Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Figure 1: Modes of failure for different geotechnical engineering structures (Wesley, 2010)
s n tan (2)
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Illustration of friction resistance
where:
s = shear strength of soil;
c = soil cohesion;
= soil friction angle; and
n = normal stress on the plane of sliding.
If the shear stress on any plane within a soil mass exceeds the value given in
Equation (3), movement (or yield) will occur on that plane. The parameters c and
are called the shear strength parameters.
If a series of laboratory tests are carried out in which a number of soil specimens
are subjected to different values of normal stresses (e.g. n1, n2, n3), the
specimens will fail at different values of shear stresses (1, 2, 3) and the results
can be represented graphically as shown in Figure 3. The straight line in Figure
3 is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope and is mathematically
represented by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion expressed in Equation (3).
n
Figure 3: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope and criterion
n
Figure 4: Significance of Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
For clean sands or gravels
s n tan For mixed-grained soils
s c n tan
This implies that, in terms of effective stresses, Equation (3) of the Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion should be rewritten as follows:
1
L 3 Test 3 (at n3 = P3/A)
T
2 Test 2 (at n2 = P2/A)
Soil Porous
sample 1 Test 1 (at n1 = P1/A)
stones
s = L/L
Schematic diagram
(b)
Dilation
h L
n1
Compression
n2
n3
(c)
Test 3
3
2 Test 2
Test 1
1
c
Photo by ELE International n
n1 n2 n3
(a) (d)
Figure 7: Direct shear test: (a) apparatus; (b) and (c) test results; (d) Mohr-Coulomb diagram
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 13
From Figure 7b, Youngs modulus of elasticity, E, at different normal stresses
can be obtained, and from the results of the maximum shear stresses, the shear
strength parameters are determined, as shown in Figure 7d.
Depending on the equipment used, the shear test can be either stress-controlled
or strain-controlled. In stress controlled tests, the shear force is applied in equal
increments until the specimen fails. After the application of each incremental
load, the shear displacement is measured from the horizontal dial gauge. In
strain-controlled tests, a constant rate of shear displacement is applied to one half
of the box by a motor that acts through gears. The resisting shear force of the
soil corresponding to any shear displacement can be measured by a horizontal
proving ring or load cell.
Usually drained tests are performed in the direct shear box apparatus. For
cohesionless soils, the test can be performed quickly since water does not
significantly affect the strength. For cohesive soils, the rate of shearing must be
chosen to prevent the build up of excess pore water pressures. Since there are no
excess pore water pressure and the pore pressure is approximately zero, the total
and effective stresses will be identical and thus, the effective shear strength
parameters c and are obtained.
Despite these limitations, the test is useful because of its simplicity, relatively
low cost and ease of sample preparation.
Cell water
Rubber O-ring
membrane
Plastic
cylindrical
chamber Drainage and
Cell pressure back pressure
Photo by ELE International
(a)
A
d Ac L
3 1
L
3 3
3
D/2 D D/2
d 1
(b) (c)
Figure 8: Triaxial compression (a) test apparatus; (b) stress system; (c) change in sample dimensions at failure
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 19
d
d-3 Test 3 at 3-3
a
(a)
Dialation (-ve)
v a
Compression (+ve)
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
(b)
Figure 9: Triaxial compression test results (a) deviator stress versus axial strain; (b) volumetric
strain versus axial strain
G
A D E n
n G
3 3 3
F
H F H
E B C
1
1
Figure 10: Illustration of stress state at a point in a soil mass
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 21
Resolving forces normal to the plane FG gives:
Therefore:
n 1 cos 2 3 sin 2
Now:
Rearranging gives:
1 3 1 3
n cos 2 (7)
2 2
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 22
Resolving forces parallel to the plane FG gives:
FH GH
1 sin 3 cos
FG FG
or
( 1 3 ) sin cos
1 3
sin 2 (8)
2
In Equation (9), when = 45o, = max =1/2(13)
1 3 1 3
n cos 2 (9)
2 2
Also:
OB OA
PD CP sin 2 sin 2
2
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 24
Thus:
1 3
sin 2 (10)
2
Equations 9 and 10 are identical to those obtain from the analytical derivation of
Equations 7 and 8. Thus the distance OD gives the value of n and DP gives the
value of on a plane inclined at an angle from the horizontal. Note that the
maximum shear stress, max, can be also obtained from the Mohrs circle, as
indicated in Figure 11.
1
P
n max
3
3
O
2 n
3 A C D B
1 1
Soil element
Mohr Circle
Test 3
Test 2
Test 1
c
3 3 1 3 1 1
n
Figure 12: Graphical representation of triaxial test results using Mohrs circles of stress
( 1 3 ) / 2
sin
c cot ( 1 3 ) / 2
( 1 3 ) / 2
Rearranging yields: sin
c cot ( 1 3 ) / 2
Which from the trigonomeric identities leads to:
3 D
3
f
c f 2 f
A 3 C 1 n
1 B
Soil element
Figure 13: Mohr circle and failure envelope for an element of soil
5m
c = 20 Kpa
= 30o
d = 15 kN/m3 4m
sat = 18 kN/m3
Ko = 0.5 50o
A
3 u3 = 0 3 3 = 3 ud = 0 3 = 3
3
3 1 = 1
d
(a) Part C (b) Part D
c
n
3 3 1 3 1 1
(c)
Figure 14: Schematic diagram of the stress conditions of the CD test with typical Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
3 u3= 0 3 3 3 ud 0 3 3
3
3 1 1
d
(a) Part C
(b) Part U
Figure 15: Schematic diagram of the stress conditions of the CU test
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 33
The deviator stress, d , at failure and corresponding excess pore water pressure,
ud , are used to determine the Skemptons pore water pressure parameter A as
follows:
A = ud/d
The Skemptons parameter A indicates whether the soil specimen during
shearing will compress or dilate. Normally consolidated clays and loose sands
tend to contract and give A value close to 1, whereas overconsolidated clays and
dense sands tend to dilate and give very low or negative A value. The following
A values can be used as a guide:
A > 0.5 (soil that contracts during shearing)
A < 0.5 (soil that dilates during shearing).
Several tests of this type are to be conducted on samples of the same soil and
the effective shear strength parameters, c and , are determined by plotting
Mohrs circles at failure, as shown in Figure 16.
It should be noted that during the undrained shearing, the sample water content
remains unchanged as drainage is not allowed, thus, there would be no volume
change in the soil specimen. This will exhibit zero volumetric strain v and
Equation (7) for the calculation of the corrected area of sheared specimen
simplifies to:
A
Ac (13)
(1 a )
Geotechnical Engineering 2 Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University Page 34
Effective stress circles
c
n
3 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 1 1
ud1 ud2 ud3
d
3 1 1
3
3 u3 0 3 3 3 ud 0 3 3
3
3 1 1
d
(a) First U Part
(b) Second U Part
3 3 1 3 1 1
n
3 1
This test is by far the most popular shear strength test, and whilst it overcomes
many of the limitations of the direct shear test, it is complex and requires
expensive equipment.
A
Ac (14)
(1 L / L)
(b)
(a)
d = 1
qu
su = cu = qu/2
cu
a n
3 = 0.0 1 = qu
(c) (d)
Figure 19: Unconfined compression tests (a) photo of the test equipment by ELE International;
(b) sample dimensions during test; (c) stress-strain curve; (d) Mohr circle
su cu qu / 2 (15)
Theoretically, the unconfined compression test should lead to the same value
of cu as this obtained from the UU triaxial test if:
The specimen is 100% saturated, otherwise, compression of the air in the voids
will occur and will cause a decrease in void ratio and increase in strength; and
The specimen is sheared rapidly to failure so that the undrained condition
exists. If the time to failure is long, evaporation and surface drainage will lead
to higher strength.
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 20: The vane shear test (a) photo of the vane device; (b) schematic diagram of the vane;
(c) vane shear correction curve of Bjerrum (1973)
Residual Loose
Ultimate
Loose
a n
(a) (c)
e
Loose
Dilation
Dense
Dense
v a
Contraction
Loose a
(d)
(b)
Residual
Ultimate
Normally consolidated
a
(a)
Overconsolidated
Dilation
v a
Contraction
Normally consolidated
(b)
su (undisturbed )
St (18)
su ( remoulded)
1 3
t (19)
2
1 3
s (20)
2
n
3 3 1 3 1 1
s = (1 +3)
t = t
Stress path
s or s
Figure 23: Mohr circle of stress and corresponding stress points and stress path
Figure 24: (a) successive Mohr circles; (b) corresponding stress pass for constant 3 and increasing 1
u ud3
d
3
u ud2
d
2
u ud1
d Total stress path (TSP)
1