Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered

Combustion: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Corrosion: 2Cu + O2 2CuO
Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
Precipitation CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4 (Cu(OH)2 is insoluble)
Neutralisation: HCl + NaOHNaCl + H2O
Acids on metals: Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Acid on metal oxide: MgO +2HClMgCl2 + H2O
Acids on carbonates : CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Decomposition: 2H2O 2H2 + O2

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory
-1 -2 -3
hydroxide OH carbonate CO3 phosphate PO4
nitrate NO3 sulfate SO4
nitrite NO2 sulfite SO3
bicarbonate HCO3 chromate CrO4 +1
Acetate CH3COO ammonium NH4
Cyanide CN
Chlorate ClO3

Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered.

Hydrocarbons with single bonds are called alkanes, double bonds are called alkenes and
triple bonds are called alkynes.

o Alkanes general formula: CnH2n+2

o Alkenes general formula: CnH2n

o Alkynes general formula: CnH2n-2

-The name for a carbon compound consists of a stem which tells us the length of the carbon
chain (how many carbons) and a suffix which tells us how it is bonded.
C1 = meth- C2 = eth- C3 = prop- C4 = but- C5 = pent-
C6 = hex- C7 = hept- C8 = oct- C9 = non- C10 = dec-

Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations to
represent all chemical reactions encountered in the Preliminary course
Thermal decomposition: Copper carbonate Copper oxide + carbon dioxide
CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
Precipitation: NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
{AgCl is a white precipitate}
Only silver and chloride ions take part in this reaction.
Thus, spectator ions: sodium and nitrate ions
Net ionic equation: Ag+(aq)+ Cl- (aq) AgCl (s)
Photodecomposition: process by which light (photons) break compounds down into simpler
substances
AgCl decomposes on exposure to UV light
2AgCl (s) 2Ag (s) + Cl2 (g)
Oxidation (electron loss from chlorine): Cl- (aq) + light energy Cl + e-
 Used in photography
Reduction (electron gain by silver): Ag (aq) + e Ag (s)
+ -

Electrolysis of copper sulfate solution

Cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
Anode: 4OH (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-
-

Solution gradually turns from blue to colourless because copper (II) ions decrease.
Hydrogen and sulphate ions are left behind, causing the solution to become acidic (sulfuric
acid)

Combustion: When a substance reacts with an oxidiser to form new substances accompanied by
release of energy as heat/light.
2Mg(s)+ O2(g) 2MgO(s)

Neutralisation: a strong acid and base is exothermic

No bonds are broken and no energy is lost in breaking bonds.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory.
Particle theory helps us visualise differences between elements, compounds and mixtures.
Elements are made up of one type of atom.
Elements are basic building blocks, having own unique symbol and physical and chemical
properties.
Compounds are two or more particles chemically bonded.
A mixture is composed of a mix of elements and compounds, e.g. a solution.
Can be separated using simple separation techniques, does not have fixed
properties

Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixtures of elements and compounds
Atmosphere: gases above the Earths surface
Biosphere: a region of the earth in which living organisms live
Hydrosphere: Earths water, including oceans, lakes, rivers and underground water.
Lithosphere: Earths outer mantle and crust, including rocks, soil and minerals

Elements Compounds Mixtures

Atmosphere Oxygen Carbon dioxide Air
Hydrogen
Lithosphere Iron Limestone Soil
Hydrosphere Sodium ions Water Salt water
Chloride ions
Biosphere Carbon Glucose Blood
Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
Solids of different sizes
Process
Sieving: a process where
substances of different
particle sizes are
separated
Sedimentation: a process in
which solids settle to the
bottom of the container.
Solid matter settles on
the bottom of the vessel
Liquid above is poured
off
Froth floatation: a process
for selectively separating
hydrophobic materials from
hydrophilic material
Magnetic separation: a
process in which magnetic
material is extracted from
a mixture using a magnetic
force
Properties Example
Difference in particle Mined ore is crushed and
size ground finely powdered grains
Grinding: separates valuable
minerals from each other forms
GANGUE {unwanted material in an
ore body}
Difference in densities Heavy mineral grains removed from
unwanted grains of rock
Swirl alluvial material with water,
allowing lighter material to be
decanted, remaining heavy gold
particles.
Difference in densities Air is blown through mixture to
create a froth layer (mineral
grains adhere)
Floating froth layer {CONCENTRATE:
as it has higher % of metallic
minerals than original ore}
Difference in magnetic Iron mineral grains are separated
properties from crushed rock grains

Solids and liquids

Process Properties Example
Filtration: a process where Solubility and difference Sand from salt water
insoluble solids are in particles size
separated from liquids
Filtrate: fluid that
passes through medium
Residue: solid remained
in medium
Centrifugation: process Difference in densities Blood cells from plasma
where particles are
sedimentated due to
centrifugal force
Decantation: process of Difference in densities Oil and water
carefully pouring off
liquid, leaving the solid
undisturbed at the base of
container

Dissolved solids in liquids

Process Properties Example
 Evaporation: process of Difference in boiling points Salt from salt water
separating dissolved solid
from solution by vaporising
liquid
Crystallisation: process of Difference in boiling points Salt crystals
forming crystals from a
solution

Liquids
Process Properties Example
Separating funnel: process Difference in densities Kerosene and water
where two, different
densities, immiscible
Distillation: process of Difference in boiling points Ethanol and water
separating liquid components
of a solution by boiling and
condensing the vapour
Chromatography Solubility of component in Ink
mixture
Fractional distillation: Small difference in boiling Crude oil
separation of liquid mixture points
into fractions with small
difference in boiling points

Gases
Process Properties Example
Zeolite series: Difference in particle size
Oxygen gas can be separated
from air using pressure swing
adsorption
Uses selective absorption of
nitrogen, moisture and carbon
dioxide by a molecular sieve
(zeolite)
This selectively absorbs
certain gases and allow others
to pass through
 Cryogenic air separation: a Difference in boiling points
process which obtained nitrogen, and particle size
oxygen and argon
Air is filtered to remove dust
and small particles
Air is compressed and cooled
Zeolite molecular sieve
technology: remove water and
carbon dioxide.
Gas mixture is cooed until
liquefies
Separate components according
to difference boiling points

Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of Earth materials,
identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to
separation the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as sand, salt
and water.

Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture to estimate

its percentage composition.

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other
scientists.
Agriculture: to determine the pH value, components in soil for the growth and cultivation
of certain plants.
Medicine: used to determine the purity and percentage of a certain component in drugs.
Food industry: determine the amount of fibre in a batch of fruit to provide information to
customers
Mining company : determine the composition of a particular ore sample to see if it is
financially viable to mine the ore body.
Health authority : determine the composition of the air to see if it pollutes a site.
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the biosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the evidence available to:
Earth sphere Mixture Separation technique
Lithosphere Pentlandite ore- nickel Concentration:
sulphide ore (iron Ore is crushed to fine powder and is
sulphide and other rocky mixed with water
impurities) Froth floatation: nickel sulphide
mineral is separated from gangue
Fine, powdered concentrate has 10-12%
nickel
Smelting
 Sulfide concentrate is flash smelted
in an oxidising atmosphere at high
temperature
Iron and sulphur oxidise and heat
released from process produce a
liquid nickel mate
Nickel matte sinks to bottom of
furnace and is allowed to solidify
Refining
Copper and iron sulphides are
removed.
Mate is treated with oxygenated
ammonia solution leach out nickel
Reduction of filtered solution with
hydrogen or by electrolysis at inert
cathodes produces pure nickel metal.

Hydrosphere Magnesium bromide salt Partial evaporation

solution from salt lakes The less soluble non-bromide salts
are allowed to crystallise from the
partially evaporated alt solution and
then filtered off
Oxidation of bromide solution
Chlorine gas is passed through the
solution of bromide salts to convert
bromide ions to bromine
Condensation
Bromine vapours are collected and
condensed to form liquid bromine
Biosphere Olive and olive oil Crushing/grinding
Fruit is crushed
Water is removed by rotating internal
scrolls through separate exit
Beating
Paste plus some water is beaten to
remove oil from cells
Salt may be added to assist osmotic
breakdown of cells and release of oil
Centrifuging
Mixture is placed in centrifuge and
spun at high speed
Light oil= upper, inner layer
Water and heavier fruit fragments=
outer layers
Inner, floating oil layer overflows a
weir and collected through a separate
portal
Atmosphere Air Compression
 Air is cooled cryogenically and
compressed
Rapid expansion
Air cools and liquefies
Fractional distillation
Argon is separated from other gases
Oxygen is removed by its reaction
with hydrogen to form water. (Argon
doesnt react as its inert)
After removing water using a
molecular sieve dryer, the argon is
recooled

Identify the difference between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of
particles
Changes in physical property Changes in chemical property

Occur without a change in the composition Atoms are rearranged (law of conservation of
of the particular substance mass: no atoms created or destroyed)

No new substances are formed New substances are formed

Relatively small amounts of energy being Relatively large amount of energy being absorbed
absorbed or released or released

Involve a change of state

Relatively easy to reverse Usually difficult to reverse

- In both reactions, mass is conserved, and particles are only rearranged.

Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the
difference between physical and chemical change
Electrolysis of Water Boiling of
Two new substances produced H2 and O2 No new substances produced,
Water change in state
Difficult
gas to reverse Easily reversed (cool vapour)
Requires approx. 20 30kJ/g Requires approx. 2.3kJ/g
Particles broken up (H2O molecules broken Does not alter particles, just separates
up and them from one another (change in state)

H2 and O2 molecules formed)

Anode: oxidation
Cathode: reduction
Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or
absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these
changes occurring in everyday life
Light, heat and electricity can be released and absorbed during decomposition and synthesis.

o Photolysis is the decomposition of a compound using light energy.

o Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound using electrical energy.

Light
Release of light e.g. in the combustion of magnesium.
Absorption of light e.g. in photolysis of silver chloride.

Heat
Release of heat (exothermic) heat is evolved synthesis of water
Absorption of heat (endothermic) decomposition of mercury oxide

Electrical
Electrical energy is used to decompose chemical compounds/mixtures in various
industries, e.g. decomposition of salt water to form chloride, hydrogen and
sodium hydroxide.

Everyday applications
Decomposition reactions:
Limestone (CaCO3) is decomposed by heating to make lime, cement and glass.
Aluminium is extracted by electrolysing molten aluminium oxide.
o Synthesis/Direct combination reactions:
Rusting of iron and steel to form iron (III) oxide.
Burning of carbon releases heat energy which we use in many ways.
Lighting creates a high temperature so that nitrogen and oxygen gases combine to form nitric
oxide.

Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of
the strength of the attraction, or bond between them
The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy that is required to break
the compound into elements.
-The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy that is released when
the compound is formed into its elements.
-This is because a large input of energy is necessary to break the strong bonds holding the
atoms together.

Gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:

observe the effect of light on silver salts and identify an application of the use of this
reaction

Observe the electrolysis of water, analyse the information provided as evidence that water is
a compound and identify an application of the use of this reaction
Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of water
tracing the movements of and changes in arrangement of molecules

Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties
Properties Metals Semi-metals Non-metals
Appearance Lustrous Low sheen Dul
Electrical High Low (semi-conductors) Nil (insulators)
l
Thermal conductivity
Conductivity High High Low (insulators)
Malleability and High Moderate Nil (brittle)
Densit
ductility Generally high Intermediate Low
Boiling
y point Generally high Very Low
Strengt High Variabl
high Low
h e
Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
Element Uses Properties related to use
Copper Electrical Ductility, high electrical
Iron Structural building materials
wiring High tensile strength
conductivity
Zin Galvanising of iron High reactivity allows it to
c preferentially corrode and
protect the iron

Helium Meteorological balloons Low density and lack of reactivity

Silicon Computer
chips
Semi-conductor
Transisto
rs

Carbon Lead pencils and lubricant Softness and layer structure

electrodes in batteries Conducts electricity
(graphit
e)
Carbon Transparent and has high
refractive
(diamond) Jeweller
Drill High melting point and hardness
y
Tips index and dispersive power
Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present information
about the classification of elements as: metals, non-metals and semi-metals

Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting
Matter is composed of atoms. Kinetic particle theory the particles of matter are
continuously moving and interacting.
Energy of particles controls the movement and state of the substance. Heating increases
energy.

Properties Soli Liqui Gas

d d
 Particle Location Close together Close together Far apart
Movement Vibrating in fixed Moving freely Moving very freely
position

Diagram
Shape Definite shape Depends on container Depends on
Volume Definite volume Definite volume Fills all available
container
Compression Cannot be compressed Almost incompressible Can be compressed
space
Diffusion Cannot diffuse Can diffuse Can diffuse
(spread) particles of an atom are protons, neutrons and electrons.
Subatomic

Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

Electrons occupy energy levels (shells) around the nucleus. They are confined to these
levels and can move between them using energy.

Each energy level has a maximum number of electrons.

Energy Level K L M N O
Max # of 2 8 18 32 50
electrons
Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number
Atoms have an equal number of positive atoms and negative atoms.
The atomic number is the number of protons in the its atoms.
The mass number is the number of protons plus number of neutrons.
The element E can be represented by the symbol (on the right), where:

o A = mass number

o Z = atomic number

o A Z = number of neutrons

Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

Elements that exist as covalent molecules
include:

o H2, F2, Cl2, O2, N2 diatomic gases

o Br2, I2 (diatomic liquid and solid)

o Phosphorus P4, Sulphur S8

Elements that exist as covalent lattices

include:

o Non-metal elements such as carbon and silicon, and some compounds such as silicon
dioxide.

Carbon (diamond) is a 3D lattice, Carbon (graphite) is a 2D lattice

Covalent lattices in the earth include sand, quartz, gemstones, and clays.
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its
existing as an uncombined element

Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

ions
atoms sharing electrons

Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals, ionic
compounds and covalent compounds

Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons

Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals

Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:

the formation of ions
the electron sharing in some simple molecules

Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite
charge
Construct formulae for compounds formed from:
ions
atoms sharing electrons

Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula

An empirical formula is the simplest form of a compound and represents the simplest
whole number ratio of atoms/ions in the crystal.
There are no discrete molecules in ionic compounds but an infinite array of ions, thus
the formulae must give the ratio by atoms of elements rather than the actual numbers of
atoms in a molecule.
The law of constant composition states that all pure samples of the same compound contain
the same
elements combined together in the same proportions by mass.

Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals, ionic
compounds and covalent compounds

Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

Construct ionic equations showing metal and non-metal atoms forming ions
Fe Fe2++ 2e
2Cl+2eCl2
Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or
covalent network

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic bonding occurs between metals and involves the electrostatic attraction between
delocalised electrons and the metal cations, which hold the 3D lattice together.

Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. The bonding
consists of electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions formed by this
transfer of electrons, which hold the 3D lattice together.

o Examples: CuCl2, MgO, NaCl

Covalent bonds occur between non-metals and involve intermolecular forces holding the
particles together. These forces can be hydrogen bonding (between H and N, O or F), dipole to
dipole and dispersion forces.

Perform an investigation to examine the physical properties of a range of common substances in

order to classify them as metallic, ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network substances
and relate their characteristics to their uses

Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure
of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic bonding
Property Explanation
 Non-conductors of electricity when
solid
Conductors of electricity when molten
or in aqueous solution
High melting point and boiling point
Hard
Brittle
Covalent molecular
Property
Form crystals which are soft and
brittle
Non-conductors of electricity when
solid, molten or dissolved in water
(unless a reaction occurs with water to
produce ions) (except graphite)
Low melting point and boiling point
Soft solids, liquids or gases
Covalent network/ lattice compounds: a network of atoms are held together by strong covalent
bonds extending throughout a 3D lattice crystal
Lattice: infinite orderly array of particles
Property
Forms crystals which are hard and
brittle
Extremely high melting and boiling
point
Non conductors when solid or molten
(except graphite)
Hard
Brittle
Metallic bonding
Property
Good electrical conductor
Good thermal conductors
Ions are firmly bound in the lattice
No mobile charged particles
Ions are free to move
Strong electrostatic attraction between ions in
the crystal continuous lattice
Strong attraction between ions
Shearing force causes repulsion between ions of
like charge
When layers in an ionic crystal are forced to
move past each other, strong repulsions between
ions of like charge cause the crystal to shatter
Explanation
Weak intermolecular forces are easily overcome it
is easy to distort a solid covalent substance
The molecules are uncharged and electrons are
localised in covalent bonds or on the atoms
Weak intermolecular forces between molecules
Weak forces between molecules
Explanation
Atoms strongly bound in the lattice
A lot of energy is needed to break strong covalent
bonds
Electrons localised in covalent bonds or on the
atoms
Atoms strongly bound in the lattice
Distortion breaks covalent bonds
Explanation
When potential difference is applied across the
metal, electrons move towards the positive pole
Atoms strongly vibrate, knocking less strongly
vibrating atoms, passing kinetic energy
 Malleability and ductility
Variable hardness
High melting and boiling points
When shearing forces are applied to the lattice,
one layer of
Ions are able to slide over each other when force
is applied
Strong metallic bonding throughout lattice.

Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss
sources to construct and discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent
molecules and covalent and metallic lattices

Perform a first-hand investigation to compare the properties of some common elements in their
elemental state with the properties of the compound(s) of these elements (eg. magnesium and
oxygen)

Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and
mixtures