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 Integration of 21st century skills into the curriculum of primary and
secondary education1
Petra Fisser & Annette Thijs
National Institute for Curriculum Development
the Netherlands

Abstract: Education of the future is a central theme in many debates nowadays. The discussion
focuses on the question what knowledge and skills are most relevant to prepare our children for a
rapidly changing society. Many of these skills are categorized as "21st century skills". In this paper
the 21st century skills are conceptualized based on recent literature. This resulted in a conceptual
framework consisting of eight skills: creativity, critical thinking, problem solving, communication,
collaboration, digital literacy, social and cultural skills, and self-regulation. From the literature it
can be concluded that there is international consensus on the importance of the skills mentioned,
but little is known about effective implementation practices and achievable learning outcomes in
primary and secondary education. Next the results from a study are presented in relation to the
extent to which the 21st century skills feature in the curriculum of primary and lower secondary
education in the Netherlands. First the formal curriculum was examined as well as a selection of
teaching materials for primary and lower secondary education. This lead to the conclusion that the
current curriculum offers schools and teachers the possibility to integrate the skills in education, but
little direction and incentives are provided. The implemented curriculum was studied through a
questionnaire for teachers and case studies at different schools. This study shows that teachers in
primary and lower secondary education are familiar with 21st century skills and find it important to
pay attention to it. However, the case studies show that the intentions of the teachers lack focus and
are not structural. In practice it is often more complex than expected to develop classroom activities
that reflect the 21st century skills adequately.

Introduction
The increasing possibilities of technology lead to numerous changes in society and the labor market. The
relatively static industrial society is transformed to a dynamic knowledge society with as shift from emphasis on the
production of standard products to the development and exchange of knowledge. The number of jobs with routine
production work diminishes, while there is a growing demand for jobs that require flexibility and problem solving
abilities. Trilling and Fadel (2009) call this the innovation economy. The ambition of the innovation economy is to
generate new ideas through collaboration, creativity, technological applications and entrepreneurship. This not only
applies to the level of the individual employee, but also to the level of companies as a whole. Successful companies
can be characterized by the speed of responding to new developments, flexibility, and innovation and intensive
cooperation both internally and externally.

The growing potential of technology also has an increasing influence on daily life. In a society filled with
technology, we are surrounded by numerous media and technology which provide new opportunities for
communication and exchange of information. This concerns "old" media such as television and newspapers, but also
newer media such as video, the Internet, and the associated opportunities such as social media. Because these new
media are easily available, users of media also become creators of media: the number of new blogs, tweets, videos
and information exchanged via Facebook and WhatsApp continues to grow. Also those people who do not engage in
social media are surrounded by new media every day. This however does not necessarily mean that all persons are
aware and active in this new media-filled society, and might not be able to participate in it.

Besides technology as such globalization plays a major role in our society. Technology facilitates
communication across borders and collaboration with peers abroad. We are moving towards a global economy, in
which we are increasingly dependent on developments far beyond our borders. Complex social issues, such as those

1
Paper presented at the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, Mar 5,
2015 in Las Vegas, NV, United States.
relating to climate, that ask for creative solutions on a global scale. This means that citizens and employees should
be able to participate in international networks and be able to deal with cultural diversity. The increasing
individualization also influences the social and personal lives of people. In contrast to the fifties, when young people
followed a more or less standard biography, we now live in a society in which individuals are expected to shape
their own biography (WRR, 2007). More than ever before young people should be able to make their own choices
and learn to orient themselves on their own qualities, talents and preferences.

All these developments lead to major economic and social changes in our society that not only influence
the work environment, but the entire living environment of people. The question is what kind of knowledge and
skills young people need to be able to function in the current society and to contribute to the society of the future?.
In other words, what should young people of the 21st century learn in school?

Conceptual framework
To gain a better understanding in the skills that are considered important for the future a literature study
was carried out to establish a conceptual framework. This involved an exploration of recent literature, both
nationally and internationally, on the basis of keywords such 21st century skills, advanced skills, digital literacy and
media literacy. Experts in the field of 21st century skills were consulted in relation to the outcomes and the results
were also discussed with teachers, administrators, and policy makers.

Models of 21st Century Skills

Although there is broad agreement on the importance of 21st century skills in education, there is less
consensus on what skills are most important. There are many lists, each with its own accent and prioritization. There
is large variation in the descriptions of the required knowledge, attitudes and skills (Ledoux et al., 2013). In spite of
this variation a set of general, most mentioned skills are distinguished in a literature study by Voogt and Pareja
Roblin (2010), which they base on five different models for 21st century skills: P21 (Partnership for 21st century
skills), EnGauge, ATCS (Assessment and Teaching of 21st century skills), NETS (National Educational Technology
Standards), and NAEP (Technological Literacy Framework for the 2012 National Assessment of Educational
Progress). In addition, they studied the recommendations of the European Union (2006), OECD (2004, described in
Ananiadou & Claro, 2009), and UNESCO (2008).

The models that were studied by Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2010) have been developed in several contexts
with different frameworks and objectives. They have different focus areas and as a result there is a variation in the
perceived importance of different skills. There are also differences in the terminology that is used to categorize the
skills. Explicit references to a level of education (primary, secondary, vocational or higher education) or an
educational environment (formal or informal) are often missing in the descriptions. The projects focus on the
conceptualization of the skills, and are often lacking concrete teaching practices or teaching materials. But despite
this it can also be seen that there are similarities in the models. There is a set of skills in each of the models that
relate to thinking skills. All models mention creativity (innovative thinking), critical thinking, and problem-solving
skills. Not explicitly mentioned in this category but in retrospect, many of the models show aspects of metacognition
(Ledoux et al., (2013). Next to thinking skills the models present a set of generic skills such as communication and
skills related to ICT. There is some variation in the way in which the ICT skills are specified. Digital literacy,
information literacy, technology skills and media skills are some of the terms that are used. The third category of
skills include interpersonal skills, social competencies, and intrapersonal skills. The models agree on the
interpersonal and social skills: these are collaboration and social and cultural skills, often focused on citizenship.
The cluster intrapersonal competencies has the most variation in the description. Career and life skills, self-
regulation and productivity, planning and management skills, flexibility, self-directed learning, and dealing with
feedback are mentioned here. But at the core of these descriptions is self-regulation, the ability to complete a task or
process and to take responsibility for your own actions.
Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2010) conclude that the skills that are mentioned in all models are collaboration,
communication, use of ICT, and social and cultural awareness (incl. citizenship). In addition most models mention
creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and productivity. Some of the models further mention self-
regulation, learning to learn (metacognition), planning, flexibility and adaptability.
21st century skills

Based on the literature study by Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2010) and translating this to the Dutch context
we distinguish eight 21st century skills that are of importance to consider: creativity, critical thinking, problem
solving, communication, collaboration, digital literacy, social and cultural skills, and self-regulation (Authors,
2014). These skills are further operationalized:

Creativity - This skill relates to creating new ideas, analyze these ideas, and elaborate and expand them.
More specifically, it requires an inquisitive and entrepreneurial attitude, the ability to think outside the box and to
see new relations, to know about creative techniques (brainstorming, etc.), and the ability to dare taking risks, make
errors, and see this as a learning opportunity.

Critical thinking - This skill relates to the ability to formulate an own vision or opinion, based on verified
arguments. More specifically, it requires the ability to effectively formulate and reason, the ability to interpret,
analyze and synthesize information, the ability to identify gaps in knowledge, the ability to ask meaningful
questions, the ability to critically reflect on the own learning process and the ability to be open to alternative
perspectives.

Problem-solving skills - This skill relates to recognizing a problem and being able to make a plan to solve
the problem. More specifically, it requires the ability to identify, analyze and define problems, to know and apply
strategies for dealing with unfamiliar problems, to generate, analyze and select problem-solving strategies, to create
patterns and models, and to make justifiable decisions.

Communication - This skill relates to effectively and efficiently transfer and receive a message. More
specifically it requires a goal-oriented exchange of information (speaking, listening, recognizing the core of a
message, effectively expressing, etc.), handling various communication situations (interviews, presentations,
debates, knowing rules and social conventions, etc.), handling different media (texts, images, video, etc.) and using
different strategies to use the opportunities that are offered by ICT to communicate effectively.

Collaboration This skill relates to jointly realizing a goal with others while complementing and
supporting the others. More specifically, it requires the ability to recognize different roles for yourself and others,
the ability to ask, give and receive help, a positive and open attitude towards other ideas, respect for cultural
differences, the ability to negotiate and to make agreements with others in a team, the ability to function in
heterogeneous groups, and to communicate effectively.

Digital literacy - This skill relates to using ICT effectively, efficiently and responsibly. It involves a
combination of ICT (basic) skills, computational thinking, media literacy and information literacy. ICT (basic) skills
include the knowledge of basic concepts and functions of computers, the ability to identify, connect and operate
hardware, the ability to deal with standard office applications (word processors, spreadsheets and presentation
software), the ability to deal with software programs on mobile devices, the ability to use the internet (browsers, e-
mail), and to be aware of and deal with security and privacy issues. Computational thinking is about using think
processes that involve problem identification, and the organization, representation and analysis of data that are used
for finding solutions for problems while using ICT techniques and tools. Media literacy is about the knowledge,
skills and attitudes necessary for conscious, critical and actively working with media. Next to the ability to
understand how media work and how they influence what we see, it is about the ability to create content, participate
in social networks, and to reflect on your own media use. Information literacy is the ability to identify and analyze a
need for information and based on this to be able to search, select, process, use, and present relevant information.

Social and cultural skills - These skills relate to the ability to effectively learn, work and live with people
with different ethnic, cultural and social backgrounds. More specifically, it requires the ability to communicate in
different social situations with respect for other visions, expressions and behaviors, recognize codes of conduct in
different social situations, the ability to recognize your own feelings and constructively express them, showing
empathy and concern for others, and to be aware of your own individual and collective responsibility as a citizen in
a society.
 Self-regulation - This skill relates to the ability to achieve goal-oriented and appropriate behavior. More
specifically, it requires the ability to set realistic goals and priorities, to carry out goal-oriented activities
(concentration, self-motivation to perform a task, independence) and monitor the process of these activities
(planning, time management), the ability to reflect on the actions and the performance of the task, the ability to
provide feedback on your own behavior and use this feedback to make adequate follow-up choices, to be aware of
the development of own competence, to take responsibility for your own actions and choices, and to see the
consequences of your own actions on the environment, also in the long term.

Overlap, usefulness and necessity of the 21st century skills

Given the broad focus of the skills, some overlap in the underlying sub skills can be found. Nevertheless
there are also clear differences of emphasis between the sub skills, depending on the purpose of the main skill to
which they belong. For example, when searching for information from the viewing point of critical thinking the
emphasis is on forming your own opinion, while searching for information is an end in itself from the viewing point
of information literacy.

There is also some discussion about whether the 21st century skills are really new skills. We argue that the
skills themselves are not new, but the importance that is attributed to them is relatively new, and because of this
emphasis there is a demand for a new way of approaching them in a more structured and purposeful way (Authors,
2014). The novelty lies in the application of the skills. Standard solutions do not longer meet the requirements of the
rapidly changing context of the 21st century society. Complex questions and social issues demand creative and
innovative solutions and interdisciplinary collaboration, often on a global scale. This requires a different way of
problem-solving than before. Pupils must be able to think 'outside the box' to see new relations and to determine
which solution fits best in a specific context.

The study
The purpose of this study was to see to what extent the 21 st century are already implemented in the current
Dutch curriculum, and to reflect on possible recommendations to strengthen this. The accompanying research
questions are
1. In what way and to what extent are the 21st century skills reflected in the current Dutch curriculum?
2. Do teachers experience sufficient support to integrate the 21 st century skills in their teaching practice?
If not, what do teachers need and who is responsible for this?
3. To what extent do teachers have an insight into the learning outcomes of students in relation to 21st
century skills, and how do they follow the development of students with respect to these skills?

The focus of the study was on the intended and implemented curriculum (Goodlad, 1979; van den Akker,
2003) of primary and lower secondary education and consisted of three phases:

1. Conceptualization: analyzing definitions and models for 21st century skills to result in a conceptual
framework (see previous section).
2. Analysis of the intended curriculum - The intended curriculum consists of the intentions as specified in
curriculum documents and/or materials. Based on the conceptual framework the core objectives, the
Common Framework of Reference for Language and Mathematics, and a selection of teaching
materials for primary and lower secondary education were examined to see to which extent they are
paying attention to the 21st century skills.
3. Analysis of the implemented curriculum The implemented curriculum is the curriculum as
interpreted by its users (especially teachers). Based on the conceptual framework the teaching practice
was investigated by using a questionnaire for teachers and by means of in-depth case studies in a small
number of schools.

Method and instruments

The analysis of the intended curriculum involved the analysis of the nationwide legislative curriculum
framework and a selection of learning materials. The nationwide legislative curriculum framework consists of the
core objectives for all subjects that should be taught at school and the common framework of reference for language
and mathematics. These are documents in which statements about the aims and the content of learning and teaching
are described at the national level. In addition, there are non-mandatory elaborations of the official curriculum
available in which examples are given for teachers on how to implement the core objectives in their teaching
practice (see for instance www.tule.nl for primary education and leerplaninbeeld.slo.nl for secondary education).
Both the mandatory and the non-mandatory frameworks were analyzed to see the extent to which the 21st century
skills are mentioned, both explicitly (a literal representation or very similar wording of the skills in the text) as
implicitly (an interpretation of the skills could be assumed). For the analysis an instrument was used in which the
eight 21st century skills and their sub-skills as mentioned in the theoretical framework are included. With this
checklist the extent to which the skills are addressed in the core objectives, the common framework of reference for
language and mathematics and the non-mandatory frameworks was analyzed. The sub skills were only scored when
they showed a relationship with the main skill. All frameworks were scored separately by two reviewers and then
discussed. In case of differences between the reviewers the differences were discussed until they reached an
agreement. The core objective analysis is also discussed with subject experts as an additional check on the analysis,
which benefits the internal validity (Baarda, de Goede & Teunissen, 2009).

The intended curriculum was also analyzed by studying existing learning materials. The purpose of the
analysis of the learning materials was to examine the extent to which these materials (regular methods from
educational publishers) pay attention to 21st century skills. Four methods for primary education and four methods for
lower secondary education were examined. For each method the latest versions of both the student materials
(textbook, workbook, exercise book), the manual for teachers, and (if available) the digital materials were analyzed.
The analysis instrument has been developed based on the conceptual framework. For each (sub) skill a score can be
given in relation to text, instructions or activities. Similar to the analysis of the core objectives the sub skills were
only scored when they showed a relationship with the main skill and the methods were analyzed by two reviewers
who discussed their results.

The analysis of the implemented curriculum involved a questionnaire for teachers and case studies in a
small number of schools. The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain a wide impression of the extent to which
teachers find the 21st century skills important, the extent to which the skills are reflected in teaching practice and
whether the teachers experience enough support to implement the skills. The questionnaire consisted of four parts:
background data (gender, age, grade, primary/secondary education), the importance of the skills (how familiar are
the teachers with the skills and do they find it important to pay attention to them), the focus on the skills in the
classroom (the extent to which teachers spend time on the skills), and future and support: to what extent are teachers
planning to pay attention to the skills and the extent to which they feel prepared to do so. Part 1 consisted of closed
questions. Parts 2 and 4 consisted of propositions with answering possibilities on a five-point scale ranging from
strongly disagree (score = 1) to strongly agree (score = 5). Part 3 also consisted of propositions with answering
possibilities on a five-point scale to which teachers could indicate to what extent they pay attention to class activities
mentioned in the propositions, ranging from nearly never (score = 1) to nearly always (score = 5). To test the
validity of the questionnaire a draft version was submitted to an expert (researcher) in the area of the 21 st century
skills and a try-out was done with two teachers from primary and secondary education. The scale scores for the
different skills have a Cronbach's alpha that is higher or equal to .74. De Vellis (2003) provided tentative
benchmarks for the interpretation of Cronbach's which we will use in this study: <.60 unacceptable; between .60
and.65 undesirable; between .65 and .70 minimally acceptable; > .70 respectable; >.80 very good. This implies that
the internal consistency of the questionnaire was respectable to good.

The purpose of the case study research was to understand how the 21 st century skills are part of the actual
teaching practice. Yin (2009) states that a case study is an empirical study that (1) examines a contemporary
phenomenon within its original context, and (2) has no clear boundary between the phenomenon and its context.
Because in this study the implemented curriculum (and therefore the actions of the teacher in particular) is the
central focus point, it fits well with the elements of this definition. The 'phenomenon' takes place in the present time
within the context of education. The teacher cannot be isolated out of the context to investigate the 'phenomenon'
and the context determines an important part of the actions of the teacher. During the selection of the schools for the
case studies a variety of types of schools was strived for with respect to the pedagogical approach (traditional,
innovative traditional, contemporary) and the degree of attention for the 21st century skills (promising schools,
regular schools. For each school the official school plan was analyzed and interviews took place with teachers of
different grades in primary schools and from different subjects in secondary schools, ICT coordinators and
department or school leaders. Based on the research questions a matrix was developed in which for each school the
most important results were described per main research question. In this way it was possible to compare the
different schools qualitatively. In addition, for each school a relative score was added to the qualitative findings.
This score indicates in what way and to what extent aspects of the main research questions of the study are reflected.
The score is relative, because there is no benchmark in advance which determines 'high' and 'low' integration of 21 st
century skills in Dutch education. The relativity only says something about the scores between the schools.

Results
The intended curriculum
The analysis of the core objectives and reference levels showed that (aspects of) all eight 21st century skills
are addressed in both primary and lower secondary education, but often just marginally. The skills that are most
mentioned are communication, self-regulation, and social and cultural skills. Furthermore, there is also some
attention for critical thinking, both in the main goals as well as in the reference levels. There is little attention to
problem-solving skills and collaboration. Also digital literacy is only mentioned to a very limited extent. For
primary education, the importance of dealing with information technology is mentioned, but is only explicitly
mentioned for the subjects of language and mathematics. For lower secondary education "working with computers
and the Internet" is mentioned in the characteristic of most learning areas, but digital literacy is hardly found in the
core objectives and reference levels. If it is mentioned, it is mainly concerned with finding information from the
Internet (information literacy) or in general, working with computers (ICT (basic) skills). Aspects of media literacy
rarely occur. There is limited attention to creativity. The importance of creativity is mentioned once for primary
education , but cannot be found in the core objectives. Creativity is only part in the subject of art and culture in the
core objectives for lower secondary education. The core objectives and reference levels do not offer guidance to
integrate the 21st century skills into the teaching practice. The non-mandatory examples give more guidance, but
they also do not mention the skills systematically.

The analysis of the learning materials showed that most materials pay some attention to the 21st century
skills, both in primary and lower secondary education. Most of the skills can be recognized in one way or another,
but the extent to which and the manner in which differs. In general it can be said that even though the skills are
mentioned, it is not very substantial and not very systematically. Although it is difficult to compare the learning
materials because they cover different learning areas a number of patterns can be seen. The materials for primary
education pay primarily attention to communication, collaboration and, to a lesser extent, critical thinking. Digital
literacy gets very little attention. The materials for lower secondary education do pay attention to the use of digital
resources and students are taught how to use various digital applications (ICT (basic) skills). Furthermore, the focus
is primarily on information skills, collaboration and critical thinking. Little attention is paid to social and cultural
skills and self-regulation. In both primary and lower secondary education there is little emphasis on problem-solving
skills, social and cultural skills and creativity.

Overall it can be seen that the intended curriculum does provide a starting point for the integration of 21 st
century skills, but not very explicit and systematically. The skills are addressed in the core objectives and reference
levels, but lacks focus. Also in the learning materials the skills are not yet sufficiently integrated. Communication is
the skill that is most common for both in core objectives, reference levels and learning materials. Collaboration is
most often seen in the learning materials. But even though social and cultural skills get relative much attention in the
core objectives, this skill is not found very detailed in the learning materials. Creativity, problem solving skills and
digital literacy are the skills that get the least attention.

The implemented curriculum

An online questionnaire was distributed in April 2014 among 15,000 teachers in primary education and
18,000 teachers in secondary education. A minimum of 383 respondents was needed to get a representative picture
of the target group and to draw conclusion with a 95% confidence level. In total 822 teachers from primary
education and 867 teachers from lower secondary education responded. The respondents have similar characteristics
(gender, age) as the Dutch teacher population.

The results from the questionnaire show that the majority of teachers in both primary and lower secondary
education are familiar with the 21st century skills, 58% indicates that they are familiar and 36% said that they are to
some extent familiar with the skills. Teachers from lower secondary education are significantly less familiar with the
21st century skills than primary education teachers. Within primary education the teachers who teach in the final
years of primary education are the most familiar with the skills. A large majority (90%) of all teachers indicate that
they deliberately pay attention to the 21st century skills in their lessons. Half of the teachers indicate that they do
this in a quarter or half of their lessons (55%), and a third of the teachers (35%) spends three-quarters or more of the
lessons with a focus on the skills. 10% of the teacher say that they rarely or never pay attention to the skills. There
are no significant differences between teachers from primary and secondary education.

Table 1 shows the extent to which teachers spend time on the skills in lower secondary education and
primary education. Within primary education a distinction was made in relation to different age groups within
primary education, see Table 1.

Table 1 Extent to which teachers spend time on the 21st century skills
education type lower primary primary primary primary
st secondary education education education education
21 century skill
education (age 4-12) (age 4-6) (age 7-9) (age 10-12)
(age 12-15)
creativity 2,8 2,8 2,9 2,7 2,9
critical thinking 2,9 3,1 2,7 3,0 3,3
problem solving 2,7 2,8 2,8 2,7 2,9
communication 2,6 2,6 2,1 2,4 2,9
collaboration 3,3 3,7 3,5 3,6 3,8
digital literacy
ICT (basic) skills 2,5 2,7 1,9 2,5 3,1
media literacy 2,3 2,2 1,3 1,9 2,7
information literacy 2,6 2,5 1,4 2,1 3,1
social and cultural skills 2,9 3,4 3,4 3,4 3,4
self-regulation 2,9 2,9 2,7 2,8 3,1
NB: based on propositions, ranging from nearly never (score = 1) to nearly always (score = 5)

From the table it can be seen that teachers 'sometimes' to 'often' include the 21st century skills in their
lessons. The skills that receive most attention/emphasis are collaboration, social and cultural skills, and critical
thinking. Skills related to the use of technology are included in the least in teaching practice. No significant
differences have been found between male and female teachers, and this is also true for differences between younger
teachers and older teachers (over 45). Significant differences have been found between primary education and lower
secondary education with regard to two skills: creativity and problem solving. This difference is found when
comparing lower secondary school (age 12-15) with upper primary school (age 10-12).

The majority (69%) of the teachers indicate that they want to put more emphasis on the 21st century skills
in the future. Only 9% indicates that they are not going to spend time on the skills. Teachers were also asked
whether they feel sufficiently trained and supported to integrate the 21st century skills in their lessons. The results
indicate that most teachers do not feel adequately equipped. Teachers need more guidance, teaching materials and
professional development. They would also like a further specification of the skills, with exemplary materials.

Conclusion and discussion

The 21st century skills are defined based on literature study and expert appraisal. This exploration resulted
in a conceptual framework consisting of eight skills: creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving skills,
communication, collaboration, digital literacy, social and cultural skills and self-regulation. Digital literacy includes
a combination of ICT (basic) skills, information literacy and media literacy. Even though there is an internationally
broad agreement on the importance of the skills, little is known about effective implementation practices and
achievable learning outcomes in primary and secondary education.

Based on the conceptual framework, the Dutch core objectives, reference levels and a selection of teaching
materials for primary and lower secondary education have been studied. This analysis showed that the current
curriculum offers schools little direction and stimulus to include the 21st skills in their teaching practice. The skills
are not mentioned very explicitly in the core objectives and reference levels, and regular teaching methods also offer
little substantial and systematic guidance. Creativity and problem solving get the least attention. This also applies to
digital literacy when looking at primary education. In lower secondary education more attention is paid to ICT
(basic) skills and information literacy, but media literacy and computational thinking are also hardly articulated.

The survey among more than 1600 teachers in primary and lower secondary education and the case studies
at primary and lower secondary schools show that teachers l are familiar with the 21st century skills. They pay some
attention to the skills in their teaching practice, but not in a structural or purposeful way. In particular, critical
thinking and problem solving skills are perceived as difficult by the teachers. Most teachers have the intention to pay
more attention to the skills in the future, but a majority of teachers do not feel competent enough and are in need of
professional development, teaching materials and good examples.

To support teachers in integrating the skills in their teaching practice four types of support are important:
curriculum development (specification of the skills in a curriculum framework and exemplary teaching materials),
testing instruments (development of useful frameworks and tools for monitoring and assessing the pupils),
professional development (wide range of professional development activities and networks of school for knowledge
sharing), and more learning resources (more attention to the skills in regular teaching materials, and a broader access
to additional open learning materials). It is also recommended that the 21st century skills become more visible in the
nationwide curriculum framework.

Regardless of the results of this study the lack of a "benchmark" or standard makes it difficult to determine
whether there is "enough" attention for the skills in the current curriculum. The Dutch national curriculum
framework is meant to give guidance, but is also expected to give freedom for schools to make own choices when
teaching. How do we ensure that the skills getting enough explicit attention? And should they get attention within
existing subjects, or is it necessary to pay attention to the skills separately? Or in other words, what position should
the 21st century skills have in the curriculum and should the national curriculum be re-designed? The influence of
possible changes in the curriculum on subject matter knowledge, instructional methods and methods of assessment
are still not very clear and require further research (Binkley et al 2012; Voogt & Pareja Roblin, 2010).

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