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Afterthistopic,youwillbeabletounderstand
thefollowing:
ArtificialIntelligence:Historyand
Intelligenceandartificialintelligence
Applications
pp History,earlyworks,andimportanceofAI
History early works and importance of AI
FundamentalsandphilosophyofAI
Modelling,simulationandAI
Intelligentsystems
Historyandfundamentalsofintelligentsystems

Introduction
Overthelast25years,thedisciplineofartificial ThefundamentalissuesofAIinvolve:
intelligence(AI)hasbeengrowingonthemapof
sciencesomewherebetweenpsychologyand Knowledgerepresentation
computerscience. Search
Researchersworkingonthetaskofmaking
Researchers working on the task of making Perceptionandinference
Perception and inference
computersdothingswhichwouldrequire
intelligenceifdonebyhumanbeings. Knowledgecanbeavailableascollectionsof
AIisafieldofstudythatencompasses logicalassertions,heuristicrules,procedures,
computationaltechniquesforperformingtask statisticalcorrelationetc.
thatapparentlyrequireintelligencewhen
performedbyhumans.

Intelligence
HowyouinterpretAliisintelligent? Theimportantaspectsofhumanintelligence
seemtobethefollowing:
Itcanbeinterpretedindifferentways: Theuseofintuition
Aliknowsalot?? Commonsense
Alithinksfast??
Ali hi k f ?? Judgement
Creativity
Alicananswerquestionmostofthetime??? Goaldirectedness
OneappropriateinterpretationmaybeAlis Plausible
actionsareappropriateinallsituations. Reasoning
Knowledge
Beliefs

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Themeaningofintelligenceisnotthehuman
brainsinformationprocessingabilitybutthe
abilityofhumanstodemonstratetheir
intelligencebycommunicatingeffectively,
andbylearning.
Communication requiresgoodskillsto
analyse andsynthesismessages(todetermine
thecontextandtoaltertherepresentationof
information).
ArtificialIntelligence
DefinitionsofAIareresultingfromdifferent
motivationsorbackground.
Example,objectscanbecategorizedinto
intelligent (such as birds dogs and human) or
intelligent(suchasbirds,dogsandhuman)or
unintelligentobjectssuchastable,chairetc.
ThemostimportantpurposeofAIisto
increasemansunderstandingofreasoning,
learning,andperception.
Earlyworks:
Workonlogic(methodsofreasoning) Alonzo
Church,KurtGodel,EmilPostandAlanTuring
(1920sand1930s).
Cybernetics thestudyofcommunicationin
humansandmachinesbecameanactiveresearch
areain1940sand1950s.
Late1950s GeneralProblemSolverdeveloped
byNewell,ShawandSimonwrittenininformation
processinglanguage.
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Learning
Theabilitytolearnoradaptonesbehaviourtoa
newsituationisconsideredbymanytobeavital
componentofintelligence.
p g
Organizingknowledgeisanimportantissueinthe
learningprocess.
AI History
Year Development
1843 CharlesBabbageproposedanalyticalengine,thefirstprogrammable
computingmachine.
1940sand AIgrows withtheemergenceofthemoderncomputer.
1950s
Early work by W S McCulloch and W H Pitts can be regardedasthefirst
EarlyworkbyW.S.McCullochandW.H.Pittscanbe
significantinthefieldofAI
regarded as the first
1956 NewellandSimon solvedsimplepuzzlesandprovedtheoremsin
propositionalcalculus symbolicrepresentationandcomputer
programming.
Definitions:AIcanbedefinedasfollows:
Theautomationofactivitiesthatweassociatewithhuman
thinking,activitiessuchasdecisionmaking,problem
solving,learning.Bellman1978.
Theexcitingnewefforttomakecomputersthinkmachine
g ff p
withmind,inthefullandliteralsense..Haugeland 1985.
Thebranchofthecomputersciencethatisconcernedwith
theautomationofintelligentbehaviourLuger&
Stubblefield1993.
Thestudyofhowtomakecomputersdothingsatwhich,at
themoment,peoplebetterRich&Knight2003
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Accordingtothedefinitions,computer
systemscanbeclassifiedintothefollowing
categories:
Systemsthatactlikehumans TheTuringTest
proposedbyAlanTuring(1950).
Systemsthatthinklikehumans GeneralProblem
SolverbyNewellandSimon(late1950s).
Systemsthatthinkrationally concernwithlogic.
Systemsthatactrationally concernwithcorrect
inference.
Techniques
ThefirsttechniqueofAIisalgorithm.
Analgorithmisaspecificsetofoperations,
procedures,anddecisionswhichguaranteestoyield
correct results
correctresults.
Heuristic,aruleofthumb,trick,strategy,
simplification,oranyothermethodthataidsthe
solutionofcomplexproblem.
Therepresentationofaprobleminasimple,easily
processable formthenaidsinthedevelopmentofa
solution.
CurrentTrendsinAppliedAI
Thekeytechniquespresentlyinuseareexpert
systems,fuzzysystems,neuralnetworks,
geneticalgorithmandswarmintelligence.
p y y
AnexpertsystemdifferfromotherAIsystems
inthatitattemptstoexplicitlyembody
expertiseandknowledgewithinsoftware.
Ausefulapplicationofsuchfuzzysystemsisin
decisionmakingunderuncertainor
hypotheticalsituations.
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ProgrammingMethods
Computationallogicincludestheinferenceof
consequencesfromgivenfactsandrules,
automatedtheoremproving,logicprogramming,
p g, g p g g,
andthelanguage.
Thecomputationaluseofframe(datastructureto
representinformation)forsettingupcontext.
Searchingandpatternmatchingamongthebasic
activitiesinAI.
Fundamentalissues:
Theabilityofamachinetothink
Overpromising
Militaryemphasis
Military emphasis
Intermsofpracticalapplications,duetotheir
learningcapabilities,neuralnetworksare
oftenemployedwhereaproblemrequires
estimation,prediction,orclassification.
GeneticAlgorithmsarefavoured forsearch
problemswhichrequiretheidentificationofa
globaloptimalsolution.
Swarmintelligenceutilizesthebehaviour of
nonhumanlivingentitiesforproblemsolving.
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IntelligentSystems
Itconcentratesonknowledgerepresentationand
reasoning asthethemeonanysystemthatreflects
intelligence,andsuggeststhatitispossiblefora
systemtobehaveinthismanneronlyifitcontains
formalmechanismsforrepresentingknowledgeand
p g
employinginferencetechniquesthatmodel
conventionalcomputationallybasedsystems.
Someimportantintelligentsystems:expertsystems,
fuzzysystems,artificialneuralnetworks,genetic
algorithmandevolutionaryprogrammingandswarm
intelligencesystems.
Roleofintelligentsystem:
Logicalbehaviour
Abilitytosolvecomplexproblems
g Responsiveandadaptivenature
Responsive and adaptive nature
Abilitytoprovidenonlinearprogramnavigation
Meanstoeffectivelyuseexistinginformation
Userfriendlinessandhighinteractivity
Reliability

Comparisonwithconventional
programs
Traditionalcomputerapplicationssuchas
databaseandgraphicsprogramsarebasically
timesavingtoolsthathavereplacedmanual
approaches totaskssuchascalculating,
to tasks such as calculating
sortingandsoon.Theseprogramssimply
employalgorithm andexhibitnointelligence.
Intelligentsystemsaremoreflexible and
adaptive.
Theydrawknowledge,andhavethepowerof
associationandinference,enablingthemto
steerthedirectionofarunningprogram
towards useful results
towardsusefulresults.
Intelligentsystemspossessthefollowing
importantproperties:
Theabilitytouseknowledgetoperformcertain
tasksorsolveproblems.

ComparisonofvariousIS
Application Expertsystem Fuzzysystem Neuralnetworks Geneticalgorithms Swarmintelligence

Thecapacitytoexploitthepowersofassociation Diagnosis *
Optimizationproblems * *
andinference inattemptingtodealwithcomplex
Prediction *
problemsthatresembletherealworld. Controlapplications *
Theabilitytohandleanytypeofvagueness Loadforecasting *
presentinaproblem. Airsonartarget
recognition
*

Thecapabilitytosolvecomplexoptimization Mobilerobotnavigation *

problems usingsearchtechniques. Tuningfuzzycontroller * *

performance
Classification ofsoil *
Hotextrusion ofsteel *

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Reference
N.P.Padhy,2006,ArtificialIntelligenceand
IntelligentSystems,OxfordUniversityPress,
NewDelhi,India.