COUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and
a plural form. The singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an". If you want to ask
about the quantity of a countable noun, you ask "How many?" combined with the
plural countable noun.
Singular Plural
one dog two dogs
one horse two horses
one man two men
one idea two ideas
one shop two shops
EXAMPLES
She has three dogs.
I own a house.
I would like two books please.
How many friends do you have?
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count with numbers. They may
be the names for abstract ideas or qualities or for physical objects that are too small or
too amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc.). Uncountable nouns are
used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form.
EXAMPLES
tea
sugar
water
air
rice
knowledge
beauty
anger
fear
love
money
research
safety
evidence
We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of an uncountable noun,
use a word or expression like some, a lot of, much, a bit of, a great deal of , or else
use an exact measurement like a cup of, a bag of, 1kg of, 1L of, a handful of, a pinch
of, an hour of, a day of. If you want to ask about the quantity of an uncountable noun,
you ask "How much?"
EXAMPLES
There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns?
 He did not have much sugar left.
Measure 1 cup of water, 300g of flour, and 1 teaspoon of salt.
How much rice do you want?
TRICKY SPOTS
Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. They must
follow the rules for uncountable nouns. The most common ones are:
accommodation, advice, baggage, behavior, bread, furniture, information, luggage,
news, progress, traffic, travel, trouble, weather, work
EXAMPLES
I would like to give you some advice.
How much bread should I bring?
I didn't make much progress today.
This looks like a lot of trouble to me.
We did an hour of work yesterday.
Be careful with the noun hair which is normally uncountable in English, so it is not
used in the plural. It can be countable only when referring to individual hairs.
EXAMPLES
She has long blond hair.
The child's hair was curly.
I washed my hair yesterday.
My father is getting a few grey hairs now. (refers to individual hairs)
I found a hair in my soup! (refers to a single strand of hair)

Although substances are usually uncount nouns...

Would you like some cheese?
Coffee keeps me awake at night.
Wine makes me sleep.
... they can be also used as count nouns:

Id like a coffee please. Id like a [cup of] coffee.

=
May I have a white wine. May I have a [glass of] white wine.
=
They sell a lot of coffees. They sell a lot of [different kinds of] coffee.
=
I prefer white wines to red. I prefer [different kinds of] white wine to red.
=
They had over twenty cheeses on sale. They had over twenty [types of] cheese on sale.
=
This is an excellent soft cheese. This [kind of] soft cheese is excellent.
=
2: Some nouns have both a count and an uncount form:
We should always have hope.
George had hopes of promotion.
Travel is a great teacher.
Where did you go on your travels?

3: Nouns with two meanings

Some nouns have two meanings, one count and the other non count:
His life was in danger.
There is a serious danger of fire.
Linguistics is the study of language.
Is English a difficult language?
Its made of paper.
The Times is an excellent paper.
Other words like this are:

business death industry marriage power property

tax time victory use work
4: Uncount nouns that end in -s
Some uncount nouns end in -s so they look like plurals even though they are singular
nouns.
These nouns generally refer to:
Subjects of study: mathematics, physics, economics, etc.
Activities: gymnastics, athletics, etc.
Games: cards, darts, billiards, etc.
Diseases: mumps, measles, rabies, etc.

Economics is a very difficult subject.

Billiards is easier than pool or snooker.

Wishes
We use past tense forms to talk about wishes:
We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:
I dont like my work. I wish I could get a better job.

The definite article the is the most frequent word in English.

We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows
exactly what we are referring to.
because there is only one:
The Pope is visiting Russia.
The moon is very bright tonight.
The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979.
This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective:
He is the tallest boy in the class.
It is the oldest building in the town.
because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings:

We live in a small village next to the church.
Dad, can I borrow the car?
When we stayed at my grandmothers house we went to the beach
every day.
Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there.
= (the church in our village)
= (the car that belongs to our family)
= (the beach near my grandmothers house)
= (the boy I am pointing at)

because we have already mentioned it:

A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The
woman fell while climbing.
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two
men walking on the peak were killed in a fall.
We also use the definite article:
to say something about all the things referred to by a noun:
The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous
animals)
The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies)
We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments:
Joe plays the piano really well.(= Joe can play any piano)
She is learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar)
to refer to a system or service:
How long does it take on the train?
I heard it on the radio.
You should tell the police.
With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people:
Life can be very hard for the poor.
I think the rich should pay more taxes.
She works for a group to help the disabled.
The definite article with names:
We do not normally use the definite article with names:
William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Paris is the capital of France.
Iran is in Asia.
But we do use the definite article with:
countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:
the United Kingdom; the Kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the Peoples Republic
of China.
countries which have plural nouns as their names:
the Netherlands; the Philippines
geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas,
oceans and canals:
the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the
Panama Canal.
newspapers:
The Times; The Washington Post
well known buildings or works of art:
the Empire State Building; the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers
organisations:
the United Nations; the Seamens Union
hotels, pubs and restaurants*:
the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the Kings Head; the Dj Vu
*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the
name of the owner, e.g.,Browns; Browns Hotel; Morels; Morels Restaurant, etc.
families:
the Obamas; the Jacksons

1. We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does
not know exactly which one we are referring to:
Police are searching for a 14 year-old girl.
2. We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group:
She is a pupil at London Road School.

Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday.

Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair.

She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark blue jeans and blue shoes.

Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.

3. We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and uncount nouns:
She was wearing blue shoes. (= plural noun)
She has short blonde hair. (= uncount noun)

Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday.

Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair.

She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark blue jeans and blue shoes.

Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.

4. We use a/an to say what someone is or what job they do:

My brother is a doctor.
George is a student.
5. We use a/an with a singular noun to say something about all things of that kind:
A man needs friends. (= All men need friends)
A dog likes to eat meat. (= All dogs like to eat meat)

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns
(sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is
usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several
translations depending on the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature)
and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions
in English:
Prepositions Time
English Usage Example
on days of the week on Monday
in months / seasons in August / in winter
time of day in the morning
year in 2006
after a certain period of time (when?) in an hour
at for night at night
for weekend at the weekend
 a certain point of time (when?) at half past nine
since from a certain point of time (past till now) since 1980
for over a certain period of time (past till now) for 2 years
ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago
before earlier than a certain point of time before 2004
to telling the time ten to six (5:50)
past telling the time ten past six (6:10)
to / till / marking the beginning and end of a period of time from Monday to/till Friday
unti
l
till / until in the sense of how long something is going to last He is on holiday until Friday.
by in the sense of at the latest I will be back by 6 oclock.
up to a certain time By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.
ego4u.com Responsive Headline
Prepositions Place (Position and Direction)
English Usage Example
in room, building, street, town, country in the kitchen, in London
book, paper etc. in the book
car, taxi in the car, in a taxi
picture, world in the picture, in the world
at meaning next to, by an object at the door, at the station
for table at the table
for events at a concert, at the party
place where you are to do something typical (watch at the cinema, at school, at work
a film, study, work)
on attached the picture on the wall
for a place with a river London lies on the Thames.
being on a surface on the table
for a certain side (left, right) on the left
for a floor in a house on the first floor
for public transport on the bus, on a plane
for television, radio on TV, on the radio
by, next to, left or right of somebody or something Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.
beside
under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something the bag is under the table
else
below lower than something else but above ground the fish are below the surface
over covered by something else put a jacket over your shirt
meaning more than over 16 years of age
getting to the other side (also across) walk over the bridge
overcoming an obstacle climb over the wall
above higher than something else, but not directly over it a path above the lake
across getting to the other side (also over) walk across the bridge
getting to the other side swim across the lake
through something with limits on top, bottom and the sides drive through the tunnel
to movement to person or building go to the cinema
movement to a place or country go to London / Ireland
for bed go to bed
into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house
towards movement in the direction of something (but not go 5 steps towards the house
directly to it)
onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table
from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden
Other important Prepositions
English Usage Example
from who gave it a present from Jane
of who/what does it belong to a page of the book
 what does it show the picture of a palace
by who made it a book by Mark Twain
on walking or riding on horseback on foot, on horseback
entering a public transport vehicle get on the bus
in entering a car / Taxi get in the car
off leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train
out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi
by rise or fall of something prices have risen by 10 percent
travelling (other than walking or horseriding) by car, by bus
at for age she learned Russian at 45
about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you

We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of
something: how much or how many.
Sometimes we use a quantifier in the place of a determiner:
Most children start school at the age of five.
We ate some bread and butter.
We saw lots of birds.
We use these quantifiers with both count and uncount nouns:

lots
all any enough less a lot of
of
mor mos
no none of some
e t

and some more colloquial forms:

etc
plenty of heaps of a load of loads of tons of
.

Some quantifiers can be used only with count nouns:

bot eac eithe (a) fewe

neither several
h h r few r

and some more colloquial forms:

et
a couple of hundreds of thousands of
c.

Some quantifiers can be used only with uncount nouns:

a
(not) much a bit of
little

And, particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:

a great deal of a good deal of

Members of groups
You can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talking about members of a group
in general
Few snakes are dangerous.
Both brothers work with their father.
I never have enough money.
but if you are talking about a specific group of people or things, use of the as
well
Few of the snakes are dangerous.
All of the children live at home.
He has spent all of his money.
Note that, if we are talking about two people or things we use the quantifiers both,
either and neither:

One supermarket Two supermarkets* More than two super

The supermarket was closed Both the supermarkets were closed. All the supermarkets
The supermarket wasn't open Neither of the supermarkets was open. None of the superma
I dont think the supermarket was I dont think either of the supermarkets was I don't think any of t
open. open. open

*Nouns with either and neither have a singular verb.

Singular quantifiers:
We use every or each with a singular noun to mean all:

There was a party in every street. There were parties in all the streets.
=
Every shop was decorated with flowers. All the shops were decorated with flowers.
=
Each child was given a prize. All the children were given a prize.
=
There was a prize in each competition. There were prizes in all the competitions.
=

We often use every to talk about times like days, weeks and years:
When we were children we had holidays at our grandmothers every year.
When we stayed at my grandmothers house we went to the beach every day.
We visit our daughter every Christmas.
BUT: We do not use a determiner with every and each. We do not say:
The every shop was decorated with flowers.
The each child was given a prize.

A lot of adjectives are made from verbs by adding -ing or -ed:

-ing adjectives:
The commonest -ing adjectives are:
amusing shocking surprising frightening interesting disappointing exciting
tiring worrying boring terrifying annoying
If you call something interesting you mean it interests you.
If you call something frightening you mean it frightens you.
I read a very interesting article in the newspaper today.
That Dracula film was absolutely terrifying.
-ed adjectives:
The commonest ed adjectives are:
annoyed bored frightened worried tired closed excited delighted disappointed

If something annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. If something interests you,
you can say you are interested.
The children had nothing to do. They were bored.

Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun:

He was a nice intelligent young man.
She had a small round black wooden box.
Opinion adjectives:
Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe
almost any noun:

good bad lovely strange

beautiful nice brilliant excellent
awful important wonderful nasty

Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe
particular kinds of noun:
Food: tasty; delicious
Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable
People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly
We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:
Nice tasty soup.
A nasty uncomfortable armchair
A lovely intelligent animal
Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that is
descriptive:
a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains
We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:
a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog
Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:
a nice handsome young man;
a big black American car;
that horrible big fierce dog
It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives.
Adjectives usually come in this order:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
General Specific
Size Shape Age Colour Nationality Material
opinion opinion
We use some adjectives only after a link verb:
aliv
afraid alone asleep
e
 gla
content ill ready
d
sur
sorry unable well
e
Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb:
annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled
We say:
Our teacher was ill.
My uncle was very glad when he heard the news.
The policeman seemed to be very annoyed
but we do not say:
We had an ill teacher.
When he heard the news he was a very glad uncle
He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman
A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:
north northern
countless eventful
south southern
occasional indoor
east eastern
lone outdoor
west western
We say:
He lives in the eastern district.
There were countless problems with the new machinery.
but we do not say:
The district he lives in is eastern
The problems with the new machinery were countless.
Try these tasks to improve your adjective ordering.

We use comparative adjectives to describe people and things:

This car is certainly better but its much more expensive.
Im feeling happier now.
We need a bigger garden
We use than when we want to compare one thing with another:
She is two years older than me.
New York is much bigger than Boston.
He is a better player than Ronaldo.
France is a bigger country than Britain.
When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two
comparatives with and:
The balloon got bigger and bigger.
Everything is getting more and more expensive.
Grandfather is looking older and older.
We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on
another:
When you drive faster it is more dangerous
> The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is.
When they climbed higher it got colder
> The higher they climbed, the colder it got.
Superlative adjectives:
We use the with a superlative:
It was the happiest day of my life.
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
Thats the best film I have seen this year.
I have three sisters, Jan is the oldest and Angela is the youngest .

Thats a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.

I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.
We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:
I dont like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
Everyone wishes they had more free time.
John wishes he wasnt so busy.
I wish it wasnt so cold.
We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:
I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.
Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadnt spent so much money last month.

Hypotheses (things that we imagine)

When we are talking about hypotheses:
We use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk
about the future if we think it is likely to happen:
Those steps are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident.
We should leave home early in case we are late.
We use a past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to
suggest something is not likely to happen:
It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
We use modals would, could for a hypothesis about the future:
We cant all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.
Drive carefully. You could have an accident.
We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk about
the imagined future:
I would always help someone who really needed help.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the past:
I did not see Mary, or I might have spoken to her.
Its a pity Jack wasnt at the party. He would have enjoyed this party.
Why didnt you ask me. I could have told you the answer.


1 Some verbs are followed by the to-infinitive:
I decided to go home as soon as possible.
We all wanted to have more English classes.
Common verbs followed by the to-infinitive are:
Verbs of thinking and feeling:
choose
decide
expect
forget
 hate
hope
intend
learn
like
love
mean
plan
prefer
remember
would like
would love
Verbs of saying:
agree
promise
refuse
Other common verbs are:
arrange
attempt
fail
help
manage
tend
try
want
2 Some verbs are followed by a noun and the to-infinitive:
She asked him to send her a text message.
He wanted all his friends to come to his party.
Common verbs with this pattern are:
Verbs of saying:
advise
ask
encourage
invite
order
persuade
remind
tell
warn *
*Note: The verb warn is normally used with not
The police warned everyone not to drive too fast.
Verbs of wanting or liking:
expect
intend
would
prefer
want
would like
Other verbs with this pattern are:
allow
 enable
force
get
teach
3. Passive infinitive
Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive(to be + past
participle):
I expected to be met when I arrived at the station.
They wanted to be told if anything happened.
I dont like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.

Common verbs followed by ing nouns are:

Verbs of liking and disliking:
detest
dislike
enjoy
hate
fancy
like
love
I love swimming but I hate jogging.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
A: Do you fancy going for a walk?
B: I wouldnt mind
Phrases with mind:
wouldnt mind (= would like)
dont mind (= I am willing to)
would you mind (= will you please?)
I wouldnt mind having some fish and chips.
I dont mind waiting for a few minutes.
Would you mind holding this for me?
Verbs of saying and thinking:
admit
consider
deny
imagine
remember
suggest
Our guide suggested waiting until the storm was over.
Everyone denied seeing the accident.
Other common verbs are:
avoid
begin
finish
keep
miss
practise
risk
start
stop
I havent finished writing this letter.
Lets practise speaking English.
Passive form of -ing
Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by the passive form of -ing: being + past
participle
I dont like being interrupted.
Our dog loves being stroked under the chin.
Noun + -ing clause
Some verbs are followed by a noun and an -ing clause:
Verbs to do with the senses:
see
watch
hear
smell
listen to
etc.
We saw everybody running away.
I could hear someone singing.

Other common verbs:

catch
find
imagine
leave
prevent
stop
I caught someone trying to break into my house.
We couldnt prevent them getting away.

With "that"
We can use clauses with that:
after verbs of thinking:
think
believe
expect
decide
hope
know
understand
suppose
guess
imagine
feel
remember
forget
I hope that you will enjoy your holiday.
She didnt really think that it would happen.
I knew that I had seen her somewhere before.
after verbs of saying:
say
 admit
argue
reply
agree
claim
deny
mention
answer
complain
explain
promise
suggest
They admitted that they had made a mistake.
She argued that they should invest more in the business.
The children complained that they had nothing to do.
Note: tell and some other verbs of saying almost always have a direct object (see
clauses, sentences and phrases). There are also some fixed expressions with tell such
as tell the truth, tell a lie, tell a story, tell it like it is.
tell
convince
persuade
inform
remind
We tried to tell them that they should stop what they were doing.
The police informed everybody that the danger was over.
as postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinking or saying:
advice
belief
claim
feeling
argument
hope
promise
report
guess
opinion
idea
He made a promise that he would do all he could to help.
I had a funny feeling that something was wrong.
after some nouns to say more about the noun:
fact
advantage
effect
possibility
chance
danger
evidence
problem
difficulty
She pointed out the danger that they might be left behind.
There was a chance that we would succeed
Note: We often use a that clause to define one of these nouns after the verb be :
danger
problem
chance
possibility
fact
The danger is that we will be left behind.
The fact is that it is getting very late.
after some adjectives which describe feelings to give a reason for our feelings:
pleased
sorry
happy
unhappy
sad
excited
glad
disappointed
afraid
I am sorry that you cant come.
Everybody was pleased that the danger was past.
It is lucky that you were able to drive us home.
No "that"
NOTE: We can always use a clause without the word that:
They admitted [that] they had made a mistake.
The police informed everybody [that] the danger was over.
I am sorry [that] you cant come.
There was chance [that] we would succeed.

Conditionals are sentences with two clauses an if clause and a main clause that
are closely related. Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

Zero conditional
We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are always true.
If you heat water, it boils.
When the sun goes down, it gets dark.
It lights up if you push that button.
The present simple is used in both clauses.
First conditional
We use the first conditional when we talk about real and possible situations.
Ill go shopping on the way home if I have time.
If its a nice day tomorrow well go to the beach.
If Arsenal win theyll be top of the league.
In first conditional sentences, the structure is usually if + present simple and will +
infinitive. Its not important which clause comes first.
Second conditional
The second conditional is used to talk about unreal or impossible things.
If I won a lot of money Id buy a big house in the country.
Where would you live if you could live anywhere in the world?
If you didnt smoke so much youd feel a lot better.
The structure is usually if + past simple and would + infinitive. Its not important
which clause comes first.

Look at the difference between the first and second conditionals.

In January: If it snows tomorrow Ill go skiing. It might snow tomorrow.
In August: If it snowed tomorrow Id go skiing. It almost certainly wont snow
tomorrow.
NOTE: Although many conditional sentences use if + will/would, conditional
sentences can also use other words instead of if e.g. when as soon as in case
Other modal verbs can be used instead of will/would e.g. can/could, may
might.

TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that
is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is
expressed. The type 3 conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its
probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past
perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.
If clause Main clause
If + past perfect perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional
If this thing had happened that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really happened) OR
that thing would have been happening.
If you had studied harder you would have passed the exam.
If it had rained you would have gotten wet.
If I had accepted that promotion I would have been working in Milan.
Read more about how to use the type 3 conditional with the perfect conditional tense,
and how to use the perfect continuous conditional in type 3 conditional sentences.
MIXED TYPE CONDITIONAL
The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation
that is ongoing into the present. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is
expressed. The mixed type conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and
its probable result in the present. In mixed type conditional sentences, the if clause
uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the present conditional.
If clause Main clause
If + past perfect or simple past present conditional or perfect conditional
If this thing had happened that thing would happen. (but this thing didn't happen so that thing isn't happening)
If I had worked harder at school I would have a better job now.
If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.
If you weren't afraid of spiders you would have picked it up and put it outside.

Rule 1. Who and sometimes that refer to people. That and which refer to
groups or things.
Examples:
Anya is the one who rescued the bird."The Man That Got Away" is a great
song with a grammatical title.Lokua is on the team that won first
place.She belongs to a great organization, which specializes in saving
endangered species.
Rule 2a. That introduces what is called an essential clause (also known as a
restrictive or defining clause). Essential clauses add information that is vital
to the point of the sentence.
Example: I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients" because
this phrase can mean almost anything.
We would not know the type of products being discussed without the that
clause.
Rule 2b. Which introduces a nonessential clause (also known as a
nonrestrictive or nondefining clause), which adds supplementary
information.
Example: The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appeared in
the Sunday newspaper, is on sale.
The product is already identified. Therefore, which appeared in the Sunday
newspaper is a nonessential clause containing additional, but not essential,
information.
NOTE
Essential clauses do not have commas introducing or surrounding them,
whereas nonessential clauses are introduced or surrounded by commas.

Rule 3. If that has already appeared in a sentence, writers sometimes use

which to introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential.
This is done to avoid awkward formations.
Example: That which doesn't kill you makes you stronger.
This sentence is far preferable to the ungainly but technically correct That that
doesn't kill you makes you stronger.
NOTE
The distinction between that and which, though a useful guideline, is not
universally accepted as a hard-and-fast rule. For many centuries and up to
the present, which has been routinely used by great writers and journalists to
introduce essential clauses.