CHAPTER 12

OPERATIONS SCHEDULING

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to

describe different scheduling options;
identify functions of scheduling;
outline objectives of and performance measures of scheduling;
use different scheduling rules for scheduling jobs;
describe various tools for shop floor control.

Operations scheduling is the lowest level planning which deals with weekly or daily
schedules. Scheduling allocates resources over time to accomplish specific task.
Normally scheduling is done after other managerial decisions such as aggregate
planning and master production scheduling. This chapter explains how production
orders are scheduled with an emphasis on work centres. A work centre is an area in a
business or production system in which productive resources (machines and other
production equipment) are organized and work is completed. The work centre may be
a single machine, a group of machines, or an area where a particular type of work is
performed.

SCHEDULING OPTIONS

One scheduling system can differ from another depending on how capacity is
considered in determining the schedule. Scheduling systems can use either infinite or
finite loading.
When work is assigned to a work centre simply based on the resource requirements,
it is called infinite loading. In this approach, no consideration is given directly to
whether there is sufficient capacity at the work centre to compete the work. Finite
loading checks the capacity requirement using the setup and run time required for
each order. The finite loading is essential to ensure feasibility of the schedule.
There are two ways of allocating time slots for the jobs: forward scheduling
and backward scheduling. In forward scheduling, the system takes an order and
then schedules each operation that must be completed forward in time. These systems
can tell the earliest date that an order can be completed. Backward scheduling starts
 Operations Scheduling 197

from a future date (usually a due date) and schedules the operations in reverse order.
The backward schedule tells when an order must be started in order to be completed
by a specific date.
In operations scheduling, the scheduler should decide what is going to be
scheduled. Usual approach is to schedule the limited resources. Generally, processes
are either machine limited or labour limited. In a machine limited process, machines
are more critical and required to schedule them. Similarly, in a labour limited
process, workforce is scheduled.

SCHEDULING AND CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Scheduling and control functions include following.

Allocating orders, equipment and personnel to work centers.
Assigning priority to each order. This determines the sequence of order
performance.
Issuing dispatching lists to each work centre. These lists indicate which orders
are to be produced at a work centre, their priorities and when each order should
be completed.
Commencing performance of the scheduled work. This is commonly referred to
as dispatching of orders.
Providing input-output control on all work centres. This means providing
information about how jobs are flowing between work centres.
Shop-floor control activities involving
o Reviewing the status and controlling the progress of orders as they are being
processed.
o Expediting late and critical orders.
Maintaining work-in-process quantity information. This includes knowing the
location of each order and the quantity of parts in each order in the system.
Measuring the efficiency and utilization of workers and machines at each work
centre.
Production planning and control department should perform the above activities
and report the progress to the operations manager so that the corrective actions can be
taken if the orders are going to be late or if capacity problems occur at work centres.

OBJECTIVES AND PERFORMANCE MEASURES

There are several objectives in operations scheduling: (1) to meet due dates, (2) to
minimize operations lead time, (3) minimize setup time and cost, (4) to minimize
work-in-process inventory, and (4) to maximize machine and employee utilization
198 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

Performance measures are used to check how far above objectives are achieved.
From the managers perspectives, identifying the performance measures to be used in
selecting a schedule is important. Operations managers should select the appropriate
performance measures depending on the scheduling objectives. The most common
performance measures used in operations scheduling are described below:

Job Flow Time

The amount of time spent in the shop floor is called job flow time. It is the sum of
processing time, setup time, waiting time, moving time and other delays. Job flow
time is sometimes referred to as throughput time.
Job flow time = Time of completion - Time of entering to shop floor

Mean Flow Time

Mean flow time gives the overall effectiveness of the schedule.
Mean flow time = Sum of flow times of all the jobs / number of jobs

Makespan
The total time required to complete the set of jobs scheduled is called makespan.
Makespan = Time of completion of last job - Starting time of first job

Average Lateness
Average lateness indicates how far schedule meets the due dates of the job.

Utilization
Utilization is the percent of work time productively spent by a machine or worker.

Productive work time

Utilizatio n
Total work time available

SCHEDULING RULES AND TECHNIQUES

While there are many feasible schedules for a specific group of jobs on a particular
set of machines, there are many ways to generate schedules. Means of generating
schedules range from simple manual methods to sophisticated computer models,
which are capable to develop optimal schedules. In this section, few scheduling
techniques are presented.
 Operations Scheduling 199

Job Sequencing Rules

Job sequencing is concerned with determining the order in which jobs on a machine
will be processed. Priority rules are used to obtain job sequence. The following
priority rules are commonly used in practice.

FCFS (first-come, first-served)

Jobs are run in the order they arrive in the workstation.
SPT (shortest processing time)
The job requiring the shortest processing time is given the priority (i.e. run the job
with the shortest completion time first, next-shortest second, and so on).
EDD (earliest due date first)
Priority is given to the job with the earliest due date.

STR (slack time remaining)

Slack time remaining is calculated as the time remaining before the due date
minus the processing time remaining. Jobs with the shortest slack time remaining
(STR) are given priority.
STR = Time remaining before due date - Remaining processing time
STR/OP (slack time remaining per operation)
Orders with the shortest slack time per operation are given priority.
STR/OP = STR/Number of remaining operations
CR (critical ratio)
This is calculated as the time remaining (i.e. the difference between the due date
and the current date) divided by the remaining processing time. Orders with the
smallest CR are given priority.
Due date Current time
Critical ratio
Remaining processing time
LCFS (last-come, first-served)
This rule occurs frequently by default. As order cards arrive, they are placed on
the top of the stack; the operator usually picks up the order on top to process.

Random order
The supervisors or the operators usually select jobs randomly.

Example 12.1: Job Sequencing

Suppose four jobs arrive for processing on one machine. The order of arrival,
processing time and the due dates are shown in the following table.
200 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

Job (in Order of Processing Due Date

Arrival) Time (Days) (Days Hence)
A 4 5
B 7 13
C 3 10
D 1 4
E 2 6
Prepare sequence of jobs based on the above mentioned priority rules.

Solution

1. First- come, first-served (FCFS)

Table 12.1: FCFS Schedule

Job Sequence Processing Due Date Flow Time Lateness
Time (Days) (Days Hence) (Days) (Days)
A 4 5 0 + 4 = 4 -
B 7 13 4 + 7 = 11 -
C 3 10 11 + 3 = 14 4
D 1 4 14 + 1 = 15 11
E 2 6 15 + 2 = 17 11
Total flow time = 4 + 11 + 14 + 15 + 17 = 61 days
Mean flow time = 61/5 = 12.2 days
Average lateness = (0 + 0 + 4 + 11 + 11)/5 = 5.2 days

2. Shortest processing time (SPT)

Table 12.2: SPT Schedule

Job Sequence Processing Due Date Flow Time Lateness
Time (Days) (Days Hence) (Days) (Days)
D 1 4 0 + 1 = 1 -
E 2 6 1 + 2 = 3 -
C 3 10 3 + 3 = 6 -
A 4 5 6 + 4 = 10 5
B 7 13 10 + 7 = 17 4
Total flow time = 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + 17 = 37 days
Mean flow time = 37/5 = 7.4 days
Average lateness = (0 + 0 + 0 + 5 + 4)/5 = 1.8 days
 Operations Scheduling 201

3. Earliest due date first (EDD)

Table 12.3: EDD Schedule

Job Sequence Processing Due Date Flow Time Lateness
Time (Days) (Days Hence) (Days) (Days)
D 1 4 0 + 1 = 1 -
A 4 5 1 + 4 = 5 -
E 2 6 5 + 2 = 7 1
C 3 10 7 + 3 = 10 -
B 7 13 10 + 7 = 17 4
Total flow time = 1 + 5 + 7 + 10 + 17 = 40 days
Mean flow time = 40/5 = 8 days
Average lateness = (0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 4)/5 = 1 day

4. Slack time remaining (STR)

Table 12.4: STR Schedule

Job Processing Due Date Slack Flow Time Lateness
Sequence Time (Days Hence ) (Days) (Days) (Days)
(Days)
A 4 5 5 4=1 0 + 4 = 4 -
D 1 4 4 1=3 4 + 1 = 5 1
E 2 6 6 2=4 5 + 2 = 7 1
B 7 13 13 7 = 6 7 + 7 = 14 1
C 3 10 10 3 = 7 14 + 3 = 17 7
Total flow time = 4 + 5 + 7 + 14 + 17 = 47 days
Mean flow time = 47/5 = 9.4 days
Average lateness = (0 + 1 + 1 + 1+ 7)/5 = 2 days

5. Critical ratio (CR) method

In order to do this schedule the CRs have to be calculated for remaining jobs after
each job has been processed.
Critical ratio can be negative for late jobs. Late jobs are automatically scheduled
next. If there is more than one late job, they are scheduled in SPT sequence. Let
today be Day 0.
202 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

Table 12.5a: Critical Ratio for Jobs (at time = 0)

Current time = 0
Job Processing Due Date Critical Ratio
Time (Days) (Days)
A 4 5 (5-0)/4 = 1.25
B 7 13 (13-0)/7 = 1.86
C 3 10 (10-0)/3 = 3.33
D 1 4 (4-0)/1 = 4.00
E 2 6 (6-0)/2 = 3.00

The smallest value corresponds to job A, so job A is performed first. As job A

requires 4 days for processing the ratios must be updated upon completion of job A in
order to determine the next job. Hence we move the time t = 4 to determine the next
(Table 12.4b).

Table 12.5b: Critical Ratio for Jobs (at time = 4)

Current time = 4
Job Processing Due Date Critical Ratio
Time (Days) (Days)
B 7 13 (13-4)/7 = 1.29
C 3 10 (10-4)/3 = 2.00
D 1 4 (4-4)/1 = 0.00
E 2 6 (6-4)/2 = 1.00

The minimum value 0 corresponds to job D. Hence job D is scheduled next.

Since job D has processing time of 1 day, the time is updated to t = 4 + 1 = 5.

Table 12.5c: Critical Ratio for Jobs (at time = 5)

Current time = 5
Job Processing Due Date Critical Ratio
Time (Days) (Days)
B 7 13 (13-5)/7 = 1.14
C 3 10 (10-5)/3 = 1.67
E 2 6 (6-5)/2 = 0.50

The minimum value 0.5 corresponds to job E. Hence job E is scheduled next.
Since job E has processing time of 2 days, the time is updated to t = 5 + 2 = 7.

Table 12.5d: Critical Ratio for Jobs (at time = 7)

Current time = 7
Job Processing Due Date Critical Ratio
Time (Days) (Days)
B 7 13 (13-7)/7 = 0.86
C 3 10 (10-7)/3 = 1.00
 Operations Scheduling 203

The minimum value 0.86 corresponds to job B. Hence job B is scheduled next
and job C is scheduled last. The final critical ratio schedule is shown in Table 12.5e.

Table 12.5e: Critical Ratio Schedule

Job Sequence Processing Due Date Flow Time Lateness
Time (Days) (Days Hence) (Days) (Days)
A 4 5 0 + 4 = 4 -
D 1 4 4 + 1 = 5 1
E 2 6 5 + 2 = 7 1
B 7 13 7 + 7 = 14 1
C 3 10 14 + 3 = 17 7
Total flow time = 4 + 5 + 7 + 14 + 17 = 47 days
Mean flow time = 47/5 = 9.4 days
Average lateness = (0 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 7)/5 = 2 day

6. Last-come, first-served

Table 12.6: LCFS Schedule

Job Sequence Processing Due Date Flow Time Lateness
Time (Days) (Days Hence) (Days) (Days)
E 2 6 0 + 2 = 2 -
D 1 4 2 + 1 = 3 -
E 3 10 3 + 3 = 6 -
B 7 13 6 + 7 = 13 -
C 4 5 13 + 4 = 17 12

Total flow time = 2 +3 + 6 + 13 + 17 = 41 days

Mean flow time = 41/5 = 8.2 days
Average lateness = (0 + 0 + 0 + 0+ 12)/5 = 2.4 days

Scheduling Jobs through Two Work Centres

When there are two or more jobs are to be processed on two machines in the same
sequence Johnsons rule is used to schedule the jobs. The objective of this rule is to
minimize the makespan. Johnsons rule consists of the following steps.

1. List the processing time for each job on both machines.

2. Select the shortest processing time in either machine.
3. If the shortest time is for the first machine, do the job first; if it is for the second
machine, do the job last.
4. Eliminate the job assigned in step 3.
204 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 for each remaining jobs until all jobs are assigned a
position in the schedule.

Example 12.2: Johnsons Rule

Schedule following jobs on machines 1 and 2. All the jobs are first processed on
machine 1 and then on machine 2.

Job Processing time on Processing time on

machine 1 machine 2
A 4 3
B 6 7
C 5 6
D 8 5
E 2 5
Solution

1. Select the shortest processing time 2 for job E at machine 1. E goes first.
2. Select next shortest processing time 3 for job A at machine 2. A goes last.
3. Select next shortest processing time there is a tie between 5 for job C at
machine 1 and job D at machine 2. C goes first and D goes last.
4. Only one job remains B. It is assigned to the remaining slot.

E C B D A

Workload on each machine can be visually represented on a Gantt chart. This chart
is useful to determine the makespan of the jobs scheduled.

Mach. E C B D A
1
Mach. E C B D A
2
Time 2 7 13 20 21 25 26 29

Scheduling a Number of Jobs on the Same Number of Machines

There are situations where the job shop has enough machines to carry out the jobs at
the same time. However the processing cost of a job differs from machine to
machine. The problem is assigning the individual jobs to individual machines so that
the total cost is minimum. The problems in this nature are known as assignment
problems. The assignment problems have the following characteristics.
 Operations Scheduling 205

1. There are n things to be assigned to n locations.

2. Each thing to be assigned to one and only one location.
3. Only one criterion can be used (e.g. minimum cost, minimum processing
time, maximum profit)

Example 12.3: Assignment Problem

There are five jobs that can be performed on any of five machines (n = 5). The
processing cost of each job-machine combination is shown in following table. The
job should be scheduled so that the total processing cost is minimum.

Machines
Job A B C D E
1 6 7 5 8 4
2 7 5 9 9 5
3 4 3 2 6 5
4 8 3 5 6 4
5 4 7 5 6 6

Solution

The problem is solved by following algorithm, which consists of four steps.

1. Subtract the smallest number in each row from all the numbers in that row.
(There will then be at least one zero in each row.)
2. Subtract the smallest number in each column from all the numbers in that
column. (There will then be at least one zero in each column.)
3. Determine the minimum number of lines required to cover each zero. If the
number of lines is equal to n, the optimal solution has been achieved, because
job-machine assignment should be made at the zero entries. If the minimum
number of lines required is less than n go to Step 4. Otherwise allocate the
jobs to machines with zero entries.
4. Subtract the smallest number not covered by the lines from all uncovered
numbers, and add it to the number at each intersection of lines. Repeat Step
3.
Step 1: The smallest number is subtracted from each row.
Machines
Job A B C D E
1 2 3 1 4 0
2 2 0 4 4 0
3 2 1 0 4 3
4 5 0 2 3 1
5 0 3 1 2 2
206 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

Step 2: The smallest number is subtracted from each column.

Machines
Job A B C D E
1 2 3 1 2 0
2 2 0 4 2 0
3 2 1 0 2 3
4 5 0 2 1 1
5 0 3 1 0 2

Step 3: The number of lines to cover all zeros is 4. Since 5 are required, go to step 4.

Machines
Job A B C D E
1 2 3 1 2 0
2 2 0 4 2 0
3 2 1 0 2 3
4 5 0 2 1 1
5 0 3 1 0 2

Step 4: Subtract the smallest uncovered number from all uncovered numbers, and add
it to the intersection of lines. Using lines drawn in step 3, smallest uncover number is
1.
Machines
Job A B C D E
1 1 3 1 1 0
2 1 0 4 1 0
3 1 1 0 1 3
4 4 0 2 0 1
5 0 4 2 0 3

Optimal solution:
Machines
Job A B C D E
1 1 3 1 1 0
2 1 0 4 1 0
3 1 1 0 1 3
4 4 0 2 0 1
5 0 4 2 0 3

Optimal assignments and their costs are given in Table 12.7.

 Operations Scheduling 207

Table 12.7: Optimal Assignments and Costs for Assignment Problems

Job Machine Cost
1 E 4
2 B 5
3 C 2
4 D 6
5 A 4
Total cost 21

TOOLS FOR SHOP FLOOR CONTROL

Gantt Chart
Gantt chart can be used visual display the work load in each work centre in a
production department. It helps to plan and track jobs. Gantt chart is a type of bar
chart that plots tasks against time. It is useful to coordinate several activities. Figures
12.1 and 12.2 show Gantt charts for jobs and machines respectively.
Job A M1 M2 M3 M1
Job B M1 M2 M3
Time 8 15 23 33 41
Figure 12.1: Gantt Chart for Jobs

Mach. 1 A B A
Mach. 2 A B
Mach. 3 A B
Time 8 15 23 33 41
Figure 12.2: Gantt Chart for Machines

Dispatch List
The dispatch list tells supervisor which jobs are to be performed, their priority and
processing time. Figure 12.3 shows an example for dispatch list.
Work center 1402 Day 210
Start date Job no. Description Processing time
207 11513 Milling 12.5
209 11520 Grind 28.6
210 11593 Rough grind 5.0
212 11615 Finish grind 7.5
215 11648 Rough grind 4.8

Figure 12.3: Dispatch List

208 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

Input / Output Control

Input/output control is a main element of production planning and control system.

This is required to guarantee that the planned work input to a work centre should
never exceed the planned output. If the input exceeds the output, jobs are
accumulated at the work centre, which results in increased lead times. Figure 12.4
shows an input/output control report.
Work center 1405
Week ending 410 417 424 431
Planned input 250 250 250 250
Actual input 140 170 190 210
Cumulative deviation -110 -190 -250 -290
Planned output 250 250 250 250
Actual output 160 150 200 190
Cumulative deviation -90 -190 -240 -300

Figure 12.4: Input/output Control Report

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

Operation scheduling is the lowest level planning in which orders, equipment and
personnel are allocated to work centres and design priority to each order.
Controlling is mainly executing the schedule, which include reviewing status and
maintain progress of orders.
Performance of schedule is measured using several indicators: job flow time,
mean flaw time, makespan, and utilization.
There are number of priority rules to obtain job sequence.
Johnsons rule and assignment problem algorithm are useful methods to schedule
jobs on machine centres.
Tools such as Gantt chart, dispatch list and input/output control are used for shop
flow control.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What are the objectives of work centre scheduling?

2. What are the typical performance measures to measure the efficiency of
scheduling?
3. Distinguish forward scheduling and backward scheduling.
4. What are the different priority rules used for job sequencing? How do you
choose appropriate priority rules for sequencing?
5. State four factors to be considered in Job Shop Scheduling.
 Operations Scheduling 209

PROBLEMS

1. The following list of jobs in a critical department includes estimates of their

required times.
Job Required Time Days to Delivery Promise Slack Time
(Days)
1 9 15 6
2 5 9 4
3 8 9 1
4 11 -6 (Late) 17
5 6 10 4
6 5 -6 (Late) 11
7 4 6 2

a) Use the shortest processing time rule to schedule these jobs. Tabulate the
schedule and identify the mean flow time.
b) The production manager of the company does not like the schedule and
wanted to process job 6 first and then job 4 before scheduling any other
jobs as these two jobs are already late. Tabulate the new schedule and
identify the mean flow time.

2. A set of jobs is to be scheduled and the job number, processing time and the due
date are given in following table. Due date is given here considering the current
date as zero.

Job Process 1 Process 2 Process 3 Due date

(days) (days) (days) (days)
1 2 3 1 12
2 - 4 6 16
3 3 5 3 19
4 4 2 - 20
5 1 3 7 21
6 - 7 4 25
a) Schedule the jobs using STR (Slack Time Remaining) and STR/OP (Slack
Time Remaining per Operation). Explain the time flow for each process
using a Gantt chart and show the completed time of each job and
earliness/lateness in a tabulated format for each schedule in your answer.
b) Evaluate and compare the schedules using the measure the loss to the
company = weighted average lateness where up to two days lateness
weighted factor is 0.5 and from three days to five days weighted factor is 1.0
and more than five days it is equal to 4.0.
c) One organization may choose the measure as the average lateness and the
other may use the measure use in (2.b). Explain the different situations with
reasons for selecting a particular method of measurement.
210 Operations Management: Concepts and Applications

3. There are four jobs to be processed by two work stations A and B. All jobs
follow the same sequence of operations; A first and then B. The processing
times are given below.
Job Number Processing time (hours)
On workstation A On workstation B
1 35 10
2 25 30
3 20 25
4 25 40
Determine the processing order for the jobs in order to minimize the total time
required for processing all four jobs one after another. Give the steps of the
algorithm used. Also sketch the Gantt chart showing the start and finish times on
each work centre.

4. Seven jobs must be processed in two operations: X and Y. All seven jobs must
go through X and Y in that sequence, X first and then Y. The processing times
of the operations are given below:

Job Process Time of X Process Time of Y

1 9 6
2 8 5
3 7 7
4 6 3
5 1 2
6 2 6
7 4 7

a) What algorithm could be more suitable to get a best solution for this
problem?
b) Determine the optimal order in which the jobs should be sequenced through
the process using the above algorithm.

5. In a job shop, five machinists are capable to operate any one of the five
machines. The following matrix shows the cost (in Rs.) for assigning machinists
to machines per day. Develop an optimal assignment in order to minimize the
total cost.
Machines
Machinist 1 2 3 4 5
A 500 600 400 800 300
B 600 400 900 800 500
C 400 300 200 500 400
D 700 200 400 400 300
E 300 600 400 500 500