Indian Philosophy

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Hindu philosophy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hindu philosophy refers to a group of daranas

(philosophies, world views, teachings)[1] that
emerged in ancient India. The mainstream ancient
Indian philosophy includes six systems
(adarana) Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[2] These are
also called the Astika (orthodox) philosophical
traditions and are those that accept the Vedas as
authoritative, important source of knowledge.
[3][note 1][note 2] Ancient and medieval India was
also the source of philosophies that share
philosophical concepts but rejected the Vedas, and
these have been called nstika (heterodox or non-
orthodox) Indian philosophies.[2][3] Nstika Indian
philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism, Crvka,
jvika, and others.[6]
Scholars have debated the relationship and

dierences within stika philosophies and with
nstika philosophies, starting with the writings of
Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th
centuries, which were themselves derived from
limited availability of Indian literature and
medieval doxographies.[2] The various sibling
traditions included in Hindu philosophies are
diverse, and they are united by shared history and
concepts, same textual resources, similar
ontological and soteriological focus, and
cosmology.[7][8] While Buddhism and Jainism are
considered distinct philosophies and religions,
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some heterodox traditions such as Crvka are

often considered as distinct schools within Hindu
philosophy.[9][10][11]
Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-

schools of theistic philosophies that integrate
ideas from two or more of the six orthodox
philosophies, such as the realism of the Nyya, the
naturalism of the Vaieika, the dualism of the
Skhya, the monism and knowledge of Self as
essential to liberation of Advaita, the self-
discipline of yoga and the asceticism and elements
of theistic ideas.[12][13][14] Examples of such
schools include Pupata aiva, aiva siddhnta,
Pratyabhija, Rasevara and Vaiava.[12][13]
Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those
found in some Buddhist traditions.[15] The ideas of
these sub-schools are found in the Puranas and
gamas.[16][17][18]
Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive

epistemological literature called pramastras,
[19][20] as well as theories on metaphysics,
axiology and other topics.[21]
Contents
1 Classications
1.1 stika
1.2 Nstika
1.3 Other schools
2 Characteristics
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3 Overview
3.1 Epistemology
4 Smkhya
5 Yoga
6 Vaieika
7 Nyya
8 Mms
9 Vednta
9.1 Advaita
9.2 Viidvaita
9.3 Dvaita
9.4 Dvaitdvaita (Bhedabheda)
9.5 uddhdvaita
9.6 Acintya Bheda Abheda
10 Crvka
11 Shaivism
11.1 Pupata Shaivism
11.2 Shaiva Siddhanta
11.3 Kashmir Shaivism
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 Bibliography
16 Further reading
17 External links
Classications
In the history of Hinduism, the six orthodox
schools had emerged by sometime between the
start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire, or
about the fourth century.[22] Some scholars have
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questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox

schools classication is suicient or accurate,
given the diversity and evolution of views within
each major school of Hindu philosophy, with some
sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox
views.[23]
Since medieval times Indian philosophy has been

categorized into stika and nstika schools of
thought.[24] The orthodox schools of Hindu
philosophy have been called adarana ("six
systems"). This schema was created between the
12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins.[25]:23 It
was then adopted by the early Western
Indologists, and pervades modern understandings
of Hindu philosophy.[25]:45
stika
There are six stika (orthodox) schools of

thought.[note 3] Each is called a darana, and each
darana accepts the Vedas as authoritative and
the premise that tman (soul, eternal self) exists.
[3][26] The stika schools are:
1. Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist

theoretical exposition of consciousness and
matter.
2. Yoga, a school emphasising meditation,
contemplation and liberation.
3. Nyya or logic, which explores sources of
knowledge. Nyya Stras.
4. Vaieika, an empiricist school of atomism.
5. Mms, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist
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school of orthopraxy.
6. Vednta, the last segment of knowledge in
the Vedas, or jnaka. Vednta came to
be the dominant current of Hinduism in the
post-medieval period.
Nstika
Schools that do not accept the authority of the

Vedas are nstika philosophies, of which four
nstika (heterodox) schools are prominent:[6]
1. Crvka, a materialism school that accepted

the existence of free will.[27][28]
2. jvika, a materialism school that denied the
existence of free will.[29][30]
3. Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence
of tman (soul, self)[31] and is based on the
teachings and enlightenment of Gautama
Buddha.
4. Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the
existence of the tman (soul, self), and is
based on the teachings and enlightenment of
twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras,
with Rishabha as the rst and Mahavira as
the twenty-fourth.[32]
Other schools
Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox

schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools
that have combined ideas and introduced new
ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhva
Acharya (CE 12381317) includes the following,
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along with Buddhism[33] and Jainism,[34] as sub-

schools of Hindu philosophy:
Pashupata Shaivism, developed by

Nakulisa[35]
Shaiva Siddhanta, the theistic Sankhya
school[36][37]
Pratyabhija, the recognitive school of
Kashmir Shaivism[38]
Rasevara, a Shaiva school that advocated
the use of mercury to reach immortality [39]
The Ramanuja school[40]
The Praprja (Madhvcrya) school[41]
The Pinya[42]
The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas

while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of
Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyya,
naturalism of Vaieika, monism and knowledge of
Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita,
self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of
theistic ideas.[12] Some sub-schools share Tantric
ideas with those found in some Buddhist
traditions.[15]
Characteristics
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School Samkhya Yoga Nyya
realism,[45]
dualism,
rationalism,[43][44] logic,
Classication spiritual
dualism, atheism analytic
practice
philosophy
Aksapada
Gautama
Kapila, Ivaraka, Patajali, Vtsyyana
Philosophers Vcaspati Mira, Yajnavalkya, Udayana
Guaratna more.. Vyasa[N 2] Jayanta
Bhatta
more..
Yoga Nyya
Samkhyapravachana
Sutras, Stras,
Sutra,
Yoga Nyya
Samkhyakarika,
Texts Yajnavalkya, Bhya,
Skhya
Samkhya Nyya
tattvakaumud
pravacana Vrttika
more..
bhasya more..
Yama,
Pratyaka,
Niyama,
Anumna
Asana,
Upamna,
Concepts Purusha, Prakti, Pranayama,
Anyathakyati
Originated Gua, Satkryavda Pratyahara,
vada,
Dhra,
Nireyasa
Dhyana,
more..
Samadhi
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1. Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have

evolved from an older Vedanta school and all
of them accept Upanishads and Brahma
Sutras as standard texts.
2. Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga
Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.
(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London,
George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition,
Volume II, p. 344.)
Overview
Epistemology
Epistemology is called prama.[47] It has been a

key, much debated eld of study in Hinduism since
ancient times. Prama is a Hindu theory of
knowledge and discusses means by which human
beings gain accurate knowledge.[47] The focus of
prama is how correct knowledge can be
acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to
what extent knowledge pertinent about someone
or something can be acquired.[19]
Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six

pramas as correct means of accurate knowledge
and truths: pratyaka (perception), anuma
(inference), upama (comparison and analogy),
arthpatti (postulation, derivation from
circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception,
negative/cognitive proof) and abda (word,
testimony of past or present reliable experts)[48]
Each of these are further categorized in terms of
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conditionality, completeness, condence and

possibility of error, by the dierent schools. The
schools vary on how many of these six are valid
paths of knowledge.[20] For example, the Crvka
nstika philosophy holds that only one
(perception) is an epistemically reliable means of
knowledge,[49] the Samkhya school holds that
three are (perception, inference and
testimony),[49] while the Mms and Advaita
schools hold that all six are epistemically useful
and reliable means to knowledge.[49][50]
Smkhya
Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox
philosophical systems in Hinduism,[51] with
origins in the 1st millennium BCE.[52] It is a
rationalist school of Indian philosophy,[43] and had
a strong inuence on other schools of Indian
philosophies.[53] Smkhya is an enumerationist
philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of
six pramas as the only reliable means of gaining
knowledge. These were pratyaka (perception),
anuma (inference) and sabda (ptavacana,
word/testimony of reliable sources).[54][49]
Samkhya school espouses dualism between

consciousness and matter.[55] It regards the
universe as consisting of two realities: Purua
(consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living
being) is that state in which purua is bonded to
prakriti in some form.[56] This fusion, state the
Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi
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(awareness, intellect) and ahankara

(individualized ego consciousness, I-maker). The
universe is described by this school as one created
by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various
permutations and combinations of variously
enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity
and mind.[56]
Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas

(qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).[57] Guna, it
states, are of three types: Sattva being good,
compassionate, illuminating, positive, and
constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic,
passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and
Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance,
destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life
forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars,
have these three gunas, but in dierent
proportions.[58] The interplay of these gunas
denes the character of someone or something, of
nature and determines the progress of life.[59][60]
Samkhya theorises a pluralism of souls
(Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness, but
denies the existence of Ishvara (God).[61] Classical
Samkhya is considered an atheist or non-theistic
Hindu philosophy.[62][63][64]
The Samkhya karika, one of the key texts of this

school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its
goal to be "three[65] kinds of human suering" and
means to prevent them.[66] The text then presents
a distillation of its theories on epistemology,
metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For
example, it states,
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From the triad of suering, arises this

inquiry into the means of preventing it.
That is useless - if you say so, I say: No,
because suering is not absolute and
nal. Verse 1
The Guas (qualities) respectively

consist in pleasure, pain and dullness,
are adapted to manifestation, activity
and restraint; mutually domineer, rest
on each other, produce each other,
consort together, and are reciprocally
present. Verse 12
Goodness is considered to be alleviating
and enlightening; foulness, urgent and
persisting; darkness, heavy and
enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate
for a purpose by union of contraries.
Verse 13
There is a general cause, which is

diuse. It operates by means of the
three qualities, by mixture, by
modication; for dierent objects are
diversied by inuence of the several
qualities respectively. Verse 16
Since the assemblage of perceivable
objects is for use (by man); Since the
converse of that which has the three
qualities with other properties must
exist (in man); Since there must be
superintendence (within man); Since
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there must be some entity that enjoys

(within man); Since there is a tendency
to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is.
Verse 17
Samkhya karika, [66][67]
The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization

of Purua as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge
of the Self is held to end transmigration and lead
to absolute freedom (kaivalya).[68]
Yoga
In Indian philosophy, Yoga is, among other things,
the name of one of the six stika philosophical
schools.[69] The Yoga philosophical system aligns
closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya
school.[70][71] The Yoga school accepts Samkhya
psychology and metaphysics, but is considered
theistic because it accepts the concept of personal
god (Ishvara), unlike Samkhya.[72][73][74] The
epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Smkhya
school, relies on three of six prmaas as the
means of gaining reliable knowledge:[49]
pratyaka (perception), anuma (inference) and
abda (ptavacana, word/testimony of reliable
sources).[50][49]
The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga

school: purua (consciousness) and prakti
(matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this
concept more generically as "seer, experiencer"
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and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya

school.[75]
A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of

Patanjali. Patanjali may have been, as Max Mller
explains, "the author or representative of the
Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the
author of the Sutras."[76] Hindu philosophy
recognizes many types of Yoga, such as rja yoga,
jna yoga,[77] karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra
yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga, and hatha yoga.[78]
The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school

theory that jna (knowledge) is a suicient
means to moksha. It suggests that systematic
techniques/practice (personal experimentation)
combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge
is the path to moksha.[70] Yoga shares several
central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the
dierence that Yoga is a form of experimental
mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of
monistic personalism.[79][80][81] Like Advaita
Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy
holds that liberation/freedom in this life is
achievable, and that this occurs when an
individual fully understands and realizes the
equivalence of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman.
[82][83]
Vaieika
The Vaieika philosophy is a naturalist school.[46]
It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.[84] It
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postulates that all objects in the physical universe

are reducible to paramu (atoms), and that one's
experiences are derived from the interplay of
substance (a function of atoms, their number and
their spatial arrangements), quality, activity,
commonness, particularity and inherence.[85]
Knowledge and liberation are achievable by
complete understanding of the world of
experience, according to Vaieika school.[85] The
Vaieika darana is credited to Kada Kayapa
from the second half of the rst millennium
BCE.[85][86] The foundational text, the Vaieika
Stra, opens as follows:
Dharma is that from which results the

accomplishment of Exaltation and of the
Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of
the Veda arises from its being an
exposition of dharma. The Supreme
Good results from knowledge, produced
from a particular dharma, of the essence
of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute,
Action, Genus, Species and
Combination, by means of their
resemblances and dierences.
Vaieika Stra 1.1.1-1.1.4, [87]
The Vaieika school is related to the Nyya school

but features dierences in its epistemology,
metaphysics and ontology.[88] The epistemology of
the Vaieika school, like Buddhism, accepted only
two means to knowledge as reliable perception
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and inference.[50][89] The Vaieika school and

Buddhism both consider their respective
scriptures as indisputable and valid means to
knowledge, the dierence being that the
scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by
Vaieikas were the Vedas.[50][90]
Vaieika metaphysical premises are founded on a

form of atomism, that reality is composed of four
substances (earth, water, air, and re). Each of
these four are of two types:[84] atomic (paramu)
and composite. An atom is, according to Vaieika
scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya),
indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension,
called small (au). A composite, in this
philosophy, is dened to be anything which is
divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings
perceive is composite, while atoms are
invisible.[84] The Vaieikas stated that size, form,
truths and everything that human beings
experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their
number and their spatial arrangements, their
gua (quality), karma (activity), smnya
(commonness), viea (particularity) and amavya
(inherence, inseparable connectedness of
everything).[85][91]
Nyya
The Nyya school is a realist stika philosophy.
[92][93] The school's most signicant contributions
to Indian philosophy were its systematic
development of the theory of logic, methodology,
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and its treatises on epistemology.[94][95] The

foundational text of the Nyya school is the Nyya
Stras of the rst millennium BCE. It is credited
to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is
variously dated between the sixth and second
centuries BCE.[96][86]
Nyya epistemology accepts four out of six

prmaas as reliable means of gaining knowledge
pratyaka (perception), anuma (inference),
upama (comparison and analogy) and abda
(word, testimony of past or present reliable
experts).[49][97][48]
In its metaphysics, the Nyya school is closer to

the Vaieika school than others.[92] It holds that
human suering results from mistakes/defects
produced by activity under wrong knowledge
(notions and ignorance).[98] Moksha (liberation), it
states, is gained through right knowledge. This
premise led Nyya to concern itself with
epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain
correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions.
False knowledge is not merely ignorance to
Naiyayikas, it includes delusion. Correct
knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's
delusions, and understanding true nature of soul,
self and reality.[99] The Nyya Stras begin:
Perception, Inference, Comparison and

Word these are the means of right
knowledge.
Perception is that knowledge which
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arises from the contact of a sense with

its object and which is determinate,
unnameable and non-erratic.
Inference is knowledge which is
preceded by perception, and is of three
kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and
commonly seen.
Comparison is the knowledge of a thing
through its similarity to another thing
previously well known.
Word is the instructive assertion of a
reliable person.
It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that
which is seen, and that which is not
seen.
Soul, body, senses, objects of senses,
intellect, mind, activity, fault,
transmigration, fruit, suering and
release are the objects of right
knowledge.
Nyya Stras 1.1.3-1.1.9, [100]
Mms
The Mms school emphasized hermeneutics
and exegesis.[101][102] It is a form of philosophical
realism.[103] Key texts of the Mms school are
the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini.[104][105]
The classical Mms school is sometimes
referred to as prvamms or Karmamms
in reference to the rst part of the Vedas.[104]
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The Mms school has several sub-schools

dened by epistemology. The Prbhkara
subschool of Mms accepted ve means to
gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable:
pratyaka (perception), anuma (inference),
upama (comparison and analogy), arthpatti
(postulation, derivation from circumstances), and
abda (word, testimony of past or present reliable
experts).[97][48] The Kumrila Bhaa sub-school of
Mms added a sixth way of knowing to its
canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (non-
perception, negative/cognitive proof).[49]
The metaphysics of the Mms school consists

of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the
school showed little interest in systematic
examination of the existence of God. Rather, it
held that the soul is an eternal, omnipresent,
inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed
on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma.
[104][106][107] To them, dharma meant rituals and
duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed
only in name.[104] The Mmskas held that the
Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that
Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are
prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals
are of primary importance and merit. They
considered the Upanishads and other texts related
to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of
secondary importance, a philosophical view that
the Vedanta school disagreed with.[101][104]
Mms gave rise to the study of philology and

the philosophy of language.[108] While their deep
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analysis of language and linguistics inuenced

other schools,[109] their views were not shared by
others. Mmskas considered the purpose and
power of language was to clearly prescribe the
proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins
extended the scope and value of language as a
tool to also describe, develop and derive.[104]
Mmskas considered orderly, law-driven,
procedural life as the central purpose and noblest
necessity of dharma and society, and divine
(theistic) sustenance means to that end. The
Mimamsa school was inuential and foundational
to the Vedanta school, with the dierence that
Mms developed and emphasized karmaka
(the portion of the ruti which relates to
ceremonial acts and sacricial rites, the early
parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school
developed and emphasized jnaka (the
portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of
monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).[101]
Vednta
The Vednta school built upon the teachings of the
Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the rst
millennium BCE[86][110] and is the most developed
and best-known of the Hindu schools. The
epistemology of the Vedantins included,
depending on the sub-school, ve or six methods
as proper and reliable means of gaining any form
of knowledge:[90] pratyaka (perception),
anuma (inference), upama (comparison and
analogy), arthpatti (postulation, derivation from
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circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception,

negative/cognitive proof) and abda (word,
testimony of past or present reliable experts).
[50][49][48] Each of these have been further
categorized in terms of conditionality,
completeness, condence and possibility of error,
by each sub-school of Vedanta.[90]
The emergence of Vedanta school represented a

period when a more knowledge-centered
understanding began to emerge. These focussed
on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic
religion and the Upanishads. This included
metaphysical concepts such as tman and
Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-
discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality,
rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were
variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era
Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta
separated into many sub-schools, ranging from
theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each
interpreting the texts in its own way and
producing its own series of sub-commentaries.
[111][112]
Advaita
Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is

a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and
universal non-dualism.[113][114] Its metaphysics is
a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate
reality is interconnected oneness.[115][116] This is
the oldest and most widely acknowledged
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Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this

school are the Brahma Sutras and the early
Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE.[115] Its
rst great consolidator was the 8th century
scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of
thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of
his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote
extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic
scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major
Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the
main currents of modern Indian thought are
derived.[117]
According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is

Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever
which is not Brahman.[118] Its metaphysics
includes the concept of my and tman. My
connotes "that which exists, but is constantly
changing and thus is spiritually unreal".[119] The
empirical reality is considered as always changing
and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading
and not what it appears to be".[120][121][122] The
concept of tman is of soul, self within each
person, each living being. Advaita Vedantins
assert that tman is same as Brahman, and this
Brahman is within each human being and all life,
all living beings are spiritually interconnected,
and there is oneness in all of existence.[123][124]
They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of
my as the spiritual reality that matters is caused
by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow,
suering. Jvanmukti (liberation during life) can be
achieved through Self-knowledge, the
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understanding that tman within is same as tman

in another person and all of Brahman the
eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles
and true reality.[125][124]
Viidvaita
Ramanuja (c. 10371137) was the foremost

proponent of the philosophy of Viidvaita or
qualied non-dualism. Viidvaita advocated the
concept of a Supreme Being with essential
qualities or attributes. Viidvaitins argued
against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an
impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as
an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all
creation, which was omnipresent and actively
involved in existence. To them the sense of
subject-object perception was illusory and a sign
of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of
self was not a complete illusion since it was
derived from the universal beingness that is
Brahman.[126] Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a
personication of Brahman.
Dvaita
Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta

tradition of Hindu philosophy.[127][128] Also called
as Tattvavda and Bimbapratibimbavda, the
Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-
century scholar Madhvacharya.[127] The Dvaita
Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu,
supreme soul) and the individual souls (jvtman)
22 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
exist as independent realities, and these are

distinct.[129][130]
Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the

Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing the
existence of two separate realities.[127] The rst
and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita
school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman.[127] Vishnu
is the supreme Self, in a manner similar to
monotheistic God in other major religions.[131]
The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as
opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God
takes on a personal role and is seen as a real
eternal entity that governs and controls the
universe.[132] Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced
Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of
Brahman in the Vedas identied with Vishnu and
the one and only Supreme Being.[133][134]
However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions
ultimate qualied nondualism, the dualism of
Dvaita was permanent.[130][129]
Salvation, in Dvaita, is achievable only through the

grace of God Vishnu.[127][135][136]
Dvaitdvaita (Bhedabheda)
Dvaitdvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-

century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra
region. According to this philosophy there are
three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and
matter. Soul and matter are dierent from
Brahman in that they have attributes and
23 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
capacities dierent from Brahman. Brahman

exists independently, while soul and matter are
dependent. Thus soul and matter have an
existence that is separate yet dependent. Further,
Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer,
and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest
object of worship is Krishna and his consort
Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the
Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.
uddhdvaita
uddhdvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy

propounded by Vallabha Acharya (14791531).
The founding philosopher was also the guru of the
Vallabh sampradya ("tradition of Vallabh") or
Puimrga, a Vaishnava tradition focused on the
worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates
that Brahman has created the world without
connection with any external agency such as My
(which itself is His power) and manifests Himself
through the world.[137] That is why Shuddhadvaita
is known as Unmodied transformation or
Avikta Parimavda. Brahman or Ishvara
desired to become many, and he became the
multitude of individual souls and the world. The
Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the
physical material world is. Vallabha recognises
Brahman as the whole and the individual as a
part (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and re.[138]
Acintya Bheda Abheda
24 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534), stated that

the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-
distinct from God, whom he identied as Krishna,
Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may
be experienced through a process of loving
devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept
of Madhvacharya.[139] This philosophy of
"inconceivable oneness and dierence".
Crvka
The Crvka school is one of the nstika or
"heterodox" philosophies .[140][10][141] It rejects
supernaturalism, emphasizes materialism and
philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism,
perception and conditional inference as the proper
source of knowledge[142][143] Crvka is an
atheistic school of thought.[144] It holds that there
is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is
mere combination of atoms and substances,
feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free
will exists.[27][28]
Bhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder

of Crvka (also called Lokayata) philosophy.
Much of the primary literature of Carvaka, the
Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), however, are
missing or lost.[144][145] Its theories and
development has been compiled from historic
secondary literature such as those found in the
shastras, sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well
as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain
literature.[144][146][147]
25 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
One of the widely studied principles of Crvka

philosophy was its rejection of inference as a
means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and
metaphysical truths.[148] In other words, the
Crvka epistemology states that whenever one
infers a truth from a set of observations or truths,
one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge
is conditional.[149]
Shaivism
Early history of Shaivism is diicult to
determine.[150] However, the vetvatara
Upanishad (400 200 BCE)[151] is considered to
be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic
philosophy of Shaivism.[152] Shaivism is
represented by various philosophical schools,
including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda),
and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedbheda)
perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions
three major schools of Shaiva thoughtPashupata
Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhija
(Kashmir Shaivism).[153]
Pupata Shaivism
Pupata Shaivism (Pupata, "of Paupati") is the

oldest of the major Shaiva schools.[154] The
philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by
Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Pau in Paupati
refers to the eect (or created world), the word
designates that which is dependent on something
ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or
26 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
principium), the word designates the Lord, who is

the cause of the universe, the pati, or the
ruler.[155] Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava
theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls
to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that
dependence upon anything could not be the
means of cessation of pain and other desired ends.
They recognised that those depending upon
another and longing for independence will not be
emancipated because they still depend upon
something other than themselves. According to
Pupatas, soul possesses the attributes of the
Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from
the 'germ of every pain'.[156]
Pupatas divided the created world into the

insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the
unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient
or conscious. The insentient was further divided
into eects and causes. The eects were of ten
kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities,
colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the
ve organs of cognition, the ve organs of action,
the three internal organs, intellect, the ego
principle and the cognising principle. These
insentient causes were held responsible for the
illusive identication of Self with non-Self.
Salvation in Pupata involved the union of the
soul with God through the intellect.[157]
Shaiva Siddhanta
Considered normative Tantric Shaivism, Shaiva
27 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
Siddhanta[158][159] provides the normative rites,

cosmology and theological categories of Tantric
Shaivism.[160] Being a dualistic philosophy, the
goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an
ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's
grace).[161] This tradition later merged with the
Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts
of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti
poetry of the Nayanars.[162]
Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth[163] or

ninth century CE[164] in Kashmir and made
signicant strides, both philosophical and
theological, until the end of the twelfth century
CE.[165] It is categorised by various scholars as
monistic[166] idealism (absolute idealism, theistic
monism, realistic idealism,[167] transcendental
physicalism or concrete monism[167]). It is a
school of aivism consisting of Trika and its
philosophical articulation Pratyabhija.[168]
Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita

Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give
primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or
Brahman),[169] in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed
to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this
Consciousness.[170] This implies that from the
point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the
phenomenal world (akti) is real, and it exists and
has its being in Consciousness (Chit).[171]
Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is inactive
28 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
(nikriya) and the phenomenal world is an illusion

(my).[172] The objective of human life, according
to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or
Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's
already existing identity with Shiva, by means of
wisdom, yoga and grace.[173]
See also
stika and nstika Indian philosophy
Buddhism and Kashmir Shaivism
Hinduism Metaphilosophy
Buddhist Dharma
philosophy Asrama
Hindu idealism Vedas
Pramana
Notes
1. M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge
Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of
Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge
source but interpreted dierently by dierent
schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred
texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously
interpreted by the six traditional Hindu
philosophical schools. Even within a single
school, philosophers disagree on the import
of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual
traditions must be understood as standing for
the collection of philosophical views that
share a textual connection. There is no
single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine
29 of 56 7/31/17, 6:35 PM
shared by all intellectual traditions in

Hinduism that distinguishes their view from
other Indian religions such as Buddhism or
Jainism on issues of epistemology,
metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The
Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but by
the same token, they are not the Word of God
either.[4]
2. Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not
deontic authorities in absolute sense and may
be disobeyed, but are recognized as an
epistemic authority by an orthodox school of
Hindu philosophy;[5] (Note: This
dierentiation between epistemic and deontic
authority is true for all Indian religions)
3. For an overview of the six orthodox schools,
with detail on the grouping of schools, see:
Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and
pp. 453487.
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KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory
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Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the
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43. Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and
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97. DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian
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120. H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B.

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123. John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul
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124. Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vednta: An
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978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86
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126. Christopher Etter (30 April 2006). A Study of
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127. Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of
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128. Hindu Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu

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129. Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of
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132. Christopher Etter (2006), A Study of
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59-60, ISBN 0-595-39312-8.
133. Bryant, Edwin (2007). Krishna: A
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134. Stoker, Valerie (2011). "Madhva (1238-1317)"
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135. Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (1962).
Philosophy of r Madhvcrya. Motilal
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Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal
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137. Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita
Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir,
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139. Lord Chaitanya (http://www.krishna.com
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(https://web.archive.org
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//www.krishna.com/printarticles
/Lord_Chaitanya.html) 7 June 2002 at the
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called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva,
inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and
dierence."
140. R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on
Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design,
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164-165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu
traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition
of materialism, in general, other schools..."
141. Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The
Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors:
Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford
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pages 367-378;
Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism,
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Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
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induction in Indian philosophy
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Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161-174
143. V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science:
Some Reections, Zygon - Journal of Religion
and Science, 47(3): 549574, Quote (page
557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the
Samkhya, there have also been explicitly
atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One
virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the
so-called Carvaka school.",
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x
(https://dx.doi.org
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144. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore,
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text and its commentaries: Problem of
representing and understanding the Carvaka
/ Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical
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Fragments: A New Collection". Journal of
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155. Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 104-105.
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Meller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian
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Further reading
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore,
Charles A. A Source Book in Indian
Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957.
Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989.
ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita
Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.
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Zilberman, David B., The Birth of Meaning in

Hindu Thought. D. Reidel Publishing
Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1988. ISBN
90-277-2497-0. Chapter 1. "Hindu Systems of
Thought as Epistemic Disciplines".
External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org

/w/index.php?title=Hindu_philosophy&
oldid=789562167"
This page was last edited on 8 July 2017, at

02:46.
Text is available under the Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree
to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
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organization.
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Hindu philosophy - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H...

Hindu philosophy refers to a group of daranas

Scholars have debated the relationship and

some heterodox traditions such as Crvka are

Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-

Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive

questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox

Since medieval times Indian philosophy has been

There are six stika (orthodox) schools of

1. Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist

Schools that do not accept the authority of the

1. Crvka, a materialism school that accepted

Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox

along with Buddhism[33] and Jainism,[34] as sub-

Pashupata Shaivism, developed by

The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas

School Samkhya Yoga Nyya

1. Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have

Epistemology is called prama.[47] It has been a

Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six

conditionality, completeness, condence and

Samkhya school espouses dualism between

(awareness, intellect) and ahankara

Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas

The Samkhya karika, one of the key texts of this

From the triad of suering, arises this

The Guas (qualities) respectively

There is a general cause, which is

there must be some entity that enjoys

Samkhya karika, [66][67]

The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization

The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga

and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya

A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of

The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school

postulates that all objects in the physical universe

Dharma is that from which results the

Vaieika Stra 1.1.1-1.1.4, [87]

The Vaieika school is related to the Nyya school

and inference.[50][89] The Vaieika school and

Vaieika metaphysical premises are founded on a

and its treatises on epistemology.[94][95] The

Nyya epistemology accepts four out of six

In its metaphysics, the Nyya school is closer to

Perception, Inference, Comparison and

arises from the contact of a sense with

Nyya Stras 1.1.3-1.1.9, [100]

The Mms school has several sub-schools

The metaphysics of the Mms school consists

Mms gave rise to the study of philology and

analysis of language and linguistics inuenced

circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception,

The emergence of Vedanta school represented a

Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is

Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this

According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is

understanding that tman within is same as tman

Ramanuja (c. 10371137) was the foremost

Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta

exist as independent realities, and these are

Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the

Salvation, in Dvaita, is achievable only through the

Dvaitdvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-

capacities dierent from Brahman. Brahman