Ultimate tensile strength

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Two vises apply tension to a specimen by pulling at it, stretching the specimen
until it fractures. The maximum stress it withstands before fracturing is its
ultimate tensile strength.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or
ultimate strength,[1][2] is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand
loads tending to elongate, as opposed to compressive strength, which withstands
loads tending to reduce size. In other words, tensile strength resists tension
(being pulled apart), whereas compressive strength resists compression (being
pushed together). Ultimate tensile strength is measured by the maximum stress that
a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In the
study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear
strength can be analyzed independently.

Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a
brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience
some plastic deformation and possibly necking before fracture.

The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering
stress versus strain. The highest point of the stressstrain curve (see point 1 on
the engineering stress-strain diagrams below) is the UTS. It is an intensive
property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen.
However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen,
the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test
environment and material.

Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are
important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as
alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood.

Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids under certain
conditions. For example, when a tree [3] draws water from its roots to its upper
leaves by transpiration, the column of water is pulled upwards from the top by the
cohesion of the water in the xylem, and this force is transmitted down the column
by its tensile strength. Air pressure, osmotic pressure, and capillary tension also
plays a small part in a tree's ability to draw up water, but this alone would only
be sufficient to push the column of water to a height of less than ten metres, and
trees can grow much higher than that (over 100 m).

Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area.
For some non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported
just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the International System of Units
(SI), the unit is the pascal (Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa),
using the SI prefix mega); or, equivalently to pascals, newtons per square metre
(N/m). A United States customary unit is pounds per square inch (lb/in or psi),
or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi), which is equal to 1000
psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used in one country (US), when
measuring tensile strengths.

Contents [hide]
1 Concept
1.1 Ductile materials
2 Testing
3 Typical tensile strengths
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Concept[edit]
Ductile materials[edit]

"Engineering" stressstrain () curve typical of aluminum

1. Ultimate strength
2. Yield strength
3. Proportional limit stress
4. Fracture
5. Offset strain (typically 0.2%)

"Engineering" (red) and "true" (blue) stressstrain curve typical of structural

steel.
1: Ultimate strength
2: Yield strength (yield point)
3: Rupture
4: Strain hardening region
5: Necking region
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
B: Actual stress (F/A)
Many materials can display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress
strain relationship, as shown in the left figure up to point 3. The elastic
behavior of materials often extends into a non-linear region, represented in the
figure by point 2 (the "yield point"), up to which deformations are completely
recoverable upon removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in
tension will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when
unloaded. Beyond this elastic region, for ductile materials, such as steel,
deformations are plastic. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely
return to its original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic
deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.

After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in
which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as
the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a
sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a
reversal of the engineering stressstrain curve (curve A, right figure); this is
because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional
area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering
stressstrain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the
ultimate tensile strength, given by point 1.

The UTS is not used in the design of ductile static members because design
practices dictate the use of the yield stress. It is, however, used for quality
control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine
material types for unknown samples.[4]

The UTS is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle

material because such materials have no yield point.[4]

Testing[edit]

Round bar specimen after tensile stress testing

Main article: Tensile testing
Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional
area, and then pulling it with a tensometer at a constant strain (change in gauge
length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks.

When testing some metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile
strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive
testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as
hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.[5] This practical correlation helps quality
assurance in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and
universal testing machines.

While most metal forms, such as sheet, bar, tube, and wire, can exhibit the test
UTS, fibers, such as carbon fibers, being only 2/10,000th of an inch in diameter,
must be made into composites to create useful real-world forms. As the datasheet on
T1000G below indicates, while the UTS of the fiber is very high at 6,370 MPa, the
UTS of a derived composite is 3,040 MPa less than half the strength of the fiber.
[6]

Typical tensile strengths[edit]

Typical tensile strengths of some materials
Material Yield strength
(MPa) Ultimate tensile strength
(MPa) Density
(g/cm)
Steel, structural ASTM A36 steel 250 400550 7.8
Steel, 1090 mild 247 841 7.58
Chromium-vanadium steel AISI 6150 620 940 7.8
Human skin 15 20 2
Steel, 2800 Maraging steel[7] 2617 2693 8.00
Steel, AerMet 340[8] 2160 2430 7.86
Steel, Sandvik Sanicro 36Mo logging cable precision wire[9]1758 2070 8.00
Steel, AISI 4130, water quenched 855 C (1570 F), 480 C (900 F) temper[10]
951 1110 7.85
Steel, API 5L X65[11] 448 531 7.8
Steel, high strength alloy ASTM A514 690 760 7.8
Acrylic, clear cast sheet (PMMA)[12] 72 87[13] 1.16
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 2633 37 0.85
Polypropylene 1243 19.780 0.91
Steel, stainless AISI 302 cold-rolled 520[citation needed] 860 8.19
Cast iron 4.5% C, ASTM A-48 130 200
"Liquidmetal" alloy[citation needed] 1723 5501600 6.1
Beryllium[14] 99.9% Be 345 448 1.84
Aluminium alloy[15] 2014-T6 414 483 2.8
Polyester resin (unreinforced)[16] 55 55
Polyester and chopped strand mat laminate 30% E-glass[16] 100 100
S-Glass epoxy composite[6] 2358 2358
Aluminium alloy 6061-T6 241 300 2.7
Copper 99.9% Cu 70 220[citation needed] 8.92
Cupronickel 10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, balance Cu 130 350 8.94
Brass 200 + 500 8.73
Tungsten 941 1510 19.25
Glass 33[17] 2.53
E-Glass N/A 1500 for laminates,
3450 for fibers alone 2.57
S-Glass N/A 4710 2.48
Basalt fiber[18] N/A 4840 2.7
Marble N/A 15 2.6
Concrete N/A 25 2.7
Carbon fiber N/A 1600 for laminates,
4137 for fibers alone 1.75
Carbon fiber (Toray T1000G)[19] (the strongest man-made fibres) 6370 fibre
alone 1.80
Human hair 10
Bamboo 350500 0.4
Spider silk (see note below) 1000 1.3
Spider silk, Darwin's bark spider[20] 1652
Silkworm silk 500 1.3
Aramid (Kevlar or Twaron) 3620 3757 1.44
UHMWPE[21] 24 52 0.97
UHMWPE fibers[22][23] (Dyneema or Spectra) 23003500 0.97
Vectran 28503340
Polybenzoxazole (Zylon)[24] 2700 5800 1.56
Wood, pine (parallel to grain) 40
Bone (limb) 104121 130 1.6
Nylon, molded, type 6/6 450 750 1.15
Nylon fiber, drawn[25] 900[26] 1.13
Epoxy adhesive 1230[27]
Rubber 16
Boron N/A 3100 2.46
Silicon, monocrystalline (m-Si) N/A 7000 2.33
Ultra-pure silica glass fiber-optic strands[28] 4100
Sapphire (Al2O3) 400 at 25 C, 275 at 500 C, 345 at 1000 C 1900 3.94.1
Boron nitride nanotube N/A 33000 2.62[29]
Diamond 1600 2800 3.5
Graphene N/A 130000[30] 1.0
First carbon nanotube ropes ? 3600 1.3
Colossal carbon tube N/A 7000 0.116
Carbon nanotube (see note below) N/A 1100063000 0.0371.34
Carbon nanotube composites N/A 1200[31] N/A
High-strength carbon nanotube film N/A 9600[32] N/A
Iron (pure mono-crystal) 3 7.874
Limpet Patella vulgata teeth (Goethite) 4900
30006500[33]
^a Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity or composition.
^b Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material
yet measured, with labs producing them at a tensile strength of 63 GPa,[34] still
well below their theoretical limit of 300 GPa.[citation needed] The first nanotube
ropes (20 mm in length) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a
strength of 3.6 GPa.[35] The density depends on the manufacturing method, and the
lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid).[36]
^c The strength of spider silk is highly variable. It depends on many factors
including kind of silk (Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.),
species, age of silk, temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied
during testing, length stress is applied, and way the silk is gathered (forced
silking or natural spinning).[37] The value shown in the table, 1000 MPa, is
roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving several
different species of spider however specific results varied greatly.[38]
^d Human hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments.
Typical properties for annealed elements[39]
Element Young's
modulus
(GPa) Offset or
yield strength
(MPa) Ultimate
strength
(MPa)
silicon 107 50009000
tungsten 411 550 550620
iron 211 80100 350
titanium 120 100225 246370
copper 130 117 210
tantalum 186 180 200
tin 47 914 15200
zinc alloy 85105 200400 200400
nickel 170 140350 140195
silver 83 170
gold 79 100
aluminium 70 1520 4050
lead 16 12
See also[edit]
Flexural strength
Strength of materials
Tensile structure
Toughness
Failure
Tension (physics)
Young's modulus
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 31
Jump up ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 223
Jump up ^ For a review, see Harvey Brown "The theory of the rise of sap in Trees:
Some Historical and Conceptual Remarks" in Physics in Perspective vol 15 (2013) pp.
320358
^ Jump up to: a b "Tensile Properties". Retrieved 20 February 2015.
Jump up ^ E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, "Correlation of Yield Strength and
Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels", Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, 17:6 (December 2008)
^ Jump up to: a b "Properties of Carbon Fiber Tubes". Retrieved 20 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
Jump up ^ USStubular.com
Jump up ^ IAPD Typical Properties of Acrylics
Jump up ^ strictly speaking this figure is the flexural strength (or modulus of
rupture), which is a more appropriate measure for brittle materials than "ultimate
strength."
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Guide to Glass Reinforced Plastic (fibreglass) East Coast
Fibreglass Supplies". Retrieved 20 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Soda-Lime (Float) Glass Material Properties :: MakeItFrom.com".
Retrieved 20 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Basalt Continuous Fibers". Archived from the original on 2009-12-29.
Retrieved 2009-12-29.
Jump up ^ Toray Properties Document
Jump up ^ Agnarsson, I; Kuntner, M; Blackledge, TA (2010). "Bioprospecting Finds
the Toughest Biological Material: Extraordinary Silk from a Giant Riverine Orb
Spider". PLoS ONE. 5: e11234. PMC 2939878 Freely accessible. PMID 20856804.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011234.
Jump up ^ Oral, E; Christensen, SD; Malhi, AS; Wannomae, KK; Muratoglu, OK (2006).
"PubMed Central, Table 3:". J Arthroplasty. 21: 58091. PMC 2716092 Freely
accessible. PMID 16781413. doi:10.1016/j.arth.2005.07.009. Retrieved 20 February
2015.
Jump up ^ Tensile and creep properties of ultra high molecular weight PE fibres
Jump up ^ Mechanical Properties Data
Jump up ^ "MatWeb The Online Materials Information Resource". Retrieved 20
February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Nylon Fibers". University of Tennessee.
Jump up ^ "Comparing aramids". Teijin Aramid.
Jump up ^ Uhu endfest 300 epoxy: Strength over setting temperature
Jump up ^ Fols.org
Jump up ^ http://space.stackexchange.com/questions/14883/what-is-the-density-of-
hydrogenated-boron-nitride-nanotubes-h-bnnt
Jump up ^ Lee, C.; et al. (2008). "Measurement of the Elastic Properties and
Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene". Science. 321 (5887): 3858.
Bibcode:2008Sci...321..385L. PMID 18635798. doi:10.1126/science.1157996. Lay
summary.
Jump up ^ IOP.org Z. Wang, P. Ciselli and T. Peijs, Nanotechnology 18, 455709,
2007.
Jump up ^ [1] W. Xu, Y. Chen, H. Zhan and J.N. Wang, Nano Lett. 2016, 16(2), pp.
946952.
Jump up ^ Barber, A. H.; Lu, D.; Pugno, N. M. (2015). "Extreme strength observed in
limpet teeth". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 12: 105.
doi:10.1098/rsif.2014.1326.
Jump up ^ Yu, Min-Feng; Lourie, O; Dyer, MJ; Moloni, K; Kelly, TF; Ruoff, RS
(2000). "Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under
Tensile Load". Science. 287 (5453): 637640. Bibcode:2000Sci...287..637Y. PMID
10649994. doi:10.1126/science.287.5453.637.
Jump up ^ F. Li, H. M. Cheng, S. Bai, G. Su, and M. S. Dresselhaus, "Tensile
strength of single-walled carbon nanotubes directly measured from their macroscopic
ropes". doi:10.1063/1.1324984
Jump up ^ K.Hata. "From Highly Efficient Impurity-Free CNT Synthesis to DWNT
forests, CNTsolids and Super-Capacitors" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Elices; et al. "Finding Inspiration in Argiope Trifasciata Spider Silk
Fibers". JOM. Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Blackledge; et al. "Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization
of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider
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Further reading[edit]
Giancoli, Douglas, Physics for Scientists & Engineers Third Edition (2000). Upper
Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Khler T, Vollrath F (1995). "Thread biomechanics in the two orb-weaving spiders
Araneus diadematus (Araneae, Araneidae) and Uloboris walckenaerius (Araneae,
Uloboridae)". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 271: 117.
doi:10.1002/jez.1402710102.
T Follett, Life without metals
Min-Feng Y, Lourie O, Dyer MJ, Moloni K, Kelly TF, Ruoff RS (2000). "Strength and
Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load". Science.
287 (5453): 637640. Bibcode:2000Sci...287..637Y. PMID 10649994.
doi:10.1126/science.287.5453.637.
George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy (1988). McGraw-Hill, UK
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