Chemical compounds in the cell can be divided into two major groups: Organic and Inorganic compounds.

Organic compounds are chemical compounds that contain the element carbon. Organic compounds in the cell include
carbohydrates, protein, lipids and nuclei acids. Some of these compounds are synthesized by the cell itself.
Water is an inorganic compound which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. It is an important compound in the cell.
Percentage of
Element Usage
Body Weight

This element is obviously the most important element in the human body. Oxygen atoms
65% Oxygen are present in water, which is the compound most common in the body, and other
compounds that make up tissues. It is also found in the blood and lungs due to respiration.

Carbon is found in every organic molecule in the body, as well as the waste product of
18.6% Carbon
respiration (carbon dioxide). It is typically ingested in food that is eaten.

Hydrogen is found in all water molecules in the body as well as many other compounds
9.7% Hydrogen
making up the various tissues.

Nitrogen is very common in proteins and organic compounds. It is also present in the
3.2% Nitrogen
lungs due to its abundance in the atmosphere.

Calcium is a primary component of the skeletal system, including the teeth. It is also found
1.8% Calcium
in the nervous system, muscles, and the blood.

1.0% Phosphorus This element is common in the bones and teeth, as well as nucleic acids.

0.4% Potassium Potassium is found in the muscles, nerves, and certain tissues.

0.2% Sodium Sodium is excreted in sweat, but is also found in muscles and nerves.

0.2% Chlorine Chlorine is present in the skin and facilitates water absorption by the cells.

0.06% Magnesium Magnesium serves as a cofactor for various enzymes in the body.

0.04% Sulfur Sulfur is present in many amino acids and proteins.

0.007% Iron Iron is found mostly in the blood since it facilitates the transportation of oxygen.

0.0002% Iodine Iodine is found in certain hormones in the thyroid gland.

The Importance of Organic Compounds in the Cell

The importance of water in the cell
1. Carbohydrates
Supply energy for cell processes Water sustains life.
A means of storing energy Water is a polar molecule which consists of 2
Give structural support to cell walls hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. A polar
2. Lipids molecule is a molecule with an unequal
Store large amounts of energy over long periods of distribution of charges. Each molecule has a
time positively charged and a negatively charged end.
Act as an energy source
Polar molecules attract one another as well as
Play a major role in the structure of the cell
membranes ions. Because of this property, water is considered
Act as a source of metabolic water the solvent of life.
Reduce the loss of water by evaporation It is the transport medium in the blood
3. Proteins It acts as a medium for biochemical reactions.
Act as building blocks of many structural Water helps in the maintenance of a stable
components of the cell ; required for growth internal environment within a living organism. The
Form enzymes which catalyse chemical reactions
concentration of water and inorganic salts that
Form hormones which control growth and
dissolve in water is important in maintaining the
metabolism
4. Nucleic acids osmotic balance between the blood and
Contain the genetic information of cells interstitial fluid.
Play a vital role in protein synthesis It helps in lubrication.
 Water molecules have very high cohesion. Water
molecules tend to stick to each other and move in
long unbroken columns through the vascular
tissues in plants.
CELL THEORY
states that all organisms are composed of similar units
of organization, called cells (1839) by Schleiden &
Schwann
The idea predates other great paradigms of biology
including Darwins theory of evolution (1859),
Mendels laws of inheritance (1865), and the
establishment of comparative biochemistry (1940).
First Cells Seen in Cork
Robert Hooke
discovery if cell (1665)
the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) looked similar
to cellula or small rooms which monks inhabited..
description of these cells was published
in Micrographia.
cell walls observed by Hooke gave no indication of
the nucleus and other organelles found in most living
cells.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
first man to witness a live cell under a microscope
( 1674) described the algae Spirogyra
Van Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.
Formulation of the Cell Theory
Franois Raspail (17941878) was the first to state
one of the two major tenets of cell theory: Omnis
cellula e cellula, which means "Every cell is derived from
another cell." However, despite this ringing and famous
phrase, his proposed mechanism of cell generation was
incorrect.
In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
were enjoying after-dinner coffee and talking about
their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when
Schwann heard Schleiden describe plant cells with
nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these plant
cells to cells he had observed in animal tissues. The
two scientists went immediately to Schwanns lab to
look at his slides. Schwann published his book on
animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next year, a
treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone elses
contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He
summarized his observations into three conclusions
about cells:
1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and
organization in living things.
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct
entity and a building block in the construction
of organisms.
3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the
formation of crystals (spontaneous generation).
We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but
the third is clearly wrong. The correct interpretation of
cell formation by division was finally promoted by
others and formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchows
powerful dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula,: All cells
only arise from pre-existing cells.
MODERN CELL THEORY
1. All known living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is structural & functional unit of all
living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
(Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of
life occurs within cells.
(1950s) It became possible to maintain, grow, and
manipulate cells outside of living organisms. The first
continuous cell line to be so cultured
(1951) first continuous cell line cultured by George
Otto Gey and coworkers, derived from cervical cancer
cells taken from Henrietta Lacks, who died from her
cancer in 1951. HeLa cells
Timeline transmission electron microscope.
1945 Albert Claude disc. of Endoplasmic Reticulum
1595 Zacharias Jansen credited with 1st compound referred as fishnet in Latin.
microscope 1904 Friedrich Meve first recorded observation of
1655 Robert Hooke described cells in cork. mitochondria in plants.
1674 Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered 1952 George Otto Gey and coworkers established a
protozoa. animalcules continuous human cell line. HeLa cells
1824 Henri Milne-Edwards and Rene Joachim 1957 Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed
Henri Dutrochet suggested that the basic structure of density gradient centrifugation in cesium chloride
all animal tissues was an array of globules solutions for separating nucleic acids.
1833 Robert Brown described the cell nucleus in cells 1965 Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium.
of the orchid. Cambridge Instruments produced the first commercial
1835Felix Dujardin disproved Ehrenberg scanning electron microscope.
viscid, slimy fluid of animal cell as sarcodes or flesh 1976 Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that
different cell lines require different mixtures of
1838 Matthias Schleiden plant cells
hormones and growth factors in serum-free media.
1839 Theodor Schwann animal cells
1846Hugo von Mohl the nucleus of the cell was
within the granular, colloidal material protoplasm,
invented by Jan Evangelista Purkinje in reference to the 1981 Transgenic mice and fruit flies are
embryonic material found in eggs. produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell line
first to propose that new cells are formed by cell established.
division, from alga Conferva glomerata. 1995 Tsien identifies mutant of GFP with
first clear explanation of osmosis (pass of subs from
higher to lower concentration) in the physiology of a
enhanced spectral properties
plant and 1998 Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
first to investigate stomatal openings in leaves 1999 Hamilton and Baulcombe discover
1840 Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm siRNA as part of post-transcriptional gene
cells and egg cells are also cells.
silencing (PTGS) in plants
1851Hugo von Mohl proposed that the secondary
walls of plant cells have a fibrous structure.
1856 Nathanael Pringsheim observed how a sperm
cell penetrated an egg cell.
1858 Rudolf Virchow famous conclusion: omnis
cellula e cellula, that cells develop only from existing
cells [cells come from preexisting cells]
1857 Albert von Kolliker described the
mitochondria as granules" in the cells of muscles
1861Max Schultze cell is a lump of protoplasm
inside of which lies a nucleus
1879 Walther Flemming described chromosome
behavior during mitosis.
1883 Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of
heredity.
1894 Richard Altmann used a dye technique, and
dubbed the mitochondria as bioblasts
1898 Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria,
thread mito and granule chondros
1898 Camillo Golgi disc. of Golgi Apparatus.
1938 Behrens used differential centrifugation to
separate nuclei from cytoplasm.
1931 Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll built the first TEM
1939 Siemens produced the first commercial
Cell Structure and Function
Cell wall: It helps in protecting the plasma membrane
and plays a vital role in supporting and protecting the
cells. It is a thick outer layer made of cellulose.
Cell membrane: It is a double layered, thin barrier,
surrounding the cell to control the entry and exit of
certain substances.
Cytoskeleton: help maintain a cells shape and structure
Cytoplasm: It is a membrane, which protects the cell by
keeping the cell organelles separate from each other.
This helps to keep a cell in stable. Cytoplasm is the site,
where many vital biochemical reactions take place.
Nucleus: The membrane bound organelles, which are
found in all eukaryotic cells. It controls the complete
activity of a cell and also plays a vital role in
reproduction.
Vacuoles: It helps plants in maintaining its shape and it
also stores water, food, wastes, etc.
Chloroplast: They are the site of photosynthesis, which
are present in chlorophyll bacteria, blue-green algae,
etc.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
They are the first organisms to be present on our planet
earth. Organisms, with this cell type are known by the
term prokaryotic organisms (or) prokaryotes. Bacteria,
blue green algae and E.coli are few examples of this
category. Prokaryotic cells are single-celled organisms,
with the absence of nucleus and comprises of capsule,
cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleiod,
ribosome, plasmids, pili and flagella.

Nuclear membrane: The bilayer membrane, which

protects the nucleus by surrounding around it and acts
as a barrier between the cell nucleus and other organs
of a cell.

Nucleolus: It is an important membrane found inside

the nucleus. It plays a vital role in the production of
cell's ribosome.

Chromosomes: It is made up of DNA and stored in the

nucleus, which contains the instructions for traits and
characteristics.
Prokaryotic Cell General Features
Endoplasmic reticulum: It helps in the movement of
materials around the cell. It contains an enzyme that
helps in building molecules and in manufacturing of
proteins. The main function of this organelle is storage
and secretion.
Ribosome: It plays a vital role in protein synthesis.
Mitochondria: They are double membrane, filamentous
organelles, which play a vital role in generating and
transforming the energy. Mitochondria play a vital role
in cell metabolisms including oxidative phosphorylation.
Golgi Bodies: It helps in the movement of materials
within the cell.
The size of a cell ranges from 1-10 microns. Few
prokaryotic cells vary in their size.
They are single-celled (unicellular), which forms
a colony or filamentous.
The shape of the cell includes spherical, rod and
flat shaped organisms.
Mode of nutrients-- few organisms are
photosynthetic (performing food with the help
of sunlight), feed on living things and dead
things.
They reproduce asexually by the process called
binary fission, transformation, conjugation,
transduction.

Lysosomes: It is also called as suicidal bags as it helps in

cell renewal and break down old cell parts.
Structure and Functions of a Prokaryotic Cell

Capsule: It is the slimy outer coating of the cell wall. It is

composed of the polypeptide. The main function of the
capsule is to protect the cell from getting dry and also
helps in protecting cells from external pressures.

Cell wall: It is the tougher and a rigid structure, which

provides the shape and protects the internal organelles
of a cell. It is the middle layer, which is present in
between the capsule and cell membrane.

Cell membrane: It is the inner delicate structure, which

plays a vital role in regulating the entry and exits of
materials in the cell. It acts a permeable membrane and
separates the cell from its environment. It is of about 5-
10nm in thickness, which helps in the secretion of
proteins and elimination of waste products. It is also
called by a name plasma membrane.

Cytoplasm: It is the liquid membrane, which is present

in between the cell membrane and nucleiod. It plays a
vital role in storing all types of materials, which are
required for an organism to sustain the life.

Nucleiod: It is the cytoplasm region containing genetic

material. The DNA of a prokaryotic organism is one big
loop or a circular, which is located inside the nucleiod. It
plays a vital role in cell division.

Ribosome: It comprises of both RNA and proteins. It

helps in protein synthesis in the cell. They are smallest
membrane present inside the cytoplasm.

Plasmids: They are smallest membrane of a cell with

double stranded DNA. Plasmids are rarely present in
prokaryotic organisms. The main role of plasmids is it
helps in DNA exchanging between the bacterial cells.

Pilli: It is the thinnest membrane of a prokaryotic cell.

They are composed of protein complex called pilin and
are mainly involved in sticking to the objects especially
during sexual reproduction.

Flagella: It is the helical shaped membrane, whose sizes

ranges from 19-20nm in diameter and plays a vital role
in motility of an organism from one place to another
place. It also helps in swimming, gliding, spinning and
rotating both in clockwise and anti clockwise directions.
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
They are the cells with the presence of true nucleus.
Organisms, with this cell type are known by the term
eukaryotic organisms (or) eukaryotes. Animals, plants
and other organisms excluding bacteria, blue green
algae and E.coli have been grouped into this category.
Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic
cells. These organisms have membrane bound nucleus
with many cell organelles to perform several cellular
functions within the system.
Eukaryotic Cell General Features
The size of a eukaryotic cell ranges from 10-100
microns. Few eukaryotic cells vary in their size.
They are large, advanced, multicellular and
have membrane bound organelles.
They reproduce both by sexually and by
asexually.
Mode of nutrients - Autotrophic and
heterotrophic.
Kingdom protozoa, algae, fungi, Plantae and
Animalia are organisms with eukaryotic cell.
Structure and Functions of a Eukaryotic Cell
Plasma membrane: They are semi permeable
membrane that acts as a boundary of a cell, which
protects and separates the cell from the external
environment.
Nucleus: It is surrounded by double layered of
Phospholipid bilayer called as nuclear envelope.
They are the storehouse for the cells genetic materials
in the form of DNA and store all the necessary
information, which are required for a cell to control all
types of activities.
Nuclear membrane: It is the double membrane layer
that surrounds the nucleus and it plays a role of entry
and exits of materials within the nucleus.
Nucleolus: It is the non membrane bound organelles,
which is present within the nucleus and is mainly
involved in controlling all types of cellular activities
including cellular reproduction.
Mitochondria: They are the double smooth membrane,
which are present in all eukaryotic cells. They are the
powerhouse of the cell. It plays a vital role in the
synthesis of ATP and converts glucose to ATP.
Endoplasmic reticulum: They are the double membrane
organelle, which divides the cell into compartments. It
is connected to the nuclear membrane of the cell. It
plays a vital role in protein synthesis, biosynthesis of
lipids and steroids, stores and regulates calcium and
metabolism of carbohydrates. Endoplasmic reticulum is
of two types: rough and smooth Endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosome: It is present in the cytoplasm. They are the
site for cells protein synthesis, which are composed of
ribosomal RNA and proteins.
Golgi Bodies: It is the flattened membrane, which are
mainly used to store the substances made by the cell.
This membrane also helps in preserving, transporting
materials within the cell. Hence it is also called as the
post office of a cell.
Lysosomes: They are the membrane bound organelles,
which contains digestive enzymes to break down
macromolecules. Lysosome plays a vital role in
protecting cell by engulfing or destroying foreign bodies
entering the cell.
Cytoplasm: They are the jelly types of organelles, which
are present in the inner region of a cell. It plays a vital
role in keeping a cell in a stable and keeps the cell
organelles separate from each other.
Chromosomes: The rod shaped structures, which are
composed of proteins and DNA. Chromosomes also play
a vital role in determining a sex of an individual. All
human cells contain 46 numbers of chromosomes.

Plant Cell Structure
A plant cells are eukaryotic cells, with the presence of
true nucleus, multicellular large and advanced
membrane bound organelles. These plant cells are quite
different from animal cells like in shape and other few
organelles which are only found in animal cells but are
absent in plant cells. Based on structure and functions,
plant cells comprise of:
Cell wall: It is the outer layer of a plant cell, which helps
a providing the shape and strength to the entire plant. A
cell wall is composed of cellulose that protects and
supports the plant to grow.
Cell membrane: It is a biological membrane that
separates living cell organelles from non living
structures. This membrane plays a vital role in helping a
cell to communicate with the external environment and
also in transporting proteins and other molecules
throughout the cell.
Chloroplasts: They are green colored oval shaped
double membrane organelles, which are the sites of
photosynthesis. The green color pigment (chlorophyll)
helps plants in absorbing solar energy to prepare food.
Cytoplasm: A jelly type double membrane organelles,
which are present in the inner region of a cell. It helps
by keeping a cell in stable and protects the cell
organelles by separating them from each other.
Lysosomes: They are single membrane round
organelles, which helps in digesting proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. It also helps in excretion of undigested
materials from the plant cells. It also helps in cell
renewal and breakdown of large cells into smaller cells,
old and dead cells.
Golgi Bodies (or) Gogi complex: The sac like structures,
which are present in a cell to manufacture, store,
packing and shipping the materials throughout the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum: The network of membrane,
which helps in transporting materials around the cell. It
forms a connection between nuclear envelope and the
cell membrane of a cell.
Mitochondria: They are rod shaped organelles, plays an
important role in releasing energy and they are the
powerhouse of a cell. In plant cell, they are the sites of
cellular respiration.
Nucleus: They are large, oval shaped organelle that
contains one or more nucleoli with DNA. The main role
is to controls all types of cellular activities.
Nucleolus: They are the spherical membranes, present
inside the nucleus. This membrane contains RNA, which
is used to build proteins. They are the sites of RNA
synthesis.
Vacuole: They are the fluid sacs, which are present in
large numbers in plant cells. The main function is to
store food and other waste materials. Vacuoles are the
largest organelles present in the plant cells.
Animal Cell Structure
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, with the presence of
true nucleus; multicellular large and advanced
membrane bound organelles. Like plant cells, animal
cells have same organelles except the cell wall,
chloroplasts, number of vacuoles and many more. Due
to the absence of cell wall the shape of an animal cell is
irregular. Based on structure and functions, animal cells
comprise of:
by keeping a cell in stable and protects the cell
organelles by separating them from each other.
Lysosomes: They are round single membrane round
organelles, which helps in recycling of cell organelles.
Lysosome of an animal cell contains some digestive
enzymes that help in the digesting out the cell debris.

All types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell, animal

and plant cells have many similarities and also
differences in them, which all depends on its structure
and functions of each cell organelles.

Cell membrane: They are semi-permeable membrane

surrounding the cell. It helps in holding the cell together
and allows entry and exits of nutrients into the cell.
Nucleus: The largest organelle in the cell, which
contains DNA and other cell's hereditary information.
The main role of nucleus in animal cell is it controls all
cellular activities.

Vacuole: They are the fluid sacs, which are present in

less numbers in animal cells compared to plant cells.
The main function is this membrane is to store food and
other waste materials.
Golgi Bodies (or) Gogi complex: The sac like structures,
which are present in a cell to manufacture, store,
packing and shipping the selected particles throughout
the cell.
http://biology.tutorvista.com/cell/cell-metabolism.html
http://www.biologyreference.com/Gr-Hi/History-of-
Biology-Cell-Theory-and-Cell-Structure.html
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cac
he:http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles
/26365.aspx

Ribosome: It is present in the cytoplasm. They are the http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cloning/clonezo

site of protein synthesis, which are composed of
ribosomal RNA and proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum: The network of membrane,
which helps in transporting materials around the cell
and also helps in the synthesis of lipids and proteins. It
forms a connection between nuclear envelope and the
cell membrane of a cell.
Mitochondria: They are rod shaped organelles, plays an
important role in releasing energy and they are the
powerhouse of a cell.
ne/
http://www.interactive-biology.com/3806/why-
pancreatic-cells-have-more-rough-endoplasmic-
reticulum/
https://www.google.com.ph/webhp?sourceid=chrome-
instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-
8#q=structure+and+functions+of+a+cell

Cytoplasm: A jelly types double membrane organelles,

which are present in the inner region of a cell. It helps
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Charkoffs Principle- amount of adenine equal to
amount of thymidine, and guanine with cytosine
1885 - First-ever
demonstration of
artificial embryo twinning
Sea urchin
Hans Adolf Edward Dreisch
The sea urchin is a relatively simple organism that
is useful for studying development. Dreisch showed
that by merely shaking two-celled sea urchin
embryos, it was possible to separate the cells. Once
separated, each cell grew into a complete sea
urchin.
This experiment showed that each cell in the early
embryo has its own complete set of genetic
instructions and can grow into a full organism.
1902 - Artificial embryo
twinning in a vertebrate
Salamander
Hans Spemann
Spemanns first challenge was to figure out how to
split the two cells of an embryo much stickier than
sea urchin cells. Spemann fashioned a tiny noose
from a strand of baby hair and tightened it between
two cells of a salamander embryo until they
separated. Each cell grew into an adult salamander.
Spemann also tried to divide more advanced
salamander embryos using this method, but he
found that cells from these embryos werent as
successful at developing into adult salamanders.
This experiment showed that embryos from a more-
complex animal can also be twinned to form
multiple identical organismsbut only up to a
certain stage in development.
1928 - The cell nucleus
controls embryonic
development
Salamander
Hans Spemann
Again using a strand of baby hair tied into a noose,
Spemann temporarily squeezed a fertilized
salamander egg to push the nucleus to one side of
the cytoplasm. The egg divided into cellsbut only
on the side with the nucleus. After four cell
divisions, which made 16 cells, Spemann loosened
the noose, letting the nucleus from one of the cells
slide back into the non-dividing side of the egg. He
used the noose to separate this new cell from the
rest of the embryo. The single cell grew into a new
salamander embryo, as did the remaining cells that
were separated.
Essentially the first instance of nuclear transfer, this
experiment showed that the nucleus from an early
embryonic cell directs the complete growth of a
salamander, effectively substituting for the nucleus
in a fertilized egg.
1952 - First successful 1958 - Nuclear transfer
nuclear transfer from a differentiated cell
Frog Frog
John Gurdon
Robert Briggs and Thomas King
Gurdon transplanted the nucleus of a tadpole
Briggs and King transferred the nucleus from an
intestinal cell into an enucleated frog egg. In this
early tadpole embryo into an enucleated frog egg (a
way, he created tadpoles that were genetically
frog egg from which the nucleus had been
identical to the one from which the intestinal cell
removed). The resulting cell developed into a
was taken.
tadpole.
This experiment showed that, despite previous
The scientists created many normal tadpole clones
failures, nuclei from somatic cells in a fully
using nuclei from early embryos. But just like
developed animal could be used for cloning.
Spemanns salamander experiments, cloning was
Importantly, it suggested that cells retain all of their
less successful with donor nuclei from more
genetic material even as they divide and
advanced embryos: the few tadpole clones that did
differentiate (although some wondered if the donor
survive grew abnormally.
DNA came from a stem cell, which can differentiate
Most importantly, this experiment showed that into multiple types of cells).
nuclear transfer was a viable cloning technique. It
also reinforced two earlier observations. First, the
nucleus directs cell growth and, ultimately, an
organisms development. Second, embryonic cells
early in development are better for cloning than
cells at later stages.
 cell. As luck would have it, the new cell started
1975 - First mammalian dividing.

embryo created by By this time, in vitro fertilization techniques had

been developed, and they had been used
nuclear transfer successfully to help couples have babies. So after a
few days, Willadsen placed the lamb embryos into
Rabbit the womb of surrogate mother sheep. The result was
the birth of three live lambs.
J. Derek Bromhall
This experiment showed that it was possible to
Mammalian egg cells are much smaller than those
clone a mammal by nuclear transferand that the
of frogs or salamanders, so they are harder to
clone could fully develop. Even though the donor
manipulate. Using a glass pipette as a tiny straw,
nuclei came from early embryonic cells, the
Bromhall transferred the nucleus from a rabbit
experiment was considered a great success.
embryo cell into an enucleated rabbit egg cell. He
considered the procedure a success when a morula,
or advanced embryo, developed after a couple of
days.

This experiment showed that mammalian embryos

could be created by nuclear transfer. To show that
the embryos could continue developing, Bromhall
would have had to place them into a mother rabbit's
womb. He never did this experiment.

1987 - Nuclear transfer

from embryonic cell
Cow
Neal First, Randal Prather, and Willard Eyestone

Using methods very similar to those used by

Willadsen on sheep, First, Prather, and Eyestone
1984 - First mammal produced two cloned calves. Their names were
Fusion and Copy.
created by nuclear
This experiment added cows to the list of mammals
transfer that could be cloned by nuclear transfer. Still,
mammalian cloning was limited to using embryonic
Sheep cells as nuclear donors. Cloning using nuclei from
differentiated adult somatic cells still wasnt
Steen Willadsen thought possible.
Willadsen used a chemical process to separated one
cell from an 8-cell lamb embryo. The he used a
small electrical shock to fuse it to an enucleated egg
1996 - Nuclear transfer
from laboratory cells
Sheep
Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell
All previous cloning experiments used donor nuclei
from cells in early embryos. In this experiment, the
donor nuclei came from a slightly different source:
cultured sheep cells, which were kept alive in the
laboratory.
Wilmut and Campbell transferred the nuclei from
cultured cells into enucleated sheep egg cells. The
lambs born from this procedure were named Megan
and Morag.
This experiment showed that cultured cells can
supply donor nuclei for cloning by nuclear transfer.
Because scientists had already learned how to
transfer genes into cultured cells, this experiment
showed that it might be possible to use such
modified cells to create transgenic animalssuch as
cows that could make insulin for diabetics in their
milk.
1996 - Dolly: First
mammal created by
somatic cell nuclear
transfer
Sheep
Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell
In this landmark experiment, Wilmut and Campbell
created a lamb by transferring the nucleus from an
adult sheep's udder cell into an enucleated egg.
Never before had a mammal been cloned from an
adult somatic cell. What was the big deal?
Every cells nucleus contains a complete set of
genetic information. However, while embryonic
cells are ready to activate any gene, differentiated
adult cells have shut down the genes that they don't
need for their specific functions. When an adult cell
nucleus is used as a donor, its genetic information
must be reset to an embryonic state. Often the
resetting process is incomplete, and the embryos fail
to develop.
Of 277 attempts, only one produced an embryo that
was carried to term in a surrogate mother. This
famous lamb, named Dolly, brought cloning into
the limelight. Her arrival started conversations
about the implications of cloning, bringing
controversies over human cloning and stem cell
research into the public eye.
1997 - First primate
created by embryonic cell
nuclear transfer
Rhesus monkey
Li Meng, John Ely, Richard Stouffer, and Don Wolf
Primates are good models for studying human
disorders. Cloning identical primates would
decrease the genetic variation of research animals,
and therefore the number of animals need in
research studies.
Similar to previous cloning experiments, Wolfs
team of scientists fused early-stage embryonic cells
with enucleated monkey egg cells using a small
electrical shock. The resulting embryos were then
implanted into surrogate mothers. Out of 29 cloned
embryos, two monkeys were born. One was a
female named Neti, and the other was a male named
Ditto.
This experiment showed that primates, humans
closest relatives, can be cloned.
1997 - Nuclear transfer
from genetically
engineered laboratory
cells
Sheep
Angelika Schnieke, Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut
This experiment was an exciting combination of
findings from earlier work. Campbell and Wilmut
had already created a clone using the nucleus of a
cultured cell. This time, the researchers introduced
the human Factor IX (factor nine) gene into the
genome of sheep skin cells grown in a laboratory
dish. Factor IX codes for a protein that helps blood
clot, and it's used to treat hemophilia, a genetic
disorder where blood doesn't form proper clots.
To create the transgenic sheep, the scientists
performed nuclear transfer using donor DNA from
the cultured transgenic cells. The result was Polly, a
sheep that produced Factor IX protein in her milk.
This experiment showed that sheep could be
engineered to make therapeutic and other useful
proteins in their milk, highlighting the potential
medical and commercial uses for cloning.
 Gaur and Mouflon
Multiple groups

As the list of successfully cloned animals grew,

scientists began to explore cloning as a way to
create animals belonging to endangered or extinct
species. A challenge to cloning endangered and
extinct species is finding closely related animals to
serve as egg donors and surrogates. The gaur and
mouflon were chosen in part because they are close
relatives of domestic cattle and sheep, respectively.

In 2009, using goast as egg donors and surrogates,

another group of researchers cloned the first extinct
animal, a Spanish mountain goat called the bucardo.
1998-1999 - More Sadly, the one kid that survived gestation died soon
after birth due to a lung defect.
mammals cloned by
somatic cell nuclear
transfer
Mice, cows, and goats
Multiple groups

After the successes leading up to Dolly and Polly,

2007 - Primate
other scientists wanted to see if similar techniques
could be used to clone other mammalian species.
embryonic stem cells
Before long, several more animals had been
successfully cloned. Among them were transgenic
created by somatic cell
animals, clones made from fetal and adult cells, and
a male mouse; all previous clones had been female.
nuclear transfer
Rhesus monkey
Shoukhrat Mitalipov and colleagues

Researchers took a cell from an adult monkey and

fused it with an enucleated egg cell. The embryo
was allowed to develop for a time, then its cells
were grown in a culture dish. These cells, because
they can differentiate to form any cell type, are
2001 - Endangered called embryonic stem cells.

animals cloned by This experiment showed that nuclear transfer in a

primate, which researchers had tried for years
somatic cell nuclear without success, was possible. It opened the door to
the possibility of human therapeutic cloning:
transfer creating individual-specific stem cells that could be
used to treat or study diseases.
2013 - Human embryonic https://www.shsu.edu/~bio_mlt/Chapter3.html

stem cells created by

somatic cell nuclear
transfer
Human
Shoukhrat Mitalipov and colleagues

Overcoming decades of technical challenges,

Mitalipov and colleagues were the first to use
somatic cell nuclear transfer to create a human
embryo that could be used as a source of embryonic
stem cells. The resulting stem cell lines were
specific to the patient they came from, a baby with a
rare genetic disorder.

In this experiment, researchers took a skin cell from

the patient and fused it with a donated egg cell. Key
to the success of the experiment were modifications
to the culture liquid in which the procedure was
done and to the series of electrical pulses used to
stimulate the egg to begin dividing.

Following the cloning controversy of 20042005, in

which South Korean scientists falsely claimed to
have used somatic cell nuclear transfer to create
embryonic stem cell lines, the scientific community
demanded much stronger evidence that the
procedure had actually been successful.