
< (e.g. by a polishing procedure). Surface damage
reduces the high symmetry of the Al-0 modes and
allow for normally forbidden modes to appear in the
spectrum (see Figure 5.15c). By monitoring the Ab0 3
reflection spectrum in the infrared region, the quality
of the sapphire surface can be rapidly and nondestruc-
DISTANCE ACROSS CRYSTAL, mm tively determined. In addition to this, most semicon-
ductor materials are transparent to (or weakly absorb-
FIGURE 5.14 Plot of angular position for maximum x-ray ing of) infrared radiation in the Ab0 3 lattice band
intensity (reflection) as a function of distance across the film region. Infrared reflection measurements can, there-
composite. The slope of the curve is inversely related to the fore, be made to determine if the epitaxy process has
radius of curvature of the film/substrate. From Wang et al.
introduced stress (or damage) at the sapphire surface.
(1969); reprinted courtesy of the Metallurgical Society of
Yim and coworkers (1973) have shown that in the
AIME
case of epitaxial AlN on sapphire, Al2 0 3 forbidden
modes are clearly observed after AlN epitaxy. As
using a Lang camera has also been reported for mea- shown in Figure 5.15c, which compares the reflection
suring curvature by McFarlane (Wang et al., 1969). In spectrum obtained from the free Al2 0 3 surface and
this technique, the angular position for maximum x- from the Al2 0 3 surface through the weakly absorbing
ray intensity is recorded over 0.5-m intervals across AlN epitaxial film, forbidden modes appear as split-
the epitaxial film/substrate composite. The slope of tings of reflection bands. This indicates that the Al20 3
the curve is inversely proportional to the radius of surface is physically affected by the AlN epitaxy such
curvature. (see Figure 5.14). This method relies on x- that the symmetry of the Al20 3 at the interface is
ray reflection from crystallographic planes which can reduced either by stress or lattice damage. Similar
be used to check if the measured deformation is iso- measurements have been made to determine the
tropic with respect to the various crystallographic effects of silicon and gallium arsenide epitaxy on the
orientations. The deformation, fh is calculated from sapphire surface as a function of deposition
r conditions.
<>a= 2R' (5.21) In the context of the preceding discussion it should
be noted that use of optical techniques to characterize
where r is the circular substrate radius and R is the surface damage, particularly defects which lead to
radius of curvature. The stress a is given by surface texture, is well known, although not often
82ds used for semiconductors. In a series of papers, Ben-
a= (5.22) nett and Porteus have derived expressions which cor-
3(1 - v)r 2 t/
relate the roughness of a plane surface to its specular
where t 1 is the semiconductor film thickness, t s is the reflectance (Bennett and Porte us, 1961; Bennett, 1963;
substrate thickness, E is the elastic modulus, and v is Porteus, 1963). Donovan and coworkers (1963) have
the Poisson ratio of the substrate. reported on the influence of surface damage and lattice
In a qualitative way, the presence of a stressed or disorder on the optical properties of bulk germanium.
damaged sapphire surface can be determined from These techniques are being used at RCA Laboratories
infrared reflection measurements in the Al 20 3 lattice to characterize silicon on sapphire (Duffy et al., 1975/
band region, approximately 900-300 cm- 1 Sapphire 76).
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 197
-~-
-~
-45"
-----
(c) (d)
-----~FORBIDDEN
MODES
SURFACE
DAMAGE
"
SURFACE
WITHOUT-
DAMAGE
1200 1000 BOO 600 400 250 1200 1000 BOO 600 400 250
WAVENUMBER 1 cm- 1 WAVENUMBER 1 cm- 1
FIGURE 5.15 (a) Comparison of the transmittance and reflectance spectrum for Ab0 3 (b) Polarized spectra of (ll 02)-oriented
single crystal sapphire. (c) Comparison of the unpolarized reflectance spectrum of undamaged and polishing-damaged sapphire.
The undamaged surface does not show the presence of forbidden modes: forbidden modes are clearly present in the spectrum of
the poorly polished sapphire. (d) Comparison of the unpolarized reflection spectra of sapphire prior to and after AIN epitaxy. The
free (0001) sapphire surface does not show the presence of forbidden modes. After epitaxy, forbidden modes are clearly present
indicating surface stress or lattice damage occurred with epitaxy. From Yim eta!. (1973)
198 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
\l
POLISHED
transmission method depends on nonabsorptive inter-
ference-like interactions which highlight defects of
200 nearly perfect crystals. The experimental arrange-
LL<(
ments for each of these x-ray measurements, after
a:
0
f-
Webb (1962), are shown in Figure 5.17. By these
u methods, a dislocation density of 106 cm-2 , or less,
i1 1
150 1111 can be resolved. Newkirk (1958) and Schiller (1970)
z
0 have discussed aspects of the back-reflection Berg-
i=
a_
a: )1111111111111 Barrett method. Lang (1959) has described the basic
0
(/)
SAPPHIRE aspects of the transmission topograph method and
ro Schwuttke (1%2) has discussed aspects of the Borr-
<l: 100
mann anomalous transmission method. Schwuttke
900 1000 C 1100
(1962) also has compared features of the extinction
DEPOSITION TEMPERATURE T - methods and the Borrmann anomalous transmission
FIGURE 5.16 Optical absorption factor FA compared to method. The characteristics of these x-ray topograph
deposition temperature for epitaxial films on insulating methods are summarized in Table 5.2.
substrates. The absorption factor decreases in value as the McFarlane and Wang (1972) have reported Lang
crystallinity of the silicon films improves. These data show topographic studies of III-V heteroepitaxial films
that crystallinity is a function of the deposition temperature grown on both sapphire and spinel substrates. Paired
and substrate pretreatment, courtesy of Preuss (personal topographs, one topograph related to the epitaxial film
communication)
-:-:-\,\""'""
absorption factor is obtained corresponding to a depo-
sition temperature for optimum film crystallinity. The
\ ~\.
spread in the absorption factor values is caused by the
different pretreatments and characteristics of the sub-
strates. In summary, the optical properties of heteroe-
pitaxial silicon films can be correlated to crystalline
quality. BORRMANN ANOMALOUS TRANSMISSION
The density of lattice defects is measured by tech-
niques sensitive to either the deformation or disconti-
nuity of lattice planes. X-ray transmission and reflec-
tion topography, electron diffraction, and more I I TOPOGRAPH
recently, ke V to MeV ion backscattering and channel-
ing spectroscopy have been used to characterize lat- I I
tice defects of epitaxial semiconductors. The x-ray
TABLE 5.2 Characteristics of X-ray Topographic Methods a 3.8-~.tm (111) GaAs epitaxial layer. Both the sub-
Method Characteristics
strate and semiconductor material meet the criterion
of JLl < 1 for Lang topography. The topographs can be
Berg-Barrett reflection Detects dislocation structure near separated and resolved into a topograph representing
or at a crystal surface with a the epitaxial layer and a topograph representing the
nominal 1 J.Lm depth of
substrate. This is possible because the lattice parame-
penetration.
Lang transmission Good contrast requires J.Lt ,;;: I ters for the epitaxial film and substrate are different
where J.L is the x-ray linear and diffracting planes from each layer can be selected.
absorption coefficient for the Figure 5.18a shows regions misoriented from the nom-
film material and t is the inal crystal orientation. In particular, lines caused by
sample thickness. A scratches are visible. As shown by Figure 5.18b, the
dislocation density of 106cm-2 , GaAs grown over the scratches is misoriented from
or Jess, can be measured with the rest of the layer as indicated by the white lines.
good resolution. Note that other line structure appear in the epitaxial
Borrmann anomalous Good contrast requires J.Lt > 20. layer, suggesting the presence of undetected scratches
transmission A dislocation density of 5 x
on the substrate surface. GaAs on these substrate
I {}'!em - 2 can be measured with
good resolution. defects is misoriented.
Reflection (high-energy) electron diffraction
(RHEED) had been used extensively in the early
and the companion topograph related to the substrate, phases of the development of silicon on insulating
show that the crystalline perfection of the semicon- substrates. This method was particularly useful in
ductor epitaxial film is significantly affected by such examining the quality of the substrate surface finish
defects on the substrate surface as polishing scratches (see Chapter 2). An advantage is that the beam sam-
and growth striae. Figure 5.18 shows a pair of Lang ples only a few monolayers below the substrate sur-
topographs obtained for Czochralski (111) spinel with face and the diffraction patterns are not complicated
(a) (b)
FIGURE 5.18 Lang topographs of Czochralski (I II) spinel and a (Ill) GaAs layer grown on it, taken with silver Ka 1 radiation:
(a) spinel substrate, (440) diffracting planes; (b) GaAs layer, 3.8 J.Lm thick, (220) diffracting planes. From McFarlane and Wang
( 1972); reprinted courtesy of the American Institute of Physics
200 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
...ru;]..
by bulk crystallographic effects. The method is quali- ORIENTED CRYSTAL LATTICE
tative and can be used for an approximate estimation
LATTICE DEFECT
of the crystalline quality of the heteroepitaxial silicon.
It has been recently used to examine the influence of
deposition parameters on the crystalline nature of the
~ BULK OR SURFACE
DISTRIBUTED IMPURITY,
silicon near (within -0.2 MID) the substrate surface ~12),111M 2 1Xl
(Cullen et a!., 1975). Here marked differences in the
diffraction pattern are observable corresponding to
variations in deposition conditions because the silicon
near the substrate is more disordered than is material
more remote from the interface.
!..-:-
~
M 2 u)""""O-o~'O
LATTICE
ATOMS f/> M {SCATTERED ION BEAM
1 WITH ENERGY E
Ml
MeV ion backscattering and channeling measure-
ments. Although x-ray topographic methods can be INCOMING
used to determine the density of such defect structures COLLIMATED
ION BEAM
as dislocations, these measurements lack depth reso- WITH ENERGY E 0
lution. As indicated by electrical data (Ipri, 1972), the 2
E K E0
properties of epitaxial silicon on sapphire vary with
[ M1cosf#>+M 21Xl]
film depth. For defect centers (defined as lattice dis-
K [M 1 + M2 1Xl]
placements) as low as approximately 1015 cm- 2 , keY
to Me Y ion backscattering and channeling measure- M 2 1Xl/M 1 ~4
where N is the atomic density of the film. By this Impurity content (and composition)
method, Picraux (1972) has shown that for epitaxial
silicon on spinel or sapphire substrates the number of It is well known that small amounts of electrically
scattering sites increase with film thickness. More active impurities can significantly change the electrical
recent work by Picraux (1973) and Picraux and Thom- properties of semiconductors. Unintentionally added
as (1973) using both ion channeling-backscattering elements are in general undesirable in semiconductor
measurements and electron microscopy indicates that manufacture. This is a particular problem for heteroe-
the imperfections in epitaxial silicon films on either pitaxial semiconductors since the substrate is a poten-
sapphire or spinel substrates are mainly caused by tial uncontrollable dopant source for the semiconduc-
stacking faults or microtwins. They show that, at tor film. For example, aluminum atoms from a
equal distances from the interface, (Ill) silicon on sapphire substrate dope the epitaxial silicon. Very
much distinct from the problem of measuring the con-
centration of a deliberately added dopant, the question
in this context is how to identify the impurities and
NONCHANNELED - determine their distribution and amount. (Note in the
EPITAXIAL SILICON section on measuring dopant density such techniques
ON SPINEL generally are nonspecific and cannot be used to identi-
fy the electrically active species.)
There are many considerations in selecting an ana-
lytical technique to identify elemental impurities, such
as sensitivity, selectivity, matrix effect, elemental
,., ......... --,, \ coverage, time and ease of analysis, and overall cost.
/ \ \ Because of the small volume of semiconductor materi-
, (h,k,.t) \ \
CHANNELED-\ \ al in thin-film heteroepitaxial devices, spatial resolu-
EPITAXIAL SIU~ \ tion (both lateral and in-depth) is a very important
\
ON SPINEL 1
... \
\
consideration. As indicated in Table 5.3, the first mon-
olayer of atoms constituting a surface can be analyzed
\ by such techniques as ion-scattering spectrometry and
BULK SILICON __
,, \
CRYSTAL ', \ static secondary-ion mass spectrometry. For measure-
(h,k,l) CHANNELED ' , , \\ ments requiring analysis of a few atomic layers, a
number of ion or electron beam techniques are availa-
ble (e.g., Auger electron spectrometry). Finally,
Eo where in-depth resolution is not a critical factor [i.e.,
where the average film composition (bulk composi-
tion in this context) over micrometer depths is impor-
FIGURE 5.20 Plot of the number ofbackscattered ions as a tant], techniques such as electron probe microanaly-
function of back scattered ion energy. The scattering yield for sis, solids (spark source) mass spectrometry, and
a given energy range corresponds to ion scattering from some
infrared spectroscopy can be used. With respect to the
depth of silicon on spinel as indicated by the inset. The
latter technique, Newman (1969) has reported that
interface region is marked by the change in backscatter ion
yield at 300-400 ke V. The effects of crystalline perfection are
many impurity species exist in semiconductor struc-
evidenced by comparison of the scattering yield for oriented tures as molecular infrared-absorbing complexes. For
bulk as for oriented and nonoriented epitaxial silicon. From example, oxygen in silicon is usually found in the form
Picraux (1972); reprinted courtesy of the American Institute of SiO x; similarly, carbon is often found in the form of
of Physics CO :r or SiC depending on the overall oxygen content
202 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
of the silicon. Thus, infrared absorption of impurity ting Auger electrons. The magnitude of the electron
complexes can be used to determine selected elemen- emission is related to the amount of an element pres-
tal impurities in semiconductors. ent in the surface volume analyzed. Auger electron
The following section describes these surface and spectroscopy is especially useful for, but not limited
bulk techniques and their applications in determining to, detecting such low atomic number elements as
the impurity content of epitaxial layers. carbon and oxygen, for which this method is particu-
larly sensitive. Because the escape depth of Auger
Surface and in-depth measurements AuGER ELEC- electrons is about two to ten atomic layers (see Table
TRON EMISSION AND SPECTROSCOPY. Auger elec- 5.3), the Auger electrons are characteristic of surface
tron emission can occur when inner shell electrons atoms.
rearrange by nonradiative three-electron processes. Auger electron spectroscopy was first investigated
For example, loss of a L 2, 3 shell electron by ioniza- by Lander (1953) for surface analysis applications.
tion, schematically shown in Figure 5.21, is accommo- Lander observed the presence of a large, varying
dated by a V shell electron which fills the L2,a shell by background superimposed on the very small Auger
a nonradiative energy transfer process. The excess peak; he concluded the presence of the background
energy lost by the electron in the V to L shell transi- limited practical application of the Auger electron
tion allows a V shell Auger electron to be emitted (C. emission to surface analysis. Harrower (1956) related
S. Chang, 1971). Alternately, the L shell vacancy Auger peaks to x-ray data in order to predict possible
could be filled by a V shell electron which emitted its Auger transitions. Both Weber and Perla (1967) and
excess energy as an x-ray photon. This later process is Tharp and Scheibner (1967) showed that a LEED
the basis of analytical x-ray fluorescence spectrometry apparatus could be used for Auger spectroscopy. Har-
(Bertin, 1975) and electron probe microanalysis (Bea- ris (1968A,B) was the first to show that the derivative
man and Isasi, 1971). of the measured number of electrons with respect to
By monitoring the energy of secondary electrons as electron energy, dN(e)/dE, gives sharply defined
shown in Figure 5.21, the discrete energy of the emit- Auger peaks, allowing practical analytical applica-
ted Auger electrons can be determined. This energy is tions. Palmberg (1972) reported on a device that
characteristic of the electrons involved in the energy allows for simultaneous sputter etching and Auger
transfer process and, therefore, of the element emit- measurements by which depth profiles of chemical
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 203
impurities can be obtained. Quantitative measure- persistent surface contaminants of chemically cleaned
ments of an element are possible if the derivative peak silicon.
height can be related to the concentration of an ele- Recent studies of homoepitaxial silicon growth by
ment. Calibration techniques based on ellipsometry Auger, low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), and
measurements have been reported by Vrakking and high-energy electron diffraction (HEED) spectrosco-
Meyer (1971) and Meyer and Vrakking (1972). PY (Joyce et al., 1969; Henderson and Helm, 1972)
Surface images generated by recording the Auger show that there is a distinct correlation between the
electron emission over, typically, a scanned 200 x lattice perfection of silicon epitaxial films and the
200-~Lm area using a 5-~Lm-diameter primary electron surface-distributed impurity content of the silicon
beam have been reported (MacDonald and Waldrop, substrates.*
1971). These images represent selected elemental dis- Joyce and coworkers (1969) have studied silicon
tributions over the scanned surface area. As indicated homoepitaxy by molecular beam decomposition of
previously, the escape depth for Auger electrons is a silane in ultrahigh vacuum. Using LEED and Auger
few atomic layers from the surface. Thus, the Auger measurements, they report that surface coverage of
images have a much improved depth resolution in the silicon substrate by a specific impurity, such as
comparison to x-ray images obtained from electron carbon, changes the nucleation and growth of the
microprobe instruments (see Table 5.3). Features of homoepitaxial silicon layer. Henderson and Helm
the Auger scanning technique have been discussed by (1972) have studied silicon homoepitaxy using the pyr-
MacDonald and Waldrop (1971) and by Arthur (1973). olysis of silane at approximately 800C. From LEED
With the availability of commercial instruments for and Auger measurements, their data show that it is
Auger spectroscopy, application of this technique to possible to grow homoepitaxial silicon films free of
surface studies has greatly increased since the late stacking faults, growth pyramids, or crystallographic
1960s and early 1970s. For example Grant and Haas pits if the substrate surface impurity content is less
(1970) have studied the Auger electron emission from than 1013 cm- 2 Surface carbon, arsenic, and transition
clean silicon to establish the silicon Auger peaks. metals such as nickel at concentrations greater than
Uebbing and Taylor (1970) have reported on Auger 1013 cm- 2 invariably lead to the presence of lattice
electron emission of clean gallium arsenide to estab- defects in the epitaxial film. The presence of carbon is
lish the true gallium arsenide Auger peaks. Contami- correlated with an island-type growth, the incorpora-
nation of silicon (111) and (100) faces by chemical tion of ,6-SiC, and facet formation in the epitaxial
etching and polishing methods has been studied by C.
C. Chang (1970) using Auger spectroscopy. Auger *For a review of surface studies by electron diffraction, see
surface analysis data show that carbon and oxygen are Estrup and Macrae (1971).
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
RADIATIONLESS AUGER ELECTRON I LOW ENERGY
1 SECONDARY SCATTERED
EMISSION, L2,3 VV AUGER PROCESS
e-
; ELECTRONS
J PRIMARY
'v
1 ELECTRONS /
--~--------VACUUM 1
I
AUGER ELECTRON
"---f, ,
------EF 1
\ ~EMISSION /
\ ', I
V (VALENCE LEVEL)
FIGURE 5.21 Schematic diagram ofthe Auger electron emission process and the characteristics of recorded Auger spectra. The
number of Auger electrons is very small in comparison to the total number of electrons. For this reason, the peak in electron
emission caused by the discrete Auger process is too small for accurate analytical measurements when the total number of
electrons, N( e), is measured as a function of the electron energy. By taking the first derivative of the measured number of
electrons with respect to electron energy, dN(e)/dE, sharply defined peaks are obtained which are representative of Auger
electron emission. Over the energy range E, the derivative is not affected by the large and gradually varying number of
background electrons which hindered analytical application of early Auger measurements
204 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
a.
0
(!)
:::i!
0
0:: 5
AFTER BALL eta I (1972)
_ 25keV He
.
--
lJ.. 10
--- 5
0:: 2
w
1-
1- 4
<t
u 10
rn
:.:
u
'
____ ... ,"..... -- -- 1~'
<t
,. ,. .,.. I
,,
CD
ci ,. I
....1
w X ,
,, ol
I
,x
.
I \
I l..,. _.X""
Eo,M 1 (<3keV) >= I \ \ ,'
(!)
~
'-r .,.r~ '
'' ''x-- X"
0:: ....
w
1-
'_,
!;(
u
!/) I
c 0 p Go
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.0
FIGURE 5.22 Composite figure showing the ion-scattering process and typical spectra for 25, 5, and 2 ke V ions backscattered
from a GaP layer. For ion energies less than 2 keY, ion scattering occurs at the surface of the solid (GaP) without significant
penetration in depth. In the spectrum given, oxygen is detected as a surface impurity. From Ballet a!. (1972); reprinted courtesy of
the North Holland Publishing Company
films. When nickel is detected on the substrate surface the sensitivity of the technique is not as high or uni-
the silicon epitaxial films show triangular defects. form as in Auger spectroscopy.
Stacking faults commonly associated with the pres-
ence of metallic impurities were not observed. ION-SCATTERING SPECTROMETRY. The information
C. C. Chang (1971), using LEED-Auger tech- obtained from ion-scattering or Rutherford scattering
niques, has studied the heteroepitaxial deposition of spectrometry depends on the energy of the incoming
silicon on sapphire. The LEED-Auger data show that ions. With high-energy ion beams, keY to MeV ener-
in the preparation of sapphire for epitaxy, annealing at gies, the ions penetrate into films or bulk material and
temperatures near 1200C is required in order to backscatter from large depths, by which process the
remove surface contaminants, mainly carbon, and to depth profiles of impurity distributions can be
produce the expected sapphire lattice structure at the obtained. The measurement of impurity distributions
substrate surface. is very similar in many respects to the previously
discussed measurement of lattice perfection by ion
X-RAY APPEARANCE POTENTIAL SPECTROSCOPY. In scattering. Nicolet and coworkers (1972) have
addition to the Auger emission process, inner shell reviewed the analysis of materials by backscattering
electrons can also fill a vacancy by giving up excess spectrometry. Ziegler and Baglin (1971) have reported
energy in the emission of an x-ray photon. Park and on MeV ion back scattering measurements of the
coworkers (1970), Houston and Park (1971), and Tra- arsenic distributions in silicon. Morgan and B0gh
cy (1972) have reported on a surface analysis tech- (1972) have discussed application of Rutherford scat-
nique that measures the total undispersed x-ray pho- tering to the study of semiconductor surfaces, particu-
tons emitted from an irradiated surface. The measured larly GaAs.
ionization energies for inner shell electrons in a non- Ball and coworkers (1972) have shown that a broad
dispersed total x-ray emission spectrum give informa- energy distribution for backscattered ions can sub-
tion on the elemental composition of a solid surface. stantially be reduced when the ion beam energy is
This technique is called x-ray appearance potential below 5 keY (see Figure 5.22). In addition, below 5
spectrometry and has been compared to Auger elec- ke V the ion backscattering occurs mainly at the sur-
tron spectroscopy by Tracy (1971, 1972, 1973) for the face of a solid. This allows for elemental analysis of a
study of sulfur, carbon, and oxygen contaminants on single monolayer of surface atoms. Honig and Har-
titanium films. Experimental data suggest that rington (1973) have reported on the characteristics of
although the simplicity of appearance potential spec- ion-scattering spectrometry below 10 ke V.
trometry is advantageous for measurement purposes, Historically, Tollestrup and coworkers (1949) were
5.2. Characterization of thin-film epitaxial semiconductors 205
among the first to report that ion scattering could be rial is possible (Liebl, 1974). Werner (1972) reviews
used for surface analysis. Energy analysis of data from the various types of secondary-ion mass spectrometry
protons backscattered by beryllium or lithium targets (SIMS) methods.
showed the presence of thin surface layers of oxygen One form of secondary-ion mass spectrometry, stat-
and carbon. Based on this, Turkevich (1961) suggested ic SIMS, involves the use of very low primary-ion
using ion scattering of Cm244 alpha particles for analy- currents densities oo- 9 A/cm2) on a large target area
sis of lunar material in situ. For the lunar analysis, it such that the time to remove the first monolayer of
was proposed that ion backscattering be detected by a surface atoms by ion emission is very long compared
solid state detector and an electronic pulse-height ana- with the measurement time. The species slowly
lyzer, both of which could be made small for use in a removed from the surface by ion emission, the sec-
remotely controlled space vehicle. Following this, sur- ondary ions, are detected by a mass spectrometer
face analysis using 0.1-3 ke V noble gas ion beams has (Benninghoven, 1971). Measurements of the surface
been demonstrated by D. P. Smith (1967, 1971). Streh- compounds averaged over the target area are possible
low and Smith (1968) confirmed that, with low-energy by this technique.
primary-ion beams, ion scattering occurs mainly from Benninghoven and Storp (1973) have used second-
the first atomic layer at the surface of the sample. ary-ion mass spectrometry to investigate the reaction
Following these developments, particularly the work of molecular oxygen with atomically clean (Ill) sili-
of D. P. Smith, Goff (1972) reported on an instrument con surfaces in ultrahigh vacuum. High vacuum is
designed for surface analysis by low-energy ion beam required to maintain an uncontaminated surface repre-
scattering. This instrument allows for elemental analy- sentative of the true sample. Mass measurements indi-
sis of the first monolayer of surface atoms, a measure- cate that on exposure of a clean siFcon surface to
ment not possible with Auger spectroscopy because molecular oxygen, a large number of characteristic
the Auger electrons are emitted from at least 2-10 secondary ions are detected: SiO+, Si 20+, o-,
atomic layers below the surface (see Table 5.3). Since Si02, SiO 3, and Si 205. The presence of these species
the primary ion beam, an ionized noble gas, slowly has been interpreted as relating to a two-step oxida-
sputters the sample surface, this technique has an tion of the silicon surface. The initial step is reported
inherent capability for providing information on the to be the formation of a first monolayer of oxide which
depth distribution of elements. With the development relates to the detected secondary ion species Si03.
of commercial ion-scattering instrumentation, applica- The second step is the slow growth of a second oxide
tions of this technique to the surface analysis of semi- layer which relates to the detection of secondary ion
conductor and related materials have become practi- Si 20;-. Data indicate that the number of secondary
cal [see Goff and Smith (1970); also D. P. Smith ions is proportional to the degree of surface coverage.
(1971)]. This technique, therefore, is potentially useful for
quantitative measurement of surface species.
MASS SPECTROMETRY. While Auger, appearance Another important secondary-ion mass spectrome-
potential, and low-energy ion-scattering spectroscopy try technique, ion probe microanalysis, allows the
give information about the elemental composition of composition of a microvolume, 2-300 ~Lm in diameter,
surfaces, ion probe microanalysis (Castaing et a!., to be determined. Both elemental and molecular spe-
1960; Castaing and Slodzian, 1962; Long, 1965; Liebl, cies can be identified. The sputter etch rate of a sam-
1967, 1971) and secondary-ion mass spectrometry ,ple can be rapid in an ion rnicroanalyzer and this
[Benninghoven, 1970, 1971; Fogel', 1972) can be used allows for in-depth measurements on the order of
to obtain information about both the elemental and micrometers. Simultaneously with the sputter etching,
molecular composition of surface layers. These tech- the secondary-ion beam is mass selected and a magni-
niques sputter etch a surface from which depth pro- fied image of elemental or molecular species distribut-
files of composition are obtained [e.g., see the review ed in the sputtered area is obtained. As shown by the
by Honig (1973)]. Historically, the basic aspects of schematic diagram (Figure 5.23), a primary-ion beam
surface analysis using ion-sputtering techniques were sputters a sample surface. Sputter rates vary from a
reported by Honig (1958), followed by Bradley (1959) fraction of a monolayer to etch rates as high as 500 AI
and Stanton (1960), as well as others. s. The sputtered ions are separated from the primary
Secondary-ion mass spectrometry refers to meth- ions, mass analyzed, and imaged by selected mass.
ods involving the mass measurement of ions which are Commercial ion microanalyzer instrumentsproduce
generated by various forms of primary-ion bombard- ion images of surface-distributed species in two com-
ment. With low-energy primary-electron or ion pletely different ways: (1) sequentially, by raster scan-
beams, large-area surface analysis is possible. Alter- ning of the primary-ion beam over the sample surface
natively with keY primary beams, small-area (~ 1- or (2) simultaneously, by preserving the original distri-
~Lm-diameter) microanalysis of surface and bulk mate- bution of secondary ions as shown in Figure 5.24.
206 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
I/'=~:::,""'
FROM
ION IMAGE
CONVERTER
ION LENS AND
APERTURE
I ~LECTROSTATIC
MIRROR
With both types of instruments, determination of a yield of silicon. In earlier work, Blanchard and
depth distribution requires special considerations. coworkers (1972) reported on the use of an oxygen
This is because of the geometry of the sputtered leak over samples to provide a high but uniform sec-
region. Ion etching of a surface creates a crater-like ondary-ion yield. However, it is not always possible to
erosion of material, schematically shown in Figure obtain quantitative secondary-ion yields when a
5.25. With erosion of material below the surface, the strong matrix effect exists, as reported by Schubert
walls of the crater contribute secondary ions not (1974) for the analysis of iron and chromium in stain-
meaningful to the measurement. Because these ions less steel. This aspect of secondary-ion mass spec-
cannot be distinguished from ions originating at the trometry is particularly important with respect to the
crater center, the resolution of the depth measurement analysis of semiconductors on oxide substrates. A
is limited. However, if a reasonably broad area is strong matrix effect is expected from the oxygen of the
sputtered, then mechanical or electronic means can be substrate and from oxygen present in the
used to determine the secondary ions sputtered from semiconductor.
the center of the crater. The use of an aperture for With regard to matrix effects Mercier (1971) points
direct imaging is shown schematically in Figure 5.25. out that it is difficult to interpret the ion microanalyzer
In this way the impurity distribution is resolved, typi- data for silicon on sapphire unless such factors as
cally with an in-depth resolution of 20-lOOA (Evans crystalline perfection and crystalline orientation rela-
and Pemsler, 1970; Socha, 1971; Morabito and Lewis, tive to sputtering yields are taken into account.
1973). Using an ion probe microanalyzer, Mercier studied
In general, for all analytical techniques involving the qualitative in-depth characteristics of silicon
production of secondary ions, the secondary ion yield grown on sapphire substrates where silicon was grown
is important in relation to reproducible and quantita- by the pyrolysis of silane at low temperatures
tive interpretation data. Andersen (1969, 1970) has (-900C) in a helium atmosphere. Using a 250-p,m-
discussed the correlation of ion probe microanalyzer diameter ion beam with an estimated 100-A depth
data and secondary-ion yields. Andersen and Hin- resolution, Mercier reports that the films grown at low
thome (1973) have described a method of quantitative temperatures in helium show 104 less aluminum (as
analysis using the secondary-ion microanalyzer and autodopant) and 102 less oxygen (also an autodopant
reactive gases. from the sapphire) than in comparable films grown at a
Quantitative analysis with secondary-ion mass higher temperature ( -1000C) in hydrogen atmo-
spectrometry techniques can, however, be difficult (or sphere. As found in earlier studies (Mercier
impossible) when matrix effects exist with respect to (1970A,B)), reactions occur during deposition which
the production of the secondary ions. For example, apparently cause the formation of aluminosilicates at
oxygen is known to exert a strong influence on sec- the silicon-sapphire substrate. With regard to these
ondary-ion yields. As reported by Lewis and cowork- interface compounds, the ion probe microanalysis
ers (1973) and Tsai and Morabito (1974), the presence data are probably more conclusive than Mercier's
of oxygen on the surface and bulk of single crystal infrared-attenuated total reflection (ATR) measure-
silicon causes an enhancement of the secondary-ion ments. As reported by Harrick (1967), infrared-atten-
FARAIIW CUI'
FIGURE 5.24 Schematic diagram showing the components of the Cameca IMS 300. The primary ion beam is generated by the duoplasmatron and focused
onto the specimen. The beam is l-300 f.Lm in diameter. Both primary and sputtered secondary ions enter the electrostatic analyzer. Secondary ions are
selected and enter the observation section. Images of the specimen can be obtained representing elemental or molecular distributions in a variety of ways.
Courtesy of Cameca Instruments, Inc., Elmsford, NY
208 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
I/ APERTURE
--~11:1
PRIMARY ION BEAM 1
I I
'
beam. Measurement of depth-distributed
composition is affected by the contribution of
wall material to the measurement. An
SAMPLE
GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION aperture which selects ions sputtered from a
localized central region of the crater can he
used to eliminate detection of much of the
sputtered wall material.
uated total reflection measurements are difficult to Noble gases and nitrogen are readily measured using a
interpret when a material, such as sapphire, has a 0.5-mm2 area of film.
large and varying refractive index. Neutron activation methods depend on the mea-
surement of y or f3 emission from radioactive isotopes
Bulk measurements. Often the average impurity produced by neutron bombardment. This technique
content of an epitaxial film is important without regard requires use of neutron irradiation facilities in addition
to the distribution of the impurity. In this case well to radioasay equipment. Neutron activation analysis is
established measurement techniques can be used. a means for trace, parts-per-billion analysis of many
Techniques such as spark source mass spectrometry, elements. In certain circumstances neutron activation
neutron activation analysis, or emission and absorp- methods are probably among the few analytical tech-
tion spectroscopy have been used to analyze the ele- niques that can measure impurity content at the low
mental content of thin films. parts per billion level or less (Smales, 1967). However,
The general aspects of thin-film analysis by solids it should be noted that for semiconductors, use of
mass spectrometry have been discussed by Socha activation analysis for the simultaneous determination
(1970). Both vacuum spark (Dempster, 1936) and laser of several elements often requires laborious proce-
(Honig, 1966) sources have been used to produce ions dures. These procedures are necessary because the
from solids for mass analysis. In this way, the elemen- semiconductor elements are readily activated produc-
tal composition of a material is surveyed for all ele- ing several radioactive isotopes yielding complicated
ments from major to parts-per-billion (ppb) constitu- y-ray spectra. To sort out and identify the y radiation
ents. With either source, the depth of solid sampled is it is necessary to use procedures involving chemical
relatively large in relation to the thickness of the film separations or standards with a matrix similar to the
in present device structures. For example, the depth sample. In this context, the detection limit for a given
of penetration of the vacuum spark is about 1-5 /-LID, element is largely determined by the type of host
which is equal to the thickness of many heteroepitaxi- atoms present in the semiconductor sample and their
al films studied and therefore the average distribution activation products. Furthermore when semiconduc-
of material in thin films is sampled. tors are activated and produced radioactive isotopes
Although the elemental impurity content of solids with long half-lives [e.g., GaAs (Wolfstim, 1970)],
can be measured by mass spectrometry techniques to elements with isotopes of short half-lives may be diffi-
parts per billion, determining the molecular species, cult to detect (e.g., Na, K, AI, and B).
such as gases in thin-film solids, requires special tech- A bibliography of activation analyses reported in
niques because of the inherently small amount of sam- literature through 1971 has been prepared by Lutz and
ple. Winters and Kay (1972) have reported on a mass coworkers (1972).
spectrometric technique for determining residual gas- In summary, compositional analysis of semiconduc-
es in thin films. The gases trapped in films are released tors or processing films depends largely on the particu-
into a clean vacuum system by laser evaporation. lar considerations which are often unique to each
5.3. Characterization of films commonly used in device processing 209
material. For heteroepitaxial semiconductors such as presence of hydrogen or free silicon in the silicon
silicon on sapphire the presence of two materials with oxide is found to be significant.
very different compositions is a matter for considera- Thermally grown silicon oxide films always have a
tion in compositional analysis. For example, many positive charge which induces a negative charge in the
investigations have been conducted to determine if underlying silicon (Revesz and Zaininger, 1968;
silicon interacts with the sapphire during the early Lamb, 1970). This positive charge has been associated
stages of deposition. Analysis of this interface region with at least four types of charge centers involving
is very difficult. Oxygen in the sapphire strongly fixed or surface potential sensitive states, mobile ions
affects ion yields in secondary-ion mass spectrometry, (such as sodium), or protons and ionized bonds (traps)
and this can greatly distort the measured composition within the silicon oxide structure. Because the resid-
of the interface region. Furthermore, the interface ual positive charge affects device properties, other
region may not be uniform in composition. In any insulators, such as silicon nitride and aluminum oxide,
case, the need for a high degree of spatial resolution is have been studied for use with, or in place of, silicon
apparent. oxide.
Silicon nitride
5.3. Characterization of films commonly
used in device processing Silicon oxide films are not greatly resistant to sodium
ion diffusion which seriously affects the electrical
Semiconductor device fabrication involves isolating properties of the Si0 2-Si interface. Buck and cowork-
electrically incompatible elements of a circuit. In prac- ers (1967) have studied sodium diffusion in Si0 2 films
tice, insulating films of silicon oxide, which are easily using neutron activation and radiotracer techniques.
prepared by the oxidation of epitaxial silicon, have They find that sodium will diffuse to the silicon oxide-
been used. With the development of chemical-vapor silicon interface under certain temperature or bias
deposition (CVD) methods, silicon nitride, aluminum conditions. Burgess and coworkers (1969) report a
oxide, and glass films have also been used as insula- 1000-fold reduction in sodium diffusion with use of
tors. To be effective insulators, these dielectric mate- silicon nitride films. Dalton and Drabek (1968) find
rials must contain few electrically active impurities that silicon nitride films composed of small crystallites
and have well established and reproducible composi- improve film resistance to sodium diffusion. Bibliogra-
tion. It is also desirable that, insofar as possible, they phies of literature concerning the preparation and
be free of stress, impervious to diffusion of extraneous applications of silicon nitride have been recently pub-
impurities, and resistant to damage by radiation fields. lished by Milek (1971, 1972).
Often all these characteristics are not obtained A typical infrared spectrum of silicon nitride depos-
because of deposition characteristics or the presence ited on silicon is given in Figure 5.26. The silicon
of impurities (among other problems). nitride spectrum is characterized by a strong band
centered near 830 cm-I, although the band center
Silicon oxide varies somewhat depending on the manner of prepara-
tion of the silicon nitride. Infrared spectra of silicon
In general, silicon oxide films are amorphous, may nitride films prepared by various techniques have also
contain hydroxyl species, and often require thermal been reported by Levitt and Zwicker (1967), Swann
densification to improve structural quality and to and coworkers (1967), Bean and coworkers (1967), T.
relieve localized stress. Pliskin and Lehman (1965) L. Chu and coworkers (1967), and Hu (1966).
and Pliskin and Castrucci (1968) have reported on the The composition of silicon nitride pyrolytically
characteristics of silicon oxide films prepared by a deposited at 850C has been determined by Gyulai and
wide variety of deposition methods. Using infrared, coworkers (1970, 1971A) using MeV ion backscatter-
refractive index, and etch rate measurements, the ing measurements. These measurements show that for
properties of silicon oxide are found to depend signifi- ammonia-to-silane ratios greater than 20, stoichiomet-
cantly on the mode of preparation. Infrared measure- ric silicon nitride is formed. In-depth analysis of the
ments of the 9-{Lm silicon-oxygen vibrational mode films shows that the composition of the pyrolytically
show that shifts occur in the wavelength for the sili- deposited silicon nitride is uniform over the entire film
con-oxygen band center, as well as changes in the thickness. For ammonia-to-silane ratios less than 20,
band half-width, depending on the mode of prepara- the deposited films become silicon rich. The chemical
tion. These effects are reported to be caused by the composition of the silicon nitride deposited with var-
porosity of the films and the bond strain of the silicon ious ammonia to silane ratios is shown to be in close
oxide molecule. Allam and Pitt (1967/68) have shown agreement with the electrical conductivity and etch
that the optical properties of silicon oxide films can be rate properties of the films.
correlated to electrical properties of the films. The Similarly. Croset and coworkers (1971) and Meyer
210 Chapter 5. P. J. Zanzucchi. Heteroepitaxial Thin-Film Semiconductors on Insulating Substrates
and coworkers (1971) have used MeV ion backscatter- Figure 5.27), as indicated by the presence of the
ing experiments to determine the composition of sili- absorption band near 1100 cm- 1 .
con nitride formed by reactive sputtering in argon at The stoichiometry of hydrolytically deposited alu-
300C and by glow discharge methods, respectively. minum oxide has been measured by MeV ion back-
Croset and coworkers (1971) report films with uni- scattering techniques. Mitchell and coworkers
form in-depth composition, although large amounts of (1971A) report that aluminum oxide films grown
argon are present in these films. Stoichiometry is a hydrolytically in the temperature range 600-830C are
function of the nitrogen partial pressure. At small stoichiometric and uniform in depth to 2500 A, the
values of the nitrogen partial pressure an excess of nominal film thickness. Films deposited at the lower
silicon is detected in the films, while at large values an deposition temperatures tend to contain chlorine,
excess of nitrogen is found. Meyer and Scherber which is present in the deposition reaction, up to 2
(1971) also found similar results for MeV ion backscat- atomic percent.
tering analysis of silicon nitride films prepared by glow
discharge decomposition of silane and nitrogen. The Metal contacts
composition of silicon nitride films produced by this
reaction is uniform in-depth while total pressure as Contacts to semiconductor surfaces can interact with
well as silane or nitrogen partial pressure determine the semiconductor and thereby are a parameter in
the composition of the silicon nitride. device performance. With ion-scattering techniques,
The electrical properties of silicon nitride have been the depth-distributed metal-semiconductor interac-
briefly reviewed by Lamb (1970); the characterization tions can be measured. Gyulai and coworkers (1971B)
of silicon nitride films has been reported by Taft have reported on the alloying of gold-germanium on
(1971). GaAs. From 2-MeV helium ion backscattering mea-
surements, the gold is found to penetrate the GaAs in
Aluminum oxide depth to at least 3000 A until consumed. The presence
of germanium lowers the temperature for gold pene-
X-ray studies have shown that aluminum oxide films tration into the GaAs. The authors note that for ohmic
prepared by pyrolysis techniques are amorphous. The contacts on GaAs, gold films for alloying should be
infrared spectrum of amorphous Al 20 3 exhibits one 1:hin (i.e., less than 500 A) and that the temperature
broad absorption band from approximately 12 to 30 and time for alloying the gold should be kept to a
~-tm. Annealing these films at temperatures near 800C minimum.
can induce varying degrees of crystallinity. This is Hiraki and Lugu.ijo (1972) and Hiraki and other
detected in the infrared spectrum by the presence of coworkers (1971) have shown that at temperatures
discrete bands in the 12-30 IL region (see Figure 5.27). less than or equal to 400C, silicon will migrate into
Infrared measurements also show that annealing at silver, gold, or platinum contacts. MeV ion backscat-
high temperatures can cause the formation of silicon tering data show that the silicon migration depends on
oxide at the silicon-aluminum oxide interface (see the silicon surface composition; for example, the pres-
I
(!)
z
Ill
<(
LLI
0::
0
~
LLI
0
z
~
1-
i
Ill
z
<(
0::
1- FIGURE 5.26
LLI Infrared spectrum of amorphous. pyrolytic
>
j:: silicon nitride on silicon. The broad absorption
<(
-' bands occur at approximately 830 and 450 cm-1
LLI
0:: In crystalline, {3 silicon nitride, the main
absorption band occurs at approximately 930
1200 1000 800 600 400 em-' and below 600 em-' a series of sharp,
WAVENUMBER (em-Il discrete bands occur
References 211
r DEPOSITED
/
Al 2 0 3 AFTER
ANNEAL
aooc
FIGURE 5.27
Comparison of aluminum oxide infrared
spectra. The upper trace is an infrared
spectrum of aluminum oxide "as-deposited,"
an amorphous film. The lower trace is an
infrared spectrum of an aluminum oxide film
after an 800C bake. Band structure is evident
1200 1000 800 600 400
in this trace and is indicative of the start of film
WAVENUM8E R ( c ,.;I) crystallization
ence of a thin oxide layer inhibits silicon migration. provide summary .descriptions of widely used tech-
The migration of silicon in platinum causes ~Si or niques for semiconductor analysis. Not all methods
PiSi compounds to be formed, depending on tempera- described here are commonly used in the characteriza-
ture and annealing conditions. These effects probably tion of heteroepitaxial semiconductors; some are
relate to the mechanism of thermal compression bond- included to describe techniques that provide the basis
ing used to attach leads to semiconductor devices. for the more specialized methods. Where possible the
Both insulating films and metal contacts are often characterization of heteroepitaxial composites has
defective because of physical displacements: cracks, been described using what is thought to be data char-
poor surface topology, etc. Scanning electron micros- acteristic of typical properties of these composites,
copy (SEM), which allows for highly magnified images particularly of silicon on sapphire.
of surfaces with good depth of field, is widely used to
investigate physical surface defects (Kammlott, 1971). AcKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author appreciates the assis-
Using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Ham tance of associates at RCA Laboratories in preparing this
and coworkers (1977) have studied the defect struc- chapter. The critical reading of and suggestions relating to
ture of silicon on sapphire composites. These data this chapter by R. E. Honig are especially appreciated.
show the SOS structure can be prepared with good
quality. Solid state devices are generally not flat, often
having valley or plateau structures which are microm- References
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Chapter 6
The Electrical Characterization of
Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
-W. E. Ham
TOP INTERFACE
'---.L--"-BOo...T'-T....:O..c.M----=ci-'-NT--'E=-R-F-'-A..:.C.::.E-+---------' } ""'"'""ern'
SUBSTRATE FIGURE 6.1
Possibility of surface-dominated electrical
Xd =DISTURBED SURFACE REGION properties
bance necessarily creates a large perturbation in the the attainment of structurally near-ideal films for prac-
band structure at the surface and for material within a tical purposes has not yet been achieved.
Debye length of either surface, gross disruption of In addition to strong surface effects, it is usually
ideal electronic transport properties is possible. It is found that the physical film structure and the electrical
these transport properties that are usually used to transport coefficients vary strongly with distance from
characterize semiconducting materials in terms of the substrate, as illustrated schematically in Figure
resistivity, Hall coefficient, and. mobility. In the case 6.2. Elliot and Anderson (1972) [using the theory of
of HSF, however, the measured properties are fre- Petritz (1958)] have suggested a technique for dealing
quently dominated by the properties of the interfaces, with the nonuniformities for the case in which the
and unless special precautions are taken to ensure that conducting portion of the film can be modified in a
the effects of the surface on the transport properties controlled way. The procedure is valid provided the
are well known, misleading information concerning usual concept of Hall coefficients and resistivities
the material properties can be derived from electrical apply and the variations are not too extreme. The
measurements. Note that the effect of the surfaces is technique involves graphical differentiation and is
much stronger than simply the addition of a surface- tedious to apply. There is also the possibility of rela-
scattering mobility term (although such a term is tively large errors, as very precise measurements are
important in some cases) because the surface fields needed.
extend well into the semiconductor. A further compli- In some cases the semiconductor defects are not
cation arises when, as is usually the case, one inter- representable as isolated point defects and impart
face is different from the other and therefore has a some anisotropy to the transport coefficients. A typi-
different surface band structure. These interfaces are cal edge dislocation space charge cylinder or a grain
illustrated in Figure 6. I. boundary are examples of commonly found HSF
Surface effects in bulk silicon have been known for defects that are sometimes not considered when ana-
some time and have been thoroughly discussed by lyzing HSF electrical data. A specific example of this
Many and coworkers (1965) and by Frankl (1967), effect is when a grain boundary crosses between tw0
among many others. Recently, an attempt to include Hall contacts. Because the physical structure of a
the effects of both surfaces on the conductivity of thin HSF is usually much less perfect than bulk single
semiconductor films (Covington and Ray, 1974) was crystal semiconductors, one expects the electrical
made. It was shown that if the interface potentials are transport properties to depend more strongly on treat-
quasisymmetrical (that is, both surface potentials ments that alter physical structure. That is, HSFs are
above or both surface potentials below the "bulk" more sensitive to previous processing history than are
potential), then an extension of Greene and cowork- more perfect semiconductors, and relationships
ers' (1960) treatment of the Boltzman transport equa-
~ ~
tion for the case of symmetrical surface potentials is X
!
possible. These treatments require knowledge of the
surface potentials by independent means. Another SEMICONDUCTOR
excellent treatment of the problem of electrical con- SUBSTRATE
duction in thin semiconducting films has been given by
Anderson (1970) where only one surface was X film X film
I
~i
involved. Here, too, a knowledge of the surface poten- >-
I !:::
tial is necessary. >- I (f)
1-
I z
> w
It is of little comfort to the process control engineer 1-
I 0
u I
to know that theoretical treatments that explain ::::> I 1-
u
0 w
charge transport in ideal films exist when critical z I LJ.. I
0 I w I
parameters are missing. Much of this chapter deals u
X
0
X
with some techniques used to control the surface
potentials. Furthermore, as discussed in Chapter 2, FIGURE 6.2 Variation of properties throughout the film
218 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
ILl
u
z
~ 400
en
en
ILl
a: 300
I-
ILI
ILl
J:
en 200
between the structure and the transport coefficients structive measurements that produce a set of parame-
are of paramount importance in the HSF case. Also, tric values that not only characterize the HSF in its
in nearly every case the HSF are strained because of virgin state but also allow one to predict the changes in
the difference of thermal expansion coefficients the significant properties after such processing steps
between the substrate and the film and perhaps as thermal treatments and oxidations.
because of lattice mismatch. There is no known set of measurements currently
Therefore, it is readily apparent that the task of existing which effectively attains this goal. Part of the
relating a simple electrical transport coefficient mea- reason these measurements do not exist is that non-
surement to a material property such as electrically destructive techniques for reliably evaluating the
active impurity concentration is much more compli- physical characteristics of HSF are not available. If it
cated and likely to be misleading in HSF than in large, is assumed that the structure of the HSF does not
nearly perfect, single crystals. change appreciably for nominally identical film depo-
The goal in the electrical characterization of HSF is sition procedures and that only the effects of electri-
to make a set of simple, quick, reliable, and nonde- cally active impurities of differing concentrations are
important, then one can limit the goal to determining
the degree of change from a standard HSF which is
known to give desirable results after processing. The
validity of this assumption has yet to be proven.
On any unprocessed HSF the following problems
may exist:
1. The exposed HSF surface may be electrically
unstable.
2. There may be electrical contact problems caused
by film thinness or light doping.
3. Only the average electrical parameter values
(throughout the thickness of the film and over the
area of the film sampled by the measurement) may
be obtainable.
4. The unexposed HSF interface may not be
reproducible.
5. Only very low signals may be available for
measurement.
6. The interfaces may not be at flat band because of
interface charges.
It is obvious that any electrical measurements
20 140
should be made in an electrically shielded and optical-
RELATIVE SHEET RESISTANCE
ly dark ambient.
FIGURE 6.4 Effect of different water concentrations in For the specific case of silicon on sapphire (for
N 2 Data were taken after a 5-min exposure to each water which most of this chapter is concerned), long-term
concentration beginning with the lower concentrations and instabilities in the exposed HSF surface have been
progressing to the higher ones noted (as illustrated in Figure 6.3). Here it is seen that
6.2. General Considerations 219
1000 100
UJ
0
z
"'
1-
(I)
(I)
800
UJ
a: 600
1-
UJ
UJ
J:
(I) 400
UJ BREATH
> ION WAFER
~.J '/
'1-
200
UJ STANDARD
a: CLEAN AND FIGURE 6.5 . Some effects of
HF DIP chemical treatments on
00 I 2 3 00 10 20 30 40 50 60 10 different gases and relative
TIME (hrs) TIME(mln) sheet resistance.
wide variations in the sheet resistivity occur upon with mobile impurity concentrations greater than 1017/
simply allowing the film to remain in room air. The cm3 , which is higher than the impurity concentration
moisture content of the ambient is also seen to be an of interest for most practical applications. Therefore,
important factor (Figure 6.4). Certain chemical treat- optical techniques will not be discussed further here.
ments can be used to stabilize the surface, such as Several methods for making electrical contacts to
standard cleaning (H20 2-NH40H solutions), HF dip- unprocessed films are illustrated in Figure 6.6. By the
ping, or heating the film to remove moisture. Figure very nature of a mechanical probe-type contact, it
6.5 illustrates the importance of chemical treatment is not-strictly speaking-nondestructive. The de-
history on the measured values. The actual state of the stroyed area is assumed to be very small compared to
film surface is usually not known. However, if care is the total film area. Regions of very high surface gener-
taken to exactly reproduce the surface treatment, a ation are created under the probe resulting, one hopes,
relative comparison of nearly identical films may be in an ohmic contact. When high-resistivity (lightly
reasonable. doped) material is used, the space charge region under
Except when optical or microwave techniques are the probe may exceed the area of the damaged region
employed, an electrical contact must be made to the and form an electrical barrier. Mechanical probes,
HSF for use as a potential probe or a current source. therefore, are most satisfactory where a small amount
In general, optical techniques are only useful for char- of damage is tolerable and the material is not too
acterizing electronic properties of semiconductors lightly doped. The liquid contacts are usually com-
pletely nondestructive and have the additional proper-
LIQUID ty of being large compared to point probes (by several
Q4~
orders of magnitude in some cases). A disadvantage is
that the size and exact position of these contacts is not
usually accurately known. The requirements for spe-
cific contact resistance are lowered because of the
PROBES
large contact area. The contact spacing must therefore
be large compared to the metal droplet size in order to
maintain effective zero-dimension contacts. Removal
of liquid metal contacts usually requires chemical
treatment.
Perhaps the best controlled of all nondestructive
LIQUIDS contacts are the evaporated, sputtered, or electrode-
posited metals. Here the interface between the semi-
conductor and the metal can be well controlled and the
contact size is accurately known. The dimensions can
be made relatively small using photolithographic tech-
niques. If wires are to be attached to the film, a silver
METALS
paste (metallic suspension in an organic binder) con-
tact may be used.
FIGURE 6.6 Some techniques for providing electrical For routine monitoring of HSF depositions either
connection to unprocessed HSF point probes or liquid contacts should be used, as
220 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
considerable time and effort are required to form the able value, especially for lightly doped and thin HSF.
metal contacts. Suitable metal contacts may require The particulars of the implementation of this method
some surface preparation which can alter its proper- are discussed in Chapter 5.
ties. Overall, the best contacts employed by the
author have been made with the combination of liquid Modified van der Pauw. It is possible to make Hall
droplets and point probes. Processed films usually measurements on unprocessed wafers using the modi-
have the option of using heavily doped regions, such fied van der Pauw technique (MVDP) suggested by
as diffusions, for the contact. Buehler and Pearson (1966). This method, which is
In summary, the main general considerations for the illustrated in Figure 6. 7, consists of using the standard
electrical characterization of HSF are the influence of van der Pauw method (see Chapter 5), except that
the surfaces, the nonuniform distribution of physical nonperipheral contacts are used. The probes must be
and electrical properties, and the technique used for placed near the edges of the film, however, because a
electrical access to the film. Hall field can only be sustained if a nonconducting
boundary exists. Therefore, the use of a square probe
array which occupies only a small portion of the film
6.3. Electrical characterization of area will not be suitable for Hall measurements, as
unprocessed films seen in Figure 6.7c. Results using MVDP are averages
not only throughout the thickness of the film but also
Nondestructive techniques across a wafer. The probes are not placed on the edges
of the film to avoid strong effects from the nonuniform
Four-point probe. The most widely used and well regions near the wafer edges. Comparison of MVDP
known technique for the characterization of unpro- measurements with actual parameter distributions will
cessed wafers is the four-point probe technique. Aver- be discussed later. MVDP exhibits the same first-
age sheet resistance is sought, and the measurements order dependence on the state of the surfaces as the
have first-order dependence on the state of the sur- four-point probe technique. Surface effects are much
face. The method consists of forcing a current stronger in HSF than effects such as nonzero dimen-
between two probes and measuring the resulting sion contacts.
potential difference between the remaining probes.
Usually the probes are equally spaced in a straight Microwave attenuation. A third nondestructive
line. Correction factors for different probe spacing and method that should be useful for characterizing unpro-
sample shape have been computed (Valdes, 1954). In cessed HSF is the microwave attenuation technique.
the absence of stray RF signals and light, the contact Here the wafer is inserted in a microwave circuit or
resistance of the potential probes is not important, as a cavity and the resulting attenuation or absorption can
very high impedance voltage sensing instrument is be measured. The skin depth at usually obtainable
used; the contact resistance of the current contacts is microwave frequencies is much larger than the film
not important because a current is forced. Both RF thickness, so uniform absorption can be a.Ssumed over
signals and light can produce undesirable oc voltages the conducting portion of the film. Microwave reflec-
which interfere strongly with obtaining accurate mea- tion techniques are not suitable because of the large
surements. The four-point probe method is very skin depth. The microwave attenuation technique also
quick, but because of its strong dependence on the suffers from possible surface problems, since the
state of the surface, the measurements are of question- absorption occurs only in the conducting portion of
'
probably the most reliable and easy-to-use technique
for unprocessed films. Note, however, that this tech-
~JZU27@
nique does not measure transport properties directly.
<~'&.._~~
nique involves measuring the resistance between two
more or less spherical probes of the type illustrated in
Figure 6.6. This resistance consists of the spreading
resistance concentrated under each probe and the SILICON ON 100 BULK SILICON
sive probe penetration into the silicon or by variations est to implement. It was found, however, that the
in the resistance between the probes. Smaller-radius treatments investigated to date (quite limited) still
probes would undoubtedly extend the usable range of leave the surface somewhat unstable (see Figure 6.5).
silicon thickness to smaller values both because higher Another technique involves carefully specifying the
spreading resistance is obtained and because less ambient in which the measurements are made. This
probe penetration could be achieved. ultimately produces a stable (i.e., non-time-varying)
Sufficiently exhaustive experiments have not yet surface. Transient responses to varying ambients are
been performed to completely rule out the use of seen in Figures 6.10 and 6.11 where only the moisture
spreading resistance for practical HSF. The possibility content of the ambient was varied. After a week of
of immunity to surface charges and the simplicity of exposure to dry N 2 steady state has not been reached
implementation for both types of film make this meth- for the sample in Figure 6.11. Therefore, even though
od worthy of careful consideration. specifying the ambient may be useful for ultimately
establishing reproducible surface potentials, the time
Destructive techniques responses can be prohibitively long in the dark at
room temperature. The effects of elevated tempera-
The simplest destructive technique is to define an tures and optical excitation to increase the reaction
island of semiconductor on the substrate in a shape rates have been considered but not yet attempted to
suitable for the test to be performed. This usually the author's knowledge. Furthermore, when steady
means defining a Hall bar for more localized measure- state is finally achieved, there is still no information
ments than the MVDP. A pattern can be defined concerning the value of the surface potential. Differ-
without performing significant thermal treatment but ent ambients, of course, produce different steady state
some chemical surface treatment is necessary to form values and the essence of a control technique clearly
small patterns. Large patterns can be formed without exists. A great deal of further work is required on this
chemical surface treatment using razor blade tech- method to find an appropriate ambient and a method
niques. When patterns are defined, additional edge to decrease the response time. Very preliminary work
surfaces are exposed to the ambient and could possi- by the author indicates that wet 0 2 may produce
bly cause severe local disturbance at the edges of the nearly flat band top surfaces on n-type SOS films.
pattern. These edge effects have not been reported on Because both the chemical treatment and the
unprocessed HSF patterns, however, probably ambient technique involve continuous transfer of
because the effects are small compared to the inter- charge from the HSF to the surroundings, the actual
face effects of the top and bottom surfaces. The prima-
ry advantage to using a defined pattern is that local-
ized measurements can be performed.
Another destructive technique involves thinning the
HSF by such techniques as sputtering or anodic oxi-
dation. If surface effects can be suitably accounted
for, this makes profiling the electrical properties of
HSF possible.
...
u wafers [(II 02) single crystal sapphire] were used. The
MVDP resistivity after deposition is plotted against
liJ the dopant flow during deposition in Figure 6.12.
2 Approximately 1200 A of Si0 2 was then deposited on
1-
these wafers, and small holes were cut in the oxide
104
using photolithographic techniques for probing pur-
poses. Opening these holes again exposes the semi-
conductor surface and can cause severe difficulty in
obtaining good contact, as illustrated in Figure 6. I3a
and 6. I3b. The method seen in Figure 6. I3c is best,
but it is difficult to achieve in practice. Such a contact
can be approximated by applying an electric field such
100 500
that dielectric rupture occurs under the probe.
RELATIVE SHEET RESISTANCE
The MVDP measurements were repeated with this
FIGURE 6.11 Recovery (exposure to dry N2 after exposure deposited dielectric, with results as shown in Figure
to wet N 2) for the same film of Figure 6.10 6.14. The important points to note here are that the
measurements with a deposited dielectric indicate a
state of the top interface is difficult to determine dur- lower resistivity and show less scatter than those with
ing an electrical measurement. In short, neither meth- a bare surface. The lower resistivity is probably
od presently allows reliable determination of the sur- caused by an increase in the fixed positive top inter-
face potential. Extensive studies of applying these face charge which either causes accumulation or less
methods to PbSe on NaCl substrates have been per- depletion of the top surface of these n-type films. The
formed (McLane, 1971). decrease in scatter is small, but may indicate some
In order to overcome these difficulties, an insulating "standardization" of the top interface. The deposited
layer may be deposited or grown on the top HSF dielectric was then removed and small photolitho-
surface. The dielectric makes electronic transport
between the ambient and the interface difficult and
"fixes" the surface potential.
It is important that the formation of this dielectric
not change the properties of the HSF in an unknown
way. It is best if the film is not heated to anywhere
near its growth temperature during the dielectric for- 0
0
mation. In the case of SOS, this is at temperatures E
0
0
0
0
0
0
greater than 900C. This deemphasizes the use of I
c: 0
0
0
thermal oxidation for the dielectric since thermal 0
>- 0
-
oxides grow in reasonable times only above =800C !::: 10
>
(at I atmosphere). Deposited silicon oxides, on the i= 0
0
other hand, can be formed, for example, by the oxida- ~
Ul
LI.J 0
tion of silane at temperatures between 325C and I!:
1000.---------.--.--.-.--.--.--.---------.
~~ ~~
100
SEMICONDUCTOR
E ( )
a 0
I
~
FIGURE 6.13 Some methods of contacting the
semiconductor through a deposited dielectric >-
1-
> 0
0
i=
en 0
graphically defined van der Pauw structures were u;
0
8
lJJ
formed and subjected to normal measurements. The a:
0 0
10
results of these measurements are shown in Figure 0
1111111
CORONA DISCHARGE
ELECTROMETER
CHARGE ON OUTER
DIELECTRIC SURFACE
spraying the dielectric smface with charge from a order to (1) control (and know the value of) the top
corona. The dielectric surface potential is measured interface potential and (2) profile the electrical proper-
with a Kelvin probe which is a conductive coating on a ties throughout the film. The basic structure used is
small square of glass that oscillates vertically (= 0.5 illustrated in Figures 6.17 and 6.18, and the type of
mm) above the sample (see Figure 6.16). This probe is data obtained is shown in Figure 6.19. These struc-
connected to an electrometer and the sample is con- tures are quite suitable for the reliable characterization
nected to a reference voltage; when the reference of the top portion of HSF. Unfortunately, the amount
voltage is the same as the surface potential, the elec- of effort required to fabricate such a structure is com-
trometer reads null. This technique requires no metal- parable to fabricating an integrated circuit. Neverthe-
lization and is at least useful for determining the less, even though these structures do not answer the
amount of surface effect possible. There is some prob- need for a simple characterization tool immediately
lem with the dielectric surface potential changing with after deposition, they are very useful in determining
time (because of the dielectric's small surface conduc- the properties of HSF after some processing has
tance) and with determining the actual semiconductor occurred.
surface potential. No experimental data are currently By varying the outer dielectric potential (or gate
available with this technique, unfortunately. voltage, as it is commonly called), the conduction in
The use of metal electrodes on whole wafers has not the film can be forced away from the top surface. This,
been reported and might be expected to be unsuccess- therefore, allows the contribution of the top part of the
ful in any case since, unless the dielectrics were abso- films to be gradually and controllably removed. Only
lute free of pinholes, the structure would not be satis- current carriers deeper in the film than the surface
factory . The corona technique does not suffer from space charge layer can contribute to the current. The
this pinhole problem because of the dielectrics' low depth of film that can be depleted depends on the
surface conductivity.
These are the nondestructive methods which have
been considered to date. None of them are entirely
SEMICONDUCTOR
satisfactory. The main problems are lack of knowl-
edge of surface potential and that the large areas
involved prohibit the application of intimate metallic
contact to the dielectric surface. Therefore, a signifi-
cant amount of research on the properties of smaller
defined structures has been performed.
FIGURE 6.18
Photomicrograph of a gate-controlled
Hall bar
exact structure used. For the case of the simple gate- deep penetration at the top surface space charge layer
controlled Hall bar of Figure 6.17 the maximum deple- is required.
tion depth is determined by the doping of the film N, The link to the semiconductor surface potential
and the dielectric constant, e,e0 , of the semiconductor from the applied gate voltage is provided by the analy-
sis of the dependence of the surface capacitance on
_ (2e,e0 <1>s(inv)) 112 ( 6.!) the applied potential. It is possible to determine from
xa,.., - qN :
this data the gate potential at which there is no vertical
where <fl.(inv) is the surlace potential for strong inver- field across the HSF or the so-called fiat band condi-
sion (Grove, 1967). tions. These analyses are well documented in the
Attempts to force the depletion depth further results literature [see Zaininger and Heiman (1970) and refer-
only in obtaining charge at the top semiconductor ences therein] and will not be discussed in detail here.
surface in a so-called inversion layer. The inversion In addition, the depth of the surface space charge
layer only appears under the gate metal and does not region can be determined from the surface capacitance
contribute to the observed current either because the values. Appropriate use of this C- V data depends
gate does not extend to the ohmic contacts (if such are critically on having a reliable value for the capaci-
used) or because the contacts are of opposite type to
the inversion layer (such as with diffused contacts). ~~~~~~~~~
The depletion depth can be extended by making elec- ~ 40 CAPACITANCE ~:=
trical contact to the inversion layer and applying addi- ...
<.!)
;:;~
if-
<(
tance, and a whole section of this chapter is devoted to in the lower part of the films. One can always combine
this important subject. the depletion depth from C- V measurements with
Gate-controlled Hall structures provide, therefore, resistivity measurements to obtain a resistivity profile.
the possibility of accurately measuring the electrical A further practical problem exists when attempting
properties of HSF under known top surface to make Hall measurements below a certain thickness
conditions. level. This problem mainifests itself as an anomalous
Both the surface capacitance and Hall measurement change in the potential between the Hall contacts
can be used to determine the doping level of the HSF (V AB) as conduction is forced deeper into the film by
under certain conditions. The rate of change of the the gate field. This problem only appears on films that
surface capacitance with surface potential is related to can be depleted below a certain depth. Data on this
the number of ionized immobile species in the film subject from films of different thicknesses are shown
under surface depletion conditions. In a simple, nearly in Figure 6.20. It is normal for V AB to increase as the
perfect film in which no appreciable charges exist at conduction is forced into the bottom part of the film
the interface, each of these ionized species represents because V AB is caused primarily by small misalign- . .
a donor or acceptor. Each donor or acceptor contrib- ments of the arms. It is not normal, however, in a
utes one charge carrier under nondepleted conditions, structurally perfect film, for V AB to first increase and
provided sufficient thermal energy exists at the tem- then decrease.
perature of interest to ionize the species. This is the The data in Figure 6.20 for the 2.5-, 1.5-, and 1.0-~-tm
essence of the connection between surface capaci- devices are approximately as expected. These devices
tance and film doping. If the species is not ionized at were thicker than xdrnax. The thinner devices, how-
the temperature of interest, it may still be ionized by ever, show strongly anomalous behavior whose onset
varying the surface potential. In general, however, the is observed progressively into accumulation as the
surface capacitance is also affected by charge at the film becomes thinner. We note in this figure and in
surface which is energetically distributed throughout Figure 6.19 that the voltage does not always approach
the band gap (surface states). This affects the direct zero as heavy accumulation is reached. This is due to
application of the C- V data to determine the ionized zero offset drift in the voltage sensing system and is
impurity density. The value of the surface capacitance not due to properties of the film.
can always be used to determine the depth of the The cause of this phenomenon may be related to the
surface space charge layer. physical structure of the films below a certain depth.
Hall measurements can provide information con- In particular, the structure illustrated schematically in
cerning the concentration and mobility of the charge Figure 6.21 provides an intuitively satisfying explana-
earners that are able to move at the temperature of the tion for the observations. While the conduction is
measurement. Only in the case in which all dopant allowed to remain in the normal scattering part of the
species are ionized is there a direct relationship film, normal V AB behavior is observed. As the conduc-
between a single Hall measurement and the film dop- tion is forced below this level, the potential developed
ing. The Hall measurements are averaged throughout across the barrier is added to the normal V AB and
the conducting part of the film whereas the C- V mea-
surements are localized. Combinations of the two 200
measurements allow calculation of the doping and LOW 10 15 n-TYPE FILMS- IIOOA OXIDE
~
~
conductor interface. When the current is forced to
flow in this low-conductivity portion of the film, it
~50
~
u ,r1.5p.
(\( \
becomes difficult to maintain sufficiently high currents ! 0
-r~
ID
\.2.5p. \5p.
to produce accurately measurable Hall voltages with- >"'
out impressing too much voltage across the current -50
contacts. The voltage across the current contacts must
be maintained at a low enough value to ensure a .7p.
-100
constant interface potential. The Hall Voltage is deter- I
mined by the current (not the current density) and the -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2
GATE VOLTAGE
film has low mobility near the bottom interface, both
of which contribute to the extreme difficulty of making FIGURE 6.20 V AB dependence on gate voltage with no
reliable Hall measurements in the lower part of HSF. applied magnetic field under constant current conditions for
No such limitation exists for resistivity measurements gate-controlled SOS Hall bars
228 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
- - - - AT MAX DEPLETION ( Dl
6 - - - - A T MEASURED FLAT BAND (FB)
"'E
t)
.....
~ 5
2
z
0 4
~a:: E
z
.... :1..
UJ 3 1.1
<..> MVDP DATA (/)
z (/)
UJ
0
<..> z
><:
a:: 2 1.0
~ FIGURE 6.22
!!:! :r:
a::
a::
.... Flat band Hall carrier concentration (CCFB),
<[
0.9 0
z maximum top surface depletion Hall carrier
<..>
<..> concentration (CCv), and the silicon
.J
Cii thickness variation across a 1.5-inch-
0 diameter SOS p-type wafer
6.4. Top semiconductor surface control techniques for electrical characterization 229
5
TOP
E
~ 4
c:: I 200
>
<.>
"'"'
I
>- .....
I
I-
> 3
N
E
i= <.>
en
en >-
LIJ 2 100 !:::
a:: ..J
iii FIGURE 6.23
0
:::!: Flat band resistivity (p FB) and Hall mobility
..J
..J (JL FB) and maximum top surface depletion
<(
:I: resistivity (p D) and Hall mobility (JL D)
QL-------------------------------------~ 0 across the same wafer of Figure 6.22
R _ VHtm
Hm- JB ' (6.2) The values of p, RH, and tins were used in Equations
(6.3) and (6.4) to predict the observed values of Pm and
where V 8 is the flat band Hall voltage, I is the current, RHm These results are illustrated in Figures 6.24 and
and B is the magnetic field. The Hall coefficient in the 6.25. A reasonably good fit with the observed data is
normal scattering portion of the film is therefore seen. The difference between the MVDP data and the
apparent actual HSF top surface properties is quite
R _ VH(tm-tins) _ R Ctm-tins) (6 .3)
H- /B - Hm tm . considerable. It appears that in this case the exposed
surface was nearly at flat band conditions and that the
Similarly, the resistivity is discrepancy was caused almost entirely by the bottom
portion of the film being insulating relative to the top
Ctm-tins)
P = Pm (6.4) portion. Some further discussion concerning the
tm
nature of this insulating region will be presented later
One can determine tins. RH, and p from flat band in this chapter.
measurements from two bars of different thickness,
tm, and t,..: Capacitance-voltage methods
X
P= 0.0938
tins= 0.688
.8
.7
X
X
.6 XX X
x"x
E
0
I .5 x x ~ THEORETICAL
c:
E M V D P - - - x :_x ~~--- ~
"- X X X X X"-X ...............
.4 X X X
X XX X~ FIGURE 6.24
X Theoretical [from Equation
X
.3 (6.4)] and experimental
variations in the measured
resistivity assuming a
uniformly conducting film
.78 .80 .82 .84 .86 .88 .90 .92 .94 .96 CPm) as a function of actual
tm (~m) film thickness. n-type SOS
V L Oo
ing into depletion (or out of heavy accumulation in I=--=
some cases). When this happens, the simplest model is z
no longer applicable, because the series resistance of
the structure may become a significant fraction of the
total impedance. A small-signal steady state AC analy-
sis is considered. Usually the conductance in parallel
(6.9)
with the surface capacitance, C,., is much smaller
than we m and the following analysis neglects it The 90 component of the current with respect to the
entirely. driving voltage is given by
As a first approximation, the circuit shown in Figure
6.26 will be analyzed. This is a lumped representation I L 90o = Vs L 90o = wCmjVI (6.10)
Rs I + R~er C7,.w 2
and describes the situation in bulk semiconductor
MOS capacitors. V s represents the voltage across a and the 0 component is
sense resistor and is assumed to be negligibly small. In
practice, any current-detecting circuit can be used in I L oo = RserW2 C7r.jVI (6.II)
I + R~er C7,.w 2 '
place of R 8 Neglecting Rs and using standard
notation: Of course, the desired parameters should be available
RH = 34.4
tins= 0.685
300
FIGURE 6.25
Theoretical [from Equation
100 (6.3)] and experimental
variations in the measured
Hall coefficient assuming a
uniformly conducting film
.78 .80 .82 .84 .86 .88 .90 .92 .94 .96 (RHJ as a function of actual
tm(~m) film thickness
6.4. Top semiconductor surface control techniques for electrical characterization 231
I L0
!VI I L 90
(6.16)
z
If, I L 0/I L 90 < O.I, then
,.. lVI I L oo (6.17)
Rser (I L 90o)2"
FIGURE 6.27
Model for SOS/MOS capacitor where electrical contact
is made from one side only; t ox is the thickness of the
oxide layer
232 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
at flat band or depletion. p is the resistivity of the resistivity that is important, however. The sheet resis-
conducting silicon. Thus, tance, whether in accumulation or depletion, is the
important parameter.
R serW C m = pL 2EoxEsiW
( )( . (6.21) These closed-form solutions are possible because a
t film- t dep 1 Esi t ox +Eox t dep 1)
lumped analysis was used with Rser intuitively
Notice that square of the distance from the contact is obtained from Equation (6.20). The actual situation
involved. One can readily calculate the maximum sur- unfortunately is not quite as simple and requires an
face depletion tolerable, tdepl max for valid results (i.e., exact analysis with the resistance distributed under
for RserWCm < 0.1) given p, L, f 0 x, and t1nm the gate.
t = -(foxEsi__ fmm) (6.22)
depl max 2Eox 2 Distributed case. Referring to Figure 6.28,
2
+ [(toxEsi _ fmm) + Esi t t.
2Eox 2 Eox ox !tim
dV(x) = V(x+dx)- V(x) = rdxl(x), (6.25)
where r is the resistance per unit length x.
= 0 if
r
Note that t dept max
Also
Esi
r r
10PL 2 Es1W =- foxffilm (6.23)
Eox I(x) = dl(x) (6.26)
OXIDE
I (X) CONDUCTING
REGION
I~
0
--x SUBSTRATE l
FIGURE 6.28
Model for the distributed analysis
6.4. Top semiconductor surface control techniques for electrical characterization 233
r f [V~PP r
I(x) = Vapp- ri(x)dx ]jwCRdx (6.30) that if r = 0,
I(O) = jw V app C RL. (6.45)
V(x) = r - ri(x)dx] jwCRdx,
Let M = (wC R) 112 then
(6.31)
di(x)
~ =-
[
Vapp- Jorx ri(x)dx ] JWCRdx,
. (6.32) H = v2 r 112 ML (6.46)
and
d 2 I(x) .
--;[;2 = ri(x) JWC R (6.33)
dH = y'2 ML !_-112 (6.47)
or dr 2
d::;:) -A 2 I(x) = 0, (6.34) Applying !'Hospital's rule to Equation (6.44) one finds
that the derivative of the bracketed numerator for r =
where
0 is - j2 v'2 ML; and the derivative of r 112 times the
(6.35) bracketed denominator at r = 0 is 2. So,
The boundary conditions are at x
= 0 [from Equation (6.32)]
= L, I = 0; and at x
I(O)r~o = [- v; Vapp (wC R) 112 ] X
(6.39) and
Although the distribution of current is given in Equa- Therefore, define in the distributed case
tion (6.37), it is the current at x = 0 that is measured
I(O) L 90
and therefore is of the greatest interest. This current an=
I r~o(O) L 90
per unit width is
_ 1 [e- 2H-2e-Hsin(H)-1]
D - - H 112 e 2H+2e-Hcos(H)+1
I(O) = A(l +e-2AL) (e-2AL_l) (6.41)
(6.53)
which reduces after a lengthy separation of real and I(O) L 0
imaginary parts to f3n =I r~o(O) L 90
I(O) =
VZK
----uJ X
1 [e- 2H+2e-Hsin(H)-1]
= - H 112 e 2H+2e II cos (H)+1
DISTRIBUTED
a .99; /3 0.1
FIGURE 6.30
Values of wr where a = 0.99 and fJ =
0.1 for the distributed case (Figure
10 6.28) where t ox = 1000 A and E0 x =
3.82. Note that the length dependence
follows nearly a square law as in the
lumped case
Some experimental results. The application of the lation and inversion because both n- and p-type con-
theoretical considerations to an actual MOS capacitor tacts were used.
can be seen in Figure 6.34. These data were acquired Proceeding from accumulation to inversion one can
from a 0.5-~.tm-thick n-type SOS film at a measure- see the transition from a situation in which series
ment frequency of 10kHz. A significant part of the 90 resistance is unimportant to a situation in which it
current component was provided by a nonvoltage- dominates the impedance. By comparing the 0 and
varying capacitance (c overlap) in parallel with the 90 curves it can be seen that the onset of serious
desired capacitance. This additional current biases the series resistance effects occur at y "" 0.2 and that the
90 current upward. The current discussed in the theo- first indication occurs, as predicted, at y "" 0.1. The
retical section includes only the current above this axis labeled "capacitance" does not really apply in
value. The capacitor illustrated exhibits both accumu- the region where the series resistance is appreciable.
NON-DISTRIBUTED
a.99~,BO.I
236 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
a,p
.5
.4
.3
.2
FIGURE 6.32
.I
a and {3 variations for a 1000 A thermal silicon oxide .
Note that as Cm becomes a smaller percentage of Cox
(i.e., in depletion) larger values of rare still within the
tolerable range. The configuration of Figure 6.28 is
assumed with L = 2 mil
The data fit the theory for the distributed case since It is clear from the data in Figures 6.34 and 6.35 that
both the oo and 90 currents are the same in the region a measurement of the 0 current is essential in order to
in which H is very high. It is also of interest to note properly interpret the data. Consider the interpreta-
that the series resistance becomes important almost tion one might give to the 100 kHz curve of Figure
immediately after the fiat band point is passed. This is 6.35 without an awareness of series resistance effects
consistent with the earlier discussion concerning the and the importance of the oo current.
resistivity profile of SOS films. The cause for the hysteresis in the curves is not
Some further data on thinner films are shown in currently known but is probably related to slow charge
Figure 6.35, which shows the frequency dependence trapping at defects in the film. It is always observed
of the C- V curves. This capacitor is the same design when conduction is forced near the bottom of the film.
as the one in Figure 6.34. Here again, the essential
features of the theory are confirmed. This particular Design considerations. The series resistance effects
sample showed strong series resistance even in accu- indicate that the capacitor should be made as small as
mulation at the higher frequencies. possible if it is to be used in a general application
1.2 r---.-------,.-----,.------,-----,-----.-----r---,
FIGURE 6.33
6 7 8 Plot for determining H from y (=/LOll L 90). y
H tj2WrLCm is the observable
6.4. Top semiconductor surface control techniques for electrical characterization 237
0.2
DOMINATING THE ~
MEASUREMENT
I
I~ :
I
CovER LAP
o COMPONENT FIGURE 6.34
'?IL,.0---8~---~6----1:4--~----,~"--2~--+4---6---!8~-~~o I L 90" and I L 0" measurements at 10
BIAS (VOLTS) kHz on a 0.5-~J-m n-type SOS film
where many different resistivities and thicknesses of (aLI1L + LI1L) = 2LI1L(l +a). The area sensitivity is
silicon are likely. Thus, for thermal silicon oxides (Eox
= 3.82) of the order of 1000 A thickness the capacitor
area should be =5 mil2 This gives maximum capaci-
tances of the order of 1.0 pF. Larger capacitances may
of course be obtained by using several parallel capaci- 11a/ a is minimum for a~ oo and has the value 211LI L.
tors or an interdigitated structure. Lateral nonuni- For the square (a=l), 11a/a = 411LIL or twice that of
formities are then more likely to influence the mea- the long bar. The circle on the other hand has an area
surements. With modem equipment the 1 pF sensitivity of 11a/ a = 411LI d which is essentially the
maximum capacitance is not unduly small. same as the square so it appears that there is no
The optimum shape of the capacitor electrode is particular advantage of using a circle. Obviously, the
considered next. The area should be as insensitive to area sensitivity is reduced by making the size (L or d)
the fabrication process as possible while still minimiz- larger, but this increases the series resistance effects
ing size to maintain minimum series resistance. During by the square of the dimension.
the fabrication process a certain deviation from the The smallest geometry is dictated by the degree to
design dimensions will occur. This is denoted by 11L. which the dimensional aspects of the process can be
11L will be removed (or occasionally added) approxi- controlled. This not only include 11L but contacting
mately uniformly around all of the peripheries of the techniques (usually diffusions). 11L is typically less
electrode by the processing. than 2.5 ILm for polysilicon or aluminum, and lateral
Consider the general rectangular form in Figure diffusions are frequently of the order of 1 ILm. Thus,
6.36. The area is a = aL 2 , and to first order 11a = 2 for 5 percent accuracy the minimum fundamental
1.2.---.---.---.--.------,,---.--.---.--.-----,
1.0
0.2!5,uN Al GATE
.8
,._
Q.
w
~.6
~
u
~.4
ct
u
.2
FIGURE 6.35
I L 90 and I L 0" measurements at
?s~~Q-4~~--~3~~-~2~~-~~~~~o~.~~~~~--~2~~~3--~~4~~~5 various frequencies for a 0.25 11-m n-type
GATE VOLTAGE (VOLTS) SOS film
238 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
~------------------al----------------~
T~~----------------, ~
l L_________________ j OL
~L
dimensions are of the order of 50 ~tm. Dimensions as 2. The 50 x 50 ~tm pad is difficult to contact because
small as 6 ~tm have been used in some cases as it is quite small.
discussed later. These small dimensions can cause 3. The probe can scrape the metal over the oxide
difficulty. Attention is given to the square configura- causing shorts or errors in the metal size.
tion for the remainder of this section, although by 4. The dielectric surface between the oxide metal and
lengthening any of the designs such that a > = 4 the the contact diffusion does not have a controlled
long bar case may be formed. surface potential. This problem will be discussed in
more detail later.
ONE POSSIBLE DESIGN. The 50-~tm square can be 5. The contact mask aligns exactly with the diffusion.
implemented as shown in Figure 6.37. Note that there Therefore, if the contact mask is slightly misa-
is 12 ~tm of undiffused silicon surrounding the oxide ligned to the diffusion, the metal can contact the
metal in an attempt to eliminate the effects of the undiffused silicon resulting perhaps in an unsatis-
lateral contact diffusion. The problems involved with factory contact.
this design are as follows: One of the advantages of this capacitor structure is
1. The contacting probes can cause oxide failures by that there are no semiconductor steps that the oxide
mechanically punching through the oxide. This metal must cross. However, because the area of the
problem is not severe if excessive probe pressures step can be very small compared to the total metal
are not used. area, no appreciable errors in the capacitance should
ALUMINUM OXIDE
UNO I
FiGURE 6.37
One possible HSF/MOS capacitor design
6.4. Top semiconductor surface control techniques for electrical characterization 239
+-_j
MOS capacitors (Schroder and Nathanson, 1970)
I
can supply minority carriers.
L_~ 4. If the material is n-type and the aluminum metal
- -7~m
contacts the undiffused silicon (i.e., a p-n junction
exists), a generous supply of holes is available. In
order for this to cause a rise in the depletion part of
the curve, there must be either a very high-lifetime
PAD material (so the minority carriers can diffuse) or an
inversion region under the unprotected oxide must
exist. This can be caused by surface charges (ions)
FIGURE 6.38 HSF/MOS capacitor where probing over the
as discussed next.
active region is not required In order to further investigate the nature of this
inversion layer, a capacitor made from 0.5-~m n-type
SOS (doped 2-4 x 1015/cm3) film using the design of
result by allowing the gate metal to cross a step unless Figure 6.37 with only one type of diffusion (same type
an oxide dielectric failure at the step occurs. A capaci- as the silicon) was measured. These results are shown
tor with a narrow strip of metal connecting the oxide in Figure 6.40. This material should have a doping-
metal to a standard integrated circuit contact pad is thickness combination which allows the material to be
shown in Figure 6.38. This design eliminates three of completely depleted throughout. (With the "insulat-
the problems above. ing" layer model for the film there is little doubt for
Problems 4 and 5 show up as either minority carrier this type of film.)
sources or as series resistance. The minority carrier Capacitance (90 current component) measure-
sources cause a rise in the inversion side of the C- V ments were taken first starting at point A. The accu-
curve and are undesirable. This is particularly impor- mulation capacitance based on area and oxide thick-
tant if automatic testing is used, because the minimum ness should be =0.8 pF. The voltage was swept
point is a fundamental property of the C-V curve (as positively to point B, back to point A, then to C-D, D-
STRONG LIGHT
LiiiOO
u
z
<(
1-
u 80
<(
a.. DARK
<(
u
Iii 60
Cl
X
0
l1o KHz I
LL 40
0
1-
z
Iii
u 20 DARK
0:
Iii STRONG LIGHT
a.. 0COMPONENT........_ J
FIGURE 6.39
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 Some anomalous effects possible with the capacitor
BIAS (VOLTS) design of Figures 6.37 and 6.38
240 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
5. Scattering of carriers by the collision with the the relation of this current to the material properties
surface. may be difficult, an empirical examination of these
6. Electric fields perpendicular to the surface which surface-dominated currents can provide a basis for
influence the distribution and amount of charge in comparison of devices of different thickness.
the silicon. When very-thin-film devices are fabricated in SOS
7. Electric fields parallel to the surface which may material, thermal oxidation can consume the entire
influence the effective scattering or trapping cross silicon supply. Therefore, most, if not all, of the gate
sections by affecting the carrier velocity. dielectric material must be deposited. An example of
8. "Boxing in" of charge by enclosed potential bar- data from a narrow-channel MOS device fabricated on
riers. Such charges are trapped in a sense but can a 350-A final silicon thickness film is shown in Figure
move freely within the semiconductor between 6.45. This device was fabricated by depositing 500 A
the barriers. Only those with sufficient energy to of nominally undoped silicon, thermally oxidizing
surmount the potential barrier can contribute to until 300 A of thermal oxide was produced and subse-
the observed currents. quently depositing =800 A of Si02 This procedure
9. Lateral nonuniformities. allowed the film to coalesce before oxidation and con-
10. Surface roughness. sumed only a minimal amount of silicon. The thermal
The most easily accessible data trom a very-thin- oxidation was used because thermal oxides produce
film device is the oc current flowing in a gate-con- better interfaces with silicon than do deposited oxides.
trolled Hall bar, resistor, or transistor. Even though Boron diffusions were used for the contacts. Because
244 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
pleted portion of the film, the analysis of Section 6.4. 10- 3.,..-----r-----.----.----.------,
could be applied since a direct measurement of Ps (the
sheet resistance of the conducting layer) is provided
from the measured currents. However, especially near
the minimum current (between V G = -5 and V G = -2 _5 VAPP=IOOmV
in Figure 6.46), there is the possibility that current 10
thermally generated in or near the depletion region
can also be appreciable. It is not immediately clear
what the limiting mechanism for this minimum current
is. The current immediately above the minimum cur- rn
rent is at least partly ohmic since shrinking the deple- ~
<(
10-7
tion region provides both for a decrease in the deple- 1-
tion region volume (which obviously would decrease z
~ 10-e
any thermally generated current) and for ohmic con- Cl:
::l
duction through the previously depleted silicon. u
Therefore, in the range well above the minimum cur-
rent, p s is known and the analysis of Section 6.4 can
be used.
It appears from the data of Figure 6.46 that a very
strong resistivity gradient exists even near the surface
of this relatively thin film. The current decreases a
factor of 60 from fiat band to V G = -0.5 V and
considerable depletion still occurs between -0.5 and -12
10
-2.0 V. This suggests that the bottom interface is not
imminently close at V G = -0.5 V. Such a strong
resistivity gradient deserves further discussion. 1013....__ _-=-'::-::-----:":----...l.----L----....J
.002 .004 .006 .008
The current-limiting mechanism in such a gradient 1/T("Kl
may be revealed by examination of the temperature
dependence of the current in this region. A complete FIGURE 6.47 Reciprocal temperature dependence of the
set of the reciprocal temperature dependence of the currents at different gate voltages for the same device used
currents shown in Figure 6.46 is illustrated in Figure for the data of Figure 6.46
6.47.
This type of data is valuable for the development of pretation is quite different however because silicon
the profile of the conduction mechanisms throughout near the bottom interface is very defective and the
the film. The data in Figure 6.47 are described by a substrate, which serves as the dielectric, is orders of
constant activation energy below fiat band and by a magnitude thicker. Wrigley and Kroko found that the
progressively decreasing energy as heavy accumula- electrical conduction between diffused regions in SOS
tion is reached. The behavior in accumulation is quali- films can be significantly modified by the application
tatively what one would expect from the theory of of these fields. They attribute their data to inversion or
surface transport (Garrett and Brattain, 1955). As the accumulation layers at the silicon-insulator interface
surface potential becomes closer to the conduction and note that the temperature dependence of these
band edge energy, the activation energy decreases. On currents is characterized by an activation energy
the other hand, all of the conduction below fiat band is which varies with the degree of accumulation or inver-
described by a single energy. This suggests that a sion, similar to the variations in accumulation in Fig-
single thermally activated process is the current-limit- ure 6.47. By directly observing the currents, the actual
ing mechanism and that the number of such limiting transport properties near the interface can be inferred.
regions increase dramatically into the film. More will Unfortunately, only very limited data are available on
be said concerning this subject in a later section. The the bottom interface transport properties using this
above discussion illustrates the type of information method. Because the substrate is always much thicker
which may be obtained from this second method. than the dielectrics discussed in earlier sections, very
A third method for characterizing the silicon adja- large voltages (several kilovolts) are required to
cent to the substrate surface, first used by Wrigley and induce significant charge into the semiconductor.
Kroko (1969) and later by Cullen and coworkers Absolute dielectric integrity of the substrates is there-
(1973), involves applying an electric field perpendicu- fore required to avoid catastrophic destruction not
lar to the surface through the substrate. This tech- only of the device under test but also of the sensitive
nique is based on the same principles as the method input stages of sensing instrumentation. Also, great
used for top surface control. The application and inter- care must be exercised that the conductivity of the
246 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
substrate is such that oc currents flowing not only observed current is flowing in the "bulk" of the film or
through the substrate but also across its surface are near the top surface. Studies on heavily defected semi-
small compared to the currents of interest in the conductors (such as polycrystalline silicon) or heavily
device. These currents are in the picoamp range under dislocated single crystal silicon probably will find
some conditions (cf. Figure 6.47). application in interpreting the electrical properties of
A fourth technique for the characterization of the the bottom portion of HSF. A brief discussion of this
interface silicon, recently reported by Goodman nature is presented in Section 6.8.
(1975), is closely related to Wrigley and Korko's meth-
od. Goodman measured the capacitance-voltage
characteristics of the bottom interface by varying the
6.6. Automatic measurement techniques
field in the substrate. Because the substrate is very The electrical characterization of HSF requires not
thick compared to the film depletion thickness, only only measuring average properties across the wafers
very small variations in capacitance are measured and and making detailed measurements on individual test
careful instrumentation is required. Information devices but also examination of the distribution of
regarding the bottom interface potential can be electrical properties across the wafer surface. This is
obtained by analyzing the C-V data. As with C-V the primary motivation for using automatic testing
measurements from the top, surface transport proper- since many repetitive tests are required. Another
ties are only indirectly inferred. Goodman's measure- advantage of automatic testing is that a sufficient
ments on SOS films indicate that except for a marked quantity of data can be generated to allow random
increase in the so-called fast surface state density the effects to be averaged and rarely occurring phenome-
bottom interface is qualitatively similar to the top na to be found. Many different types of measurements
interface. Measurement of C-V properties through the can be made automatically. Two of the less common
substrate provides conceptually a nondestructive types which are of particular value for HSF are
method for evaluating HSF near the substrate after described here. These are the analysis of HSF/MOS
deposition. Even though the transport properties of C- V curves and the analysis of gate-controlled resis-
this region may be radically different from those near tivity structures. The discussion of transport coeffi-
the top of the film, a possibility exists that the ioniza- cient measurements is here limited to resistivity
ble doping density is reasonably uniformly distributed. because it is technologically difficult to obtain any
Of the methods described, only the method other type automatically across a wafer in a reasona-
described by Wrigley and Kroko provides direct mea- ble time. This is caused by the type of stimuli required
surement of the electrical transport properties near the (such as strong magnetic fields or controlled thermal
bottom interface on the actual film of interest with gradients) and by the relatively weak response of the
relative confidence in where the conduction is taking structures to these stimuli. It is, of course, possible to
place in the film. The methods described in this sec- automate most measurements for individual struc-
tion are merely modifications of the top surface con- tures. The main emphasis here, however, is on investi-
trol techniques and (except for different practical con- gating the uniformity of properties across large areas
straints) are not really distinctly different. The of wafer surfaces. The basic instrument used in auto-
communication to the surface potential is still through
matic testing is a computer-controlled integrated cir-
the MOS capacitor and the sample current still pro-
cuit tester with programmable voltage and current
vides the basic output concerning the transport prop-
supplies and a mechanism for stepping the wafer
erties of the conducting portion of the films. It must be
under a set of fixed probes. This electrical interface
borne in mind, however, when analyzing the electrical
requires that electrical access to the test structures be
data, that the physical structure of the heteroepitaxial
through standard integrated circuit contact pads. Use
silicon film is much less perfect near the substrate than
of these methods was recently described by (Crossley
near the top (Chapter 2). Naive application of formu-
and Ham, 1973)
las and concepts applying only to more perfect struc-
tures may lead to erroneous conclusions. There is Capacitance voltage measurements
considerable evidence that the lower portion of the
film is of importance in device operation and therefore The capacitance measurement hardware is shown
is not to be overlooked. On the other hand, as illustrat- schematically in Figure 6.48. The capacit~ce meter is
ed in Figure 6.45, it takes stronger stimuli to obtain fed with bias voltage, to be applied to the capacitor,
appreciable conduction in the bottom region than in from the programmable power supplies of the DC
the top region. Examination of Figure 6.46 shows tester with an accuracy 1 mV. The capacitance mea-
rapidly decreasing conductivity as the bottom inter- surement is made with a 15-mV AC signal added to the
face is approached. Therefore, in considering electri- DC bias, and the meter output is an analog voltage
cal data obtained by varying only the top surface which is measured by the programmable digital volt-
potential, it is reasonable to assume that most of the meter (DVM) of the DC test set. For the work
6.6 Automatic measurement techniques 247
described here, the capacitance meter is set to 1 pF ment is above or below the target value) in
FSD range: the instrument is not range programmable progressively smaller increments until the measured
by the computer. The measurement frequency can be capacitance is within 1 percent of the target value.
between 10kHz and 1 MHz, depending on the type of To calculate the doping density, N, from the C- V
material being measured. The lower frequencies curve, the slope, dC/dV, must be measured. This is
require care to ensure that the measurement is not done by using the iterative technique to find the volt-
unduly noisy. ages corresponding to two capacitance values close to
Because tests may be made on capacitors with C 112 , C', and C" where
either conductivity-type semiconductor, the discus-
sion which follows omits reference to voltage signs so C' = C 112 + 0.1(Cacc-Cmv)
that the statements made apply to both cases. For the and corresponds to V'
purposes of explanation, reference is made to Figure and
6.49, which is a possible C- V curve for n-Si. Testing
C" = C112- O.l(Cacc-Cinv)
proceeds as follows:
and corresponds to V".
First, the accumulation and depletion capacitances,
Cacc and C 1nv are measured with 10-V DC bias. This Then,
voltage is usually large enough to produce heavy accu-
mulation or depletion without regard to the actual dC
dV
I = 0.2(Cacc -Cinv)
(6.63)
V'- V"
material doping. Other values may be appropriate in c112
other cases. Note that capacitors with both inversion Let Cn = C 112 /Cacc The following standard formula
and accumulation contacts, such as in Figure 6.43, can then be used to calculate N:
produce curves similar to those of Figure 6.34 and
6.35. These types of curves are much more difficult to dCn (Cn)3 E~x 1 dC
(6.64)
analyze automatically than are the type in which only dV = Es1qNt~x = Cox dV"
the accumulation side produces high capacitance (cf.
Hence,
Figure 6.42 and 6.49). The value of C ace is noted and
compared to the value expected for the geometry and (6.65)
oxide thickness used. If C ace is not reasonable, the
capacitor is assumed defective (C shorU To prevent
Substituting,
spurious data from being retained, testing is halted if
the C 10JCacc ratio is greater than 0.85 (a symptom of N = (Cn) 3 Cicc (6.66)
bad contacts or damaged gate metal). With C ace and a 2 Es1q(dCJdV)
C lnv known, the following are calculated: (C t 10 3(V'- V")
(6.67)
C _ Cacc + Clnv
1/2- 2 (6.61)
where e81 is the dielectric constant of Si, a is the area
and of capacitor, and q is the electronic charge. Inserting
the numerical values:
Ctarget =0.95Cacc (6.62)
To proceed further, it is necessary to find the volt- N= (C 112)3 (V'-V')(0.452x1 Q4 1) (6.68)
Cacc - Cinv
age corresponding to Ctarget on the C-V curve. (This
point is related to the flat band point and will be for capacitances in pF and a 4-mil2 active area.
discussed later.) Under manual control of the test The expression for N [Equation (6.68)] depends on
equipment, this is a trivial matter. With computer the factor (Cacc+C;nv)3/(Cacc-Cinv). It might appear
testing, however, an iterative procedure can be adopt- that a very accurate value of C 1nv would be necessary
ed. The applied bias voltage is altered (either positive- in order to obtain an accurate value for the doping.
ly or negatively depending on whether the measure- C 1nv is the most difficult capacitance to measure accu-
TO -BIAS
TESTER-DVM
FIGURE 6.48
Schematic representation of a system for
obtaining automatic capacitance voltage
248 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
(a) (b)
~sv
ov (/) +5V
-I v ~ ov
-2V m
-3V w
- 4V !;i -IV
-1bv e>
FIGURE 6.52
- 2.-3 v
10 Examples of SOS/MOS capacitor time
TIME (m i ll iseconds) TIME ( mi ll i seconds) response with the configuration of Figure
1. 01-' sos N"'2xlo '5 1.01-' SOS N < 1015 6.48.
250 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
1.0
-
COMPUTER MEASURED POINTS
-HAND PLOTS
Q.
-o.a
ILl
u
z
<l
!::::0.6
u
<l
a.
:3o.4
0.2
1 MH z FIGURE 6.53
O-5t===;=~=;:=:::~:._-+------~---=----=---~--~
-4 -3 -2 -I o 1 2 3 4 5
Comparison of automatically
acquired data with manually
GATE VOLTAGE (VOLTS) acquired data
approximately determined by fabricating a wafer with deal of testing time could be saved. It is, in fact,
only the metal pattern on the substrate and measuring possible and feasible to provide such a function with
the capacitance between the contact pads. This capac- only minor additional effort. This scheme has actually
itance consists of probe-to-probe capacitance and been used by the author.
intermetallic capacitance on the wafer. It is possible Basically an active control system is used wherein
for the probe-to-probe capacitance to vary as the waf- the capacitance meter itself provides the feedback.
er is moved from device to device since the capacitive The actual output of the capacitance meter is com-
coupling through the wafer-holding mechanism pared with the desired output at the input to an opera-
changes. This can cause appreciable errors if the hold- tional amplifier. The output of this amplifier provides
ing mechanism is not grounded. Other variations in the bias for the capacitor. Because the amplification
the stray capacitance occur because of nonuniformi- factor of an operational amplifier is very large, the
ties in the actual size of the capacitors and contact input to the amplifier (the difference between the
pads. These are usually small but are very difficult to actual capacitance and the desired capacitance) must
account for. A related problem, as discussed in Sec- be very small or the output will be very large. There-
tion 6.4, is that the active area of the capacitor may fore, the operational amplifier will find whatever gate
vary across the wafer. voltage is required to make the capacitance meter
It was noted previously that an iterative procedure output equal to the desired value. This results in a "set
was used to find the voltages corresponding to the C-measure V" function. The essential system is
desired capacitance. This procedure was necessary illustrated in Figure 6.54. An inverter is required for
because the capacitance measurement basically pro- one or the other type of material depending on the
vides a ''set V -measure C'' function. If a procedure actual capacitance meter used. This type of measure-
were available to provide a "set C-measure V" ment is generally useful to "invert" measurement
function, no iteration would be necessary and a great functions and can provide greater confidence in the
results.
If the system settles to a reasonable value of bias, it
N TYPE must be the correct value. Any condition other than
the meter output being equal to the set capacitance
will result in a saturated operational amplifier. This
P TYPE type of measurement is also somewhat immune to
noise effects. For example, an iterative measurement
R
of the type described previously depends critically on
each measurement correctly indicating the direction
of change needed. Just one error from noise will cause
the iterative procedure to fail. The operational ampli-
SET fier method requires only that steady state be reached.
CAPACITANCE
Also, the iterative method will select only predeter-
OPERATIONAL INVERTER mined "quantized" numbers. The operational ampli-
AMPLIFIER
fier method provides a purely analog result.
FIGURE 6.54 Use of capacitance meter as a feedback It was previously mentioned that Ctar = 0.95Cacc
element to provide a "set C-measure V" function was useful in determining the flat band voltage. This is
6.6 Automatic measurement techniques 251
10
DEVIATION OF TRUE FLAT BAND FROM 0.95 Cox+ IV
-5 ]
[ -33.0204+0.81 ln(N l+1.!1798xl0 t 0 x1Al
tN,b e
(/) ~~:
0%
.#c.,
~
..J
X~
0
>
-
.a
>
<I
j/x v
X
.I FIGURE 6.55
101!1 1016 1017 1d8 Correction factors for flat
IMPURITY CONCENTRATION (CM 3 1 N r band voltage determination
so because this value 1.0 V provides a reasonable (which does not depend on V !b) and the oxide thick-
approximation to the flat band condition for a consid- ness which depends only on C ace An accurate value
erable number of oxide thickness-doping level combi- for V fb can therefore be determined automatically.
nations. For impurity concentrations greater than ...5 The correct value for V fb is particularly useful for
x 1015/cm3 this empirical rule does not apply well and resistivity measurements.
a correction factor, ~ V fl> must be applied. This cor-
rection factor is illustrated in Figure 6.55 for a range of Epitaxial material resistivity measurement
typically used oxide thicknesses. The empirical
expression in Figure 6.55 for ~ V fb can be calculated Automatic resistivity measurements can be made in
during testing from the measured doping density the heteroepitaxial deposits using a gate-controlled
van der Pauw device, although the general method
FROM would apply for any gate-controlled resistivity struc-
CAPACITOR TESTS
ture. The use of the gate to hold the surface potential
at flat band is necessary, especially for lightly doped
SOS layers, as discussed earlier. The use of the gate
EXIT TO NEXT
electrode places an upper limit on the potential which
TEST DEVICE can be applied between the current drive electrodes,
since a uniform flat band condition is assumed.
The flow chart for the resistivity measurement sec-
tion of the test program is shown in Figure 6.56. The
limit on the current-driving potential is taken to be 150
EXIT TO NEXT
TEST DEVICE mV, and this is accomplished by applying 150 mV,
measuring the resulting current, and then applying this
current in the eight permutations possible with four
electrodes. The gate current is first measured to
ensure that the device is satisfactory for further mea-
surement. A convenient circuit for supplying the low
CALCULATE RESISTIVITY, current necessary for this method is shown in Figure
USE N FROM CAPACITOR 6.57. With the same current applied cyclically to adja-
TEST TO CALCULATE
RELATIVE MOBILITY cent pairs of drive electrodes, the voltages appearing
at the sense electrodes is measured. Averaging and
EXIT TO NEXT calculation provides the average resistivity value,
TEST DEVICE assuming the film thickness is known.
FIGURE 6.56 Flow chart for obtaining automatic van der In addition, the carrier concentration value mea-
Pauw flat band resistivity data sured from the capacitor tests can be combined with
252 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
ARAMETf' : R[SJST!V!TY
I II I I I I I I I I
25
2~ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------II
24 I
24 I
23 I
23 I
22 I
22 I
21 I
21 I
20
zn
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------1I '<EAN 4",42~4
19
19
1B +t
18
17
17
16
16 ++
~~ --------------------+++--------------------------------------------------------
15 +tT+
14
14
13 ++++++++
13 +++-+++++
12 ti+++t++
12 tT++t+++
II +++i+.f.t+++
II +++++t-++t-t
lC ---------------- --+ ++ + +-+ + ++ + +. + + ------------------------------------------------
1C. ++++++++++++++
9 ++++++++++++++ ++
++++++++++++++ ++
+++++++++++++ ++
++++++++++++++ ++
++++++++++++++++++++ ++ ++ I
++++-++++++++++++++++ ++ ++ I
b H+++t++T+t+t+tt++++ -+-t +t [
~ +-t+++++++++++++-+-++t+ ++ ++ l
5 --------------++++ttt++++++++t++++--+----------------------------------------1
+++++++++++++++-+-++++ ++ ++ I
++++++t++++++t+++t++++ ++++ ++++ I
++++++++++++++++++++++ ++++ ++++
++ I
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ++++
++++ +++ I
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ++++
++++ I
++ ttt+++lt-++"' +"++++t+++++-t++++.,+++++ ++-+++++ ++++ +-+++ I
++ ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ +++++++ ++++ ++++ I
++ ++++++++++++-+-++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ++++++++++ ++++++I
t+ ~++++t+++++++++++++++tt+++++t++++++t++++++++++++++t++ ++++++++++ ++++++l
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 II nF W1"'irU\o'S = 40
I I I I I I I I
).124 2.3~ 4,4~ 6.~2 ~.~~ 10.6
7", 55 9,61
FIGURE 6.58a Histograms of resistivity (left) and relative mobility (right) obtained from automatic van der Pauw measurements
6.7. Influence of the edge regions on the electrical characterization of HSF films 253
ability to form a suitable edge region is an important 4. Mechanical stresses on the edge region are differ-
requirement for the fabrication of devices in hetero- ent from those near the top.
epitaxial silicon. These edge regions cause difficulties 5. The edge surface is not usually as flat as the top
because they can conduct appreciably and with differ- surface and in fact is not a single crystallographic
ent properties from those of other interfaces. plane.
Direct observations of preferential edge conduction A typical edge region is illustrated in Figure 6.60
have been made by Ham (1972B), Flatley and Ham where approximately 1100 A of thermal oxide was
(1974), and Tango and coworkers (1974) for the case grown as a dielectric.
similar to the gate-controlled Hall bar. Typically the There is every reason to believe that unprotected
edge interface has a different surface potential caused edge surfaces would have different properties from
by fixed (i.e., unable to move under the influence of those of unprotected top surfaces but there has been
lateral electric fields) charges in the interface region no report on an experimental investigation on this
different from those in the top interface. This differ- subject to date.
ence arises from unknown causes, but the following One of the necessary conditions for reliable Hall
are likely candidates: and resistivity measurements is that one know where
1. The orientation of the edge interface is different the current is flowing. This is where the edge conduc-
from the top surface and therefore has a different tion can cause problems, as illustrated in Figure 6.61.
surface band structure. If the edge impedance becomes comparable to the
2. The edge region has been either mechanically or sample impedance, additional shunt paths for the cur-
physically attacked during the definition process. rent through the edges exist. The usual measurements
3. The semiconductor on the edge is exposed, result- will not reflect the properties of the bulk film in this
ing in a greater defect density than that of the top case. In most cases the edge currents are small (< 1
surface. J.tA); however, especially for measurements near the
I
41
5c ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ --------
4~
47
46
45
44 I
43 I
42 I
41 I
I~ 0 ------------------------ --------- .. ------------------------ ---------------------- I
31 I
3' I
J7 I
3~ I
35 I
>4 I
33 I
32 ++ !
31 + I
30 --- --- ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ I srr. DEv-.. = i31,t-S:
2'J ++ I
zn
27
26 ~
25 ++
21+
21
22 H
21 ++
20
lq
---+++-----------------
+++
--------------------------------------------------------- !J.rrJ 11 E Ur'PF~
1R +t-t
17 .... t
loS +++
15
14
l~ +++
ll
11 +++
10 --++++----------------
+++
----------------------------------------------------------1I DCLrfJ LrwER
I
++++ + I
++++++ ~ I
++++++~ I
+++++++t + I
+++++++-t+~ ++ I
t+++++tt++++ ++ + + I
++++++++++++ ++ ++++++ ++++++++++ ++ ++ ++ t+ I
------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ --------1 ' ''F "I :lr u:JS = SC
1 I I I I I I I
4?,b 101, 1~9. 217, l76, 334,
11.7 130'
FIGURE 6.58b
254 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Fihns
! U. 'i':i
FIGURE 6.59a
Three-dimensional
representation of automatically
acquired data. a) Flat band
resistivity (left) varying from
0.3 to 10.8 0-cm (pm of Figure
6.24 and b) carrier
o. J ~ concentration (right) derived
from automatic analysis of an
SOS/MOS capacitor ranging
from 0.17 to 5.0 x 1016/cm3 on
the same n-type SOS l-inch-
diameter wafer are illustrated.
From Ham and Crossley (1972)
bottom of HSF, these edge currents can be dominant, additional processing, but it effectively eliminates
as illustrated in Figure 6.62. There is no simple way to edge conduction if the junction between the doped
detect this problem without a gate-controlled struc- edges and the contact is good.
ture. In heteroepitaxial silicon in which a well defined The most reliable method of testing for edge current
type is present, the edge regions may be preferentially is to simultaneously fabricate both devices with and
doped opposite to the contact type. This requires devices without edges; any difference in characteris-
tics is thus caused by the edges. The scanning electron
microscope has recently been reported as an alternate
detection method (Gates and Griffith, 1975).
S.DS
FIGURE 6.59b
modify the properties of the film in the relatively Hall or drift mobility with film thickness. The previous
nonconducting lower portion. discussions suggest that a drastic reduction in Hall or
The film can therefore be divided into an upper drift mobility is seen as far away as 7000 A from the
section, in which the electrical properties are deter- bottom interface, whereas devices with nearly the
mined in much the same way as in bulk semiconduc- same channel mobility as bulk silicon devices can be
tors, and a lower portion, in which the electrical prop- made in films as thin as 2500 A. The difference is a
erties are vastly different and are determined by result of the concentration of charge involved in the
mechanisms possibly peculiar to HSF. It will be current transport. The channel concentration is much
shown that the channel mobility, which is determined higher than the usual film concentration, and these
solely by top surface charge transport, would be concentrations are similar near the surface in films of
expected to vary much less than would the normal differing thicknesses. The remaining discussion focus-
A
A
REGIONS
B F
__1-------'r-
c E P'# N\\P
ELIMINATION OF
EDGE CONDUCTION
FOR n-TYPE
D CONTACT REGIONS
D (n-TYPE HSF) FIGURE 6.61
Equivalent circuits for the edge region on a
GATE defined HSF Hall bar
256 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
5
107
faces exist at the grain boundaries. By using ion-
implantation techniques one can control the doping
level of the silicon without severely disrupting the 10 8
I xi0 16
physical structure of the films. Therefore, it may be lx 101e
valuable to examine the properties of the electrical 10-9 IX 10 14
conduction in polycrystalline silicon in order to apply
the results to the interpretation of the behavior in SOS 10-10
films.
The conductivity of a thin film (5000 A) of poly crys-
1011
talline silicon with a grain size of approximately 1000 0 .002 .008 .010
A as a function of doping level and reciprocal tempera-
ture is illustrated in Figures 6.63 and 6.64. In many
FIGURE 6.64 Conductivity of ion implanted poly-silicon
ways these plots look very similar to those of Figure
(5000 A) as a function of p-type implant dose (given in cmms 3
6.47, in which the "doping" was field induced. Below as calculated after redistribution at 1000C) and reciprocal
a certain level the conductivity is independent of the temperature
dopant. At high dopings the conductivity is essentially
temperature independent. In the intermediate region
the activation energy is continually decreasing as the space charge region of opposite polarity is present,
doping increases. The same qualitative behavior is and the grain boundary acts as a potential barrier to
seen on both n-and p-type films. Figures 6.63 and 6.64 conduction.
indicate that at low doping levels conduction is being Rai-Choudhury and Hower (1973) assume that con-
controlled by a thermally activated process, and as the duction across the boundaries is similar to Schottky
dopant concentration increases, the conduction mech- barrier-type conduction exhibited in metal-silicon
anism changes into an almost temperature-indepen- junctions. They adapt the analysis used by Yu (1970)
dent process. A model for conduction in polysilicon for the contact resistance of n-type metal-silicon junc-
recently proposed by Rai-Choudhury and Hower tions. When a voltage is applied to the sample, it will
(1973) can be used to explain this behavior. divide among the grains and grain boundaries. Within
The model is based on the band diagram shown in each grain there will be a component V 0 across the
Figure 6.65. The diagram is based on the inhomoge- bulk portion and V b across the boundary depletion
neous film model which was mentioned by Kamins region. Resistivity of the film can be written as:*
(1971) and Salama and coworkers (1967) in discussion
of polycrystalline silicon and other polycrystalline I V 0 +2Vb
p=~;; J ' (6.70)
materials. The . model assumes that polycrystalline
material is composed of regions of low resistivity, the where J is the current density in the film and luis the
crystallites, separated by regions of high resistivity, grain size. This equation can be separated into two
the grain boundaries. It is assumed that because of the parts:
defects in the structure of the material the Fermi level
(/LF) of the grain boundaries is moved far away from _ Vu +2Vb
either band edge. This is produced by a substantial P- lyJ l0J
number of electronic traps at the boundaries. When = Pbulk + Pbarrier (6. 71)
carriers are trapped at the boundary, the boundary
becomes charged and the situation depicted in Figure
6.65 exists. A charged grain boundary surrounded by a *Equations (6.70) and (6.72) are derived in tbe Appendix.
258 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
1 C kT kT 112 (6.77)
FIGURE 6.65 Band diagram for the potential barrier - 1 > (2EooJLF)
discussion
In the thermionic field effect region Rc is given by:
The effective resistivity of the barriers is then kT kT (Eoo
Rc = qA [TT(c/Jb + /-'F)Eoo) 112 cosh kT
Rc
Pbarrler = 2 T; (6.72) 112
x (coth Eoo) Xexp (c/Jb + JLF- /-'F) (6.78)
where Rc is the barrier resistance (in O-cm2). At kT Eo kT '
higher doping levels the depletion region surrounding
where
the grain boundaries decreases. It eventually
becomes small enough so that the carriers can tunnel
their way through the barrier. Yu (1970) describes
Eo= Eoo coth (~;). (6.79)
this region of conduction as the field emission region.
In this region the value of R c is almost independent Equation (6.78) is valid if
of T and behaves as exp [ cp,j(N n) 112 ], where N n is the
dopant concentration. cosh2 (Eoo)
kT 2(cfJB+JLF)
As the doping level becomes lower, the depletion
region becomes wider and carriers need additional
-.-3--:(-E-
00~) < 3 E oo
(6.80)
smh kT
energy to tunnel through the barrier. This energy can
be provided by thermal means. This region of conduc- Eo is a measure of the tunneling probability in the
tion is called the thermionic field effect region where thermionic field effect region.
carriers with some thermal energy tunnel through the In the thermionic emission range the contact resis-
barrier. In this region conduction becomes much more tance is given by
temperature dependent.
Eventually the depletion region becomes so wide
that almost no carriers can tunnel their way through.
Rc = :~ exp ( t;) (6.81)
r
c kT sin( TTC 1 kT) (1971) points out that as the doping level increases, the
traps at the grain boundaries begin to become saturat-
exp (~~b) ~~fn~ exp ( ~~b - C 1JLF) 1
, ed. At this point the barrier height begins to decrease.
The model, because it is based on metal-silicon junc-
(6.73) tions in which the barrier height is independent of
doping level, contains no provision for a change in
where
barrier height.
(6.74) In an attempt to check Kamins' assumption, his
equation for the relationship of cp b and N n was used to
is the Richardson constant times P. E 00 is a charac- calculate different barrier heights at changing doping
teristic energy defined by levels. These values were used in the model to gener-
ate the theoretical results displayed in Figure 6.67. It
N ) 1' 2' was assumed that tPb does not begin to change until
Eoo = q2h ( m*nE (6. 75)
the levels at the grain boundary are filled by the
6.8. A model for carrier transport in heteroepitaxial silicon on sapphire derived from electrical data 259
iii I
data and the model do show the same trends, how- Ill
a: I
ever, it supports the essence of the model that conduc- \
\
tion in polycrystalline silicon is controlled by the \
10" 1
potential barriers at the grain boundaries and that INTRA GRAIN ~
DOMINATED t-.
tunneling is dominant at high doping levels and ther- :-...
mionic emission is dominant at low doping levels. 10"2 \
\
Of course, the properties of poly crystalline material '
do not necessarily directly apply to the case of single 10 5 ~~~~~~--~~~~--~~_L~~
crystal heteroepitaxial silicon; however, the type of 10 14 10 11~ 10 16 1017 10 18 1019 10 20 1021
IMPURITY CONCENTRATION (em"')
behavior exhibited by planar defects may be expected
to be similar. Many authors have reported the exis- FIGURE 6.67 Comparison of theoretical and experimental
tence of twin boundaries in HSF (Schlotterer and results on ion-implanted polysilicon. The potential barrier
Zaminer, 1966; Naber and O'Neal, 1968; Yasuda and was allowed to decrease as the doping increases in the
Ohmura, 1969; Yasuda, 1971; Stein, 1972) and the theoretical curves; /0 is the grain site.
260 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
LOWER PORTION
!BARRIER LIMITED
CONDUCTION)
FIGURE 6.68
}
=SPACE CHARGE SUBSTRATE Conceptual model for electrical
REGION transport in SOS films
point was reached (proceeding toward accumulation), current is higher in narrower devices and is not a
whereas in the polysilicon case the activation energy strong function of film thickness (Ham, 1973). One is
began to decrease immediately after departing from therefore led to the conclusion that the same dominant
the dopant-independent regime (proceeding toward conduction mechanism persists all the way to the
heavier doping). The model for the SOS case is essen- minimum currents. It is not clear at this time where
tially as follows: the space charge edge is in the film when the minimum
When the conduction is confined to the lower por- current is measured. Perhaps the inclined defects (Fig-
tion of the film and the film is not accumulated, the ure 6.68 and Chapter 2) screen the lowest portion from
dominant current limitation is by planar (or at least the top field and cause an effective maximum deple-
surface-like) space charge regions surrounding the tion depth which is less than the entire film thickness.
planar defects. Therefore, the current exhibits an Relatively heavily doped regions near the interface,
exponential temperature dependence. The tempera- caused by autodoping from the substrate, could also-
ture dependence is similar to the case in which ther- by the application of top surface fields-cause the
mally generated currents are important (e.g., silicon p- depletion region to not reach the interface. The possi-
n junctions) but is the result of an entirely different bility of a horizontal junction near the bottom inter-
mechanism. This activation energy is nearly the same face inn-type material also exists (Hynecek, 1974).
as that seen in polycrystalline silicon. The observed Further support for this essential model is found in
current is strongly dependent on the gate voltage the data of Wrigley and Kroko (1969) who found a
because the density of planar defects increases dra- field effect mobility of 20 cm2/V-s in the conducting
matically as the bottom interface region is region near the bottom interface. This compares with
approached. Therefore, as noted in Equation (6.72), typical mobilities in heavily doped polysilicon of
when the effective "grain" size decreases, strong approximately 20 cm 2/V-s. The temperature depen-
increases are seen in the resistivity. Proceeding to a dence of the bottom interface current measured by
region of the film where more planar defects are pres- Wrigley and Kroko suggests that the field-induced
ent effectively lowers the "grain" size and hence charge affects the barrier height in much the same
increases the resistivity. Because the density of manner as impurity-induced charge affects the barrier
defects has been observed to be strongly dependent on in polysilicon. The increase of threshold voltage in the
the distance from the interface (see Chapter 2), there very-thin-film devices (Figure 6.45) and the fact that
is a strong dependence of the resistivity on the gate appreciable conduction can be induced by the creation
voltage, as seen in Figure 6.46. Below a certain point of large densities of field-induced charge (therefore
the space charge regions may merge as the defect lowering the planar defect barrier) are in fact predicted
density increases, and no further effect of varying the by the model.
top surface potential would be seen. This model does Therefore, the SOS films in this model can be repre-
not directly address the situation in which the entire sented by three modes: (1) the upper portion where
film is depleted (by the gate field or by the space bulk-like conduction is found, (2) the intermediate
charges surrounding the defects). Conduction in this portion where polycrystalline-like (barrier-limited)
case would be dominated by thermal-generation conduction is found, and (3) the ill-defined lowest
currents. portion where the minimum currents are determined.
There is some reason to believe that the space This lowest region may be a simple extension of the
charge regions have not merged by the time the gate intermediate region. Careful specification of the region
field-independent current is reached. This minimum in which the data are acquired is necessary.
6.9. Summary and conclusions 261
6.9. Summary and conclusions destructive, they are quite unsatisfactory for practical
use in determining the electrical properties of unpro-
This chapter has attempted to outline the problems cessed HSF.
and some of the methods involved with the reliable The characterization of unprocessed HSF has been
and significant electrical characterization of HSF. The almost exclusively by the use of the 4-point probe and
entire situation with HSF is different from that of bulk MVDP techniques. These methods provide at best a
single crystal semiconductors because of two main monitoring technique for reproducibility. They are
facts: (1) the interface between the HSF and its sur- unable to account for nonuniform electrical properties
roundings are in good communication with the body of and are subject to first-order error from the uncon-
the films and (2) the physical structure of the films may trolled top surface. Some workers have abandoned
be widely variable and inhomogeneous, particularly in initial measurements altogether and have relied on the
the vertical dimension. Therefore, because interpre- properties of fabricated devices to infer the character-
tating electrical data of any type can be done much istics of the initial deposits. This technique, apart from
more intelligently if an accurate physical model is being practically prohibitive, does not account for the
available, the first order of business should be obtain- possibility of changes of the film characteristics during
ing all the information possible on the physical struc- device fabrication. Others assume that the addition of
ture of the particular HSF of interest. Without this known amounts of dopant after the initial deposition,
information gross misinterpretations of "standard" such as by ion implantation, obviate the need for
electrical measurements are quite likely. The second initial measurements. Such a method can be success-
order of business should be the implementation of ful only if the initial deposition is very lightly doped or
some technique which at least considers that surface the doping is accurately known. This must be ascer-
effects may be significant. The more lightly doped and tained by measurement. When the film is reasonably
the thinner the films of interest, the more difficult the thick, and N is > 10'6/cm3 , the 4-point probe and the
attainment of significant electrical data. MVDP provide valuable information concerning the
The type of measurements that are most important reproducibility of initial depositions. The actual trans-
depends entirely on the intended use for the HSF and port properties are measured by these methods.
the type of HSF being considered. The MOS transis- Further investigation of the capacitance voltage
tor parameters of greatest interest are the drive capa- techniques on the initial deposits may prove fruitful
bility, which is related to the surface mobility; the for characterizing the ionizable impurity density. Both
threshold voltage, which is related to the doping level; the top surface Schottky barrier method and the bot-
the top interface properties, and possibly the structure tom surface method through the substrate can be used
in thin HSF; and the minimum current, which is relat- nondestructively with relative insensitivity to the
ed either to junction properties or to the conduction uncontrolled top surface. These methods are some-
mechanisms in the lower part of the HSF, depending what insensitive to the physical structure of the films
on the type of device. Because this chapter deals and relation of results of these methods to actual
primarily with the materials aspects of HSF, proper- current transport requires additional information con-
ties of heavily charged surfaces (inversion layer trans- cerning the conduction mechanisms.
port and accumulation layer transport) and p-n junc- The corona discharge method using a deposited
tion-related phenoma (generation rates, multiplication dielectric is one of the most promising techniques for
rates, lateral depletion widths, drift lengths etc.) have producing a controlled top surface. This method could
been largely ignored. Standard methods, such as the be combined with a liquid metal MOS capacitor on the
transient response of MOS structures to pulses (cf. same dielectric. The electrical contact to the capacitor
Figure 6.52) (MGrievy, 1973; Kokkas, 1973) or the use could be provided by accumulating the HSF with the
of gate-controlled diodes [Meyer (1972); Kranzer corona charge. Under these conditions the surface
(1974) and references therein], are the primary tools potential, the surface capacitance, and the transport
for the evaluation of junction effects. The application properties could be simultaneously measured on
of these methods to HSF is not significantly different unprocessed films. Future work will reveal the useful-
from their application to bulk semiconductors. Heavi- ness of this method.
ly charged surface transport is difficult to relate direct- When the thickness of the HSF of interest is
ly to material properties (cf. Section 6.5) and was reduced to the point where the model presented in
therefore not pursued here. Section 6.8 applies, the significant electrical character-
The most important methods for the reliable electri- ization of the HSF depends equally on the physical
cal characterization of HSF have been from the gate- structure and on reliable electrical data. The relation-
controlled structures in which the conducting portion ship between electrical measurement and device prop-
of the HSF can be inferred from surface capacitance erties are somewhat obscure in this thickness range.
measurements. Unfortunately, because these struc- Either some nondestructive method for determining
tures require considerable effort to fabricate and are the physical structure must be implemented or the
262 Chapter 6. The Electrical Characterization of Heteroepitaxial Semiconducting Films
Matere, H. F., Defect Electronics in Semiconductors, New Schroder, D. K. and H. C. Nathanson, Solid State Electron-
York: Wiley-Interscience (1971). ics 13: 577 (1970).
McGreivy, D. J., Ph.D. dissertation, University of Califor- Schroder, D. K. and P. Rai-Chaudhury, Appl. Phys. Letters
nia, Los Angeles, 1973. 22: 455 (1973).
McGreivy, D. J. and C. R. Viswanathan, Appl. Phys. Letters Shannon, J. M., Solid State Electronics 14: 1099 (1971).
25: 505 (1974). Shockley, W., W. W. Hooper, H. J. Queisser, and W.
McLane, G. T., Report No. 72-02, University of Pennsylva- Schroen, Surface Science 2: 277 (1964).
nia, Moore School of Electrical Engineering (1971). Stein, H. J., Solid State Electronics 15: 1209 (1972).
Meyer, J. E., Jr., Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, Tango, H., Y. Nishi, K. Maesuchi, and J. Iwamura, Paper
New Brunswick, NJ (1972). presented at fifth IEEE Semiconductor Interface Spe-
Naber, C. T. and J. E. O'Neill, Trans. AIME 242:470 (1%8). cialist Conference, Puerto Rico, December, 1974.
Neugebauer, C. A., J. Appl. Phys. 39: 3177 (1968). Tihanyi, J., Siemens Forsch. Entwickl1: 263 (1972).
Petritz, R. L., Phys. Rev. 110: 1254 (1958). Valdes, L. B., Proc. IRE_. 420 (1954).
Picraux, S. T. and G. J. Thomas, J. Appl. Phys. 44: 594 Waxman, A., V. E. Henrich, F. V. Shallcross, H. Borkan,
(1973). and P. K. Weimer, J. Appl. Phys. 36: 168 (1965).
Podor, B., Phys. Stat. Sol. 2: K193 (1970). Weisberg, L. R., J. Appl. Phys. 33: 1817 (1962).
Rai-Choudhury, P. and P. L. Hower, J. Electrochem. Soc. Williams, R. and M. H. Woods, J. Appl. Phys. 44: 1026
120: 1761 (1973). (1973).
Salama, C. A. T., T. W. Tucker, and L. Young, Solid State Wrigley, C. Y. and L. J. Kroko, Semiconductor Silicon,
Electronics 10: 339 (1%7). New York: The Electrochemical Society (1969) p. 329.
Schlegel, E. S., G. L. Schnable, R. F. Schwarz, and J. P. Yasuda, Y. andY. Ohmura, Japanese J. Appl. Phys. 8: 1098
Spratt, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED-15: 973 (1968). (1%9).
Schlotterer, H. and Ch. Zaminer, Phys. Stat. Sol. 15: 399 Yu, A. Y. C., Solid State Electronics 13: 239 (1970).
(1966). Zaininger, K. H. and F. P. Heiman, Solid State Tech., 13 (5):
Schlotterer, H., Solid State Electronics 11: 947 (1968). 49 (1970).
Chapter 7
An Analysis of the Gas-Flow Dynamics in a
Horizontal CVD Reactor
S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith
RECTANGULAR QUARTZ
REACTOR TUBE
GAS
METERING
PANEL FIGURE 7.1
A schematic of a horizontal epitaxial reactor
limitations of the model and its applicability to the from the leading edge of the heated zone since the
goals of obtaining epitaxial layers of uniform thickness reactants will have been stripped from the gas phase.
and doping. As the carrier gas velocity is increased, an increas-
ing amount of deposit will be observed downstream.
At the same time we can anticipate that the rate of
7 .2. The ideal reactor growth at the leading edge of the susceptor will begin
to decrease. This decrease will be noticed when the
For our purposes, an epitaxial reactor is simply a residence time becomes shorter than the reaction time
chamber which holds the substrates on which we wish constant. In the limit, as the velocity approaches infin-
to grow our layers. By one means or another these ity, there is no deposit at all and the yield goes to zero.
substrates can be heated uniformly to a desired tem- This sort of argument assumes, of course, that all of
perature. Reactants are introduced into one, or more, the reactant in the space ov~r substrates is available
ports of the chamber and the spent gases pass out for deposition. As we shall see, this is not always true.
through another port. Almost without exception, the Nevertheless, from the extremes of the problem, the
major constituent introduced is hydrogen. Although it solution to obtaining the uniform layers we desire
is true that hydrogen is an active ingredient in all of the appears to lie in arranging the conditions of flow in
reactions of interest, it is in such large excess that it is such a way that the growth rate on the downstream
a convenient fiction to treat it as only a carrier gas. wafers is unaffected by the reactants having been
The function of the carrier gas is to distribute the removed from the gas stream. The practical effect of
reactants in such a way that all of the growing surfaces such a requirement is to impose a limitation on the
are effectively exposed to the same reactant mixture. overall efficiency at which a reactor can be. operated.
The simplest reactor is a tube with reactants entering Thus far in our discussion we have not provided any
at one end and the spent gases leaving at the other considerations of how the reactants reach the heated
end. For reasons which will be discussed in the follow- substrates. In our simplified discussion we have
ing treatment, the tube cross section in such a reactor assumed total and complete mixing of the gas in the
should be rectangular. space above the wafer. In hydrodynamic terms, this is
The ideal reactor would allow one to grow, on as equivalent to requiring that the reactor operate under
many substrates as desired, layers that are identical in conditions of turbulent flow. Turbulent flow, however,
chemical, mechanical, and electronic properties with a is not obtained under the flow conditions normally
(thermodynamic) efficiency of 100 percent. Of course, encountered in an epitaxial reactor. Further, the quan-
no such reactor exists. In order to see why, it is tities of carrier gas needed to produce turbulent flow
instructive to examine the extremes of operation of a and the necessary short residence times make it
reactor. impractical to even consider designing a reactor about
As one extreme, consider what must take place in a such constraints. Instead, most reactors are operated
reactor as the carrier gas velocity approaches zero. in a manner that produces essentially laminar flow.
Under such conditions, if chemical kinetics does not Under conditions of laminar flow, mixing occurs by
limit the deposition rate, all of the reactants will com- diffusion rather than by forced convection.
bine to form the solid at the leading edge of the Having arrived at the point where we are consider-
reactor. No deposit will be formed on substrates locat- ing descriptions of reactors where we must account
ed more than one or two reactant diffusion lengths for the diffusion of the reactants to the growing sur-
266 Chapter 7. S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith. Gas-Flow Dynamics in a Horizontal CVD Reactor
face, it proves to be more useful to abandon the Because he does not assume any velocity profile from
narrative approach and proceed to the development of laminar boundary layer theory, his boundary layer
a mathematical model. In the sections that follow, the thickness is the entire distance between the susceptor
discussion is primarily oriented toward the problem of and the inside wall of the reactor tube. Therefore, his
the epitaxial growth of silicon. In the epitaxial growth growth rate equation does not exhibit a square root of
of silicon, a wealth of experimental information is velocity dependence. Rundle's solution of the appro-
available for comparison between theory and practice. priate form of the diffusion equation does show the
The equations that are developed in the following proper form of the exponential loss of chemical reac-
sections are not restricted in any way, however, to the tants in the direction of flow.
problem of silicon epitaxy but apply generally to epi- Eversteyn and coworkers (1970) devised a novel
taxial growth problems that meet the boundary condi- growth model which is supported, to a great extent, by
tions under which the equations were developed. elegant experimental work. He calls it the stagnant
layer model. Both Eversteyn and Bradshaw assume a
relatively stagnant boundary layer of gas adjacent to
7 .3. Previous models for the design of CVD the susceptor surface and a completely mixed region
reactors of gas between the upper edge of the boundary layer
and the inner surface of the reactor tube wall. From
It is appropriate to briefly review some of the models his experiments Eversteyn developed an empirical
applied to gas flow in horizontal CVD reactors. Brad- equation which has a square root of velocity depen-
shaw (1967) proposed that a laminar boundary layer of dence for the thickness of the stagnant boundary lay-
relatively static gas exists adjacent to the growing er. Eversteyn included his boundary layer equation in
silicon surface. He further assumed that the space the solution of the appropriate differential equation for
between the inner reactor tube wall and the outer diffusion and bulk carrier gas flow in a horizontal
extremity of the boundary layer was filled with com- reactor. With this, he was able to describe, in general
pletely mixed gas that had essentially the same chemi- terms, the growth rate as a function of distance from
cal composition as the gas introduced into the reactor. the leading edge of the susceptor and specifically dem-
He then concluded that the reactive silicon-bearing onstrate the velocity dependence of the stagnant
chemical species diffused through the static laminar boundary layer thickness. As a result, equations are
layer to the growing silicon surface and that the chemi- derived in a manner so as to describe the growth rate
cal reaction products diffused back through the variations on a susceptor when it is placed in a hori-
boundary layer to the mixed gas region. This led to a zontal plane or when the susceptor is tilted at a small
growth rate equation that incorporated an expression, angle to the horizontal plane. By the use of the equa-
from classical laminar-flow theory, for the velocity tions it was demonstrated that the uniformity of the
boundary layer. By the use of an expression for the silicon growth on the susceptor was substantially
velocity boundary layer, Bradshaw's growth rate improved by tilting the susceptor a small amount.
equation exhibited a square root of velocity depen-
dence, and he was able to calculate the growth rate at
one position near the leading edge of the susceptor. 7.4. Theory
Andrews and coworkers (1969) appealed to conven-
tional laminar boundary layer theory to calculate an It was already mentioned that the nature of gas flow in
average rate mass-transport coefficient for the growth the reactor significantly affects the transport phenom-
rate equation used by Grove (1967). Andrews' growth ena. It is difficult to predict the nature of flow a priori.
rate equation exhibited, as did Bradshaw's, a square Although the low Reynolds numbers (typically below
root dependence on velocity. He applied his average 200) and the proportionality of the growth rate to the
growth rate equation to the extreme downstream end square root of gas velocity suggest a laminar flow, the
of the susceptor, where he considered the laminar flow existence of the sharp temperature and density gra-
to be fully developed. Thus, he was able to calculate dients implies possible disturbances of this laminar
an average growth rate at a specific location. Although nature. These gradients are caused by the hot suscep-
this procedure gave a result for the one position, the tor. Because the heating is from below, an unstable
same laminar-flow theory predicts a local growth rate situation develops, with heated, more buoyant gas
that is half the average rate (Schlichting, 1955). rising and possibly upsetting the laminar flow. In addi-
Rundle (1971) developed a growth rate equation by tion, one should consider possible entry effects.
assuming laminar flow. He assumed that the velocity Because susceptors are relatively short (40 to 50 em),
profile is constant across the reactor tube and that the a significant portion could be in the so-called entry
depletion of reactive chemical species in the direction region, where thermal and velocity profiles are not
of flow is a result of the diffusion flux perpendicular to fully developed. In such cases one could expect the
the direction of flow onto the substrate surface. transport phenomena which were significantly differ-
7.4. Theory 267
ent from the transport in fully developed flow capable of determining the gas-phase composition at
situations. various locations. The flow-visualization experiments
In order to establish the nature of the flow in hori- covered the Gr/Re 2 range from 0.16 to 12.5. The main
zontal reactors we did a literature search, as well as observations are summarized in Figure 7.2. When
conducted experimental studies. In this section we Gr/Re 2 was approximately greater than 0.5 a fully
present the results of the work. Among the relevant developed spiral was observed, clearly demonstrating
articles are those of Kamotani and Ostrach (1976) and the presence of buoyancy forces. Similar behavior
Hwang and Cheng (1973), who studied gas flow in a was observed in experiments by Takahashi and
horizontal channel with heating from below. In their coworkers (1972). (Flow patterns shown in Figure 7.2
experiments, special precautions were taken to insure were obtained by tracing photographs of Ti0 2 smoke
a fully developed laminar velocity profile (e.g., trails; the photographs themselves were, unfortu-
Ostrach and Hwang made their entry region as long as nately, too pale for direct reproduction.)
183 em). In such cases, one therefore deals with only Results of temperature measurements are given in
thermally developing flows, where gas temperature Figures 7.8, 7.9, and 7.10. The obtained results will be
increases with distance x, but the laminar nature of discussed in more detail later; for now, we point out
flow remains essentially unperturbed. Such a situation the relatively sharp temperature drop in the first 10 to
presumably holds for Re (Reynolds) and Ra (Rayleigh) 15 mm above the susceptor and then the relatively flat
numbers similar to those encountered in CVD reac- temperature gradient above this area. Figure 7.3
tors. On the other hand, Sparrow and coworkers shows the direct temperature profile recording and the
(1959), who investigated simultaneous effects of buoy- relatively large temperature oscillations in the area 10
ancy and viscous forces upon gas flow, predict that the mm or more above the susceptor.
flow will be perturbed in some manner. They devised Figure 7.4 gives a typical concentration profile
the Gr/Re 2 (Or = Grashof number) ratio as criteria for above the susceptor. In this case, one is dealing with
assessing the relative effect of buoyancy and viscous SiC1 4 in H 2 , but the qualitative picture should hold for
forces. The criteria are as follows: any Si-containing gas. Again, note the relatively flat
0 < Gr/Re 2 < 0.3 Forced convection concentration gradient in the upper half (i.e., > 15 mm
(i.e., viscous forces predominant) above the susceptor) of the channel and the relatively
0.3 < Gr/Re 2 < 16 sharp concentration gradients close to the susceptor.
Mixed flow
Of course, the concentration gradient for the HCl
16 < Gr/Re 2 Free convection
(i.e., buoyancy forces predominant) species which are the product of the Si deposition
reaction has a different sign (i.e., the concentration
These criteria apply for the case of aiding flow (i.e., falls with the distance from the susceptor). Figure 7.5
where buoyancy and viscous forces act in the same shows the direct concentration profile recording and,
direction). When this is not the case, and in horizontal again, quite noticeable concentration oscillations in
CVD reactors it is not, mixed flow characteristics can the area ten or more millimeters above the susceptor.
be observed at Gr/Re2 ratios as low as 0.06 (Sparrow The purpose of the above described experiments
et al., 1959). In this mixed flow some motion perpen- was to determine the nature of flow in the horizontal
dicular to the flow direction can be observed. Dis- CVD reactor. Our observations can be summarized as
mukes and Curtis (1973) studied flow characteristics in follows:
CVD reactors by means of temperature measurements 1. There are two distinct areas in the space above the
and Ti02 smoke-flow visualization. Their main con- susceptor. Closer to the susceptor, relatively sharp
clusion is that buoyancy forces have an effect at much temperature and concentration gradients are
lower values of Ra numbers than in stationary sys-
tems. They base this conclusion on the observation of (a) T5 800C Gr/Ri=0.47; 0.56; 4.14; 12.5
pronounced temperature fluctuations and turbulent
smoke patterns, which occur in the Ra number range
FLOW--+
of 1Q2 to Hf.
Our experimental setup for studying transport phe-
nomena was described in some detail by Ban and
Gilbert (1975). Briefly, it consisted of a somewhat (b) T:1: 800C Gr/Re 2 =0.16; 0.21; 0.53
modified horizontal CVD reactor, equipped with a
port for introduction of various instruments. The FLOW--+
momentum transport was studied by means of flow
visualization (Ti0 2 smoke), the heat transport by
means of temperature measurements at various loca- FIGURE 7.2 Ti0 2 smoke streamlines observed at various
tions in the reactor, and the mass transport by means Gr/Re 2 ratios and susceptor temperatures; these drawings
of a specially designed mass spectrometric probe, were obtained by tracing the actual photograph of the flow
268 Chapter 7. S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith. Gas-Flow Dynamics in a Horizontal CVD Reactor
FIGURE 7.3
Oscillations in recording of temperature profiles in
He. T. = 1000C; distance from the heating edge, x
= 15 em. Flow velocities for curves (a), (b), and (c)
em. are marked
observed, while further from the susceptor, these unit volume element contains a host carrier gas and a
gradients are essentially flat. concentration, C, of reactive chemical species. The
2. Significant temperature and concentration oscilla- diffusion flux of C in the y direction is then given by
tions were observed in the upper area. These oscil- the classical equation (Perry, 1963)
lations increase with the value of Re number.
3. The effect of buoyancy forces is observable at all Ny =-Day
ac (7.1)
practical Ge/Re2 ratios.
From these observations we conclude that we are The solution of Equation (7.1), in its most simplified
dealing with the mixed-flow situation. Close to the
susceptor, the gas is hotter and more viscous and
assumes characteristics similar to laminar flow. In the 50r-------------------------------------.
upper region the mixed character is more pronounced, 40
with significant amount of gas motion perpendicular to
the direction of flow; this leads to the observed flat 3
temperature and concentration gradients. The cause
U1
1-
of this cross-flow motion is probably twofold: the ~20
buoyancy forces and the entry effects. Concerning >-
oc
entry effects, we should point out that in the range of <t
oc
Re numbers used in our experiments, the entry length 1-
w 10
l varies from 10 to 35 em (l = 0.029 ReDh). This oc
<t
means that in all cases the entry length covered most
of our susceptor. (Dh = hydraulic diameter.)
0 1000C
Figure 7.6 gives a schematic representation of the U1
z Ts =
+ 1 140C
flow model suggested by our experiments. In the fol- w
1-
z 4 Yo= 24.9 CM/SEC
lowing text we shall discuss the transport phenomena
in the horizontal CVD reactor based on this model.
"'
0
<t Ps; C\4 6.1 x 10- 3 ATM
Equations will be developed from a treatment of lami- w
0..
nar-flow theory that could not be found in the litera- X = 12.5 CM
2
ture. A comparison of established laminar-flow theory
and experiment will show that this treatment provides
a physical model with which proper mass transport
equations for a composite of laminar and turbulent
flow can be developed.
Consider the molecular diffusion process from a
volume of gas with a fully developed laminar parabolic FIGURE 7.4 Concentration profiles of SiCI 4 and HCI; the
velocity profile as shown in Figure 7. 7. An arbitrary experimental conditions are given in the figure
7 .4. Theory 269
0
ARBITRARY UNIT VELOCITY PROFILE
~Vl VOLUME ELEMENT
~!::::
r
.z
~:l
p-
l X - f!.y
:D~
Vlaj
Vla: iN
Vl<l:
<1:-
::;;
-+! 1-5 sec y y iJy
WALL'
assumption of zero pressure at the wall is justified for Equation (7.4) can be used for comparison with
the growth from silane. established laminar flow theory. From Schlichting
In order to define the diffusion distance, a, we must (1955),
u . u )''2 =
n= y ( v;
consider that the average arrival rate of molecules to
the lower wall must be from a unit volume element Uoo = 0.51676 when 1.6.
that possesses the average characteristics of the para-
bolic velocity distribution. The theoretical average Schlichting uses notation in which U is the point
velocity of the parabolic laminar-flow profile is given velocity on the parabolic laminar-flow velocity profile;
in the literature as 0.5 v max. where vmax is the maxi- U oo is the maximum velocity on the parabolic laminar-
mum free gas stream velocity. If the arbitrary unit flow velocity profile; and n is the coefficient of
volume element in Figure 7. 7 is placed on the parabol- (vX/ U oo) 112 When n = 1.549 (from Schlichting), U/ U oo
ic velocity profile and made to coincide with the point = 0.5003. From Equation (7.4), n = 1.549 when
where v = 0.5 vmax. then a would be the distance a V/Vmax = 0.500.
molecule could diffuse in the y direction (normal to It is obvious from the agreement between the con-
the bulk gas flow) while it is traveling in the x direction stants from classical laminar-flow theory and the con-
(the direction of the bulk gas flow) with a velocity stants for aE derived from this diffusion model that a
equal to the average velocity 0.5 V max Thus, the valid relationship does exist. It is still necessary, how-
effective diffusion boundary layer thickness (a E) is by ever, to show that aE corresponds to the diffusion
definition y = (Dt)'f2; where X = 0.5 V max f. boundary layer from classical laminar flow theory.
The most relevant solution from established laminar-
flow theory is the Pohlhausen solution that was used
by Andrews. There are two equations for the rate
mass transport coefficients (Andrews et al., 1969;
Schlichting, 1955).
The average rate equation is given as a function of
the total susceptor length (L), and the local rate is
given as a function of the local position (x).
X
Reynolds number is equal to (p VL/u) or (p Vx/u). h is laminar flow the transport to the lower wall is by
the mass transport coefficient; L is the total length of diffusion from stream to stream. That is, half of the
the susceptor; D 1 is the diffusion coefficient of chemi- concentration of chemical-bearing species belongs to
cal species in the host carrier gas; x is the local the upper wall and half belongs to the lower wall. This
position on the susceptor as measured from the lead- statement can be further justified by considering prac-
ing edge; V is the total gas flow velocity in the direc- tical applications of laminar-flow theory. Air can be
tion of increasing x; u is the average coefficient of forced through nominal-sized ducts at moderate or
viscosity for the total gas flow; pis the average density room temperatures with laminar-flow velocities of
for the total gas flow; and D 2 is the average diffusion many hundreds of feet per minute. For example, if V x
coefficient for total gas flow. The ratio u/p is the = 1000 ft/min (=0.5x 1Q3 crn/s), assuming that most
relationshipship for the kinematic viscosity, v, of the molecular species diffuse in air with room-tempera-
gas. Thus, Equation (7.6) becomes ture diffusion coefficients of D =0.1 cm2/s, then the
hx=
-
D1 D2
13
v)
0.322 ( - v ) 1 ( -
XV
12
i (7.6a)
ratio of the distance a molecule travels in the x direc-
tion to the distance it diffuses in the y direction (in unit
time) is
Using the approximate relationship D 2 (6/5)v, and X - Vt - 0.5X 103
=
y-
- 3
(Dt)1 12 - (O.l)1t2 - 10
solving Equation (7.6a) for h, we have
h = 0.332(0.94)D1 ( :v )
1/2
(7.7)
Hence,
G = c Y0.332(0.94)D1
N ( XVv) 1 2
'
. (7.9)
diffusion boundary layer thickness for laminar flow. It
has been shown that the theoretical coefficients are
derived from the physical distribution of the chemical
From Pv = nRT, C = 6.02x 1023 P/RT; R 82.06 species in the host carrier gas and their relationship to
(cm3 )(atmosphere)/(g-mole)(K). The mole fraction Y the laminar parabolic velocity profile.
can be written directly in terms of partial pressure P. The diffusion theory can now be applied to the
Thus, physical model, shown in Figure 7.6, necessary to
describe the mass transport for a system containing
G<xJ (in crn/s of deposited silicon) gases flowing with characteristics of laminar and
mixed flow concurrently. Only two obvious assump-
= ((6.02X 1023 )(0.332)(0.94)D1P<xJ) (~) 112 (7.10)
5x 1022 RT xv tions are needed. First, it must be assumed that the
concentration of chemical reactants within the space
It should be noted that the term (0.94) is approximate. (b-f>) is uniform because of the mixing of the bulk gas
For many applications to systems involving gases, flow in that region; second, it is assumed that the
(u/pD2)113 =1. molecular diffusion transport to the hot susceptor is
Equation (7.10) can be compared directly with a through a laminar boundary layer whose velocity pro-
similar growth rate equation that can be developed file has the average velocity characteristics of both
from the previous diffusion theory. laminar and turbulent flow. The average velocity for
From Figure 7.3, the arrival rate of silicon-bearing laminar flow has already been given as 0.5 V max The
chemical species to the lower wall from the flowing average velocity of the mixed flow is difficult to pre-
gas was given by Equation (7.2). However, in Equa- dict, but it is probably similar to the turbulent-flow
tion (7.2) P should be replaced by lfzP because in velocity; the average velocity for turbulent flow is 0.83
7.4. Theory 271
E 3.0 N2 N2 N2
u x= 5.08em. x=IO.I6em. X= 15.24em.
Ll..l v= 24.4 em./see. V0 = 2 4.4 em./see. V0 = 24.4 em./see.
u
b = 3.0 em. b = 3.0 em. b = 3.0 em.
~ 2.5 T5 = 1200"C T5 = 1200"C T5 = 1200"C
0:
::> Tm = 650"C
IJ)
TA=696"C
0:
0
1- 2.0 FIGURE 7.8
a..
Ll..l
u Experimental
IJ)
::> temperature profiles
IJ)
1.5 in N 2 for a
Ll..l
J: resistance-heated
1-
cold-wall reactor.
::!: The profiles were
0
0: 1.0 taken at three points
u.
Ll..l
on the susceptor;
u x = 5.08, 10.16, and
z
~ 0.5 15.24 em. The
IJ)
broken line
i5
represents a linear
approximation of the
experimental
TEMPERATURE, c temperature profile.
V max (Perry, 1963). Hence, the average velocity for ship a = (5/4)D (Foust, 1960), where a is the thermal
laminar and turbulent flow is diffusity and D is the mass diffusion coefficient.
Because this section deals with the theory, detailed
if2(0.5 V max + 0.83 V max) = 0.665 V max
examples of numerical calculations of the temperature
The new equation for the desired diffusion boundary curves will be deferred to the next section of this
layer, fjE WOUld be work. In order to proceed with the development of the
theory, it is necessary to make a few qualitative obser-
( Dx ) 1 12 ( Dx ) 112 (7.12)
fjE = 0.666 V max = 1. 226 V max
3.0
N2
Ban and Gilbert (1974) have been able to confirm X= 5.08 em. CD @.
the general validity of Equation (7.12) in a resistance- E 'b= 24.4 em./see.
- 2.5
u
heated horizontal reactor. Their relevant experiments Ll..l
b = 3.0em.
u
are briefly discussed. <( CD T5 = 1200"C
u.
The experimental reactor used by Ban and Gilbert 0:
::>
T5 = IOOO"C
consisted of a rectangular quartz tube fitted with a IJ)
2.0 @ T5 = eooc
precision translation mechanism for positioning a 0:
0 @ T5 = Gooc
1-
small-diameter thermocouple. The thickness of the a..
Ll..l
resistance-heated slab was varied to effect a suitably u
IJ) 1.5
flat temperature profile over its 15 em length. A water- ::>
IJ)
cooled copper coil was wrapped around the quartz Ll..l
J:
tube to simulate the cooling and reflective effects of an 1-
1.0
RF induction heating coil. Gas temperature profiles
!\: =1.23 (~)lcz(TA
::!:
0 )0.44
V T
were measured from the hot slab surface to the inner 0:
u. 0 0
surface of the reactor tube wall. The distance between
the hot slab surface and the inner reactor tube wall
Ll..l
u
z
0.5 -l
<(
files are shown in Figures 7.8, 7.9, and 7.10 for nitro- 0
been defined; the meanings of T8 , Tm. and TA are given FIGURE 7.9 Experimental temperature profiles at
in Equation (7.27) and in Figure 7.14. The arrows on susceptor temperatures of 600, 800, I 000, and 1200C. The
the figureS point tO the Values Of fj E Calculated by the broken line is the theoretical temperature dependence of the
use of Equation (7.12) and the mathematical relation- diffusion boundary layer thickness from Equation (7.12).
272 Chapter 7. S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith. Gas-Flow Dynamics in a Horizontal CVD Reactor
e
u
3.0 He He He
V0 = 24.9 em./see. V0 = 24.9 em./see. V0 = 2.4. 9 em./see.
LJJ X= 5.08 em. X= 10. 16 em. X= 15.24 em.
u b=3.0em. b = 3.0 em.
b=3.0em.
~ 2.5
T5 = 12ooc T5 = 12ooc T5 = 12ooc
a:
:::> Tm= 79oc
<n
TA = e9oc
a:
0
1-
a..
LJJ
u
<n
:::>
<n
__ _{!b __ _
LJJ
J:
1-
::;:
~ 1.0
"-
FIGURE 7.10
LJJ Experimental temperature
u profiles in He for a
~ 0.5
resistance-heated cold-wall
1-
<n
0 reactor. The profiles were
taken at three points on the
0~
?2L 0 ___,__60....l..JO.l----'--l....loo_o__,_
0 _J__10.L0_0......J.._8...~.0_ __.__....___600.LIIr''----'--IOOO....__--"----:-eoo-'-:--'---'600 susceptor; x = 5. 08, 10.16,
TEMPERATURE, c and 15.24 em.
vations from Figures 7.8, 7.9, and 7 .I 0. Aside from the boundary layer. The thickness of 8* from the literature
obvious disagreement between theory and experiment is given as 8* = 1/3 8; 8 is the laminar velocity
for the one helium temperature curve at x = 5 em, boundary layer. 8 = 5.0 (vx/V,,)1 12 (Foust et al., 1960)
reasonable agreement is observed between values cal- and 8* = 1.667 (vx!V oo) 112 It has been shown from the
culated [using equation (7.12)] and the experimental previous discussion of the laminar flow diffusion mod-
data points (Figures 7.8, 7.9, and 7.10). Although el (figure 7.7) that fiE= 1.549(vx!Vmax) 112 Therefore,
Equation (7.12) seems adequate to describe the aver- 8 E = 8* for laminar flow.
age diffusion distance for situations where fiE << b, The bulk gas flow is displaced by a distance at least
where b is the reactor height between the top of the equal to fiE. As fiE increases, the channel height, b, for
susceptor and tube wall, it is not sufficient to describe the bulk gas flow decreases to a dimension equal to (b-
the diffusion boundary layer for practical silicon epi- 8 E). This has the effect of increasing the bulk gas flow
taxial systems. Practical silicon epitaxial growth pro- velocity which tends to decrease 8 E. and so on until
cesses m:e characterized by the use of hydrogen car- some equilibrium value of 8 E is reached at each posi-
rier gas, high average reactor temperatures, and tion of x. The physical model for this effect is shown
relatively narrow channel heights, b. With the use of in Figure 7 .11. An equation for the real value of 8 R< x>
Equation (7.12) for the conventional epitaxial process, can be derived in the following manner. From the
8 E would become larger than the reactor channel continuity equation, the total flow through planes x1.
height for modest susceptor lengths. This does not X2, and X a, is Q = al vl = a2 v2 = Ga Va. The change in
pose a dilemma, but it does make the theory a bit more velocity through plane x 2 caused by the displacement
complicated. diffusion layer 81 is dV. The change in 81 through
From laminar-flow theory, the displacement bound- plane x 2 is then dfi.
ary layer, 8*, is defined (Schlichting, 1955) as the
distance the free streams in the bulk gas flow are dv
displaced because of the formation of the velocity dx
FIGURE 7.11
A schematic representation for the
mathematical derivation of the diffusion
boundary layer thickness with the reactor
wall as a physical constraint
7.4. Theory 273
By substitution and rearrangement, the integration, from Figure 7.11, were from o = o1 to
o = b, oR should converge to approximately the value
dv
dx = v1 ( b 01- 01 ) . of b/2 when oE is equal to b.
o2 o1 Therefore, D )112 Dx b2
From Figure 7.11, < do/dx is nega- OE = 1.226 ( vx = b
v 1.503
tive, and
do with b = 2; Dx/V = 2.6612. Hence, from Equation
- -dx
= ( o 2 -o)
1 (7.13), OR= 2.0-0.7505-0.0834-0.0234-0.0116
01 = 1.23 (vDx) 1 2
1
= 1.13.
It also should be noted from Figure 7.12 that 8 R =
b/2 when (b/2) ~ (Dx/V) ~ 3b. Hence, for the practi-
By substitution and rearrangement, then cal epitaxial systems that will be considered for this
- do
dx -_ o1 [(b- b- o- 1)
112
- 1 . J work, the condition can be written that 0 ~ oR ~ b/2.
The experimental temperature profiles shown in Fig-
ure 7.10 tend to support this result. In reference to the
By combining (do/dx) (dx!dv) (bib), apparent disagreement in Figure 7.10 between the
calculated values of oR and the experimental tempera-
- ~0 = ~ [ ( 1- %r2- (1- %) J. ture curves near the leading edge of the hot slab, it
should be considered that the He gas is receiving heat
The term [I - (o/ b )]3 12 can be expanded in the series from the hot quartz reactor tube upstream from the
hot slab. Therefore, x = 0 for the formation of the
(1-z)n = 1- nZ + n(n- 1)Z2 boundary layer on the hot slab does not physically
2!
coincide exactly with the leading edge of the hot slab.
n(n - 1)(n - 2)Z3 n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3)Z 4
- 3! + 4! It is also probable that the partially heated gas
upstream from the hot slab is approaching the leading
n(n - l)(n - 2)(n - 3)(n - 4)Z5
- 5! + ... edge with a nearly laminar parabolic velocity profile.
This would produce a thicker diffusion layer, which is
Then by similar expansion, it can be shown that predicted from Equation (7.3), near the leading edge of
do= - !?__
v [-.!.2 (~) + ~8 (~)2 + 1_48 (~)a
b b b
the hot slab. This is true for the nitrogen curves in
Figures 7.8 and 7.9 as well, but the heavy N2 mole-
cules, which diffuse relatively slowly, are not affected
(o) (o)
+ 128 b +256 b
3
4
3
5
]
dV.
as much as are the light He molecules, which diffuse
more rapidly. Typically, in the epitaxial processes that
are being considered here, H2 is used as a carrier gas
With the substitution, o = 1.23 (Dx/V) 112 , each term
and the reactor dimensions are less than b = 3.0 em.
can be integrated separately with respect to V. The
Under these conditions, it is evident from the previous
limits of integration can be written with the aid of
discussion that oR reaches an equilibrium value of
Figure 7.11. At x 1 , when V = V1, o = o1. As o1
approximately b/2 very near the leading edge of a hot
approaches the dimension b, V 2 approaches oo. The
integrated result is Equation (7.13).
0R(X)
= 1 226
(Dx)
V
112 _ 0.564 (Dx)
b V
3.0
b 2v b v 3 I 8E FROM EQ 12
dN"'=N (7.18)
dx 11
dP DTP cient for nitrogen for Figure 7.8 can be calculated from
- dx = b<:r> V T<x>B<x>' the following equation (Foust, 1960):
2.628 X 10-19 (n/ M) 112
where Do = Per . (7 .26)
bo
b<x> = b 0 - x sin (J Vnx> = VT-b
From tables (Foust, 1960), cr = 3. 749 x lo-s for N 2; T 0
(X)
J (a
dx
+ bx)
1
= bIn (a + bx).
lated with the aid of Figure 7.8. A practical reason for
using T A in the mass-transport calculations is dis-
cussed in the summary of this article. An approxima-
Finally, tion of the reactor temperature curve at x = 10.16 em
can be represented by the broken lines. Then TA can
P<x> =
be calculated from the relationship
Po ex1(sin2~boVT [tn(s!oo- x)- ln(si~oo)]} T _ B [T,- (T.-Tm/2)] + (b- B)Tm (7.27)
A- b '
(7.23)
and where T, is the susceptor temperature; T m is the mean
gas temperature in the region (b - B); B is the arbitrary
G = (1.76 X 10 5 )DTPo
TA(b 0 x sin 0) boundary layer thickness at discontinuity in approxi-
<x> -
mate temperature curve; and b is the reactor height
2DT [ ( bo ) bo
x exp{ b 0 V T sin (J In sin (J - x - In sin (J
J} '
between susceptor and upper reactor tube wall. At T,
= l200C, Tm = 650C, and x = 10.16cm(Figure 7.8),
(7.24) TA = (0.5 cm)(925C) + (2.5 cm)(650C)/3.0 em.
TA = 696C = 1000K
where
T )1.ss From Equation (7.25)
DT =Do ( T~ 1000\ l.BB
DT = 0.184 ( 300 J = 1.769 cm 2/s
where the value of m is 1. 75 ,.. m ,.. 2. Because of the BE = 1.226 ( ~:) 112
high temperatures and temperature gradients present
in epitaxial systems, and for the sake of consistency, for heat transport. For gases D = (615) v, a: = 3/z v.
the average value of m = 1.88 will be used. First, the
diffusion coefficients will be calculated at room tem- aT= 45 DT = 45 (1.769) cm2/s = 2.21 cm 2/s,
perature because the mathematical formulas that exist
" = 1 226 ((2.211)(10.16))112 = 0 645
are known to give excellent agreement with room- uE ( 8 1.3 3) . em.
temperature experimental measurements; then the
high-temperature values will be calculated from Equa- BE has been calculated in a similar fashion for the
tion (7 .25) with m = 1.88. The self-diffusion coeffi- curves in Figures 7.8 and 7.10. The temperature
276 Chapter 7. S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith. Gas-Flow Dynamics in a Horizontal CVD Reactor
dependence of Equation (7 .12) is shown on Figure 7.9. Eversteyn's reactor was a conventional RF-heated
If horizontal system with a water-cooled quartz reactor
tube and a 30-cm-long susceptor. The reactor was
used to epitaxially deposit silicon on suitably prepared
single crystal silicon substrates from a mixture of
silane (SiH4) and a carrier gas of hydrogen. Deposition
experiments were carried out on fiat and tilted suscep-
tors with various carrier gas velocities and input con-
the combination of these equations yields centrations of silane. The reactor height, b 0 , above the
flat and tilted susceptor was 2.0 em.
1/2 ( )0.44
BE = 1.226 ( ~: ) ~~ . Eversteyn measured the approximate temperature
in the convective mixed-flow region between the
extremity of the diffusion layer and the reactor tube
wall (Eversteyn and Peek, 1970). T m = 700K is the
Calculation of Bn for Figures 7.8 and 7.10 measured temperature in the mixed region. T s =
1350K is the susceptor temperature measured with an
For mass transport, optical pyrometer and corrected for the emissivity of
silicon. Then the average reactor temperature can be
calculated with the use of Figure 7.14 and Equation
(7.27).
If Bn = b/2, and b = 2.0 em, then Bn = 1.0 em.
From Equation (7.27),
For heat transport,
T = (1.0 cm)(1025K) + (1.0 cm)(700K) = 863 K.
Bn = 1.226 (OI.rX) 1/2- 0.564 (OI.rX) A 2.0 em
Vr b Vr Before the mass transport of SiH4 to the susceptor
_ 0.0768 (arx) 312
can be calculated, the diffusion coefficient of silane in
b2 Vr ' hydrogen must be known. As stated by Eversteyn, on
where a.r = (5/4) Dr. If x = 10.16 em, b = 3.0 em, V r the basis of molecular weight and size, silane should
= 81.33 cm/s, Dr = 1.769 cm2/s, and ar = 2.211 diffuse in hydrogen at room temperature at a rate (D 0)
of 0.6 cm 2/s. A search of the literature indicates that
cm 2/s,
nearly all comparable molecular species diffuse in
(arx)
V T
= (2.211)(10.16) = 0 2762
(81.33)
hydrogen at comparable rates. The diffusion coeffi-
cient of silane in hydrogen can be calculated from a
well known equation for the simultaneous equal molar
Bn = 1.226(0.2762) 112 - 0 ;64 (0.2762)
diffusion of two gases (Foust et al., 1960).
D _ 2.628 X 10- [n(l/2)(1/Ma + l!Mb)P
- 0.0;68 (0.2762)3/2 19 12
00 - Pu2oo!l2 '
6n = 0.6444 - 0.0519 - 0.0012 = 0.59 em.
where Pis the reactor pressure (1 atmosphere); Ma is
the molecular weight of H2 (2); M b is the molecular
Example calculations for epitaxial growth rates for weight of SiH4 (32); Tc is the critical temperature of
Figures 7.15 and 7.16 SiH4 ( -4.0C or 269K); P c is the critical pressure of
0.8r---------------------,
0.6 V0 = 48.7 cm./sec.
0.4 P 0 =448 dyne /cm 2
0 (c)
0.2-~--~~----~0~----~0----~0~--------~"
0.1 I I I
c: 0.8
- F. C. EVERSTEYN
E 0.6 V0 =34 em/sec o CALCULATED
'E P0 = 639 dyne/cm2
::t. 0.4
.
<.!) ~a 0 0 0 0
........... ( b )
1>.1
1- 0.2
<t
a::
:I:
1- 0.1
:;:
0 0.8
a:: 0.6
<.!)
( 0) FIGURE 7.15
V0 = 18 em/sec Growth rate as a function of the position on a
0.2 P0 = 1207 dyne/cm2 tilted (2.9") susceptor calculated from Equation
(7 .24) for various gas-flow velocities and partial
pressures of silane. The calculated results are
0 1o~-'---'-~'---'---,l"'=o---'---'---'----'---=2"==o,--'---'---'---'--='3o compared to the experimental data of Eversteyn
POSITION X ALONG THE SUSCEPTOR (em)- et a!. (1970)
SiH4 ( 47.8 atmosphere); a a is the collision diameter of !12 =0.92, from tables (Foust et al., 1960),
H2; ab is the collision diameter of SiH 4 ; a ab ~, T* ab D _ 2.628 X 10- 19 [(300)3(1/2)(1/2 + 1/32)]'1 2
are Lennard-Jones constants; and ea/K, eb/K are ab - (1)(3.628 X 10 8 ) 2(0.92)
constants for the Lennard-Jones potential. = 0.5812 cm 2/s,
= 3.628 X 10- 8 ,
~b = [ (;;)(~) r2, The theoretical values for the epitaxial growth rate
curves shown in Figure 7.15 for a tilted susceptor have
been calculated with the use of Equation (7.24) and the
Ea
K = 38, from tables (Foust et al., 1960), conditions in Table 7.1
Eb
K = 0.77 Tc = (0.77)(269) = 207.13, G(J> (in pm/min)
1.76 X l0 5DrP 0 { 2Dr
~b = (38 X 207.13) 112 = 88.72, = TA(bo-xsinO)exp b 0 Vrsin0
T* _ K T _ 300 _
--; 0 - 88.72 - 3.38, x [ln (---f!_Q_
Sill()
- x) - ln ---f!_Q_]}
Sill()
TABLE 7.1 Physical Parameters Used to Calculate Growth Rate from Equation (7.24)
TA bo D'J(SiH,J Vo Vr P 0 (SiH,J P 0(SiH,J
Figure (J (K) (em) (em 2/s) (emls) (emls) (dynelem 2) (atmosphere)
15a 2.9 863 2.0 4.4 18.0 51.8 1207 1.14 x w-a
15b 2.9 863 2.0 4.4 34.0 97.8 639 6.04 x w-4
15c 2.9 863 2.0 4.4 48.7 140.1 448 4.23 x w-4
278 Chapter 7. S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith. Gas-Flow Dynamics in a Horizontal CVD Reactor
1.0 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0.8 -F. C. EVERSTEYN
ci 0.6 o CALCULATED
ILl V0 = 17.5 em/sec.
~ .: 0.4 P0 = 1241 dyne/cm2
a::-
E
:C'-
~ ~ 0.2 FIGURE 7.16
0
a:: Growth rate as a function of the position on a
(!)
horizontal susceptor. The calculated results are
compared to the experimental data of Eversteyn
POSITION X ALONG THE SUSCEPTOR (em)- et al. (1970)
The theoretical values for the epitaxial growth curve Equations (7.22) and (7.24) that were specific to the
shown in Figure 7.16 for a flat susceptor have been growth of silicon have cancelled out. A plot of Oc vs.
calculated with the use of Equation (7.22) and the TA with V0 as a parameter and Dofb 0 = 0.3 is given in
conditions that follow it: Figure 7.17.
One way to define a figure of merit for a reactor is to
G<xJ (in j.tm/min)
take the ratio of the total amount of material deposited
_ (1.76 X 10 5)DrP 0 (-2Drx)
- TAbo exp Vrb~ ' on the susceptor to the total amount of reactant input
to the reactor, both quantities being taken over the
TA = 863K; b 0 = 2.0 em; Dr= 4.4 cm 2/s; V0 = 17.5 same time period. The total amount of material depos-
crn!s; Vr = 50.5 crn!s; Po= 1.17 X 10-3 atmosphere. ited requires the integration of G<xJ If G<xJ is a con-
stant, as is true when {} = Oc, then the expression
immediately simplifies and one can write a figure of
Applications to reactor designs merit, M c. for operation of a reactor at the critical
angle as shown in the inset below.
For the purposes of designing an epitaxial reactor, it is The product, V0 b 0 W, in the denominator is the
useful to extract from the previous equations two flow rate through the system. When multiplied by P 0 it
quantities: the critical angle for uniform deposition is the flow rate of the reactant species. The numerator
and a figure of merit for the efficiency of the reactor. is the total volume of solid deposited. Defined in this
To derive the first of these quantities we start by way M c is not an efficiency, as it does not account for
rewriting Equation (7.24) in terms of D 0 , T0 , and V0 , molar ratios in the reactant and deposit.
to obtain, after simplification, The length of a susceptor, Leo which will physically
fit in a given reactor when the tilt angle is 0 c is
_ (1.76 x l0 5)DoPon 88 (bo- x sin O)M
G(x)- (bo-X sin O)T3 88 bo ho
Lc =sin Be'
where
2D o (T Substitution into Equation (7.28) yields
M = ___,! )o.88
b 0 V 0 sin 8 T 0
(7.29)
If M is set equal to unity, then the two terms contain-
ing (b 0 - x sin 0) will cancel. This means that G<xJ is
(The real susceptor must be somewhat shorter than
independent of x and that uniform deposits can be
this length; otherwise, it would touch the upper wall of
obtained along the entire length of the susceptor.
the reactor.)
The value for 0 c' the critical angle condition for
If we assume that the susceptor length is maxi-
obtaining uniform growth along the full susceptor
Inized, while maintaining uniform growth, we can
length, can then be found as
solve for Me as
. 2Do (TA)o.ss
SID Oc = hoVo To (7 .28)
~::
by referring to Figure 7 .18, which is a plot of growth ILl
ILl
rate vs. temperature with Dc)b 0 as a parameter, in Cl:
(!)
===------=====
conjunction with Figure 7.17. Figure 7.18 has been ILl
0 3
computed for an initial input pressure of 1 x w-a
~
atmosphere. 40
Because these conclusions seem to contradict intui- 2 50
tion, some discussion is in order. As a first point, we
remind the reader that the assumption was made that
the concentration of reactant at the growth interrace is
zero in order to derive Equation (7.2). This assump-
tion is certainly justified for silane. Nevertheless, it is
equivalent to assuming 100 percent reaction efficiency 800 900 1000
for any species which diffuses to the interrace. This
restrictive assumption can be relaxed somewhat by FIGURE 7.17 The critical susceptor angle for uniform
assuming that the partial pressure of reactant is not silicon growth (()c) as a function of the average temperature
zero but is instead the equilibrium partial pressure in the boundary layer (TA). The gas stream velocity (V 0) is
obtained from the thermodynamic equilibrium con- taken as a parameter
stant for the particular reaction. The resulting growth
rate equations are somewhat more complex and will
not be treated here.
For the case of complete reaction, consider the
consequences of doubling the value of b 0 From Equa-
tion (7.29) uniform deposition can now be obtained on
a susceptor which is four times longer. However, the
growth rate, which is inversely proportional to b 0 Po= IXI0- 3 atm
[Equation (7.22)] will decrease by a fl}ctor of two. The .6
net effect is to double the total amount of silicon ~=
bo
deposited in a unit time. Doubling of b 0 also requires
-------0.2
that the total amount of gas introduced into the reactor .5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.3 em/sec
be doubled if V0 is to be kept constant. Because both
the amount of silicon deposited and the amount of
c:: .4
reactant introduced have been increased by the same e
factor, the efficiency is unchanged. Similar arguments '::1..
can be made for the effect of changing D 0 or T A while ~ .3
maximizing the susceptor length. (!)
a! increase in V0 The growth rate will increase, but by mass transport but rather by the rate of reaction at
because of the proportional increase in V0 the efficien- the growing surface.
cy will remain unchanged. In practice, heteroepitaxial reactors are purposely
The reader should note that although the efficiency operated in a temperature regime in which the limiting
remains the same for all designs operating at 0, the step is the supply of material to the growing surface.
total consumption of carrier gas increases directly This is done in order to obtain control of the thickness
with b 0 If, in the design of a reactor, an attempt is with the gas input and deposition duration. The
made to maximize the number of wafers that a given reduced temperature sensitivity also provides for
system will hold by making it very long (low values of greater reproducibility.
(}c) the cost and difficulty of supplying the large vol- One of the most useful characteristics of the theory
umes of high-purity carrier gas that are needed can developed here is that there are no freely adjustable
very quickly make the most efficient design parameters. The required diffusion coefficients can be
impractical. obtained from the existing literature, calculated from
One additional point to be made in relation to reac- statistical mechanics, or measured at room tempera-
tor design involves the problem of doping uniformity. ture. The only experimental value that is needed is
In order to obtain layers with the desired semicon- that for T A' the average temperature in the region of
ducting properties, it is necessary to provide a suitable laminar flow. From Equation (7.27), with the added
dopant. The dopant must reach the growth surface in a condition that o.r = 1/z b .r' T A can be written as
manner similar to that of the reactant. If the diffusion
constant for the dopant is significantly different from
that of the main reactant, it will be impossible to
obtain uniform doping down the length of the reactor. so that one need only determine T mfor a given Ts and
If the dopant diffusion constant is smaller than that of flow conditions.
the reactant the net concentration in the growing layer In simplifying the final form of the equations the
should increase down the length of the reactor and assumption has been made that ox = 1/zbx. This
vice versa. assumption is not restrictive. The development of the
final equations has been presented in detail so that it is
obvious where integrations have been performed with
7 .6. Summary and limitations of the model o held constant. The reader is cautioned to distinguish
carefully between the values of D to be used in the
A number of assumptions and simplifications have various equations. The values of D to be used in
been used for the development of the model presented Equation (7 .13) are those of the carrier gas, whereas
here. The most important assumptions are those that those in Equations (7.22) and (7.24) are those of the
lead to the formulation of Equation (7 .2) and the diffusing reactant.
introduction of the concept of average temperature
and velocity to replace the explicit values. Equation
(7 .2) is obtained when the concentration of reactive AcKNOWLEDGMENTS. The authors are appreciative of the
species at the growing interface is taken to be zero and technical help of S. L. Gilbert. The authors would also like to
the rate of change of concentration with distance is recognize the helpful discussions with G. W. Cullen.
taken to be constant. The first of the conditions is
equivalent to requiring that the reaction-rate constant,
associated with the process of transferring a molecule
from the gas phase to its final position and chemical References
state in the solid, is extremely large at the temperature
of interest. Under these conditions, the limiting step in Andrews, R. W., D. M. Rynne, and E. G. Wright, Solid
the rate of growth is the transfer of material from the State Technology, October (1969) pp. 61-66.
gas stream to the growing interface. This transfer Ban, V. S. and S. L. Gilbert, J. Crystal Growth 31: 284
occurs by diffusion through a region of laminar flow (1975).
which has a parabolic velocity profile. As with the Bradshaw, S. E., Int. J. Electron. 23: 381 (1967).
previous models for diffusion-controlled transport, the Dismukes, J.P. and B. J. Curtis, Semiconductor Silicon 1973
(H. R. Huff and R. R. Burgess, Eds.) Princeton, NJ: The
present model predicts an approximate linear varia-
Electrochemical Society (1973) p. 250.
tion of the growth rate with temperature. This model is Eversteyn, F. C. and H. L. Peek, Philips Res. Rpt. 25: 472
thus not applicable directly to those conditions in (1970).
which the growth rate is best represented by an expo- Eversteyn, F. C., P. J. W. Severin, C. H. J. v.d. Brekel, and
nential dependence upon reciprocal temperature. H. L. Peek, J. Electrochem. Soc. ll7: 925 (1970).
Under these conditions the reaction is not governed Foust, A. S., L. A. Wenzel, C. W. Clump. L. Maus. and L.
References 281
B. Andersen, Principles of Unit Operations, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co. (1963) pp. 5-8, Fig. 5-11; p. 14-
Wiley (1960) p. 105 and 106; 186-187. 12.
Grove, A. S., Physics and Technology of Semiconducting Rundle, P. C., J. Crystal Growth 11: 6 (1971).
Devices, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (1967). Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, New York: Perga-
Hwang, G. J. and K. C. Cheng, J. Heat Transfer, Trans. mon Press (1955) p. 26 and 109; 107; 256.
ASME 95: 72 (1973). Sparrow, E. M., R. Eichorn, and J. L. Gregg, Physics of
Kamotani, Y. and S. Ostrach, J. Heat Transfer, Trans. Fluids 2: 319 (1959).
ASME 98: 62 (1976). Takahashi, R., Y. Koga, and K. Sugawara, J. Electrochem.
Perry, J., Chemical Engineers' Handbook, New York: Soc. 119: 1406 (1972).
Chapter 8
Misfit, Strain, and Dislocations in Epitaxial
Structures: Si/Si, Ge/Si, SilAh03
J. Blanc
8.1. Introduction and most thoroughly studied of these three cases but
shows a bewildering array of phenomena. The pre-
The growth of an epitaxial semiconductor layer on an vious discussion is summarized, and types of experi-
insulating substrate (or vice versa) will in general lead ments which might reasonably be done in the future to
to the development of strain in the composite struc- elucidate some of the problems presented are out-
ture because of lattice mismatch between the two lined, in Section 8.5. I have reluctantly chosen not to
substances or because of differential thermal contrac- discuss factors influencing electrical properties at and
tion between the two layers. The strain may or may near the heteroepitaxial interface; this is because, in
not be relieved, in whole or in part, by introduction of spite of their great practical significance, there are far
strain- or misfit-relieving dislocations, or cracks. too few data to evaluate what the important factors are
This chapter does not present a general theory or in determining these properties.
model of these phenomena. Rather, it points out phe-
nomenological factors whose importance may well
vary from case to case, sometimes in subtle ways. The 8.2. "First-principle" theories
position adopted here is that there is no generally
satisfactory conceptual approach to these problems; A systematic long range effort to construct a first-
thus, the intelligent acquisition of appropriate data is principle theory of heteroepitaxial growth of silicon on
still a necessary prerequisite before either a predictive insulators has been reported (Ruth et al., 1973). It is
or descriptive theory can be formulated. fair to say, I believe, that this effort has not provided
An evaluation of the current status and prognosis viable solutions to the problems that were attacked.
for first -principle theories of epitaxial strain is given in Without underestimating the value of these efforts, I
Section 8.2; the essentially phenomenological theories am pessimistic about such an approach leading to an
of van der Merwe for introduction of misfit disloca- understanding of heteroepitaxy in the foreseeable
tions are briefly described in section 8.3; I point out future, and I think it important to point out the factors
the limitations with regard to the cases of interest limiting such theoretical work.
here. Section 8.4, discusses (in some detail) observa- A first-principle attack presumably starts with only
tions on strain and dislocations in layers of Si on quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and ther-
sapphire, of epitaxial Ge on Si, and of undoped silicon modynamics (reversible and irreversible) as assump-
on heavily doped silicon substrates (and vice versa); tions. Even without dealing with questions of nuclea-
although the latter two hardly constitute insulating- tion and growth (which are beyond the scope of this
semiconducting composites, they are probably the chapter), a theory of epitaxial misfit must deal, as is
systems most closely allied for which enough data are demonstrated in the next section, with at least the
available to illustrate the complexities and subtleties following questions: (1) What is the strength of the
of the introduction of strain and dislocations in semi- bonding between substrate and overgrowth? (2) What
conductor epitaxy. It should be pointed out at the is the equilibrium structure of the overgrowth and
outset that the case of silicon on silicon is the simplest what is the energy of a "strained" as compared to an
8.3. Models of coherent growth and misfit dislocation 283
"unstrained" overgrowth? (3) What stress level is 8.3. Models of coherent growth and
needed to nucleate dislocations? (4) What is the rate at misfit dislocations
which a dislocation will move via diffusion of atoms or
defects? Consider two crystals (e.g., Ge and Si) of the same
Even if the above stringent requirements are cubic structure but differing lattice parameters. If the
relaxed and it is assumed that bulk parameters are two crystals are placed in an epitaxial relationship
available from experiment for both substrate and over- with one another, an unequal number of atom planes
growth, the problems cannot be directly attacked. will be found on the two sides of the bounding inter-
This can be seen by rewording the problems: (l) What face; in other words, the linear density of atom planes
is the surface tension between two phases of arbitrary, in a crystal is inversely proportional to its lattice
but known, composition? (2) Given two phases of the parameter, so that in our gedanken experiment there
same composition but different known structures, can be no one-to-one correspondence between atom
what are the thermodynamics of the phase transition? planes in the two halves of the bicrystal. Such an
(3) Given a material of known structure and thermody- interface is said to be "incoherent." The presence of
namics, how much stress must be applied for what missing or extra planes is recognized in dislocation
period of time to obtain a given deformation? (4) What theory as a particular type of dislocation: the pure
is the relationship between gross material properties edge dislocation. (Dislocations are generally charac-
and the coefficient of self-diffusion? terized by their directions in the crystals and by their
Each of these isolated problems has been seriously Burgers vectors, b, but these points are of little direct
investigated by theoretical physicists, chemists, and consequence in what follows.) In our application, they
metallurgists. Although appreciable progress has been are often referred to as "misfit dislocations." A simple
made toward solving of some of these questions, it is geometrical construction will show that the density of
also true that there are no general methods for obtain- dislocations, nb per unit length of interface is given by
ing numerical answers for any of these generalized
problems. There is simply no computer large and fast (8.1)
enough to solve the appropriate equations, even in
those cases in which it is known exactly what equa-
where f, the misfit, is given by
tions to put down. Under these circumstances, it
seems not feasible to try and construct a genuine first-
order theory of a system as complex as silicon on (8.2)
sapphire.
A reasonable theoretical program might evolve by A. 1 and A. 2 are the interplanar spacings of interest in the
study of these questions on "simple" substances two crystals, a, and a 2 the lattice parameters in the
(e.g., argon on neon or KCl on KBr), where the a
two crystals; and:\ and are (A.,A. 2) 112 and (a 1 a 2) 112
binding forces are relatively well understood. Such For small f, which is of concern here, X" can be
theoretical studies would have to be accompanied by numerically taken as either A., or A2 without significant
parallel experimental studies to show which theoreti- error, and a, or az for a. Both nl and fare recurrent
cal approximations are justifiable and which are not. quantities in this field although with a confusing varie-
Because there is no guarantee that approximations ty of symbolism; also often used in the literature is the
suitable for noble gases or alkali halides would prove "dislocation spacing," which is simply the reciprocal
adaptable to semiconductors, insulators, or metals, of the linear dislocation density: 1/n 1 [Much of the
and because the former systems are themselves of no conceptual matter discussed in this section is treated
practical interest, the impetus for seriously studying more precisely and elaborately in a recent book by
these simple systems appears to be at a minimum. Matthews (1975). The interested reader is urged to
It should be mentioned here that the extensive look at this material, particularly Chapter 6 by van der
research on the deposition of metals on substrates Merwe and Bell and Chapter 8 by Matthews.]
such as the alkali halides has been successfully ana- Any dislocation has a strain field associated with it,
lyzed in terms of phenomenological models, but prob- and this causes an elastic relaxation of the crystal
lems dealing with interfacial bonding in such cases around it. Frank and van der Merwe (1949) realized
have been discussed in an ad hoc fashion, if they have that in thin epitaxial layers the energy associated with
been dealt with at all. misfit dislocations could possibly be higher (less favor-
In view of all this, the prognosis for having a worka- able) than that associated with a coherent overgrowth
ble first-order theory of silicon heteroepitaxy seems (sometimes also called "pseudomorphic" over-
very dim in the foreseeable future. I thus turn out of growth) with "strained" lattice parameters (i.e.,
necessity, and with relief, to phenomenological where the epitaxial layer rather than having its own
models and empirical relations with which one may "natural" lattice parameter adopts that of the sub-
hope to order the experimental data. strate). van der Merwe and others have elaborated
284 Chapter 8. J. Blanc. Misfit, Strain, and Dislocations in Epitaxial Structures
greatly on his initial work. I sketch here the results of lated misfit (h liP exceeds about half of the unstrained
Jesser and Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf(1967), as this chapter unit cell; this appears plausible. It is interesting that
presents its results in readily interpretable form and Equation (8.4) is analogous to the "Brooks criterion"
has comprehensive references to earlier work. The developed for the "critical radius" beyond which sec-
main results of this work are (1) that for overgrowth ond-phase precipitates in crystals will lose coherence
layers less than a certain thickness, he, no misfit (Brooks, 1952).
dislocations should be formed, the energy of the sub- An important experimental consequence of the
strate-overgrowth composite being minimized by for- notion of coherent overgrowth is that the bicrystal
mation of a "coherent" overgrowth (i.e., compression composite will bend to accommodate the elastic strain
or expansion of the overgrowth lattice parameters to in the coherent overgrowth (Sugita et al., 1969A,B).
conform to that of the substrate); (2) as the thickness For equal elastic moduli in substrate and overgrowth,
of the overgrowth increases beyond he, the calcula- the radius of curvature, R, is predicted to be
tions indicate that there is a rapid, but not discontin- (6ttf J)
uous, increase of misfit dislocation density with layer (8.5)
R Cts + tr)3'
thickness followed by a much slower increase, such
that the n 1 calculated from Equation (8.1) is reached where t 1 is the thickness of the overgrowth and t 8 that
only for "infinitely" thick overgrowths. Although I of the substrate. For t 8 >> t, the usual experimental
have phrased the above discussion, implicitly, for the situation, Equation (8.5) reduces to
case of a continuous overgrowth on an infinitely thick
1 -6ft,
substrate, similar conclusions apply for island growth (8.6)
Ii=tr
or substrates of finite thickness.
For cubic crystals and an infinitely thick substrate, I would like to stress that these general notions, in
in the limit of small strains, Jesser and Kuhlmann- various guises and elaborations, have been qualita-
Wilsdorf give the following expression for h, the tively verified for many metallic epitaxial systems. A
epitaxial layer thickness above which misfit disloca- striking example [see Olsen and Jesser (1971) and
tions are expected to occur: references quoted there] of the utility of this concep-
tual framework is the epitaxy of Fe on either Cu or Ni.
h = G2b 2 Both copper and nickel crystallize in the face centered
e 21Ta 2 V](l + 2v)( G1 + G2)
cubic (fcc) form, whereas bulk iron is stable in the fcc
X ln[( Gt + G2)G(l - v)] (8 .3) form only in the temperature range of 906-1401C;
27TGtG2V] .
below and above this range, its stable form is body
Here G, Gt. G 2 are the shear moduli of the "inter- centered cubic (bee). Deposition of Fe thin films (less
face," of the overgrowth and of the substrate respec- than =25 A) on either Cu or Ni at low temperatures
tively; b is the magnitude of the Burgers vector; a 2 is yields coherent (bulk unstable) films of fcc Fe; the
the lattice parameter of the substrate; and v is Pois- films are under 1.2 percent tension on copper and 1.5
son's ratio. In principle, all quantities in this expres- percent compression on nickel. In these two cases, the
sion are measurable on bulk material except G, the coherent overgrowth not only strains the "natural"
interfacial bulk modulus, a quantity which is supposed lattice of Fe, but the overgrowth goes over to a crystal
to be "a measure of the bonding across the interface." structure which is thermodynamically unstable in the
In practice, G must be viewed as an empirical fitting bulk. By studying the fcc ~ bee transformations
parameter. Similar expressions for critical radii, r, for which occur on both substrates after the film thickness
island overgrowths can be derived from Jesser and exceeds he. and by comparing results of films under
Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf. tension to those under compression, Olsen and Jesser
For semiquantitative estimates, the rather formida- were able to elucidate in interesting detail the mecha-
ble Equation (8.3) can be replaced (Blanc, 1973) by nisms of the fcc ~ bee transition in iron.
Models of the van der Merwe type give conditions
b
he= 2V]. (8.4) for equilibrium (the equilibria are "mechanical" rather
than "thermodynamic"); one presumes that the ther-
This expression can be empirically approximated from modynamic equilibrium is not significantly different
Equation (8.3) by noting that the logarithmic depen- from the mechanical (zero temperature) one, but I am
dence on f is much weaker than llf and by assuming not aware of detailed theoretical justification of this. It
that G = G 1 = G 2, which for the case of strong is generally true in statistical physics and chemistry
bonding or similar crystals is reasonable. In addition, that it is far easier to specify conditions for equilibrium
Equation (8.4) has a relatively simple and attractive than to calculate realistic kinetic paths for reaching
physical interpretation. Because b is always of the equilibrium from arbitrary initial conditions. Unfortu-
order of the unit cell dimension, Equation (8.4) implies nately, this is also true in the present case.
that coherent overgrowth can occur until the accumu- Conditions for dislocation equilibrium are much
8.4. Some experimental results 285
more easily met in metals than in covalent crystals, so Unfortunately, semiconductor epitaxy falls in nei-
that a model which works admirably for metals can- ther limit of very easy nor very hard dislocation intro-
not, without hazard, be extrapolated to nonmetallic duction, and the conceptual situation is therefore
crystals. The reasons for this difference are very much muddy. Matthews and coworkers (1970) have made
related to crystal bonding forces. Dislocations are several interesting attempts to describe this intermedi-
produced in a crystal in response to forces tending to ate regime, but as is demonstrated in Section 8.4,
deform the crystal; the actual mechanisms for nuclea- careful studies of Si heteroepitaxy have not so far
tion of dislocations ("sources") are complex, and I yielded to this type of interpretation.
shall return to them briefly in Section 8.4. Subsequent
motion towards equilibrium occurs in two distinctly 8.4. Some experimental results
different ways: one is "slip" or "glide," the other is
"climb." Slip involves the motion of entire atomic
planes with respect one to another, as in a spread-out
deck of cards. Climb, on the other hand, involves local The silicon-on-sapphire system is the prototype,
mass transport to make or rearrange a dislocation, and and currently most important, example of semicon-
is diffusive in nature. Slip is impeded by the so-called ductor heteroepitaxy on insulating substrates. The
Peirls-Nabarro force which measures the force system presents serious experimental and conceptual
required to move one plane against another; although difficulties. Sapphire is rhombohedral, but silicon is
few quantitative estimates of this force have been cubic, and therefore for growth on any one particular
made, it is intuitively attractive to believe that mate- sapphire orientation the misfit strain is anisotropic,
rials with short-range nondirected bonding forces (i.e., with mean strains of =0.1. In addition, the large differ-
metals) have much smaller forces than materials with ence in thermal expansion coefficient between the
highly directional forces (covalent crystals) or with substrate and silicon (=4 x 10-6fC) leads to a strain of
strong long-range interactions (ionic crystals). Climb, =3 X 10-3 in cooling from a growth temperature of
on the other hand, is intimately tied to self-diffusion = lOOO"C to room temperature. These large strains
processes, which vary enormously from crystal to make the preparation of specimens suitable for defect
crystal. Without undue generalization, I note that self- study by transmission electron microscopy difficult.
diffusion in many "soft" metals has an activation Even if samples are successfully prepared, the
energy less than 3 e V, whereas self-diffusion Si is observed contrast may be exceedingly complex
reported to have an activation energy of about 5 e V. It because of large strains and high defect densities. In
may thus be generally expected that dislocation fact, the pioneering transmission electron microscope
motion will be easier, either by slip or climb, in metals work of Cullis (1972) and Linnington (1974) failed to
than in covalent crystals, and that for covalent crys- reveal any misfit dislocations near the Si/Al2 0 3 inter-
tals, both slip under external stress and climb are face. Although these negative results can now be
expected to be the easier the higher the temperature. understood (see below), they appeared to pose a seri-
(Detailed discussion of these topics can be found in ous problem in understanding heteroepitaxy.
any text on dislocations.) Thus, in "soft" metals Before addressing the question of misfit disloca-
which are readily deformable at low temperatures, tions, it is necessary to describe some results on the
either the substrate will contain enough "native" dis- growth mechanism. Abrahams and coworkers (1976b)
locations so that when needed by the breakup of the and Blanc and Abrahams (1976) have reported
coherency of the overgrowth, these can rearrange into detailed experimental results and have modeled the
misfit-relieving orientations, or dislocations can be early growth of 001 Si on 0112 Al20 3 The salient
introduced, at appropriate sources, under the influ- results are as follows.
ence of the stress caused by the overgrowth. The only a. The growth proceeds via island formation, as
serious modification (Jesser, 1970) to van der Merwe was known previously. The individual islands
models which needs to be made, if the temperature is are predominantly of (100) orientation, with a
low enough that climb does not occur rapidly, is that rotational spread of =3 deg. The deposit con-
"slip" dislocations are not usually of pure-edge type tains a minor proportion of { 11 0} material.
although they can relieve misfit. This effect requires b. Individual islands appear to grow independent-
essentially minor numerical modifications in calcula- ly of one another, and the coalescence of two
tions of both n 1 and he. (100) islands is occasionally accompanied by
In the limit that neither slip nor climb can occur, no the formation of a stacking fault at the juncture
dislocations can be introduced either by climb or slip, of the islands, presumably to accommodate the
leading to overgrowths which are coherent to thick- rotational misalignment.
nesses much larger than calculated he. This gives rise c. The minor { 110} constituent is eventually cov-
to curvature of the grown composite and eventually to ered over as the growth attains full coverage,
crack formation. with presumed formation of grain boundaries.
286 Chapter 8. J. Blanc. Misfit, Strain, and Dislocations in Epitaxial Structures
The end result of this complex set of events is that a natural sources for dislocations throughout the Si
large number of stacking faults and microtwins is overgrowth after subsequent processing. Further-
formed, and the density gradually decreases with dis- more, one would expect bandgap charges of the order
tance from the interface [Linnington (1974), Abra- of 0.1 e V under these high stresses, with possible
hams and Buiocchi (1975), Ham and coworkers consequences on the electrical properties of such
(1977)]. Near the silicon/sapphire interface, the mean regions. Abrahams and coworkers (1978) have given
distance between faults in the silicon is = 100 A. an approximate theoretical discussion of the strain
Besides their intrinsic interest, these results indicate distribution in the appropriate geometry. They con-
why misfit dislocations were not found, even if pres- clude that the transformation of normal strain to shear
ent, by Cullis and Linnington. Contrast in foils of 2000 strain, and resulting magnification of strain, should
Aor more of Si would, except fortuitously, have been always be expected in the presence of a corner sub-
overwhelmed by features other than misfit jected to differential thermal contraction.
dislocations. A detailed and comprehensible picture of defects of
In spite of these difficulties, misfit dislocations have Si deposited on Al2 0 3 has thus emerged in the last
been observed, but only in deposits with incomplete several years. This should not obscure the fact that a
coverage (i.e., islands) [Abrahams and coworkers great deal still remains to be discovered or under-
(1976a)], obviating much of the observational difficul- stood. I point out only two such areas. It is still not
ty discussed above. The misfit dislocations occur with agreed whether the predominant defects observed
the density expected for the lattice misfit calculated; (stacking faults and microtwins) are inherent to the
the dislocations are of pure edge character. It thus growth of silicon on sapphire or whether alterations in
appears that in spite of the complications of growth techniques of growth can affect these crystal imper-
mechanisms and introduction of high densities of fections; nor is it even clear whether such defects are
faults, the case of Sil Al2 0 3 conforms very closely to beneficial or harmful to majority carrier devices which
van der Merwe's model for the accommodation of are the major use for these composites. More academ-
lattice misfit. ically, it is far from obvious that we understand except
We have seen that the large lattice misfit is com- in the vaguest way what physical or chemical factors
pletely relieved at normal growth temperatures. There are determinant in the orientation which silicon adopts
remains the relatively much smaller strain due to dif- on an arbitrary orientation of sapphire.
ferential thermal contraction after growth. Although
dislocation counts such as discussed above cannot Ge/Si
experimentally distinguish the small increment in dis-
location density to be expected from relief of this The epitaxial deposition of germanium on silicon sub-
strain, it has long been known [Ang and Manasevit strates is perhaps conceptually the "simplest" exam-
(1965)] that substantially all of this strain is retained ple of semiconductor heteroepitaxy. The mismatch in
elastically (i.e., without additional dislocation intro- lattice parameter, however, is relatively large (j = 4 x
duction). The principal reason for this is that at the 10-2), leading to a calculated coherent thickness of
low temperatures where most of the differential con- only =25 A. It may thus be expected that growth with
traction occurs the silicon is so resistant to plastic epitaxial layer thicknesses exceeding =100 A should
deformation that new dislocations cannot be generat- exhibit misfit dislocation densities = 7 x 105/cm in the
ed even though equilibrium theories call for them. region of the Ge/Si interface.
Very recently, Abrahams and coworkers (1978) have Cullis and Booker (1970) and Briante and coworkers
shown that this normal strain (compression of Si inter- (1972) have grown epitaxial thin films by vacuum
planar spacings) is transformed to shear strains (dis- evaporation of Ge onto (111) Si substrates in the range
tortion of angles between Si planes) at edges of Sil of =700 to =900C and examined the resulting layers
Al2 0 3 composites, such as one will almost inevitably by transmission electron microscopy. Insofar as the
encounter in device manufacturing. At the threefold results overlap, the two investigations are in qualita-
intersection of Si, Al2 0 3 , and vacuum (i.e., a corner), tive agreement; a critical comparison of the interpreta-
the shear strain reaches a maximum of =0.02, a mag- tion given by these two sets of careful workers imme-
nification of a factor of 8 over the "normal" strain. diately shows the difficulties in theoretical
The shear strain decays in an approximately exponen- interpretation of this "simple" semiconducting
tial manner with distance away from the corner. The system.
maximum shear strain observed is enormous from a These workers report that the growth of Ge on Si
number of points of view. It corresponds closely to the proceeds by nucleation and growth of islands. Briante
theoretical shear strength, so that corners must be and coworkers report that a large number of small
close to incipient cracking or plastic flow, although islands form at lower temperature compared to a
this has not been observed. Such corners may well be smaller number of larger islands at higher tempera-
8.4. Some experimental results 287
tures. It is not clear from their data whether the result, at a constant stress level, in an increasing rate
substrate area covered by growth for constant average of introduction as the temperature increases. Thus,
thickness changes appreciably for the different mor- the conundrum: on quite general grounds, one should
phologies at the different growth temperatures. (This expect more of the misfit to be accommodated as the
point will be of importance in the ensuing discussion.) temperature of the epitaxial growth increases, but that
Cullis and Booker measured the dislocation and the reported experiments clearly show the reverse;
Moire spacings by transmission electron microscopy unless the overgrowths are in fact alloyed, there
for specimens grown at various temperatures; the dis- appears to be no easy way out. [Attempts at measur-
locations had the correct directions and Burgers vec- ing the actual composition of the overgrowth islands
tors to be misfit relieving. These workers found that have been made, but have been unsuccessful (Booker,
the density of dislocations decreased with increasing 1973).]
temperatures, the density expected for relief of misfit Cullis (1972) has suggested that for the thin deposits
being approached only at the lowest temperatures. involved here, surface diffusion rather than bulk diffu-
Briante and coworkers, on the other hand, rather than sion might be dominant. This could result in an over-
counting dislocations, performed "selected area" dif- growth of effectively constant alloy composition. The
fraction experiments and were thus able to find split actual composition would depend on the temperature
diffraction spots from the Ge overgrowth and Si sub- through the temperature dependence of the diffusion
strate. They found that at the lowest growth tempera- coefficient. Although this plausible suggestion
ture the Ge islands had substantially the normal Ge explains the experimental results, it is not as yet
lattice parameter, in agreement with the large disloca- experimentally verified, and it may be quite difficult to
tion density found by Cullis and Booker. At their do so.
highest temperature, the lattice parameter of the Ge Assuming that the experimental results (i.e.,
islands had gone about halfway to that of Si; this is absence of interdiffusion) have been correctly inter-
also qualitatively consistent with the small dislocation preted, I now discuss possible sources of the difficul-
density found. Thus, the two groups of workers have ty. I have already noted that the island morphology
both found, by two essentially different methods, that changes as a function of temperature; it is conceivable
there is more misfit accommodated by dislocations for that the smaller (in area) low-temperature islands are
Ge grown on Si at lower temperatures than at higher ''tall" and have exceeded the critical thickness where-
temperatures. as the larger high-temperature islands are ''short'' and
The interpretations of these results by the two have not or have barely exceeded the critical thick-
groups are, however, significantly different. Cullis and ness. This appears an unlikely explanation. Briante
Booker believe that their results may indicate that at and coworkers (1972) have reported the "average"
high temperatures interdiffusion occurs at the hetero- thickness of their deposits calculated from the rate of
junction and that ''this will give an alloy zone which deposition; for island growth, the actual thickness of
would reduce the mismatch and therefore increase the islands must be greater than this average thickness;
dislocation spacing.'' On the other hand, in their later for growths at 900C, these workers report results at
work, Briante and coworkers argue that if an apprecia- average thicknesses ranging from 25 to 600 A, without
ble amount of diffusion had taken place, the lattice any appreciable systematic change in the lattice
parameter of the overgrowth should continuously vary parameter of the Ge overgrowth. It seems implausible
from that of pure Ge to that of pure Si and "it would in this case that a change by a factor of 24 in average
not be possible to observe distinct Ge and Si thickness should not result in appreciable changes in
patterns." actual island thickness, exceeding the critical thick-
Although this argument is certainly very credible, ness for the thicker deposits. Another possible expla-
adopting it leads to a paradox. If indeed the evidence nation might be that an experimental boundary condi-
of split diffraction spots indicates the absence of sig- tion for the proper analysis of the experimental results
nificant interdiffusion between Ge overgrowth and Si has been implicitly violated (I am at a loss to propose a
substrates, it then follows immediately that Ge tends concrete possibility for these experiments, but see
to grow more coherently as the growth temperature below for such an example in another growth system).
increases. This is a paradoxical result for two reasons: Finally, if the coherent overgrowth does not have the
(1) the coefficients of thermal expansion of Ge (6 x atomic positions postulated by the van der Merwe
w-6;oC) and of Si (4 x w-6rC) are such that the lattice model, it then seems possible that the coherence one
misfit increases with increasing temperature, so that might expect, and the associated strain, might well be
the driving force for introduction of misfit dislocations a function of temperature. I discuss this possibility
in the Ge overgrowth should be larger at the higher briefly in Section 8.5.
growth temperature; (2) both mechanisms for intro- For the interesting case of the epitaxial growth of
duction of misfit dislocations (slip and climb) will Ge-Si alloys on Si and an elaboration of van der
288 Chapter 8. J. Blanc. Misfit, Strain, and Dislocations in Epitaxial Structures
Merwe's model to semiconductors, see Kasper and enough dislocations for dislocation equilibrium even
Herzog (1977). for very small values of misfit, unless some multiplica-
tion mechanism such as Frank-Read sources is
Si!Si available.
The only other evident source for dislocation gener-
Prelude. The case of Si/Si homoepitaxy requires a ation and motion is via climb. As this is a diffusive
brief discussion of the modes of dislocation introduc- process, it may be expected to be quite slow except in
tion in crystals, although this discussion will be neither the presence of large supersaturations of point defects
complete nor precise. The reasons for this are associ- (interstitials or vacancies).
ated with the relatively low misfit strains (< 10-3) It is thus by no means clear by what process or on
associated with homoepitaxial growth of silicon and what time scales misfit will be relieved in silicon
the low native dislocation densities in silicon sub- homoepitaxy.
strates used conventionally.
Estimates for the stress necessary to nucleate dislo- Si:B/Si and Si/Si:B. Because of the availability of
cations spontaneously in an otherwise perfect crystal high-precision lattice parameters [from Hom (1955)]
yield = p)30, where !L is the shear modulus of the of B-doped silicon up to the saturation limit ( = 1020 B/
crystal. Once nucleated, dislocations will typically cm 3), the growth of undoped silicon on B-doped sili-
move under applied stress of ;;:, JA,/1000. Numerical con substrates and vice versa should be a splendid
calculations show that the stress due to epitaxial misfit opportunity for the study of misfit relief in semicon-
will exceed JA,/30 for misfits approximately greater than ductors as a function of various parameters: doping
0.02, although the actual values depend on the active level, growth temperature, and method of growth. The
shear system. Thus, in the example of the previous lattice parameter of B-doped Si is smaller than that of
sections, there is no difficulty in visualizing sources of pure Si. Sugita and his coworkers (1969A,B; also
dislocations for possible misfit relief. However, for Si/ Tamura and Sugita, 1973), and we in our laboratories,
Si, (j < 10-3 ), this mechanism is not available. In such have availed ourselves of this opportunity. Unfortu-
situations, one often finds stress raisers or stress con- nately, the two sets of experimental results are in
centrators (which may be precipitates, surface discon- serious discordance one with the other. I therefore
tinuities, etc.) invoked in the metallurgical literature. take up each set separately and then try to point out
The local stress may thus be considerably higher than what the significance of this disagreement is. Both in
the average applied stress. Dislocations may be Sugita's work and ours, [ 111] and [ 100] Czochralski
nucleated at these sites and subsequently glide to crystals were used as substrates, with diameters of 2.5
relieve misfit. [Matthews et a!. (1970) give a more to 3 em. Substrate dislocation densities were < 102/
precise discussion of this mechanism.] Except for the cm2 Except as otherwise noted, the surfaces to be
presence of intrinsic surface ledges in the growing grown on were polished by standard methods to a
crystal, sufficiently "clean" systems will have no such mirror finish. In our work, we used substrate wafers
stress raisers. Whether expitaxial Si falls in this regime both with polished and lapped "back" surfaces.
is not known, but it seems possible that the stress
induced by misfit could be insufficient to nucleate new THE WORK OF SVGITA AND COWORKERS. Sugita
dislocations. and his associates have studied growths of essentially
Another mechanism available for formation of mis- undoped epitaxial layers on substrates with B concen-
fit dislocations involves preexistent dislocations in the trations varying from =2 x 1018/cm3 to =6 x 1019/cm 3
substrate. Those dislocations originally terminating at (5 x 10-2 ;;:, p;;:, 2 x 10-3 !1-cm). These correspond to
the free surface of the substrate will propagate into the f approximately between 10-5 and 3 X w-" They 0
overgrowth. After an appropriate critical thickness is grew their layers by reduction of silicon tetrachloride
reached, these will tend to bend into the interface to at 1140C at a rate = 1 JA,rnlmin.
produce misfit relief. Matthews and coworkers (1970) In one series of experiments, Sugita chose a series
have considered this process in detail. For Si, at tem- of B-doped substrates of 200 JA,m thickness with resis-
peratures of =1150C, they obtain a rate constant for tivities from more than 2 X 10-2 to 2 X 10-3 0-cm (j
this process of =10-3/s. For any growth exceeding 5 approximately between 10-5 and 3 x 10-4 ) and grew
min, as in most conventional Si epitaxial methods, this layers of undoped Si to an essentially constant thick-
bending of the grown-in dislocation should be essen- ness of 20 JLm. Lang x-ray topography was utilized to
tially complete. However, for substrate dislocation detect the presence of misfit dislocations. They deter-
densities of 100/cm2 , which is reasonably typical, even mined that for this thickness of overgrowths no misfit
if all substrate dislocations were to bend for misfit dislocations were introduced for substrate resistivities
relief, this is sufficient for relief of only =4 x w-a or larger than 2 X 10-2 (j = 3 X 10-5). Equation (8.3) or
smaller. Thus, with substrates that are usually used in (8.4) can be used to define, for constant overgrowth
Si epitaxy, the substrate dislocations cannot provide thickness, a misfit below which the overgrowth is
8.4. Some experimental results 289
expected to be coherent (with no misfit dislocations); expected. The values for f obtained directly from
for a thickness of 20 ~-tm, Equation (8.4) yields a value Equations (8.5) or (8.6), without differentiation, seem
for this "critical" misfit of= 1 x IQ-5 , which I take to to show systematic differences from the values above.
be in substantial agreement with the experimental val- I briefly summarize now the salient points of this
ue. However, as Sugita and coworkers noted, the work as it bears on misfit dislocations. (1) Critical
dislocation densities appeared to be much smaller than thicknesses and misfits are in excellent agreement (to
those expected for equilibrium relief of misfit; thus, within factors of better than 2 or 3) with calculations of
for a sample with f = 1.3 x I0-4 , n 1 was observed to van der Merwe type models. (2) The dependence of
be 250/cm instead of the calculated= 3 x l<f/cm and the radius of curvature on epitaxial layer thickness in
for a sample with f = 2 x 10-4, n 1 was measured to be the coherent regime is accurately given by Equation
800/cm rather than the expected value of= 5 x 1<f/ (8.6), but absolute values are in some disagreement.
em, a discrepancy of about an order of magnitude. (3) The initial abrupt rise in dislocation density after
With the sample of lowest resistivity (f = 3 X 10-4 ), passing he can probably be accounted for by the Mat-
with an expected n 1 of = 8 x l<f/cm, individual thews mechanism of substrate dislocations bending
dislocations could not be resolved, probably indicat- over into the strained interface; after this point is
ing an actual density in excess of 5 x l<f/cm. passed, however, the supply of dislocations appears
In another set of experiments to determine he, these limited and equilibrium slow to be reached, until f
workers prepared substrates from 7 X 10-3 il-cm B- exceeds 3 x 10-4
doped Si, with thicknesses of either 103 or 2 x 102 ~-tm,
and grew undoped Si of various thicknesses. By WORK AT RCA LABORATORIES. The initial impetus
observing in which overgrowths misfit dislocations for our work on Si/Si:B composites was twofold. We
were observed, they were able to determine he. For have had a long-standing interest in the study of misfit
the thicker substrates, they measured he = 5 ~-tm; for relief in epitaxial composites by means of transmission
the appropriate misfit (f = 9 x 10-5) and the assump- electron microscopy (TEM), which can provide more
tion of infinitely thick substrate, he should be =3 ~-tm. detailed information than x-ray topography; the work
For substrates of thickness 200 ~-tm, they obtained he of Sugita and coworkers strongly suggested that the
= 7.5 ~-tm. This increase of he with decreasing sub- study of Si/Si epitaxial crystals by this method would
strate thickness is at least qualitatively expected as provide a rich lode to mine, leading to a detailed
part of the misfit is expected to be taken up by elastic understanding of the modes of introduction of disloca-
bending of the substrate [Equation (8.5)]. The behav- tions. However, because of the much higher magnifi-
ior of the dislocation density with overgrowth thick- cations and. consequent small fields of view used in
ness after he has been passed is extremely interesting. TEM, the dislocation spacing ought not to be less than
The data seem to indicate that for both thicknesses of =1 ~-tm in order to obtain statistically meaningful data.
substrate, the dislocation density rises quite abruptly This implies an/approximately greater than 4 X 10-4,
after he to the (low) value of 5 misfit dislocations/em; a value higher than any studied by Sugita. The work
this is followed by an extremely gradual (apparently reported in this section, therefore, deals exclusively
logarithmic) increase with further overgrowth thick- with B concentration at or near the saturation limit
ness not approaching the theoretical limit until the (resistivity of 1 X 10-3 il-cm, B = 1020/cm3) leading to
overgrowth is =50 ~-tm. This behavior is very striking- an expected f of 6 x 10-4 and n 1 = 2 x 104/cm.
ly different than that expected on theoretical grounds Our growths were performed both by decomposi-
[see Figure 5 of Jesser and Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf tion of dichlorosilane and silane at temperatures rang~
(1967)] or what is actually observed in metallic epi- ing from 1050 to 1150C with growth rates between 1
taxy. The equilibrium theory suggests when the total and 2 ~-trnlmin. Substrates of200 ~-tm thickness, both in
overgrowth thickness reaches 2he, about 90 percent of (100) and (111) orientation were used, with an epitaxial
the n 1 calculated by Equation (8.1) should have been layer thickness between 25 and 100 ~-tm.
made. This is not at all what the results of Sugita show I now summarize briefly the results of a long series
for Si/Si. of experiments. Observed by x-ray topography, epi-
I conclude this description of the experiments of taxial composites of undoped Si on substrates doped
Sugita and coworkers with another of their elegant with 1020/cm 3 B never showed a misfit dislocation
experiments. Taking a series of substrates of constant density exceeding 30/cm, a discrepancy of almost
thickness with p = 3 X 10-3 il-cm (f = 1.9 X 10-4), three orders of magnitude from the expected result.
they measured the radius of curvature of epitaxial (The dislocation density was far too low for examina-
composites for epitaxial thicknesses less than the criti- tion by TEM.) This result was independent of growth
cal thickness (observed to be =2.5 ~-tm, calculated =1 temperature, method of growth, growth rate, post-
~-tm). By taking the derivative of l!R with respect to growth annealing, thickness of the epitaxial layer, or
the film thickness [see Equation (8.6)], they obtained a whether the back surfaces of the substrates were
value off = 1.8 X 10-4, in good agreement with that etched or lapped. In order to check whether this
290 Chapter 8. J. Blanc. Misfit, Strain, and Dislocations in Epitaxial Structures
density of dislocations (i.e., n 1 ;3 5 x 1()3/cm) and a ture both the epitaxial strain and the thermal strain
radius of curvature of =0.3 min the sense expected somehow have to be taken into account. Also, it is
for growth of a smaller lattice parameter film on a now known (Eversteyn et al., 1970) that the hydrody-
larger lattice parameter substrate. namics leading to the stagnant layer are very sensitive
The important points of our work are: (1) for sub- functions of the flow rate, gas pressure, and geometry.
strate dopings of 1()2 B/cm3 , the growth of undoped Si It seems plausible that a substantial part of the differ-
leads to much lower n 1's than one would have expect- ence between our results and those of Sugita are
ed; (2) this result is not caused by an absence of attributable to differences in flow dynamics, although
dislocation sources; (3) there are indications that it will take a great deal of additional careful experi-
strain is stored in such composites, but not in the way mental work to verify such a conjecture.
predicted by van der Merwe type models of coherent The hypothesis of thermal curvature can qualita-
epitaxy; and (4) there is an obvious asymmetry, not tively account in a simple way for some, but not all, of
predicted by any model, between Si:B/Si and Si/Si:B our observed asymmetric results for Si/Si:B and Si:B/
composites. Si. The growth of B-doped Si on pure Si should result,
at the temperature of growth, in greater curvature than
Discussion. These experimental results must now be the growth of pure Si on B-doped substrates, as in the
confronted, although I must admit that the ensuing former case the overgrowth has a smaller lattice
discussion will involve more hand waving than I find parameter than does the substrate; one may imagine
comfortable. that as the thickness of the deposit increases, the built-
I must point out an experimental variable whose up stresses finally exceed the critical shear stress,
existence neither we nor Sugita and coworkers were introducing dislocations via slip both to relieve the
aware of at the time the experiments were carried out lattice mismatch and to accommodate the initial ther-
and whose consequences are extremely difficult to mal stress. The composite, having now undergone
pinpoint. All discussions of misfit relief in epitaxy plastic deformation, will when cooled to room temper-
assume, in an essential way, that the substrate is ature show both the misfit dislocations and a residual
unstrained. For conventional chemical-vapor deposi- curvature caused by the initial thermal stress.
tion of Si on Si, this is simply untrue. In connection The converse situation of growth of undoped Si on
with another problem, Bloem and Goemans (1972) B-doped substrates is therefore expected to lead to a
have pointed out that a wafer in a typical reactor will flattening of the composite, at least initially, and a
show appreciable thermal curvature in the absence of reduction of applied stresses at deposition tempera-
any growth. Although their argument is not precise, ture. From this point of view the paucity of misfit
there can be no doubt of its essential physical validity. dislocations is not surprising. This hypothesis, how-
The argument briefly is as follows: Typically a Si ever, does not seem to explain why the misfit disloca-
wafer is placed on a heated substrate with the front tion density appears fixed at =30/cm. Neither does it
surface facing a cold exterior wall; even without gas rationalize the observation that the composite is
flow, radiation losses from this front surface to the essentially flat after cooling to room temperature, for
cold wall will make the front surface colder than the if the misfit just compensates the thermal curvature at
back surface and the wafer will bend because of ther- growth temperature, it should bend appreciably after
mal contraction. Now, it is known that in silicon the crystal becomes isothermal, as slip will not occur
reactors using flowing gases, there is a stagnant layer at room temperature. It should be remarked that the
of gas immediately adjacent to the front surface and actual physical situation must be more complicated
that this layer supports a very large temperature gra- than my ad hoc discussion has indicated. Even if one
dient (Eversteyn et al., 1970). Bloem and Goemans, knew the actual temperature distribution through and
therefore, propose that the edges of the wafer, which across the growing wafer, it would be a very difficult
have been lifted from the substrate by radiation cool- task to calculate the stresses as a function of time and
ing, are placed in regions oflarge temperature gradient position.
which leads to further cooling and therefore further Finally, I mention two possibilities that might for-
bending of the wafer. Using Bloem and Goemans's mally account for some of the apparent difficulties.
equations and their estimates for the parameters need- The first is that the lattice parameter of B-doped Si is
ed, I estimate that substrate wafers used by us and by not a unique function of the B concentration, so that in
Sugita would have had a radius of curvature of =0.1 fact our B-doped substrates had a lattice parameter
meters, bending toward the cold exterior. which was much closer to that of pure Si than we had
The importance of this result is twofold. Although supposed. The second possibility is that the elastic or
this estimate of "thermal" curvature is surely not plastic properties of Si:B at the saturation limit are
quantitatively correct, it is of the same order of magni- drastically different from those just below the satura-
tude as the calculated radii of curvature for coherent tion limit. Although neither of these seems particularly
overgrowths of Si/Si, so that at the growth tempera- likely to me, they are worthy of further investigation
292 Chapter 8. J. Blanc. Misfit, Strain, and Dislocations in Epitaxial Structures
in view of the absence of an entirely convincing expla- before one can justly claim that problems of the type I
nation of the experimental observations. have tried to describe are under control.
Matthews, J. W. (Ed.), Epitaxial Growth, New York; Aca- DAAH01-70-C-1311, Research, Development, Engi-
demic Press (1975). neering and Missile Systems Laboratory, U.S. Army
Matthews, J. W., S. Mader, and T. B. Light, J. Appl. Phys. Missile Command (1973).
41: 3800 (1970). Sugita, Y., M. Tamura, and K. Sugarawa, J. Appl. Phys. 40:
Olsen, G. H. and W. A. Jesser, Acta Metal/. 19: 1009, 1299 3089 (1969A).
(1971). Sugita, Y., M. Tamura, and K. Sugarawa, J. Vac. Sci.
Ruth, R. P., A. J. Hughes, J. L. Kenty, H. M. Manasevit, D. Techno/. 6: 585 (1969B).
Medellin, A. C. Thorsen, Y. T. Chan, C. R. Viswana- Tamura, M. andY. Sugita, J. Appl. Phys. 44: 3442 (1973).
than, and M. A. Ring, Final Report, Contract No.
INDEX
Mobility and deposit thickness, Si, 84, 85 Radius of curvature in coherent overgrowth, 284,289,
and deposition rate, Si, 77, 78 290
and deposition temperature, Si, 77, 78 Rayleigh number, Ra, 267
and stress, Si, 86 Reaction with substrate, see substrate surface
and substrate orientation, Si, 83 reactivity
and temperature, Si, 85 Reactor, see Deposition reactor
Mobility, automatic measurement, 252 Reflection characteristics of GaAs films, 131
homogeneity, 227-229 Resistivity.
Mobility in sub-micron films, 244, 245 See also Dopant density
Mobility measurement in Si, 75 ambient effects, 218, 219, 222, 223
Mobility model, 254-260 four point probe, 192, 220
MOS capacitance measurements, 229-243 humidity effects, 218, 222, 223
design, 234-243 spreading resistance method, 192
series resistance, 229-236 three point probe, 192
surface ions, 239-241 time stability, 218, 219
van der Pauw, 220, 228, 229, 251
Reynolds number, Re, 267, 270
Negative electron affinity, 137 R. F. susceptors, 61
Non-conducting sublayer, 227-229, 254-262 Rutherford ion-scattering spectrometry, 182
Nusselt number, Nu, 269, 270
Sapphire.
See also Substrates
Optical absorption, Si, 67, 68 chemical reactivity, 11, 12, 34-36
Optical microscopy, Si, 69 growth, 12-20
Optical propagation loss in A1N and GaN orientation relationships with Si, 10, 11
waveguides, 171, 172 physical properties, 9
in ZnO waveguides, 165, 166, 175, 177 surface coverage, early growth, 42-44
Optical properties of A1N/Al 2 03 composites, 157, 158 Saw blades, 23
of films, compound semiconductors, 130 Sawing of ceramics, 23
Optical reflection, Si, 67, 68 Schmid-Viechnicki growth, 13, 17-19
Optical waveguiding in ZnO, 175 Schmidt number, Sc, 269, 270
Organometallic growth process, 109 Schottky barrier techniques, 221
Orientation relationships, Si-substrate, 10 Secondary-ion mass spectrometry, 182
compound semiconductors-substrate, 124 Semiconducting properties, Si, 75-89
Silane, 33
Silicon, physical properties, 9
Photocathodes, 2, 137 Silicon islands, see also early growth, 216, 252-256
Photoconducting films, 3 Silicon nitride:
Piezoelectric materials, 2, 3 characterization, 209
Piezoelectric properties of AlN, 161-163 deposits, 2
Piezoelectric properties of ZnO, 170, 171 Silicon on sapphire, growth conditions; see Growth
Polishing: conditions
A1N, 154 Silicon on sapphire growth:
GaN, 159 differential thermal contraction, 286
sapphire, 23, 25 microtwins, 286
ZnO, 165 misfit dislocations, 286
Polysilicon analogy, 256-262 shear strain, 286
Processing of MOS devices, 90-94 stacking faults, 286
Profiling, physical and, 217, 222, 225-228, 244-246, Silicon on Si, growth of, 282, 288-291
259, 260 Silicon on Si growth:
Properties of organometallics, 110 absence of misfit dislocations, 289, 290
Pseudomorphic growth, 283 critical thickness, 288, 289
radius of curvature, 289
Silicon oxide, characterization, 209
Quantum efficiency, 141 SIMS in Si, 36, 37
Index 299