Manual Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology CP 105
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HEART Trust / NTA
VOCATIONAL TRAINING DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE

(VTDI)
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
NO. OF CREDITS: 3
COURSE CODE CP 1O5
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
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Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

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INTRODUCTION 6
Expectation of Students 7
Course Aim and Course Outcomes 7
Course Schedule 8
Required Text and Supplementary Texts 11
Learning and Teaching Approaches 11
Method of Assessment 11
MODULE 1 THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Overview and Objectives 12

WEEK1
Session 1. Definition of Key Terms/Introduction 14
What is teaching? 17
What is learning? 18
What is pedagogy? 22
What is andragogy? 22
WEEK 2
Session 2 The Expert Teacher 23
What makes a good teacher? 27
What is the task of the teacher? 27
Can good teaching be taught? 28
Who is an Intentional teacher? 29
What key behaviours are associated with outstanding teachers? 30
Developing as a teacher? 31
Session 3 Research in Educational Psychology 32

How do we know what we know in Educational Psychology? 40
REFERENCES 43
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MODULE 2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
WEEK 3
Session 4 The Meaning of Development 45
Piagets Cognitive Development 46

Vygotskys Socio-Cultural Perspective 51
WEEK 4
Session 5 PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Eriksons Psychosocial Theory 56
Session 6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg 58
REFERENCES 62
MODULE 3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
WEEK 5-6
Session 7 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Classical Conditioning 64
B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning 67
Premack Principle 68
Intrinsic and Intrinsic Reinforcers 69
Immediacy of Consequences 70
Shaping 70
Extinction 71
Schedule of Reinforcement 71
The role of Antecedents 72
Session 8 Applied Behaviour Analysis (Behaviour Modification) 73
WEEK 7
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Session 9 COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING
What is the information processing model? 75
Short term or Working Memory 77
Long -term memory 77

What causes people to remember or forget? 77
How do meta-cognitive skills help students learn? 78
WEEK 8
Session 10 SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
Modelling and Observational learning 79
Constructivist Views of Learning 80

Creating a Constructivist Classroom 81
Applying Cognitive Constructivism in the Classroom 82
Constructivist Teaching Methods 84
REFERENCES 88
MODULE 4 MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR

MANAGEMENT
Overview/Objectives 89
WEEK 9
Session 11
Motivation 90
Theories of Motivation 93
Social Learning Approaches to Motivation 99
Motivation as Growth 101
WEEK 10
Session 12 Classroom Management in Perspective 106
Characteristics of Effective Classroom Managers 109
What are some Strategies for Managing Routine misbehavior 112
Session 13 Using Applied Behavior Analysis 113
Seven Principles for the effective and humane use of Punishment 115
REFERENCES 118
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MODULE 5 EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION
Overview/Objectives 119
WEEK 11
Session 14 Who are learners with exceptionalities? 120
Understanding Intelligence 121
Week 12
Session 15 Characteristics of students with learning disabilities 129
Characteristics of gifted and talented students 135
Week 13
Session 16 The teachers role in the inclusive classroom 137
Lesson planning for inclusion
WEEKS 14-15 FINAL ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
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Module 1: The Teacher and Educational Psychology CP 105
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Educational Psychology. This course is designed to introduce psychological principles, theories,
and methodologies to issues of teaching and learning in schools. It focuses on human growth and development
in educational settings and involves the study of such questions as: How do people learn? How do the
characteristics of the learner (individual differences, personality, cultural background,) influence learning? How
can classrooms and schools be organized to facilitate learning? What are the most effective ways to teach?
How should teachers approach classroom management and discipline? How can principles of developmental,
social, and cognitive psychology be applied to education? It includes topics like child development, learning,
motivation and creating learning environments.
This course consists of five (5) modules. At the beginning of each session is a brief overview of the course
along with the course objectives. The course objectives highlight what learners should achieve. Each module
covers major areas of competencies and comprises an overview that specifies knowledge, performance and
attitudinal requirements.
Learners will be assessed, based on the Competency Based Education and Training strategies. It therefore,
becomes necessary for learners to participate in all activities. Participants are also encouraged to purchase a
copy of the prescribed text and to read other Educational Psychology texts for additional information.
Remember this manual is just a skeleton of your course and does not eliminate the reading from other sources.
I trust you will find this manual informative and useful. If you have any queries and/or corrections do not
hesitate to make contact at the address given below:
Ruby L. Bramwell (Mrs.)

Vocational Training Development Institute
6 Gordon Town Road Kingston 6
Telephone # 9771700 - 5 EXT 2108
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EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS
Participants are expected to display the attitudes that will best facilitate their progress in the course. It is
expected that all students should be punctual, attend classes regularly and participate as is required by the
lecturer or the formulated class groups. It is important, that work be submitted on time and that students who
have good reason to be absent take the initiative to update themselves on the class they missed, collect all
materials that were established and complete the required assignments. If assignments are to be completed on
time and with the required level of accuracy and quality, working groups must be willing to meet and do
extensive work outside of contact time. Only students who participate in group presentations in their assigned
groups will be awarded grades. All students are expected to submit their best work
COURSE AIM
The goal of this course is to provide students with an understanding of ways educational and psychological
principles are beneficial in working with others in a teaching, advising, or counselling capacity.
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of this course, participants should be able to:
demonstrate knowledge of Educational Psychology and effective teaching interactions
demonstrate understanding of the processes by which people learn
define learning and compare and contrast the factors that cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic
theorists believe influence the learning process, giving specific examples of how these principles could
be used in the classroom.
demonstrate understanding of theories of motivation and differentiate between the different theories
develop and internalise appropriate attitudes towards teaching, learning and learners
discuss the major components and techniques of classroom planning, management and instruction that
have been addressed in the study of the teaching/learning process as well as how these general
techniques can be modified to address individual differences.
evaluate the impact of Educational Psychology on the teaching/learning environment
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DATE MODULES REFERENCES

Module 1 THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Slavin: Chapter 1
Week 1 Woolfolk: Chapter 1
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Ormrod: Chapter 1
What is Educational Psychology?
What is teaching?
What is learning?
What is pedagogy?
What is andragogy?
THE EXPERT TEACHER

Week 2
What makes a good teacher?
Matalon: Chapter 1
What is the task of the teacher? Elliott Chapter 1
Can good teaching be taught?
Who is an intentional teacher?
What are the qualities of outstanding teachers?
What key behaviours are associated with good teaching?
How can you develop as a teacher?
RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Slavin: Chapter 1
What is the goal of research in Educational psychology? Woolfolk: Chapter 1
What is the role of research in Educational psychology? Ormrod: Chapter 1
How do we know what we know in Educational

Psychology?
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DATE MODULES REFERENCES

Module 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Week 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE

Development: Some general principles
Slavin: Chapter 2
Piagets Cognitive Development Woolfolk Chapter2
Vygotskys Socio-cultural Perspective
Week 4
PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Eriksons Psychosocial Theory Slavin: Chapter 5

Piagets Theory of Moral Development Woolfolk: Chapter
Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development
Module 3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Weeks 5- 6 Slavin Chapter 6
Understanding Learning
Woolfolk: Chapter 7
Behavioural Views of Learning
Cognitive Views of Learning
SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF
Weeks 7- 8
LEARNING
Social Learning and Cognitive Theories Slavin: Chapter 8

Constructivism and Situated Learning Woolfolk: Chapter 9
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Module 4 MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Week 9 Slavin: Chapter 9
What is motivation?
Woolfolk: Chapter 10
Theories of motivation
Matalon: Chapter 5
What affects students motivation
How can teachers increase students motivation
Slavin, Chapter 11
CLASROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
Weeks 10 Woolfolk, Chapter 12
Matalon: Chapter 6
Physical environment
Psycho-social environment
CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Procedures
Rules Slavin, Chapter 13
Consequences Woolfolk, Chapter 8
DEALING WITH MISBEHAVIOURS Matalon: Chapter 5
Reducing unwanted behaviours

Benign procedures for reducing unwanted
behaviours
Effective use of punishment
Module 5 Slavin Chapter 12
EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION
Weeks 11-13 Eggen Chapter 5
Who are learners with exceptionalities?
Ormrod Chapter 5
Understanding Intelligence
ODonnell Chapter 4
Characteristics of students with learning
disabilities
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Characteristics of gifted and talented students
The teachers role in the inclusive classroom
Lesson planning for inclusion
Weeks 14 -15
FINAL ASSESSMENT
REQUIRED TEXT
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS
Biehler, Robert F. and Jack Snowman (1993) Psychology applied to teaching. Houghton Mifflin Co: Boston
Elliott.et.al. (2000) Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning.McGraw Hill: Boston
Matalon, Barbara A. (1998) Classroom and Behaviour Management. Stephensons Litho Press. Kingston
ODonnell Angella.et.al. (2004) Educational Psychology: Reflection for Action. Wiley Press NJ
Ormrod, Jeanne . (2003) Educational Psychology. Pearson Education: New Jersey
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Woolfolk, Anita. (2004) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Internet Sources
LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHES

Group Projects
Small group learning (cooperative)
Self - instruction
Lectures
Individual Research
Case Studies
Discussions
Brainstorming
METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
Course work and Presentations 60%
Final - Oral Presentation 40%
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100%
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MODULE 1
THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
OVERVIEW
This module seeks to bring to the fore one very important attribute of all outstanding teachers:
intentionality or the ability to do things for a reason, purposefully. In achieving this focus, the module
sets the framework by looking first at some basic but important definitions and then dives into the
different faucets of intentionality.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you should be able to do the following:
define educational psychology and the areas of study that it includes
enumerate the goals of educational psychology, and apply these goals to educational
practice.
enumerate the traits of a good teacher and assess their personal trait
understand the steps one must accomplish to become an effective and intentional teacher.
describe how teaching requires a balance of reflection and technique
critically evaluate the qualities of different teachers in ones experience
identify the concerns of beginning teachers, and describe how these concerns change
developmentally
discuss the role of educational psychology in teaching
understand the role of research in teaching and learning
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WEEK 1
SESSION 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
INTRODUCTION:
What I am sure of, is that you have done some form of teaching whether formal or informal. Perhaps you
have already given an oral presentation in one of your classes or have helped a friend who has little
knowledge of a course or topic in which you are competent. You might have taught a child how to ride a
bicycle, paint a picture or comb his/her hair. Whatever you have done in this area, might be? considered
teaching.
Reflect for a moment on the kinds of teaching experiences you have had.
What strategies did you use in your attempt to help someone learn?
Did you provide verbal explanations, demonstrate certain actions, ask your students to practice
what you taught them, or give them feedback about their performance?
What assumptions about how people learn influenced the way that you chose to teach?
Did you assume that your students could learn something from listening to you describe it, or did
you believe that demonstrating an action would be more effective?
Did you think that practice makes perfect?
Did you assume that feedback was essential for learning and motivation?
Helping others learn and, in the process, helping them become more productive members of society is
what teaching is all about.
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There is much discussion about what young people should do in their childhood and youth to prepare
them for success in adulthood. Once we have determined the desired end results or the prerequisites for
success, we need to determine the means or the conditions by which those can be brought about.
Education and Psychology are two terms that are often associated with these conditions.
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Elliott further states that the second field of study with which educational psychology aligns itself is
education or more specifically schooling. This Huitt defines as the process of
(1) developing the capacities and potential of the individual so as to prepare that individual to be
successful in a specific society or culture. From this perspective, education is serving primarily an
individual development function.
(2) the process by which society transmits to new members the values, beliefs, knowledge, and symbolic
expressions to make communication possible within society. In this sense, education is serving a social
and cultural function. W. Huitt, (1999)
WHAT IS TEACHING?
In education, teachers are those who help students or pupils learn, often in a school. The objective is
typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The
different ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what teaching
method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their
learning goals as well as standardized curriculum as determined by their school district.
(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Huitts further suggests the following about teaching-
The purposeful direction and management of the learning process.

Note that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of
providing opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the
engagement
WHAT IS LEARNING?in experiences provided by the teacher. (W. Huitt, 1999)
Atkinson and Atkinson (1993) further explains learning as a relatively permanent change in
behaviour that results from practice; behaviour changes that are due to maturation (rather than
practice), or to temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug-induced states) are
not included.
(Atkinson, 1993)
Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge
and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are
these assumptions true? What do you think?
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

WHAT IS PEDAGOGY?
Pedagogy (pd-e-goj) literally means the art and science of educating children and often is used as a
synonym for teaching. More accurately, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education.
In the pedagogic model, teachers assume responsibility for making decisions about what will be learned, how
it will be learned, and when it will be learned. Teachers direct learning.
(Conner, Internet)
WHAT IS ANDRAGOGY?
Andragogy a term originally used by Alexander Kapp (a german educator) in 1833 and developed into
a theory of adult education by the american educator, Malcolm Knowles is the art and science of
helping adults learn
Knowles' theory can be stated as four simple postulates:

Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept and
Motivation to learn).
Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities (Experience).
Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal
life (Readiness to learn).
Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation to learning).
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
WEEK 2
SESSION 2 THE EXPERT TEACHER
INTRODUCTION
Sandy is all nervous anticipation as she starts her first day as a junior high school science teacher. Within the
first few minutes, however, she finds her motivation challenged. By the end of the day, she is worn out and
worried about how shell ever survive as a teacher. Luckily, she meets expert teacher Danielle. Danielle
recognizes in Sandy all the symptoms of a tough first day, and she offers to help Sandy. Over the course of her
first year, Sandy relies on Danielles sage advice for help in many difficult situations. Sandy emerges at the
end of her first year feeling wiser and more in control, as well as deeply grateful to Danielle.
You may be worried youll feel the same way Sandy does when you begin teaching. The purpose of section is
to help you avoid her predicament. Youll find out what it takes to be an expert teacher like Danielle. What do
expert teachers know and what do they do?
(Sternberg, 2004)
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WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER
Is it warmth, humor, and the ability to care about people? Is it

planning, hard work, and self-discipline? What about
leadership, enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and
speaking ability? Most people would agree that all of these
qualities are needed to make someone a good teacher, and
they would certainly be correct. But these qualities are not
enough.
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Subject matter knowledge is important. But effective teachers can also communicate their knowledge to
students. The link between what teachers want students to learn and learning is called instruction, or pedagogy.
Effective instruction is a matter of one person with more knowledge transmitting this knowledge to the other.
Slavin (2003)
WHAT IS THE TASK OF THE TEACHER?
Motivating students, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively,
taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes, and reviewing information
must be attended to at all levels of education, in or out of schools.
Slavin (2003)
CAN GOOD TEACHING BE TAUGHT?
The answer is definitely yes. Good teaching has to be observed and practiced, but there are principles of good
teaching that teachers need to know, which can then be applied in the classroom. The major components of
effective instruction are:
Knowledge of subject and teaching resources

Critical thinking and problem-solving skills
Knowledge of students and their learning
Teaching and communication skill
Slavin, (2003)
COMPONENTS OF GOOD TEACHING

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http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t1.html
WHO IS AN INTENTIONAL TEACHER?
One attribute seems to be characteristic of outstanding teachers and that is intentionality. Intentionality means
doing things for a reason, on purpose.
Intentional teachers constantly think about the outcomes they want for their students and about how
each decision they make moves children toward those outcomes.
Intentional teachers know that maximum learning does not happen by chance.
Intentional teachers are constantly asking themselves what goals they and their students are trying to
accomplish; whether each portion of their lesson is appropriate to students background knowledge,
skills, and needs; whether each activity or assignment is clearly related to a valued outcome; whether
each instructional minute is used wisely and well.
Intentional teachers trying to build students synonym skills during follow-up time might have them work
in pairs to master a set of synonyms in preparation for individual quizzes.
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Intentional teachers achieve a sense of efficacy by constantly assessing the results of his or her
instruction -
o constantly trying new strategies if their initial instruction didnt work
o constantly seeking ideas from colleagues, books, magazines, workshops, and other sources to
enrich and solidify their teaching skills.
Slavin (2003)
WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF OUTSTANDING TEACHERS?
Ernest Boyer (1990) identified several characteristics that he believed made highly effective teachers
They employ language clearly and efficiently. If teachers present their ideas in colourful, exciting writing
and express themselves precisely in their oral language, students have superb models from which to
learn. These teachers talked to their students, not at them.
They are well informed and comfortable with the history and frontiers of their disciplines, so they
provide students not only with facts but also with a way of thinking that serve them well in a complex
world. For example, the teacher who presents basic genetic facts and then goes on to show how this
knowledge can lead to the future cure of serious diseases breathes real life into what may seem to
students to be remote, abstract facts
They relate what they know to their learners so that students become aware of the beauty, the power
and the application of knowledge
WHAT KEY BEHAVIOURS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH GOOD TEACHING?
Lesson Clarity. Lesson clarity means that students understand you. If you organize material
carefully, give precise directions, link the present lesson to past work, use instructional strategies that
are appropriate for students ages and cognitive levels, you will be one of those instructors who
maintain the attention of students and communicate effectively
Instructional Variety. Effective teachers use instructional variety. Dynamic teachers experiment,
evaluate, read the feedback from students and switch techniques when a lesson seems to be stalled.
They are alert to the signals their students are giving and use these clues to change from recitation to
discussion, from seatwork to physical activity
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Task Involvement. Good teachers are acutely aware of their students task orientation and
engagement in the learning process. Good teachers display a remarkable ability to keep students
actively involved with a task, which is one of the most significant predictors of students academic
success. Ideally, students should be actively engaged with a task if learning is to occur. Just sitting at
a desk surrounded by books, either at school or at home, and daydreaming is not engagement with a
task
Praise carefully. Be careful how you praise. Praise can be a mixed blessing. Non-contingent
praise is praise that is not linked to a specific behaviour. Do not let a students personal qualities,
rather than achievement, be the occasion for praise. You will find this becomes self defeating when
students discern the hollow nature of the praise. In their own way students are astute readers of
human nature. Empty praise inevitably produces a challenge to their self-esteem and begins to erode
appreciation of honest achievement
Consistent Classroom Guidelines. Good teachers avoid double standards what is right for the
pupil (politeness, punctuality) is right for the teacher. Teachers who refuse to use threats and
intimidation know that students cannot learn or acquire self-discipline in a tense, hostile environment.
Instead they try to understand the purpose of the misbehaviour to establish a relationship based on
trust and mutual respect. Teachers who treat their students as nearly equal gain their respect and
establish relationships that lead to honest dialogue and fewer problems. Remember: Emphasize the
positive and refuse to take misbehaviour personally
Periodic feedback. Students need to know how well they are doing and what they need to
improve on. Effective teachers provide students frequent feedback about their work efforts and
performances. Assessment of student learning plays a central role in providing students
meaningful information on what they are doing well and what they need to work on more.
(Elliott, 6-7)
DEVELOPING AS A TEACHER
As a beginning teacher, you may initially find your role a bit overwhelming. After all, you may have twenty-five
to thirty-five students in your classroom at any one time, and they are likely to have different backgrounds,
ability levels and needs. This course describes many ways you can help your students learn and develop. But
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it is equally important that you learn and develop as well. Here are several strategies to help you do so:
continue to take courses in education sure way of keeping up to date on the latest theoretical
perspectives and research results related to classroom practice.
learn as much as you can about the subject matter you teach
learn as much as you can about specific strategies for teaching your particular subject matter
learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are working
conduct your own research.
KEY CONCEPTS TO ALWAYS REMEMBER:
o Characteristics of an effective teacher.

Knows subject matter.
Combine research and common sense.
Mastered pedagogical skills.
Consistent.
Enthusiastic.
Firm.
Fair.
Working knowledge of relevant research
Reflective, that is determines the effectiveness of present practices and makes
changes where necessary.
SESSION 3 RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Educational psychology involves the study of cognitive, emotional, and social learning processes that underlie
education and human development across the lifespan. Research in educational psychology advances scientific
knowledge of those processes and their application in diverse educational and community settings. This
section looks at the impact of research in education. This power point presentation is W. Huitts postulate of
research in Educational psychology. Read Chapter 1 in Educational Psychology by Robert Slavin.
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HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT WE KNOW IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
As in any scientific field, knowledge comes from many sources. Sometimes researchers study schools, teachers,
or students as they are, and sometimes they create special programs, or treatments study their effects on one or
more variables (anything that can have more than one value, such as age, sex, achievement level, or attitudes).
The principal methods educational researchers use to learn about schools, teachers, students, and instruction are
experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive research. Perhaps the most frequently used research method
in education is the correlational study. In contrast to an experiment, in which the researcher deliberately changes
one variable to see how this change will affect the other variables, in correlational research the researcher studies
variables as they are to see whether they are related.
http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t2.h
ADVANTAGES OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD
Variables can be positively correlated, negatively correlated, or uncorrelated. An example of a positive correlation
is the relationship between reading achievement and mathematics achievement. Generally, someone who is
better than average in reading is also likely to be better than average in Math. When one variable is high, the
other tends also to be high. An example of a negative correlation is days absent and grades. The more days a
student is absent, the lower his or her grades will tend to be.
DISADVANTAGE OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD
The principal disadvantage of correlational methods is that while they may tell us that two variables are related,
they do not tell us what causes what. Indeed, correlation does not imply causation-this is a frequent pitfall for
novice researchers.
Action research is a particular form of descriptive research that is carried out by educators in their own classrooms
or schools. In action research, a teacher or principal might try out a new teaching method or school organization
strategy, collect information about how it worked, and communicate this information to others. Because the people
involved in the experiment are the educators themselves, action research lacks the objectivity sought in other
forms of research, but it can provide deeper insight from front-line teachers or administrators than would be
possible in research done by outsiders.
CORRELATIONS DO NOT SHOW CAUSATION
When research shows that broken homes and crime are correlated, it does not show causation. In this
illustration, poverty, a third variable, may be correlated to both crime and broken homes. Determining
the requires demonstrating that there are no other correlated effects (other possible causes) and that the
cause actually precedes the effect. http://www.abacon.com/slavin/t3.html
REFERENCES
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching, Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill.

Boston
Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (2003) Educational Psychology Developing Learners.

Merrill Prentice Hall. New Jersey
Sternberg, Robert. (2002) Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon: Bosto

Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Pearson. Boston
http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan98/talk.html
http://my.execpc.com/~presswis/candid.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.htm
Module 2: Theories of Development CP 105
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MODULE 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
OVERVIEW
This Module is concerned with how people grow, adapt, and change over the course of their lifetimes,
through physical development, personality development, socio-emotional development, cognitive
development (thinking), and language development. This module presents five major theories of
human development that are widely accepted: Jean Piagets theory of cognitive and moral
development, Lev Vygotskys theory of cognitive development, Erik Eriksons theory of personal and
social development, and Lawrence Kohlbergs theories of moral development.
OBJECTIVES
understand some general principles of human development
demonstrate knowledge of Piagets four stages of development
summarize the key ideas in Vygotskys theory
analyze Vygotskys belief that culture powerfully shapes cognitive development
identify the major points on which Piaget and Vygotsky disagree
understand the implications of Piagets and Vygotskys theories for teaching students of
different ages
understand Eriksons stages of psychosocial development and their implications for teaching
distinguish between Piagets Cognitive development and Erikson's Psycho-social
development
understand Kohlbergs stages of moral development and how teachers can respond to
cheating and aggression in the classroom
evaluate moral development in terms of value systems impacted by environmental issues
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WEEK 3
SESSION 4 THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
The term development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in
human beings (or animals) between conception and death. The term is not applied to all changes, but
rather to those that appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long length of time.
Human development is divided into a number of different aspects:
Physical Development changes in the body
Personal Development changes in an individuals personality
Social Development changes in the way an individual relates to others
Cognitive Development changes in thinking
NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY:
Is development predetermined at birth, by hereditary factors, or do experience and other environmental

factors affect it?
Nature an organisms biological inheritance
Nurture environmental experiences
Today, most developmental psychologists believe that nature and nurture combine to influence
biological factors playing a stronger role in some aspects, such as physical development, and
environmental factors playing a stronger role in others, such as moral development
CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS THEORIES:
Is human development like a seedling gradually growing into a giant oak? Or is it more like a
caterpillar suddenly becoming a butterfly?
Continuity of Development.(quantitative development) development involves gradual cumulative

change from conception to death.
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Discontinuity of Development (qualitative development) development through distinct stages in the life
span.
According to the discontinuity perspective, each of us passes through a sequence of stages in which
change is qualitatively, rather than quantitatively different. As a mahoe tree moves from seedling to giant
tree, it becomes more oak its development is continuous. As a caterpillar changes into a butterfly, it
becomes not just more caterpillar but a different kind of organism its development is discontinuous. For
example, at a certain point, a child moves from not being able to think abstractly about the world to being
able to do so. This is qualitative, discontinuous changes of development, not quantitative, continuous
development. Santrock (1996)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. People develop at different rates in your classroom your students will attest to this.
Some will be larger, some will be more matured in their thinking and social
relationships.
2. Development is relatively orderly people develop abilities in a logical order
3. Development takes place gradually.
4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and nurture
(environment).
SESSION 5 JEAN PIAGETS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Born in Switzerland in 1896, Piaget is the most influential developmental psychologist in the history
of psychology.
Piaget explored both why and how mental abilities change over time. For Piaget, development
depends in large part on the child's manipulation of and active interaction with the environment.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that a child's intellect, or cognitive abilities,
progresses through four distinct stages. The emergence of new abilities and ways of processing
information characterize each stage.
BASIC TENDENCIES IN THINKING
Organization
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Ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories
Adaptation
Adjustment to the environment
Assimilation
The cognitive process by which a person integrates new information into existing schema, or pattern
of behaviour
Accommodation
Occurs when new information cannot be assimilated into an existing schema. Must create new
schema or modify an existing schema.
Equilibration
Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from environment
Disequilibrium
..the off balance state that occurs when a person realizes that his/her current ways of thinking are
not working to solve a problem or understand a situation
Schema
Cognitive or mental structures by which people intellectually adapt and organize the environment
Used to process and organize incoming information
Developing Schemes
Cognitive Development is guided by two innate components
1. Organization -
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The combining of basic building blocks (schemes) into coherent systems that
become stages of behavior
2. Adaptation-
The way the children adjust to the environment.
Mechanisms for adjusting to the environment
1. Assimilation occurs when new experiences can be incorporated into existing
schemes
2. Accommodation occurs when an existing scheme must be modified to
incorporate new experience.
Accommodation is the force that drives the cognitive system through stage changes
Organization and adaptation are designed to produce equilibrium a sense of cognitive balance that the
individual strives for.
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The Sensorimotor Stage (ages 0-2)
Sensorimotor exploration of their world by using their senses and their motor skills.
By the end of the sensorimotor stage, children have progressed from their earlier trial-and-error
approach to a more planned approach to problem solving.
Another hallmark of the sensorimotor period is the development of a grasp of object permanence.
Object permanence is the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not in view.
In young infants, when a toy is covered by a piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and
appears to lose interest in the toy. This child has not yet mastered the concept of object
permanence. In older infants, when a toy is covered the child will actively search for the object,
realizing that the object continues to exist.
Educational Implications
Provide multiple objects of various sizes, shapes, and colours for babies to use
Actively engage children with environmental objects.

Babies must touch them, mouth them, pull them, drop them, squeeze them, throw them and perform
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any other conceivable actions since infants learn through sensory and motor activities.
The Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7).
Children begin to represent to represent the world with words, images and drawings symbolic
thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and motoric.
Features of the Preoperational Thought
Realism
Animism
Artificialism
Transductive Reasoning
Limitations of the Preoperational Period
Centering
Egocentricism
Irreversibility
Deferred Imitation
Symbolic play
Drawing
Mental Image
Language (talking)
Concrete operational stage (ages 7-11)
Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or
concrete examples
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Features of the Concrete Operational Period
Conservation (understanding reversibility)

Seriation
Classification
Number concept
They can assimilate and accommodate material they encounter but only at their level. They are
capable of representational thought, but only with the concrete and tangible.
Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 to adulthood).
Increased ability to think hypothetical ways produces unconstrained thought with unlimited
possibilities
Features of the Formal Operational period
Ability to separate real from possible

Propositional thinking
Gathering much information and then making combinations of variables to solve a
problem (hypothetico-deductive reasoning)
Egocentricism
Thinking of possibilities
Thinking about abstracts
Thinking in multidimensional terms
Seeing knowledge as relative
Can students separate the real from the possible? Some student will still have a difficult time.
Are they comfortable with the propositional thinking needed? Can they take the concrete
material theyve learned and transform it into abstract, even contradictory, ideas?
Can they gather as much data as is needed and combine many and varied ideas forming
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new propositions?
VYGOTSKYS SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Lev Semionovich Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who, though a contemporary of Piaget, died in 1934. His
work was not widely read in English until the 1970s.
Basic assumptions:
Complex mental processes begin as social activities; as children develop, they gradually
internalize these processes and begin to use them independently
Children simultaneously have two important levels of development:

- their actual developmental level which is the level at which they can perform activities
with no assistance
- their potential developmental level which is the level at which they can perform
activities with assistance
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Implications for Teaching
Determine where the childs actual developmental level i

Provide scaffolded instruction designed to move the child through the zone of
proximal development
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Assisted Learning
WEEK 4
SESSION 6 PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Eriksons Psychosocial Theory
Erickson believes that personality emerges from a series of inner and outer conflict, which if resolved result in a
greater sense of self. These crises arise at each of eight stages of life and each crises results in a period of
increased vulnerability and heightened potential and can lead either to maladjustment or increased psychic
strength.
The Eight Psycho-social Stages
Trust versus Mistrust (birth to year) Infant must form a loving, trusting, relationship with caregiver or
develop a sense of mistrust
Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt ( 2-3 years)
Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years)
- the role of play
- play and cognitive development
- play and social development
- play and emotional development
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Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 years)

Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-18 years)
Identity Statuses (James Marcia)

- Identity Diffusion (-crisis, -commitment)-confusion about who you are and what you want
- Identity Foreclosure (-crisis, + commitment) acceptance of parental life choices without
consideration of options
- Identity Achievement (+crisis, + commitment) strong commitment to life choices after free
consideration of alternatives
- Identity Moratorium ( suspension of choices because of struggle)
Intimacy versus Isolation (18-35)

Generativity versus Stagnation (35-65)
Integrity versus Despair (over 65 years)
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
In Europe, a woman is near death from a special kind of cancer. There is one drug that the doctors
think might save her. It is a form of radium that a druggist in the same town has recently discovered.
The drug is expensive to make, but the druggist is charging ten times what the drug cost him to make.
He paid $200 for the radium and is charging $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's
husband, Heinz, goes to everyone he knows to borrow the money, but he can get together only about
$1000, which is half of what it costs. He tells the druggist that his wife is dying and asks him to sell the
drug cheaper or let him pay later. The druggist says, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it." Heinz is desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal the drug for his
wife.
1. Should Heinz steal the drug? Why or why not?

2. If Heinz doesn't love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Why or why not?
3. Suppose the person dying is not his wife but a stranger. Should Heinz steal the drug for a
stranger? Why or why not?
4. Suppose it is a pet animal he loves. Should Heinz steal to save the pet animal? Why or why
not?
5. Why should people do everything they can to save another's life?
6. It is against the law for Heinz to steal? Does that make it morally wrong? Why or why not?
Why should people generally do everything they can to avoid breaking the law? How does this relate
to Heinz's case? (Colby, 1979: Form A)
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JEAN PIAGET'S AND LAWRENCE KOHLBERGS THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

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REFERENCES

Boston

Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon. Boston

http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/cogdev.html
http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html
http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piagtuse.html
http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html
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OVERVIEW
MODULE 3
Human learning is a complex multi-faceted process that often involves changes in both thinking and
behaviour. Understanding how APPROACHES
students learn andTO complex thinking skills are the main foci of this
LEARNING
module. In addition, this module is to define learning and then to present behavioural and social
learning theories, explanations for learning that emphasize observable behaviours. Behavioural
learning theories focus on ways in which pleasurable or unpleasant consequences of behaviour
change individuals behaviour over time and ways in which individuals model their behaviour on that
of others. Social learning theories focus on the effects of thought on action and action on thought.
OBJECTIVES
distinguish between classical and operant conditioning

understand the similarities and differences among contiguity, classical conditioning and
operant conditioning
recognize how students may acquire fears through classical conditioning
identify the major elements of operant conditioning
understand how the principles of reinforcement and punishment can be used in the
classroom
demonstrate how applied behaviour analysis can be used to solve common academic or
behaviour problems
apply the principles of social cognitive theory to your instructional techniques
identify a model of information processing
recognize elements of instruction that affect student memory
identify activities and teaching methods that can facilitate students construction of
knowledge
Module 3: Approaches to Learning CP 105
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WEEK 5
SESSION 7 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning has already been defined in Module 1 so this is just a refresher. But let me say, again, that
learning is usually defined as a change in an individual caused by experience.
Changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not instances of learning.
Humans do so much learning from the day of their birth (and some say earlier) that learning and
development are inseparably linked.
The problem educators face is not how to get students to learn (students are already engaged in
learning every waking moment) but how to help students learn particular information, skills, and
concepts that will be useful in adult life.
How do we present students with the right stimuli on which to focus their attention and mental effort so
that they will acquire important skills? That is the central problem of instruction.
IVAN PAVLOVS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov and his colleagues studied the digestive process in dog in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
Pavlov observed that if meat powder was placed in or near the mouth of a hungry dog, the dog would
salivate.
Because the meat powder provoked this response automatically, without any prior training or
conditioning, the meat powder is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus.
Because salivation occurred automatically in the presence of meat, also without the need for any
training or experience, this response of salivating is referred to as an unconditioned response.
Pavlov's experiments showed that if a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and gains the power to prompt a
response similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In other words, after the bell and the
meat are presented together, the ringing of the bell alone causes the dog to salivate. This process is
referred to as classical conditioning.
Pavlov's emphasis on observation and careful measurement and his systematic exploration of several
aspects of learning helped to advance the scientific study of learning. Pavlov also left other behavioral
theorists with significant mysteries, such as the process by which neutral stimuli take on meaning.
Before conditioning
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In order to have classical or respondent conditioning, there must exist a stimulus that will automatically
or reflexively elicit a specific response.
This stimulus is called the unconditioned Stimulus or UCS because there is no learning involved in
connecting the stimulus and response.
There must also be a stimulus that will not elicit this specific response, but will elicit an orienting
response. This stimulus is called a neutral stimulus or an orienting stimulus.
During conditioning
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus will first be presented, followed by the unconditioned stimulus.
Over time, the learner will develop an association between these two stimuli (i.e., will learn to make a
connection between the two stimuli.)
After Conditioning
After conditioning, the previously neutral or orienting stimulus will elicit the response previously only
elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
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The stimulus is now called a conditioned stimulus because it will now elicit a different response as a
result of conditioning or learning.
The response is now called a conditioned response because it is elicited by a stimulus as a result of
learning.
The two responses, unconditioned and conditioned, look the same, but they are elicited by different
stimuli and are therefore given different labels.
In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behavior. Things
that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention. For
example, if a particular academic subject or remembering a particular teacher produces emotional
feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical conditioning.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html.
B. F. SKINNERS OPERANT CONDITIONING
Skinner proposed that reflexive behaviour accounts for only a small proportion of all actions.
Skinner proposed another class of behaviour, which he labeled operant behaviours because they
operate on the environment in the apparent absence of any unconditioned stimuli, such as food. For
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example, if an individual's behaviour is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the
individual will engage in that behaviour more frequently. The use of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to change behaviour is often referred to as operant conditioning.
PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING
Principles of behavioural learning include the role of consequences, reinforcers, punishers, immediacy
of consequences, shaping, extinction, schedules of reinforcement, maintenance, and the role of
antecedents.
Pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it.
REINFORCERS
A reinforcer is defined as any consequence that strengthens (that is, increases the frequency of) a
behavior.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Reinforcers fall into two broad categories:
Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs. Some examples are food, water, security, warmth,
and sex.
Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers that acquire their value by being associated with primary
reinforcers or other well-established secondary reinforcers.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCERS
Reinforcers that are used in schools are things given to students. These are called positive
reinforcers and include praise,DO
WHAT grades,
YOUand stars.
THINK?
Reinforcers that are escapes from unpleasant situations are called negative reinforcers.
A child approaches a dog and is bitten. From that point on, the child is filled with fear and runs
away whenever a dog approaches. Think about the classically conditioned aspect as well as the
operantly conditioned aspect of the example
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PREMACK PRINCIPLE
One important principle of behaviour is that we can promote less-desired (low-strength) activities by
linking them to more-desired activities. In other words, access to something desirable is made
contingent on doing something less desirable. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as you finish
your work, you may go outside" or "Clean up your art project, and then I will read you a story." These
are examples of the Premack Principle.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REINFORCERS
The most important reinforcer that maintains behaviour is the pleasure inherent in engaging in the
behaviour.
People like to draw, read, sing, play games, hike, or swim for no reason other than the fun of doing it.
These are called intrinsic reinforcers.
Intrinsic reinforcers are contrasted with extrinsic reinforcers, praise or rewards given to motivate people
to engage in a behavior that they might not engage in without it. There is evidence that reinforcing
children for certain behaviors they would have done anyway can undermine long-term intrinsic
motivation.
PUNISHERS
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Consequences that weaken behaviour are called punishers. For example, some students like being
sent to the principal's office or out to the hail, because it releases them from the classroom, which they
see as an unpleasant situation. As with reinforcers, the effectiveness of a punisher cannot be assumed
but must be demonstrated
Punishment can take two primary forms.
Presentation Punishment
Presentation punishment is the use of unpleasant consequences, or aversive stimuli, as when a

student is scolded
Removal Punishment
Removal punishment is the withdrawal of a pleasant consequence. Examples include loss of a

privilege, having to stay in during recess, or having to stay after school. One frequently used form of
removal punishment in classrooms is time out, in which a student who misbehaves is required to sit in
the corner or in the hall for several minutes.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
Recall an instance of punishment that you have experienced at some time during your life.
What were your feelings when you were being punished? Did the punishment work? What are
some other negative effects of punishment? If punishment is ineffective and also produces
negative side effects, why do so many teachers rely on it so much?
IMMEDIACY OF CONSEQUENCES
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Consequences that follow behaviors closely in time affect behavior far more than delayed
consequences do. A smaller reinforcer that is given immediately generally has a much larger effect than
does a large reinforcer that is given later.
Immediate feedback serves at least two purposes.
- it makes clear the connection between behavior and consequence.

- it increases the informational value of the feedback.
SHAPING
When teachers guide students toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success, they
are using a technique called shaping.
EXTINCTION
By definition, reinforcers strengthen behavior. but what happens when reinforcers are withdrawn?
eventually, the behavior will be weakened, and ultimately, it will disappear.
Behavior intensifies when the reinforcer is first withdrawn, then rapidly weakens until the behavior
disappears. still, the behavior may return after much time has passed.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
The effects of reinforcement on behavior depend on many factors, one of the most important of which is the
schedule of reinforcement..
FIXED RATIO (FR)
A reinforcer is given after a fixed number of behaviors. For example, a teacher might say, "As soon as
you finish ten problems, you may go outside." Regardless of the amount of time it takes, students are
reinforced as soon as they finish 10 problems.
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VARIABLE RATIO (VR)
The number of behaviors required for reinforcement is unpredictable, although it is certain that the
behaviors will eventually be reinforced. In the classroom a variable-ratio schedule exists when students
raise their hands to answer questions. They never know when they will be reinforced by being able to
give the correct answer, but they may expect to be called on about I time in 30 in a class of 30.
FIXED INTERVAL (FL)
In fixed-interval schedules, reinforcement is available only at certain periodic times. The final
examination is a classic example of a fixed-interval schedule.
VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI)
In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is available at some times but not at others, and we have
no idea when a behavior will be reinforced. An example of this is a teacher making spot checks of
students who are doing assignments in class.
Students are reinforced if they are working well at the particular moment the teacher comes by. Since
they cannot predict when the teacher will check them, students must be doing good work all the time.
MAINTENANCE
The principle of extinction holds that when reinforcement for a previously learned behaviour is
withdrawn, the behavior fades away. Does this mean that teachers must reinforce students' behaviors
indefinitely or they will disappear?
THE ROLE OF ANTECEDENTS
Cueing
Antecedent stimuli, events that precede a behavior, are also known as cues, because they inform us
what behaviour will be reinforced and/or what behavior will be punished. Cues come in many forms and
give us hints as to when we should change our behavior and when we should not.
DISCRIMINATION
For students to learn discrimination, they must have feedback on the correctness or incorrectness of
their responses.
Studies of discrimination learning have generally found that students need to know when their
responses are incorrect as well as correct.
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GENERALIZATION
For generalization to occur, it usually must be planned for. A successful classroom management
program used in social studies class may be transferred to English class to ensure generalization to
that setting.
Students may need to study the use of symbolism by many authors in many cultures before they
acquire the skill to interpret symbolism in general.
TECHNIQUES FOR INCREASING GENERALIZATION
Slavin in his book Educational Psychology quotes Schloss and Smith (1998) as describing 11
techniques for increasing the chances that a behavior learned in one setting, such as a given class, will
generalize to other settings, such as other classes or, more important, real-life applications. Some of
these strategies involve teaching in a way that makes generalization easier. For example, arithmetic
lessons involving money will probably transfer better to real life if they involve manipulating real or
simulated coins and bills than if they involve only problems on paper.
After initial instruction has taken place, there are many ways to increase generalization. One is to repeat
instruction in a variety of settings. For example, after teaching students to use a given test-taking strategy in
mathematics, such as "skip difficult problems and go back to them after answering the easy ones," a teacher
might give students the opportunity to use this same strategy on a science test, a grammar test, and a health
test.
APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS/BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
Applied behaviour analysis is the application of behavioural learning principles to understand and shape
behaviour. The method is sometimes called behaviour modification which is the systematic application of
antecedents and consequences to change behaviour.
STEPS IN APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS
Identify target behaviour
Establish a baseline for the target behaviour

Choose reinforcers and punishers (if necessary)
Measure changes in the target behaviour
Gradually reduce the frequency of reinforcers as behaviour improves
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METHODS FOR ENCOURAGING BEHAVIOURS
Reinforcement with teacher attention
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle

Shaping
Positive Practice
COPING WITH UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOUR
Negative Reinforcement
Satiation
Reprimands
Response cost
Social Isolation
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Week 6
Session 8 COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING
WHAT IS AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL?
Information constantly enters our minds through our senses even though most of this information is
almost immediately discarded. and we may never even be aware of much of it.
Some is held in our memories for a short time and then forgotten. For example, we may remember the
seat number on a football ticket until we find our seats, at which point we will forget the number.
Some information is retained much longer, perhaps for the rest of our lives. What is the process by
which information is absorbed, and how can teachers take advantage of this process to help students
retain critical information and skills?
SENSORY REGISTER
Incoming information meets is the sensory register.
Information is received from each of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) and held for a very
short time, no more than a couple of seconds. If nothing happens to information held in a sensory
register, it is rapidly lost.
There are two important educational implications at work here:
- People must pay attention to information if they are to retain it.
- It takes time to bring all the information seen in a moment into consciousness. For example, if
students are bombarded with too much information at once and are not told which aspects of
the information they should pay attention to, they may have difficulty learning any of the
information at all.
- PERCEPTION
Perception of stimuli involves mental interpretation and is influenced by our mental state, past
experience, knowledge, motivations, and many other factors.
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We perceive different stimuli according to rules that have nothing to do with the inherent characteristics
of the stimuli. If you are sitting in a building, for example, you may not pay much attention to, or even
hear, a fire engine's siren.
If you are driving a car, you pay a great deal more attention. If you are standing outside a burning
building waiting for the fire fighters to arrive, you pay even more attention.
ATTENTION
When teachers say to students, "Pay attention" or "Lend me your ears," they are using the words pay
and lend appropriately. Like money, attention is a limited resource.
An experienced speaker knows that when the audience looks restless, its attention is no longer focused
on the lecture but might be turning toward considerations of lunch or other activities; it is time to
recapture the listeners' attention.
GAINING ATTENTION
Use cues that indicate "This is important." Some teachers raise or lower their voices, use gestures,
repetition, or body position to communicate the same message.
Another way to gain attention is to increase the emotional content of material.
Unusual, inconsistent, or surprising stimuli also attract attention. For example, science teachers often
introduce lessons with a demonstration or magic trick to engage student curiosity.
Informing students that what follows is important to them will catch their attention. For example,
teachers can ensure attention by telling students, "This will be on tomorrow's test."
SHORT-TERM OR WORKING MEMORY
Short-term memory can hold a limited amount of information for a few seconds.
It is the part of memory in which information that is currently being thought about is stored.
When we stop thinking about something, it disappears from our short-term memory.
Information may enter working memory from sensory registers or from the third basic component of the
memory system: long-term memory.
One way to hold information in working memory is to think about it or say it over and over.
Rehearsal is important in learning because the longer an item remains in working memory, the greater
the chance that it will be transferred to long-term memory.
Because working memory has a limited capacity, information can also be lost from it by being forced out
by other information.
Teachers must allocate time for rehearsal during classroom lessons.
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LONG-TERM MEMORY
Long-term memory is that part of our memory system where we keep information for long periods of
time.
In fact, many theorists believe that we may never forget information in long-term memory; rather, we
might just lose the ability to find the information within our memory..
Theorists divide long-term memory into at least three parts:
- episodic memory
- semantic memory
- procedural memory.
Episodic memory is our memory of personal experiences, a mental movie of things we saw or heard.
Most things that are learned in class lessons are retained in semantic memory.
Procedural memory refers to "knowing how" in contrast to "knowing that." The abilities to drive, type,
and ride a bicycle are examples of skills that are retained in procedural memory.
Factors that enhance long-term memory
Contrary to popular belief, people retain a large portion of what they learn in school. Long-term
retention of information that is learned in school varies a great deal according to the type of information.
Several factors contribute to long-term retention. One very important factor is the instructional strategies
that actively involve students.
WHAT CAUSES PEOPLE TO REMEMBER OR FORGET?
Most forgetting occurs because information in working memory was never transferred to long-term memory.
However, it can also occur because we have lost our ability to recall information that is in long-term memory.
Interference
Retroactive Inhibition
Proactive inhibition
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HOW CAN MEMORY STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT?
Verbal learning
Paired-associate
Serial learning
Free-recall learning
Paired-associate learning
HOW DO METACOGNITIVE SKILLS HELP STUDENTS LEARN?
The term metacognition means knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn.
Thinking skills and study skills are examples of metacognitive skills.
Students can be taught strategies for assessing their own understanding, figuring out how much time
they will need to study something, and choosing an effective plan of attack to study or solve problems.
Teaching metacognitive strategies to students can lead to a marked improvement in their achievement.
WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP STUDENTS LEARN?
Note-taking
Underlining
Writing to learn
Outlining and mapping
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WEEK 7
SESSION 9 SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
How has social learning theory contributed to our understanding of human learning?
Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory accepts most of the principles of behavioral
theories but focuses to a much greater degree on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal
mental processes, emphasizing the effects of thought on action and action on though
Modeling and observational learning
Bandura's (1986) analysis of observational learning involves four phases:
attention
retention
reproduction
motivational
Observational Learning and Teaching
Directing attention
Fine-tuning already learned behaviour
Strengthening or weakening inhibitions
Teaching new behaviours modelling
Arousing emotion
Vicarious learning
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People learn by seeing others reinforced or punished for engaging in certain behaviours.
Classroom teachers use the principle of vicarious learning all the time. When one student is fooling
around, teachers often single out others who are working well and reinforce them for doing a good job.
The misbehaving student sees that working is reinforced and (it is hoped) gets back to work.
Self-regulated Learning
People observe their own behaviour, judge it against their own standards, and reinforce or punish
themselves.
Students can be taught to use self-regulation strategies, and they can be reminded to do so in a variety
of contexts so that self-regulation becomes a habit. For example, students might be asked to set goals
for the amount of time they expect to study each evening and to record whether or not they meet their
goals.
WEEK 8
SESSION 10
CONSTRUCTIVISM
CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING

Constructivism is the view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and
making sense of information. It is a theory about learning, not a description of teaching. Learners
construct their own understanding of the world. This is not about a change in teaching technique but,
rather, the way we think about knowledge acquisition and the assessment of that knowledge.
(Elliott et.al, 15)
Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to
the experience of learning. It recognizes the construction of new understanding as a combination of
prior learning, new information, and readiness to learn. Individuals make choices about what new ideas
to accept and how to fit then into their established views of the world. (Woolfolk, 326)
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THE THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
The basic tenets of constructivism are that:
Knowledge is constructed from and shaped by experience.
Students must take an active role and assume responsibility for their learning.
Learning is a collaborative process and students create their own meaning from obtaining multiple
perspectives.
Learning should occur in a realistic setting.
Learners should choose their own path through content and activities.
Content should be presented holistically, not broken into separate smaller tasks.
(www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_6.htm - 9k -)
CREATING A CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM

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Along with having a constructivist teacher you also need to have a constructivist classroom. Creating a
constructivist classroom requires that the classroom teacher must be in position to:
Influence or create motivating conditions for students

Take responsibility for creating problem situations
Foster acquisition and retrieval of prior knowledge
Create a social environment that emphasizes that attitude of learning to learn
The learning process not the product of learning is the primary focus of constructivism. The constructivist
teacher has to be the guide on the side and not the sage n the stage.
The student has to make their own meanings and decisions. They are not to be handed to them by the
teacher. To facilitate real learning, teachers need to organize their classroom and their curriculum so that
students can collaborate, interact, and raise questions of both classmates and the teacher.
The whole idea of a constructivist classroom is characterized by the mutual respect between the teacher and
the children. In most classrooms the respect is one way. The children have to respect the teacher. A
constructivist teacher respects the children by allowing the children rights to their feelings, ideas, and
opinions. The teacher refrains from using their power unnecessarily. .
Epstein, Maureen (2002) Constructivism: Using Information Effectively in Education: Research Paper
APPLYING COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM
The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant
differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however,
to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in
traditional classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student, not on the
instructor.)
TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM
Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole. Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with
Emphasizes basic skills. the whole and expanding to include the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.
valued.
Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Materials include primary sources of material and
manipulative materials.
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Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the student
already knows.
Teachers disseminate information to students; Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping
students are recipients of knowledge. students construct their own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
Assessment is through testing, correct answers. Assessment includes student works, observations,
and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as
important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with

our experiences.
Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.
www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html -
15k -
HOW DO YOU USE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH IN YOUR CLASSROOM?
1. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.
Students should come to class with a question of burning interest, relevant to the topics that particular
course was to cover
2. Structure learning around primary concepts
Identify the big ideas that are important for the students to come to understand and structure
teaching around them
3. Seek and value students points of view
Constructivists encourage teachers to listen more than they talk

Students points of views are windows into their reasoning
4. Adapt curriculum to address students current understanding
If the curriculum doesnt fit the students, change the curriculum. Adapt it to the best fit the students
current understanding as well as to best guide the students further knowledge development.
5. Assess student learning in the context of teaching

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Try to understand how answers correct and incorrect, were arrived at. Did the student perhaps
interpret the question differently than it was intended? Does the students response indicate a partial
understanding of the concept, one that could be built upon and elaborated?
Asking Students to explain their answers and really listening to their explanations are the only ways
teachers can get such information.
CONSTRUCTIVISTS TEACHING METHODS

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REfERENCES

Boston
Good, Thomas L and Jere Brophy (1995) Contemporary Educational Psychology. Longman Publishers: USA

Woolfolk, Anita. (2004). Educational Psychology. Allyn and Bacon. Boston
Woolfolk, Anita. (2005). Educational Psychology Active Learning Edition. Allyn and Bacon.
Boston
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory) - 73k -
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Module 4: Motivation in Teaching and Learning & Classroom Behaviour Management CP 105
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MODULE 4
MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING/CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
WEEK 9
SESSION 10
OVERVIEW
What is motivation? Psychologists define motivation as an internal process that activates, guides,
and maintains behaviour over time. Motivation can vary in both intensity and direction. The
intensity and direction of motivations are often difficult to separate. The intensity of a motivation to
engage in one activity might depend in large part on the intensity and direction of motivations to
engage in alternative activities. You are about to look at all the possibilities of using motivation in
getting students to engage in academic activities. Students should also get a clear understanding
of how achievement motivation can be enhanced.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module you should be able:
define motivation
describe, compare and contrast several major theories of motivation.

explore how achievement motivation can be enhanced.
evaluate the role of teacher expectations and their relation to student achievement.
examine and evaluate several strategies that teachers can be used to reward
performance, effort and improvement.
demonstrate what teachers can do to increase students' motivation to learn.
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Module 4: Motivation in Teaching and learning &Classroom Behaviour Management CP 105
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WEEK 10
SESSION 11
CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
OVERVIEW
What is an effective learning environment? Providing an effective learning environment includes strategies
that teachers use to create a positive, productive classroom experience. Often called classroom
management, strategies for providing effective learning environments include not only preventing and
responding to misbehavior but also, more important, using class time well, creating an atmosphere that is
conducive to interest and inquiry, and per-miffing activities that engage students minds and imaginations.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able:
describe what constitutes an effective learning environment.
analyze the impact of time on learning.

define and apply practices that contribute to effective classroom management.
evaluate strategies for managing routine student misbehavior.
examine how applied behavior analysis can be used to manage more serious behavior problems.
describe and apply principles of applied behavior analysis.
describe and evaluate strategies and programs designed to prevent serious behavior problems.
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SESSION 12
WHAT PRACTICES CONTRIBUTE TO EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT?
Research has consistently shown that basic commonsense planning and groundwork go a long way toward
preventing discipline problems from ever developing. Simple measures include starting the year properly,
arranging the classroom for effective instruction, setting class rules and procedures, and making expectations of
conduct clear to students.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGERS
More effective managers had a clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and procedures
and spent as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students knew how to line up, ask for help,
and so on.
1. More effective managers had a clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and
procedures and spent as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students knew how to
line up, ask for help, and so on.
2. More effective managers worked with the whole class initially (even if they planned to group students
later). They were involved with the whole class at all times, rarely leaving any students without
something to do or without supervision.
3. More effective managers spent extra time during the first days of school introducing procedures and
discussing class rules (often encouraging students to suggest rules themselves). These teachers
usually reminded students of class rules every day for at least the first week of school.
4. More effective managers taught students specific procedures. For example, some had students
practice lining up quickly and quietly; others taught students to respond to a signal, such as a bell, a
flick of the light switch, or a call for attention.
5. As first activities, more effective managers used simple, enjoyable tasks. Materials for the first lessons
were well prepared, clearly presented, and varied. These teachers asked students to get right to work
on the first day of school and then gave them instructions on procedures gradually, to avoid overloading
them with too much information at a time.
6. More effective managers responded immediately to stop any misbehaviour.
One of the first management-related tasks at the start of the year is setting class rules. Three principles govern
this process. First, class rules should be few in number. Second, they should make sense and be seen as fair
by students. Third, they should be clearly explained and deliberately taught to students. One all-purpose set of
class rules follows:
1. Be courteous to others. This rule forbids interrupting others or speaking out of turn, teasing or laughing
at others, fighting, and so on.
2. Respect others property.

3. Be on-task. This includes listening when the teacher or other students are talking, working on seatwork,
continuing to work during any interruptions, staying in ones seat, being at ones seat and ready to work
when the bell rings, and following directions.
4. Raise hands to be recognized. This is a rule against calling out or getting out of ones seat for
assistance without permission.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
You are a new teacher and it is a week before school starts. While you are sitting in the warm sun at a
local beach, you spot this sign:
You then slowly begin to think about discipline and become understandably anxious. To alleviate your
anxious feelings, you begin writing the strategies you would utilize so that most of your time is spent
teaching not simply correcting misbehaviour.
Share your thinking about behaviour/classroom management. (Please remember you must demonstrate
that you have completed the readings assigned to this module).
Slavin (2003)
WHAT ARE SOME STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING ROUTINE MISBEHAVIOUR?
Provision of interesting lessons, efficient use of class time, and careful structuring of instructional activities will
prevent most such minor behavior problemsand many more serious ones as well. Time off-task can lead to
more serious problems; many behavior problems arise because students are frustrated or bored in school.
Instructional programs that actively involve students and provide all of them with opportunities for success might
prevent such problems.
The great majority of behavior problems with which a teacher must deal are relatively minor disruptions, such as
talking out of turn, getting up without permission, failing to follow class rules or procedures, and inattention
nothing really serious, but behaviors that must be minimized for learning to occur.
In dealing with routine classroom behavior problems, the most important principle is that a teacher should
correct misbehaviors by using the simplest intervention that will work. Many studies have found that the amount
of time spent disciplining students is negatively related to student achievement. The teachers main goal in
dealing with routine misbehavior is to do so in a way that is both effective and avoids unnecessarily disrupting
the lesson.
Teachers can eliminate much routine classroom misbehavior without breaking the momentum of the lesson by
the use of simple nonverbal cues. Making eye contact with a misbehaving student might be enough to stop
misbehavior. For example, if two students are whispering, the teacher might simply catch the eye of one or both
of them. Moving close to a student who is misbehaving also usually alerts the student to shape up.
Praise can be a powerful motivator for many students. One strategy for reducing misbehavior in class is to
make sure to praise students for behaviors that are incompatible with the misbehavior you want to reduce. That
is, catch students in the act of doing right.
If a nonverbal cue is impossible or ineffective, a simple verbal reminder might help to bring a student into line.
The reminder should be given immediately after the student misbehaves; delayed reminders are usually
ineffective. If possible, the reminder should state what students are supposed to be doing rather than dwelling
on what they are doing wrong.
When a student refuses to comply with a simple reminder, one strategy to attempt first is a repetition of the
reminder, ignoring any irrelevant excuse or argument. Canter and Canter (1992), in a program called Assertive
Discipline, call this strategy the broken record. Teachers should decide what they want the student to do, state
this clearly to the student (statement of want), and then repeat it until the student complies.
When all previous steps have been ineffective in getting the student to comply with a clearly stated and
reasonable request, the final step is to pose a choice to the student: Either comply or suffer the consequences.
Examples of consequences are sending the student out of class, making the student miss a few minutes of
recess or some other privilege, having the student stay after school, and calling the students parents. Before
presenting a student with a consequence for noncompliance, teachers must be absolutely certain that they can
and will follow through if necessary.
SESSION 13
HOW IS APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS USED TO MANAGE MORE SERIOUS BEHAVIOUR

PROBLEMS?
Simply put, behavioral learning theories hold that behaviors that are not reinforced or are punished will diminish
in frequency. A basic principle of behavioral learning theories is that if any behavior persists over time, some
reinforcer is maintaining it. To reduce misbehavior in the classroom, we must understand which reinforcers
maintain misbehavior in the first place.
The most common reinforcer for classroom misbehavior is attentionfrom the teacher, the peer group, or both.
Students receiving one-to-one tutoring rarely misbehave, both because they already have the undivided
attention of an adult and because no classmates are present to attend to any negative behavior. Another very
common reason that students misbehave is to get the attention and approval of their peers. The classic
instance of this is the class clown, who is obviously performing for the amusement of his or her classmates.
As students enter adolescence, the peer group takes on extreme importance, and peer norms begin to favor
independence from authority. When older children and teenagers engage in serious delinquent acts (such as
vandalism, theft, and assault), a delinquent peer group usually supports them.
There are two primary responses to peer-supported misbehavior. One is to remove the offender from the
classroom to deprive her or him of peer attention. Another is to use group contingencies, strategies in which the
entire class (or groups of students within the class) is rewarded on the basis of everyones behavior. Under
group contingencies, all students benefit from their classmates good behavior, so peer support for misbehavior
is removed.
The best solution for misbehaviors arising from boredom, frustration, or fatigue is prevention. Students rarely
misbehave during interesting, varied, engaging lessons. Actively involving students in lessons can head off
misbehaviors due to boredom or fatigue. Use of cooperative learning methods or other means of involving
students in an active way can be helpful.
The behavior management strategies outlined earlier (e.g., nonverbal cues, reminders, mild but certain
punishment) might be described as informal applications of behavioral learning theories. These practices, plus
the prevention of misbehavior by the use of efficient class management and engaging lessons, will be sufficient
to create a good learning environment in most classrooms.
In classrooms in which most students are well behaved but a few have persistent behavior problems, individual
behavior management strategies can be effective. In classrooms in which many students have behavior
problems, particularly when there is peer support for misbehavior, whole-class strategies or group contingencies
might be needed.
The first step in implementing a behavior management program is to observe the misbehaving student to
identify one or a small number of behaviors to target first and to see what reinforcers maintain the behavior(s).
Another purpose of this observation is to establish a baseline against which to compare improvements.
Typical classroom reinforcers include praise, privileges, and tangible rewards. Praise is especially effective for
students who misbehave to get the teachers attention. It is often a good idea to start a behavior management
program by using praise for appropriate behavior to see whether this is sufficient. However, be prepared to use
stronger reinforcers if praise is not enough.
Punishment of one kind or another is necessary in some circumstances, and it should be used without qualms
when reinforcement strategies are impossible or ineffective. However, a program of punishment for misbehavior
(e.g., depriving a student of privileges, never physical punishment) should always be the last option considered,
never the first. Common punishers used in schools are reprimands, being sent out of class or to the principals
office, and detention or missed recess. Corporal punishment (e.g., spanking) is illegal in some states and
districts and highly restricted in others, but regardless of laws or policies, it should never be used in schools.
SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR THE EFFECTIVE AND HUMANE USE OF PUNISHMENT:
1. Use punishment sparingly.
2. Make it clear to the child why he or she is being punished.

3. Provide the child with an alternative means of obtaining some positive reinforcement.
4. Reinforce the child for behaviors that are incompatible with those you wish to weaken (e.g., if you
punish for being off-task, also reinforce for being on-task).
5. Never use physical punishment.
6. Never punish when you are in a very angry or emotional state.
7. Punish when a behavior starts rather than when it ends.
One effective punisher is called time out. The teacher tells a misbehaving student to go to a separate part of the
classroom, the hall, the principals or vice principals office, or another teachers class. If possible, the place
where the student is sent should be uninteresting and out of view of classmates. One advantage of timeout
procedures is that they remove the student from the attention of her or his classmates. Therefore, time out may
be especially effective for students whose misbehavior is motivated primarily by peer attention.
Home-based reinforcement strategies and daily report card programs are examples of applied behavioral
analysis involving individual students. A group contingency program is an example of an applied behavioral
analysis in which the whole class is involved. Some of the most practical and effective classroom management
methods are home-based reinforcement strategies. Teachers give students a daily or weekly report card to take
home, and parents are instructed to provide special privileges or rewards to students on the basis of these
teacher reports. Home-based reinforcement has several advantages over other, equally effective behavior
management strategies.
A group contingency program is a reinforcement system in which an entire group is rewarded on the basis of
the behavior of the group members. One important advantage of group contingencies is that they are relatively
easy to administer. Most often, the whole class is either rewarded or not rewarded, so the teacher need not do
one thing with some students and something else with others. The theory behind group contingencies is that
when a group is rewarded on the basis of its members behavior, the group members will encourage one
another to do whatever helps the group gain the reward.
Some people object to applied behavior analysis on the basis that it constitutes bribing students to do what they
ought to do anyway. However, all classrooms use rewards and punishers (such as grades, praise, scolding,
suspension). Applied behavior analysis strategies simply use these rewards in a more systematic way and
avoid punishers as much as possible. Applied behavior analysis methods should be used only when it is clear
that preventive or informal methods of improving classroom management are not enough to create a positive
environment for learning. It is unethical to over-apply these methods, but it might be equally unethical to fail to
apply them when they could avert serious problems.
HOW CAN SERIOUS BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS BE PREVENTED?
Serious behavior problems are not evenly distributed among students or schools. Most students who are
identified as having severe behavior problems are male; from 3 to 8 times as many boys as girls are estimated
to have serious conduct problems. Serious delinquency is far more common among students from
impoverished backgrounds, particularly in urban locations. Students with poor family relationships are also
much more likely than other students to become involved in serious misbehavior and delinquency, as are
students who are low in achievement and those who have attendance problems.
As noted earlier in this chapter, the easiest behavior problems to deal with are those that never occur. There are
many approaches that have promise for preventing serious behavior problems. One is simply creating safe and
prosocial classroom environments and openly discussing risky behaviors and ways to avoid them. Another is
giving students opportunities to play prosocial roles as volunteers, tutors, or leaders in activities that benefit
their school and community.
Even though some types of students are more prone to misbehavior than others, these characteristics do not
cause misbehavior. Some students misbehave because they perceive that the rewards for misbehavior
outweigh the rewards for good behavior. Some put their energies into sports, others into social activities. Over
time, students who fail in school and get into minor behavior difficulties could fall in with a delinquent subgroup
and begin to engage in serious delinquent or even criminal behavior. The role of the delinquent peer group in
maintaining delinquent behavior cannot be overstated. Delinquent acts among adolescents and preadolescents
are usually done in groups and are supported by antisocial peer norms.
Truancy and delinquency are strongly related; when students are out of school, they are often in the community
making trouble. There are many effective means of reducing truancy.
Tracking (between-class ability grouping) should be avoided if possible (see Chapter 9). Low-track classes are
ideal breeding grounds for antisocial delinquent peer groups. Similarly, behavioral and academic problems
should be dealt with in the context of the regular class as much as possible, rather than in separate special-
education classes.
Classroom management strategies should be used to reduce inappropriate behavior before it escalates into
delinquency. Improving students behavior and success in school can prevent delinquency. Involve the students
home in any response to serious misbehavior. When misbehavior occurs, parents should be notified. If
misbehavior persists, parents should be involved in establishing a program, such as a home-based
reinforcement program, to coordinate home and school responses to misbehavior.
Avoid the use of suspension (or expulsion) as punishment for all but the most serious misbehavior. Suspension
often exacerbates truancy problems, both because it makes students fall behind in their work and because it
gives them experience in the use of time out of school. In-school suspension, detention, and other penalties are
more effective. Loss of privileges maybe used. However, whatever punishment is used should not last too long.
It is better to make a misbehaving student miss two days of football practice than to throw him off the team, in
part because once the student is off the team, the school could have little else of value to offer or withhold.
Every child has within himself or herself the capacity for good behavior as well as for misbehavior. The school
must be the ally of the good in each child at the same time that it is the enemy of misbehavior.
Slavin 1993
REFERENCES

Boston


http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan98/talk.html
http://my.execpc.com/~presswis/candid.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.html
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/TA/char.htm
Module 5: Exceptionalities and Classroom Inclusion CP 105
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MODULE 5````
EXCEPTIONALITIES AND CLASSROOM INCLUSION
WEEK 11
SESSION 14
OVERVIEW
Students differ in many ways, and effective teachers consider these differences when they plan and
teach. In many cases the differences are of such that special help and resources are needed to
assist students to attain their full potential. In this way the students are considered to have
exceptionalities. Exceptional learners have characteristics that differentiate them from the general
population of young people. This module focuses on the unique characteristics, strengths and
needs of students with exceptionalities, including learning disabilities, mental retardation, autism,
blindness, deafness, traumatic brain injury, emotional/behavioral disorders, and giftedness. It
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emphasizes understanding of how various teaching strategies, materials, modifications and
accommodations can assist students with exceptionalities to function and succeed in the regular
classroom
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session the learner should be able to:
describe students exceptionalities in the classroom

explain how different exceptionalities affect learning
define inclusion and describe the role of the general education teacher in working with
special needs learners;
apply successful classroom management techniques with students in an inclusive
classroom
observe the different instructional methods used in the Jamaican context
explore different instructional strategies that can be adapted to meet the needs of divergent
learners
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WHO ARE LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES?
Students are different. Some are good athletes; others are popular. Some have a good idea of
their strengths and weaknesses; others do not have a clue. As a teacher, how would you work
with a diverse group of students? What is your responsibility in terms of understanding their
strengths and weaknesses and making what you teach relevant to their lives.
The term learners with exceptionalities may be used to describe any individuals whose physical,
mental, or behavioral performance is so different from the norm-either higher or lower- that
additional services are need to meet the individuals' needs.
The terms disability and handicap are not interchangeable. A disability is a functional limitation a
person has that interferes with the person's physical or cognitive abilities. A handicap is a
condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical environment, or the
person's attitude. For example, a student who uses a wheelchair is handicapped by a lack of
access ramps. Handicap is therefore not a synonym for disability.
Exceptional Learners are, those who require special education and related services if they are to
realize their full human potential.
Exceptionalities may involve and of the following abilities:
Sensory
Physical
Emotional
Communicative
Behavioral
Changes in the Way Teachers Help Students with Exceptionalities
Students in todays classrooms vary in their abilities, motivation and background. In the past,
students with exceptionalities were often segregated from the regular classroom and their non-
disabled peers and placed in special classrooms or schools. Instruction in these situations were
often inferior and students did not learn the social and life skills needed to live in the real world
Mainstreaming began the process of integrating them with non-disabled students, and inclusion
takes the process further by creating a web of services. Inclusion is most effective when regular
education and special education teachers closely collaborate on instructional adaptations for
learners with exceptionalities.
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ODonnell draws from Deweys The child and the curriculum to point out that that the child and
the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a
straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define
instructions (ODonnell, p.104).
Dewey was sure to point out that at one end of the continuum are subject areas that are varied
and complex. Children differ in temperament, enthusiasm, prior knowledge in different subjects,
distractibility, self concept, verbal ability, spatial reasoning, motivation and so on.
Your task as a teacher is to determine how to work with a roomful of highly diverse students to
help them acquire the knowledge, skills and abilities that you wish them to obtain.
UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is a theoretical construct that makes it easier to understand the (psychological world)
world. It is the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting
the world.
DEFINITIONS
Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as the ability to:
Reason logically and well.

Read widely.
Display common sense.
Keep an open mind.
Read with high comprehension
Siegler and Richards defined intelligence as functions of developmental stages.
Sir Francis Galton (1883) defined the most intelligent people as those who were those
equipped with the best sensory abilities, for it is through the senses that one comes to know the
world.
Galton also felt that intelligence was a number of distinct processes or abilities which had to be
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measured separately.
Alfred Binet (1890) explicitly defined intelligence as the components of intelligence are
reasoning, judgment, memory, and the power of abstraction.
Measured intelligence as general mental ability of individuals in intelligent behaviors.

Described intelligence testing as classifying, not measuring.
David Wechsler (1958)
Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to

think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.
The only way to measure intelligence is to evaluate quantitatively by the measurement of

the various aspects of these abilities.
Jean Piaget
An evolving biological adaptation to the outside world; as cognitive skills are gained,
adaptation increases, and mental trial and error replace actual physical trial and error.
He believed that experiences require cognitive organization or reorganization in the

mental structure of SCHEMA.
Piagets 2 Mental Operations
Assimilation: actively organizing new information so that it fits in with what already is perceived
and thought.
Accommodation: changing already perceived thoughts to fit in with new information.
Binet, Wechsler, & Piaget - Interactionism in defining intelligence:
Heredity and environment are presumed to interact to influence the development of intelligence.
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique designed to determine if underlying relationships exist between sets of

variables/items measured by some instrument.
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Factor Analysis Schools
General:
Intelligence postulates the existence of general intellectual ability that is partially tapped by all
intellectual activities and numerous specific aptitudes.
Multiple Factor:
An individuals intellect is composed of many independent abilities or faculties---such as verbal,

mechanical, artistic, and mathematical faculties.
Factor Analysts:
l Charles Spearman.
l E. L. Thorndike.
l Louis L. Thurstone.
l Raymond B. Cattell.
l J. P. Guilford.
Charles Spearman (1904)
Spearman examined his Theory of Universal Unity of the intellective function by correlating
intelligence tests into the 2 Factor Theory of Intelligence.
G Factor (i.e., general intelligence) comes from general electrochemical mental energy from the
brain for problem solving.
E. L. Thorndike (1921) defined intelligence as a large number of interconnected intellectual

elements representing a distinct ability, known as the Multifactor Theory.
Thorndikes 3 clusters of intelligence:
social: deals with people.
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concrete: deals with objects.
abstract: deals with verbal & mathematical symbols.
\Louis L. Thurstone (1938)
Intelligence is a composition of distinct abilities known as Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs).
PMAs comprise:
Verbal meaning.
Perceptual speed.
Reasoning.
Number facility.
Role memory.
Word fluency.
Spatial relations.
Raymond B. Cattell (1971)
Raymond Cattell gave special significance to issues of cultural bias in mental testing.
Two Factor Theory of Intelligence:
Fluid Intelligence - non-verbal relatively culture free, independent of specific instruction (i.e.
memory of digits).
Crystallized Intelligence - acquired skills and knowledge that are dependant on exposure to a
culture as well as to formal and informal education (i.e. vocabulary).
.P. Guilford (1967)
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Guilford states there is NO general mental ability factor.
Guilford also believed that ALL mental activities can be classified and explained.
His proposed classification is the 3 Dimensional Structure of Intellect Model.
Structure of Intellect Model:
Operation.
Content.
Products resulting from the mental operation.
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
The measurement of intelligence is defined as: sampling an examinees performance on different

types of tests and tasks as a function of developmental levels.
Measuring Intelligence of Infants:
l Infancy (birth - 18 months).

l Measurement is primarily by sensory motor development:
non-verbal.
motor skills of turning over.
lifting their head.
sitting up.
eye movement following objects.
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reaching for objects.
Measuring Intelligence of Children:
When individually testing children, their sensory motor development, verbal, and
performance abilities are looked at by observing the childrens response:
Vocabulary words and language.
social judgment.
Reasoning.
numerical concept.
auditory and visual memory.
concentration and attention.
spatial visualization.
Measuring the Intelligence of Adults: What Abilities Should be Assessed?
General information retention?

Social judgment?
Quantitative reasoning?
Expressive language and memory?
Adult Testing Compared to Children
Childrens intelligence tests focus on skill acquisition and learning potential assessment.
It is more beneficial to focus on assessing skill application when testing adults.
Motivations are different when adults are asked to do a task.
The purpose of adult intelligence testing is not for placement but rather to obtain a
measure of potential to be used with other information, perhaps in a clinical setting.
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Intelligence Measures
WISC-R.
WPPI.
WAIS-R.
Stanford-Binet.
Kauffman Assessment Battery for Children.
Kauffman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Scale.
Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery.
The Effect of Psychological Disorders on Intelligence Testing
Schizophrenia
Tend to score lower than people in general on intelligence tests.
The cognitive deficits of schizophrenia, such as inappropriate levels of abstraction, lower

scores on intelligence measures.
Those with schizophrenia give inconsistent responses. They can score high on several
items and then do poorly on others.
Other Disorders or Conditions Affecting Performance on Intelligence tests
Dementia.
Alzheimers disease.
Alcoholism.
Head Injury.
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Identifying the Gifted - one whose performance is consistently remarkable in any
positively valued area
How do we identify Gifted Individuals?
Base your assessment of giftedness on the goals of the program in which the
gifted will be placed.
Nominating techniques.
Behavior rating scales.
Comprehensive case study
IDENTIFYING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Different interpretations of the many definitions of learning disability have led country and local
school to vary widely in their eligibility requirements and provisions for students with learning
disabilities.
Education professionals have the task of distinguishing students with learning disabilities from
students who are nondisabled low achievers and students with mild mental retardation. In some
areas a student who falls more than two grade levels behind expectations and has an IQ in the
normal range is likely to be called learning disabled. According to Robert Slavin (2002) some
characteristics of students with learning disabilities follow:
Normal intelligence or even giftedness

Discrepancy between intelligence and performance
Delays in achievement
Attention deficit or high distractibility
Hyperactivity or impulsiveness
Poor motor coordination and spatial relation ability
Difficulty solving problems
Perceptual anomalies, such as reversing letters, words, or numbers
Difficulty with self-motivated, self-regulated activities
Overreliance on teacher and peers for assignments
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Specific disorders of memory, thinking, or language
Immature social skills
Disorganized approach to learning
Definitions of learning disabilities have historically required that there be a serious discrepancy
between actual performance and the performance that might have been predicted on the basis of
one or more tests of cognitive functioning, such as an IQ test.
In practice, many children are identified as having a learning disability as a result of having
substantial differences between some subscales of an IQ test and others or between one ability
test and another. This emphasis on discrepancies has increasingly come under attack in recent
years, however. These studies have undermined the idea that there is a sharp-edged definition of
learning disabilities as distinct from low achievement.
For the great majority of children with learning disabilities, effective prevention and treatment
focuses far more directly on the problems that brought the child to the attention of the special
education system-most often reading problems, which are involved in more than 90 percent of
referrals for students with possible learning disabilities.
WEEK 12
SESSION 15 CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
On the average, students with learning disabilities tend to have lower academic self-esteem than
do nondisabled students, although in nonacademic arenas their self-esteems are like those of
other children.
On most social dimensions, children with learning disabilities resemble other low achievers. Boys
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are more likely than girls to be labeled as learning disabled.
Children from families in which the head of household has not attended college tend to be over-
represented in special education classes, while female students are under-represented.
Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties maintaining attention
because of a limited ability to concentrate. ADHD includes impulsive actions and hyperactive
behavior. These characteristics differentiate students with ADHD from students with learning
disabilities, who have attention deficits for other unknown reasons. Children with attention deficit
disorders do not qualify for special education unless they also have some other disability
condition that is defined in the law.
There is much debate about whether ADHD exists as a distinct diagnostic category. Prevalence
estimates for ADHD suggest that 3 to 5 percent of all children might have the disorder. Research
indicates that males with ADHD outnumber females in ratios varying from 4:1 to 9:1.
Children with ADHD are usually impulsive, acting before they think or without regard for the
situation they are in, and they find it hard to sit still. They are often given a stimulant medication,
such as Ritalin. More than a million children take Ritalin, and this number has been rising in
recent years. These drugs usually do make some hyperactive children more manageable and
might improve their academic performance. They can also have side effects, such as insomnia,
weight loss, and blood pressure changes.
Students with speech or language impairments
Some of the most common disabilities are problems with speech and language. About 1 in every
40 students has a communication disorder serious enough to warrant speech therapy or other
special education services.
Although the terms speech and language are often used interchangeably, they are not the same.
Language is the communication of ideas using symbols and includes written language, sign
language, gesture, and other modes of communication in addition to oral speech.
It is quite possible to have a speech disorder without a language disorder or to have a language
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disorder without a speech disorder.
The most common are articulation (or phonological) disorders, such as omissions, distortions, or
substitutions of sounds. For example, some students have difficulty pronouncing r's, saying
"sowee" for "sorry." Others have lisps, substituting th for s, saying "thnake" for "snake."
Misarticulated words are common and developmentally normal for many children in kindergarten
and first grade but drop off rapidly through the school years. Moderate and extreme deviations in
articulation diminish over the school years, with or without speech therapy.
Speech disorders of all kinds are diagnosed by and treated by speech pathologists or speech
therapists. The classroom teacher's role is less important here than with the mental disabilities.
However, the classroom teacher does have one crucial role to play: displaying acceptance of
students with speech disorders.
Language disorders are impairments of the ability to understand language or to express ideas in
one's native language. Problems due to limited English-speaking proficiency (LEP) for students
whose first language is not English are not considered language disorders.
Difficulties in understanding language (receptive language disorders) or in communicating

(expressive language disorders) might result from such physical problems as hearing or speech
impairment. If not, they are likely to indicate mental retardation or learning disabilities.
Preschool programs that are rich in verbal experience and direct instruction in the fundamentals
of standard English have been found to be effective in overcoming language problems that are
characteristic of children from disadvantaged homes.
Students with emotional and behavioral disorders
All students are likely to have emotional problems at some point in their school career; but about
1 percent have such serious, long-lasting, and pervasive emotional or psychiatric disorders that
they require special education. As in the case of learning disabilities, students with serious
emotional and behavioral disorders are far more likely to be boys than girls, by a ratio of more
than 3 to 1. Students with emotional and behavioral disorders have been defined as ones whose
educational performance is adversely affected over a long period of time to a marked degree by
any of the following conditions:
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An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
A tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains, or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
CAUSES OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Serious and long-term emotional and behavioral disorders may be the result of numerous
potential causal factors in the makeup and development of an individual. Neurological functioning,
psychological processes, a history of maladaptations, self-concept, and lack of social acceptance
all play a role.
Some of the same factors, including family dysfunction and maltreatment, also play a role in
disturbances that might temporarily affect a child's school performance.
One problem in identifying serious emotional and behavioral disorders is that the term covers a
wide range of behaviors, from aggression or hyperactivity to withdrawal or inability to make
friends to anxiety and phobias. And it is often hard to tell whether an emotional problem is
causing the diminished academic performance or school failure is causing the emotional problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL

DISORDERS
Scores of characteristics are associated with emotional and behavioral disorders. The important
issue is the degree of the behavior problem. Virtually any behavior that is exhibited excessively
over a long period of time might be considered an indication of emotional disturbance. However,
most students who have been identified as having emotional and behavioral disorders share
some general characteristics.
These include poor academic achievement, poor interpersonal relationships, and poor self-
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esteem.
Quay and Werry (1986) noted four general categories:
conduct disorder
anxiety-withdrawal
immaturity, and
socialized-aggressive disorder
For example, children with conduct disorders are frequently characterized as disobedient,
distractible, selfish, jealous, destructive, impertinent, resistive, and disruptive.
Quay and Werry noted that the first three of these categories represent behaviors that are
maladaptive or sources of personal distress. However, socialized-aggressive behavior, which
relates to frequent aggression against others, seems to be tied more to poor home conditions that
model or reward aggressive behavior and might therefore be adaptive (though certainly not
healthy or appropriate).
The inclusion of conduct disorders in classifications of emotional and behavioral disorders is

controversial. By law, students with conduct disorders must also have some other recognized
disability or disorder to receive special-education services.
STUDENTS EXHIBITING AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Students with conduct disorders and socialized-aggressive behaviors might frequently fight, steal,
destroy property, and refuse to obey teachers.
These students tend to be disliked by their peers, their teachers, and sometimes their parents.
They typically do not respond to punishment or threats, though they might be skilled at avoiding
punishment.
Aggressive children not only pose a threat to the school and to their peers, but also put
themselves in grave danger. Aggressive children, particularly boys, often develop serious
emotional problems later in life, have difficulty holding jobs, and become involved in criminal
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behavior.
STUDENTS WITH WITHDRAWN AND IMMATURE BEHAVIOUR
Children who are withdrawn, immature, low in self-esteem, or depressed typically have few
friends or play with children much younger than themselves. They often have elaborate fantasies
or daydreams and either very poor or grandiose self-images. Some might be overly anxious
about their health and feel genuinely ill when under stress.
Students with autism
In 1990, autism became a formal category of disability. The U.S. Department of Education (1991)
defined autism as a developmental disability that significantly affects social interaction and verbal
and nonverbal communication. It is usually evident before the age of 3 and has an adverse affect
on educational performance.
Children with autism are typically extremely withdrawn and have such severe difficulties with
language that they might be entirely mute. They often engage in self-stimulation activities such as
rocking, twirling objects, or flapping their hands.
However, they might have normal or even outstanding abilities in certain areas. For unknown
reasons, autism is far more prevalent among boys than among girls.
There are promising treatments for autism, including methods of teaching people with autism to
build relationships with others and teaching them alternative means of communicating.
Students with sensory, physical, and health impairments
Sensory impairments are problems with the ability to see or hear or otherwise receive information
through the body's senses. Physical disorders include conditions such as cerebral palsy, spina
bifida, spinal cord injury, and muscular dystrophy. Health disorders include, for example, acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); seizure disorders; diabetes; cystic fibrosis; sickle-cell
anemia (in African American students); and bodily damage from chemical addictions, child abuse,
or attempted suicide.
STUDENTS WITH VISUAL DISABILITIES
Most students' visual problems are correctable by glasses or other types of corrective lenses. A
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vision loss is considered a disability only if it is not correctable. It is estimated that approximately
1 out of every 1,000 children has a visual disability. Individuals with such disabilities are usually
referred to as blind or visually impaired.
It is a misconception to assume that individuals who are legally blind have no sight. More than 80
percent of students who are legally blind can read large- or regular-print books. This implies that
many students with vision loss can be taught by means of a modification of usual teaching
materials. Classroom teachers should be aware of the signs that indicate that a child is having a
vision problem.
Several possible signs of vision loss include the following: (1) Child often tilts head; (2) child rubs
eyes often; (3) child's eyes are red, inflamed, crusty, or water excessively; (4) child has difficulty
reading small print or can't discriminate letters; (5) child complains of dizziness or headaches
after a reading assignment.
STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING
Hearing disabilities can range from complete deafness to problems that can be alleviated with a
hearing aid. The appropriate classification of an individual with hearing loss depends on the
measures required to compensate for the problem. Simply having a student sit at the front of the
classroom might be enough to compensate for a mild hearing loss. Flexner (2001) argues that a
broad range of children can benefit from amplification of the teacher's voice. Following are
several suggestions to keep in mind:
Seat children with hearing problems in the front of the room, slightly off center toward the
windows. This will allow them to see your face in the best light.
If the hearing problem is predominantly in one ear, students should sit in a front corner seat so
that their better ear is toward you.
Speak at the student's eye level whenever possible.
Give important information and instructions while facing the class. Avoid talking while facing the
chalkboard.
Do not use exaggerated lip movements when speaking.
Learn how to assist a child who has a hearing aid.
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STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
Giftedness was once defined almost entirely in terms of superior IQ or demonstrated ability, such
as outstanding performance in mathematics or chess, but the definition now encompasses
students with superior abilities in a wide range of activities, including the arts.
High IQ is still considered part of the definition of gifted and talented, and most students who are
so categorized have IQs above 130. However, some groups are under-identified as gifted and
talented, including females, students with disabilities, underachievers, and students who are
members of racial or ethnic minority groups.
The 1978 Gifted and Talented Act stated that the gifted and talented are children. . . who are
identified. . . as possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high
performance capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, specific academic or leadership
ability or in the performing or visual arts and to by reason thereof require services or activities not
ordinarily provided by the school (Public Law 95-561, Section 902).
CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS
Intellectually gifted children typically have strong motivation. They also are academically superior;
usually learn to read early; and, in general, do excellent work in most school areas. One of the
most important studies of the gifted, begun by Lewis Terman in 1926, followed 1,528 individuals
who had IQs over 140 as children.
Terman's research exploded the myth that high-IQ individuals were brainy but physically and
socially inept. In fact, Terman found that children with outstanding IQs were larger, stronger, and
better coordinated than other children and became better adjusted and more emotionally stable
adults.
Gifted students also have high self-concepts, although they can suffer from perfectionism.
EDUCATION OF GIFTED STUDENTS
How to educate gifted students is a matter of debate. Research on the gifted provides more
support (in terms of student achievement gains) for acceleration than for enrichment. However,
this could be because the outcomes of enrichment, such as creativity or problem-solving skills,
are difficult to measure.
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Acceleration programs for the gifted often involve the teaching of advanced mathematics to
students at early ages. A variation on the acceleration theme is a technique called curriculum
compacting, in which teachers may skip over portions of the curriculum that the very able
students do not need.
Enrichment programs take many forms. Many successful enrichment programs have involved
self-directed or independent study. Others have provided gifted students with adult mentors.
Renzulli (1994) suggests an emphasis on three types of activities: general exploratory activities,
such as projects that allow students to find out about topics on their own; group training activities,
such as games and simulations to promote creativity and problem-solving skills; and individual
and small-group investigations of real problems, such as writing books or newspapers,
interviewing elderly people to write oral histories, and conducting geological or archaeological
investigations.
An additional responsibility is to promote social acceptance for students with disabilities through
modeling, practice, and feedback. Attitudes of other students can be improved through
instructional approaches focusing on increased understanding and through strategies such as
peer tutoring and cooperative learning, which provide students with opportunities to interact in
productive ways.
WEEK 13
SESSION 16 THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS & LESSON

PLANNING FOR INCLUSION
Teachers responsibilities in inclusive classrooms include identifying learners with exceptionalities

and adapting instruction for them. In the process of identification, teachers describe and
document learning problems and strategies theyve tried. Effective instruction for students with
disabilities uses characteristics of instruction effective with all students. In addition, teaches
provide additional instructional support, modify homework assignments and reading materials,
and help students acquire learning strategies.
Today there is a growing number of new adaptive technologies such as cursor and mouse
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enhancements, key definition programs, magnification software, and so on. These and many
regular word processing programs can be used with a specific purpose for students with
disabilities. Using the buddy system and peer tutoring will also assist in the process of learning to
use these various techniques. As stated above, the recent updates in IDEA as of 2004,
encourage the spending of funds for the early intervention and prevention of
disabilities/disparities. The use of adaptive technologies might be able to assist in this process.
REFERENCES
Eggen, Paul. (2004) Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms. Pearson. NJ
Elliott, Stephen N. et.al. (2000).Educational Psychology; Effective Teaching,

Effective.Learning.McGraw Hill. Boston
ODonnell Jacqueline.et.al. (2004) Educational Psychology:Reflection for Action. Wiley

Publishers. NJ
Slavin, Robert E. (2000). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Allyn and Bacon:
Boston.
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Educational Psychology CP 105

HEART Trust / NTA

VOCATIONAL TRAINING DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

COURSE CODE CP 1O5

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Course Aim and Course Outcomes 7

Required Text and Supplementary Texts 11

Learning and Teaching Approaches 11

MODULE 1 THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Overview and Objectives 12

What makes a good teacher? 27

What is the task of the teacher? 27

Can good teaching be taught? 28

Who is an Intentional teacher? 29

What key behaviours are associated with outstanding teachers? 30

Session 3 Research in Educational Psychology 32

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Overview and Objectives 44

Session 4 The Meaning of Development 45

Piagets Cognitive Development 46

Session 6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Overview and Objectives 63

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

What is the information processing model? 75

Short term or Working Memory 77

Long -term memory 77

Modelling and Observational learning 79

Constructivist Views of Learning 80

MODULE 4 MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

WEEKS 14-15 FINAL ASSESSMENT

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Ruby L. Bramwell (Mrs.)

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

DATE MODULES REFERENCES

THE EXPERT TEACHER

What is the role of research in Educational psychology? Ormrod: Chapter 1

How do we know what we know in Educational

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

DATE MODULES REFERENCES

Week 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE

Eriksons Psychosocial Theory Slavin: Chapter 5

Social Learning and Cognitive Theories Slavin: Chapter 8

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Module 4 MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

DEALING WITH MISBEHAVIOURS Matalon: Chapter 5

Reducing unwanted behaviours

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHES

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

THE TEACHER AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

Prepared by Ruby Bramwell

(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

The purposeful direction and management of the learning process.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia