PIPE NETWORKS

1.0 Introduction

Analysis of pipe networks is important in the design of water distribution systems.

Such analysis can be performed by applying Bernoullis equation and the
continuity equation but, for large networks, the solution of these equations
involves lengthy calculations.

Ex: Analysis of the pipe network shown below requires the solution of 13 non-
linear simultaneous equations.

Hence the analysis of pipe networks is usually based on other methods such as
Head Balancing Method, Quantity Balancing Method, Electrical Analogue Method
etc.

1.1 Flow in Pipe Networks

The flow in a pipe network has to satisfy two conditions:

i Continuity of flow at a node

At a node, Total inflow = Total outflow

If inflow is taken as positive (+) and outflow is taken as negative (-), this
condition can be expressed as

Q 0 .... (1)

where Q = Flow rate

Ex: For the node A shown below

3
3
5 m /s 1 m /s
A 3
4 m /s
3
3 m /s
3
3 m /s

Q +5 m3/s + 3 m3/s 1 m3/s 4 m3/s 3 m3/s = 0

1
ii The head difference between any two points in the network is the same for
all paths between them.

If the flow rate Q and the corresponding head loss HL in clockwise sense
are taken as positive (+), for a closed loop this condition can be expressed
as

H 0 ... (2)
L

Ex: For the closed loop ABCD in the pipe network shown below,

A B

D C

H (H
L )
L AB (HL )BC (HL )CD (HL )DA

H A HB HB H C H C HD HD H A

In addition, the head loss in a pipe can be expressed in the form

H L KQ n .. (3)

where K and n are constants for a given pipe.

2
v2 k Q 8k1
Ex: Local loss H L k1 1 2 4 Q KQ
2 n

2g 2g D 4
2
gD
8k
K 2 1 4 and n = 2
gD

Friction loss: Darcy-Weisbach equation:

2
L v2 L Q 8 L
HL 2 2 5 Q 2 KQ n
D 2g 2gD D 4 gD
8 L
K 2 5 and n = 2
gD

2
 Friction loss: Hazen-Williams equation:

v 0.355CD 0.63 (H L / L)0.54

6.79L V 1.85 10.61L Q 1.85

H L 1.85 1.17
1.85 3.17
KQ n
C D C D

10.61L
K and n = 1.85
C 1.85D 3.17

where k1 = loss coefficient

g = acceleration due to gravity
D = pipe diameter
= friction factor
L = pipe length
C = Hazen-Williams coefficient

1.2 Head Balancing Method

This method, also known as loop method and presented by Hardy-Cross in 1936,
can be used when the inflows and outflows of a network are known and the
heads at nodes and flow rates in pipes of the network are required to be
determined.

Step 1 Flow rates Q satisfying the continuity of flow at nodes (equation (1))
are assumed for all the pipes in the network.

Step 2 Head losses HL are calculated (equation (3)) and the condition
HL 0 (equation (2)) is checked for all the loops in the network.
Step 3 If H 0 , assumed Q values are taken to be correct values.
L

If H 0 , correction
L Q is applied for assumed Q values.

Q is calculated as follows:

H L KQ n

With assumed flow rates Q, [KQ n

] 0 and

with corrected flow rates Q+ Q , [K (Q Q) n

]0

3
 n(n 1) n 2
[KQ
n
KnQ n 1Q K Q Q 2 ... KQ n ] 0
2
As Q << Q , neglecting higher powers of Q ,

[KQ
n
KnQ n1Q] 0

Q
KQ KQ
n n

nKQ n KQ
n 1 n 1

HL
As H L KQ n , KQ n 1
Q

Q
H
L

H
n L

Q

For a pipe shared by two loops, corrections from both loops are
applied.

Step 4 Steps 2 and 3 are repeated until Q is negligible.

It has been found that this method converges rapidly although a high storage
capacity in computing is required.

It is convenient to perform the calculation in tabular form as illustrated by

example (1).

Example (1) Determine the flow rates in the pipes of the network shown in
Figure Ex(1). The dimensions of the pipes are as given in Table
Ex(1a). The friction factor for all pipes can be taken as 0.02 and
the local losses can be neglected.

Pipe Length (m) Diameter (m)

AB 700 0.20
AD 160 0.25
BC 160 0.15
CD 700 0.25
CF 160 0.25
DE 160 0.15
EF 700 0.15

Table Ex(1a)

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 0.05 m3/s 0.008 m3/s
A B

D C

E Figure Ex(1) F 0.042 m3/s

1 Check total inflow and outflow.

Inflow = 0.05 m3/s

Outflow = 0.008 m3/s + 0.042 m3/s = 0.05 m3/s = Inflow

2 Express head loss H L KQ n determine K and n for all pipes.

2
L v2 L Q 8 L
HL Hf 2 5 Q 2 KQ n
D 2g 2gD D 4
2
gD

8 L
K and n = 2
2 gD 5
Prepare Table Ex(1b) and complete columns (1) and (2).

3 Assume flow rates Q for all pipes.

Note: Sign convention: In a loop, clockwise Q and HL are positive (+)

Let QAB = 0.02 m3/s QBC = 0.012 m3/s and QAD = 0.03 m3/s
Let QDC = 0.016 m3/s QCF = 0.028 m3/s and QDE = 0.014 m3/s= QEF
i.e. complete column (3) in Table Ex(1b).

4 Calculate H L KQ n for all pipes.

i.e. complete column (4)-from columns (2) and (3)-in Table Ex(1b).

5
5 Check the condition H 0 for both loops.
L

For loop ABCD H 1.4 0

L and

for loop DCFE H 3.155 0

L

Apply correction Q
H for both loops.
L

H
n
L

HL
To determine Q , calculate HL/Q for all pipes in a loop and obtain Q
I.e. complete column (5) in Table Ex(1b).
For loop ABCD, Q = -(1.4)/(2141.12) m3/s = -0.00496 m3/s
For loop DCFE, Q = -(-3.155)/(2288.66) m3/s = 0.00546 m3/s
For pipe CD in loop ABCD, Q = -0.00496 m3/s + (-0.00546 m3/s)
= -0.01042 m3/s
For pipe DC in loop DCFE , Q = 0.00546 m3/s + (+0.00496 m3/s)
= 0.01042 m3/s
Apply correction Q for assumed Q values.
i.e. complete column (6) in Table Ex(1b).

7 Repeat steps 4 to 6 until Q can be neglected.

i.e. complete columns (7), (8), (9), in Table Ex(1b) until Q is negligible.

6
 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
3 3 3
Q (m /s) HL/Q Q (m /s) HL/Q Q (m /s)
Pipe K (s2/m5) HL (m) HL (m) HL (m)
(assumed) (s/m2) (corrected) (s/m2) (corrected)

AB 3615 +0.020 +1.446 72.30 +0.01504 +0.818 54.39

Loop ABCD

BC 3482 +0.012 +0.501 41.75 +0.00704 +0.173 24.57

CD 1185 -0.016 -0.303 18.94 -0.02642 -0.827 31.30

DA 271 -0.030 -0.244 8.13 -0.03496 -0.331 9.47

1.4 141.12 -0.167 119.73

3
Q =-1.4/(2141.2)=-0.00496 m /s
For CD, Q =-0.00496+(-0.00546)
= -0.01042 m3/s
Q =-(-0.167)/(2119.73)=0.00069 m3/s
For CD, Q =0.00069+(-0.00058)
3
= 0.00011 m /s

DC 1185 +0.016 +0.303 18.94 +0.02642 +0.827 31.3

Loop DCFE

CF 271 +0.028 +0.212 7.57 +0.03346 +0.303 9.06

FE 15233 -0.014 -2.986 213.29 -0.00854 -1.110 129.98

ED 3482 -0.014 -0.682 48.71 -0.00854 -0.254 29.7

-3.153 288.66 -0.234 200.04

Q =-(-3.153)/(2288.66)=0.00546 m3/s Q =-(-0.234)/(2200.04)=0.00058 m3/s
For DC, Q =0.00546+(0.00496) For DC, Q =0.00058 +(-0.00069)
3 3
= 0.01042 m /s = -0.00011 m /s

Table Ex(1b)

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1.3 Quantity Balancing Method

This method, also known as the nodal method and presented by Cornish in 1939,
can be used when the heads at various points in a pipe network are known and
the flow rates in pipes are required to be determined.

Step 1 The unknown heads H at nodes are assumed.

Step 2 The flow rates Q ( = (H L / K )1/ n ) are calculated and the condition

Q 0 (equation (1)) is checked for all junctions in the network.

Step 3 If Q 0 , assumed H values are taken as correct.

If Q 0 , correction H is applied for assumed H values.

H is calculated as follows:
Let Q be the change in Q due to the change H in H.

With assumed heads H, Q 0 and

With corrected heads H+ H , (Q Q ) 0

Considering a pipe in the network as shown below,

H0
Q
H

H0 H HL KQ n
Differentiating with respect to Q,
0 dH dH L KnQ n 1dQ

dH dH L n(KQ n 1 )dQ

As H L KQ n KQ n 1 H L / Q

dH dH L n(HL / Q)dQ and

Q Q
dQ dH or Q H
nH L nH L

8
 As (Q Q) 0 ,
Q
Q nH H 0
L
n Q n Q
H and H L H
Q / H L Q / H
L

Step 4 Steps 2 and 3 are repeated until H is negligible.

It has been found that this method does not converge rapidly but a high storage
capacity in computing is not required.

It is convenient to perform the calculation in tabular form as illustrated by

example (2).

Example (2) Determine the flow rates in the pipes of the network shown in
Figure Ex(2). The dimensions of the pipes are as given in Table
Ex(2a). The friction factor for all pipes can be taken as 0.04 and
the local losses can be neglected

Pipe Length (m) Diameter (m)

AJ 1500 0.30
JB 800 0.25
JC 400 0.20

Table Ex2(a)

J B
60 m

30 m
C
15 m

Figure Ex2

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1 Express head loss H L KQ n determine K and n for all pipes.
2
L v2 L Q 8 L
HL Hf 2 5 Q KQ
2 n

D 2g 2gD D 2
4 gD

8 L
K and n = 2
2 gD 5
i.e. prepare Table Ex (2b) and complete columns (1) and (2).

2 Assume head at node J = H = 35 m and calculate HL for all pipes.

Note: sign convention: inflows and corresponding head losses (+)
i.e. complete column (3) in the Table Ex (2b).

3 Calculate Q for all pipes.

H L kQ n and Q H L / K
1/ n

i.e. complete column (4) in the Table Ex (2b).

4 Check the condition Q 0 at node J.

At J, Q 0.0018 m 3
/s 0

Apply correction H for H at J.

To determine H calculate Q/HL for all pipes meeting at J and obtain
Q
H
L
i.e. complete column (5) in the Table Ex (2b).
H = - 2(-0.0018)/0.01648 m = 0.218 m
Apply correction H for the assumed H value.
i.e. complete column (6) in the Table Ex (2b).

7 Repeat steps 4 to 6 until H can be neglected.

i.e. complete columns (7), (8), (9), in the Table Ex (2b) until H is
negligible.

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Pipe 2 5 Q (H L / K )
1/ n
2 Q (HL / K )1/ n
K (s /m ) HL (m) 3
Q/HL (s/m ) HL (m) 3
(m /s) (m /s)
AJ 2040 +25 +0.1107 0.004428 +25.218 +0.1112

JB 2708 -5 -0.0429 0.00858 -4.782 -0.04202

JC 4131 -20 -0.0696 0.00348 -19.782 -0.0692

-0.0018 0.01648 -0.00002

0
H L 2(0.0018) /(0.01648) 0.218m

Table Ex (2b)

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References:

1 Chadwick A and Morfett J, Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental

Engineering, Third Edition, E & FN SPON,1999

2 Fox J A, An Introduction to Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition,

Macmillan, 1977

3 Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M and Swaffield J A, Fluid Mechanics, Third

Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1999

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Q1 Determine the flow rates in the network shown in Figure Q1. The head loss
HL in pipes can be expressed as HL = KQ2. The K values and the elevation
of nodes above datum are shown in Tables Q1(a) and Q1(b). If the
pressure head at node F must be not less than 20 m, calculate the lowest
pressure head permissible at node A.
0.2 m3/s 0.1 m3/s
0.1 m3/s
A B C

D E F
0.1 m3/s
3
0.1 m3/s 0.2 m /s

Figure Q1

Pipe AB BC AD BE CF DE EF
K
250 200 150 150 150 200 200
(s /m5)
2

Table Q1(a)

Node A B C D E F
Elevation
30 27 20 25 23 18
(m)
Table Q1(b)

Q2 Four reservoirs A, B, C and D are connected by pipes to a common junction

J as shown in Figure Q2. The head loss HL in pipes can be expressed
as HL = KQ2. The water levels in reservoirs and the K values are given in
Table Q2. Determine the flow rates in pipes. State the assumptions made in
the analysis.

A
B

C J

Figure Q2 D

13
Reservoir Water level above datum K for pipe connecting
(m) reservoir to J (s2/m5)
A 50 4.0
B 45 3.0
C 40 2.0
D 30 2.0

Table Q2

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