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780 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS R=2R, -+:(27.3) where R is measured below the high flood level (HFL). Scour level = H.F.L. = R =HF.L. =2R, (27.4) ‘The grip length is taken as $R below the scour level according to the code of practice of the Indian Roads Congress and as $4 in Railway practice. This means that the depth of foundation should be at least 1}.8 below HFL according ta IRC code, and LR below HEL according to Railway practice . It is further recommended. that the minimum depth of embedment below the scour level should not be less than 2.0 m for piers and abutment with arches and 1.2 m for piers and abutments supporting other types of superstructure. According to Terzaghi and Peck, the ultimate bearing capacity can be determined from the following expression: Or= Oy + 2nRf, Dy 27.5) Qp = aR? (1.2 CNe + yDy Ny + 0.67RNy) + oe(27.6) where Ne, Nye N,=Terzaghi's bearing capacity factors radius of well Dy= depth of well (depth of foundation) Jr= average skin friction 27.4, FORCES ACTING ON A WELL FOUNDATION In addition to the self-weight and buoyancy, a well carries the dead load of the super-structure, bearings pier and is liable to the following horizontal forces : (®) bracking and tractive effort of the moving vehicles. (ii) force on account of resistance of the bearings against movement due to variation of temperature, (ii) force on account of water current, (i) wind focres, () seismic forces, (vi) earth pressure, (vii) centrifugal forces. ‘The magnitude, direction and point of application of all the above forces can be found under the worst possible combinations and they can be replaced by two horizontal forces, P and @ and a single vertical foree W as shown in Fig. 27.3. P= Resultant of all horizontal forces in the direction across the pier. Q= Resultant of all horizontal forces in the direction along the pier. W-=Resultant of all vertical forces. The analysis is done on the following assumptions (Banerjee and Gangopadhyay, 1960); WELL FOUNDATIONS 78k 1. The well is acted upon by an uni- directional horizontal force P in a direction across the pier. 2. The well is founded in sandy stratum. 3, The resultant unit pressure on soil at any depth is in simple proportion to horizontal displacement, 4. The ratio between contact pressure and corresponding displacement is independent of the pressure. 5. The co-efficient of vertical subgrade reaction has the same value for every point of surface acted upon by contact pressure. The analysis that follows is that suggested by Banerjee and Gangopadhyay (1960). 27.8. ANALYSIS OF WELL FOUNDATION 1, Horizontal soil reactions. When a rigid well, embedded in sand, starts moving parallel FIG. 27.3. FORCES ON A WELL. to its original position, under the action of a horizontal force P, it transforms the soil on one side to passive state of plastic equilibrium and the other side into active state. Assuming that the well movement p, is sufficient to mobilise fully the active and passive earth pressure, ‘the resultant unit pressure at a depth z below the surface is given by pray. 2(Kp~ Ke) 27.1) where y= unit weight of soil K,. K, = co-efficient of passive and active earth pressure, and depend upon the angle of internal friction §, and angle of wall friction 8. Let p be the load per unit arca of vertical surface of sand and p be the corresponding displacement. Assum- jing that p, is the displacement required to increase the value of resultant unit pressure form zero to p,, we have. ape - Pray pr te tp Kay +-(27.8) FIG. 27.8. EFFECT OF WALL MOVEMENT. 788 ‘SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS: 6, Evaluation of moment M, produced by P, D - Pe py ae = ML apt “ Ma = f" m5, (- Dy) fdz =i, (GD' - 4D, D+ Di) (27.19) 7. Evaluation of vertical reaction R : Modulus of vertical subgrade reaction is ee ° where p= vertical deflection of soil corresponding to vertical reaction P = o% Ba Bit R=2 pdr =2 koa de ° ° or B=KBp +e(27.20) 8. Evaluation of moment M, produced at the base due to vertical soil reaction p ‘The rotation of the well is also resisted by a moment M, acting at the base on account of the downward deflection of the toc and upward deflection of the heel. Fig. 27.8 shows the rotation of the base, with displacement p, at the ends. Let p be the deflection at a distance x from the centre O of the base. — FIG. 27.8 ROTATION OF BASE. But Ps = pr (27.21) This moment acts in clockwise direction for the present case of Fig. 27.5 (a). 9, Evaluation of Pp, on the basis of maximum soil pressure If no plastic flow is allowed in the soil, horizontal soil reaction p at any depth Must not exceed (PJms for that depth, given by (Pada = 1 (Kp ~ Ka) «(27.22) 209 oc Be ky ~ Ke) 27.23) WELL FOUNDATIONS: 789 is in contact with soil and the remaining portion is only held by skin friction, A three-point support of the cutting edge resting on a log may be assumed for design purposes. The load coming on the cutting edge is uncertain as a considerable part of it is borne by skin friction. Another factor of uncertainty is in regard to the effective depth of the well curb, since the entire well acts as a deep girder to resist torsion and bending. Since the load is occasional, working stress upto 99% of yield stress may be penmitted. The well curb has also to withstand stress due to sand blows, as well as due to light blasting required when boulder obstructs the sinking of the well Cutting edge. The cutting edge should have as sharp an angle as practicable for knifing into the soil without making it too weak to resist the various stresses induced by boulders, blows, blasting, etc. An angle to the vertical of 30°, or a slope of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical has been found satisfactory in practice. In concrete caissons, the lower portion of the cutting edge is wrapped with 12 mm steel plates which are anchored to the concrete by means of steel straps. A sharp vertical edge is generally provided along the outside face of the caisson. Such an edge facilitates the rate of sinking and prevents air leakage in the case of pneumatic casissons. Steining thickness. The thickness of steining is designed in such a way that at all stages the well can be sunk under its own weight, as the need for weighting with kentledge takes time and retards progress considerably, For a circular well with outer diameter D and thickness ¢ of the steining, we have Self-weight per unit height = x(D- 1p Skin friction force per unit weight = xD 1 where p= unit weight of concrete or masonry of the steining r= unit skin friction Equating the two, we get 1(D-itp= "Dy ol, afi 4a) Bla 1-H | «(27.46) It will be seen from this equation that for a given value of skin friction, the steining thickness comes out to be less with increasing value of diameter of the well. This is, however, contrary to the usual practice of providing greater thickness of steining with increasing diameter of the well as given in the following table : From which D (outside diameter of well) t (steining thickness) 3m 0.75 m sm 1.20 m 7m 2.00 m This is so because large diameter wells are taken deeper and the skin friction increases with depth. Moreover, for deeper wells, water is invariably met with and the effective self-weight is reduced by buoyancy in the portion of the well below water level, and hence larger steining thickness is required. ™m ‘SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS use of phaweah Jhams is effective. When power winches are available clayey strata can also be successfully excavated with the help of big grabs having tempered steet teeth, ‘As the well sinks deeper, the skin friction on the sides progressively increases. To overcome the inreased skin friction and the loss in weight of the well due to buoyancy, additional loading known as kensledge is applied on the well. Pumping out the water from inside the well is effective in sinking of well under certain conditions. Pumping should be discouraged in the initial stage. Unless the well has gone deep enough or has passed through a ring of clayey strata so that chances of tilts and shifts are minimised during this process. Complete dewatering should not be allowed when the well has been sunk to about 10 m depth. Sinking thereafter should be done by grabbing, chiselling, applying Kentledge and using gefignite charges. Only when these methods have failed, dewatering may be allowed upto depressed water level of 5 m and not more. On certain occasions a well is struck up and normal method of keniledge and dredging fail co sink it further. In such a case frictional resistance developed on its outer periphery is reduced considerably by forcing jet of water on the outer face of the well around. This method is effective in case the well is being sunk in sand strata. 4. Tilts and Shifts. The primary aim in well sinking is to sink them straight and at the correct position, Suitable precautions should be taken to avoid tilts and shifts, Also proper records of tilts and shifis should be maintained and measure should be taken to Counter-act tills and shifts. The precasutions to avoid tilts and shifts are as follows: 1. The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be as regular and smooth as. possible 2. The radius of curb should be kept 2 to 4 cm larger than the outside radius of well steining. 3. The cutting edge of the curb should be of unifrom thickness and sharpness since the sharper edge has a grater tendency of sinking than a blunt edge. 4. The dredging should be done uniformly on all sides in a circular well and in both pockets of a twin well. The tilts and shifts of well, if any, must be carefully checked and recorded. The correct measurement of the tilts at any stage is pethaps one of the most important field observations required during well sinking. As soon as tilt exceeds 1 in 200, the sinking should be supervised with special care and rectifying measures should be immediately taken, Any of the following measures can usefully be employed to counteract the tillts in the well during sinking operations : (® Regulation of grabbing. Unequal dredging causes tilts and hence if higher side is grabbed more by regulating the dredging, the tilt can be rectified (Fig. 27.12. (a)]. This method is not very effective when the well has been sunk to a great depth. In that case, a hole in the steining of the well is made on the higher side, and by hooks, the rope of the grab is pulled towards higher side to the maximum possible extent (Fig. 27.12 (O)]. The hole is made near the ground level. The well may be dewatered if possible and open excavation on the higher side is carried out. 77 SOIL. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS In larger size wells to be sunk to great depths, eccentric loading may be as much as 400 to 600 tonnes with an eccentricity of 3 to 4 m. In such a case a welded frame bracket is used as shown in (Fig. 27.12 ()]. (iii) Water jetting or digging pit outside the higher side of the well. In this method, water jet is forced on the outer faces of the well, towards the higher side so that skin friction is reduced towards the higher side, The method if used alone is not very effective but provides a contributory effect if used with other methods. (iv) Excavation under the cutting edge. A filled well generally. refuses to straighten on account of unbroken stiff strata on the higher side of the well. In such a case, the well is dewatered, if possible and safe, an open excavation is done below the cutting edge of the higher side. If dewatering is unsafe, divers should be sent to loosen the strata, (*) Providing temporary obstacles below the cutting edge. In some cases wooden. sleeper pieces are put temporarily below the cutting edge of the well on the lower side to avoid further tilt of the well while various expedients are being tempted to rectify the tilt [Fig. 27.12 (d)]. Hooking the cutting edge on the lower side of the well with the help of the steel wire rope, pulled, and kept strained by steam which also has a similar effect (Fig, 27.12 (c)]. () Pulling the well. This method is effective only in early stages of sinking, The well is pulled towards the higher side by placing one or more steel ropes round the well with vertical sleepers packed in between to distribute the pressure over larger areas of well steining. The pulling of ropes may be carried out by winches [Fig. 27.12 (/]. (vii) Strutting the well. This method is used to avoid any further increase in the tilt of the well rather than reetifying it. The well is strutted on its tilted side with suitable logs of wood. The well steining is given covering plate to distribute pressure. The other ends of the logs rest against firm and non-yielding base by driving piles ete. Wood pieces are kept ready to be inserted and fixed in the gaps caused by the tilts of the well being rectified (viii) Pushing by jacks. The well may be pushed by force applied by hydraulie or mechanical jack on the tilled side of the wells. 27.9. PNEUMATIC CAISSONS Pneumatic caissons are closed at the top and open (during construction) at the bottom, ‘The essential fearure of a pneumatic caisson is that compressed air is used to exclude or remove water from the working chamber at the bottom, and the excavations are thus carried out in dry conditions. The method of construction of pneumatic caisson is similar to that for ‘open caissons (wells) except that the working chamber is kept air tight. In order that sub-soit water may not enter the working chamber, the pressure of air in the shaft is kept just higher than that of the water at that depth, However, the maximum pressure is limited from the considerations of health of persons who work inside the chamber. Normally, the tolerable air pressure under which a man can work is limited to 3.5 kg /cm’, Let h be the height of water, at any stage of working. Then ait pressure p required to exclude water is given by 796 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS inside the well. The air lock may rest on rubber seals just above the cutting edge. The number of air locks may vary from one to three. Generally, two ait locks are used — one for sending men inside and the other for moving the excavated material with the help of a much bucket and hoisting rope. 3. Afier properly placing the air lock in position, so that direct air entry is scaled, water is pumped out from the bottom and air pressure is gradually increased so that fresh water docs not enter the working chamber. 4. Labourers are then sent down to the working chamber, through the appropriate air lock. In order to prevent leakage of air, arrangement of double gates is provided. ‘The person enters the first gate, where pressure is atmospheric. The first door is closed and pressure is gradually increased to make it equal to the one in the working chamber. ‘The height of working chamber is kept about 2 m, with proper lighting arrangement. Air is supplied through the air inlet pipe connected to an air compressor. 5. Excavation is carried out in the working chamber by the labourers sent down through air lock. The excavated material is sent up through the muck buckets lifted up by a hoisting rope operated by winch drum, through the air lock. In order to assist sinking, air pressure may be reduced for a short while. Sometimes, explosives may be employed in which case it is essential to make arrangements for the immediate removal of fall fumes. 6. When the caisson bottom has reached the desired level, concrete seal (or plug) is made by concreting upto the underside roof of the working chamber. Sufficient air pressure is maintained to force the concrete against the bottom surface till it hardens. 7. Ait locks are removed, well is filled with sand or water (or even kept empty). The well cap is then formed on its top as usual. 28 Machine Foundations 28.1, SOIL DYNAMICS Soil dynamics is defined as that constituent part of soil mechanics which deals with soil under dynamic conditions. It studies the effect of forces on soil in any way associated with causing motions in soil as well as with the mutual dynamic interaction of the foundation and soil (Sumikis, 1969). Most of the motions encountered in soil dynamics work are those of vibration, plane linear motion, motion brought about by impact, shock, clastic waves, and seismic action of geophysical forces. ‘The design of foundations of turbines, motors, generators compressors, forge hammers and other machines, having a rhythmic application of unbalanced forces require special knowledge of theory of harmonic vibrations. Inertial forces of rotating elements of machines contribute, besides their static loads, additional dynamic loads. The machinery vibration influences adversely the foundation supporting soil by densifying it which may in turn, casue differential settlement of soil and foundation. 28.2. THE MASS SPRING SYSTEM In soil dynamics problems, the analysis may be conveniently carried out by a single equivalent mass supported by a perfectly elastic system — the soil being replaced by the spring. Fig. 28.1 shows mass-spring system (or spring- mass system), in which the weight W=mg may be associated with the weight of the vibrating vibrator or foundations. ‘The elastic spring represents the real soil support. Such a system has six degrees of freedom, and has thus six natural frequencies. Free-Vibrations, Let the mass spring system be set to vibration by an external force which is then removed. The system will continue to oscillate indefinitely with the same frequency and amplitude if extemal force or internal friction is absent. The time for one complete oscillation of the mass is called the free period and the distance up or down | from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude. FIG. 28.1. MASS-SPRING SYSTEM 7) 798 SOIL. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS, Fig. 28.2 (a) shows a simple spring with a spring constant & kg/m. When a weight W is attached to it (without any vibrations), it extends by an amount 5, (Fig. 28.2 (b)]. ‘The static deflection 6, of the apring is given by wW k b= (28.1) oe, equim potion (a) FIG. 28.2. FREE VIBRATIONS. If the the spring mass system is pulled down, by an external force, by a maximum distance Zn OF A, (called the amplitude), and then released, the whole system vibrates with a certain frequency. Let z be the displacement of the mass at any instant, with respect to the equilibrium position, the force F, in the spring (t) is then given by Fs=k (85+ 2) = kbs + kz = W kz ++(28,2) The force acts in the opposite direction to the motion at any instant. The gravity force W acts downward. Hence when the motion is downward, the net downward force is equal to WL-(W+4z) 7. This must be equal to mass x acceleration, Hence, we get W dz W-(W+k)=— — wet S W dz = 4 k=0 228.3 or eat ( a) which is usually written as mi +k =0 =-(28.3) where = mass of the vibrating body = W/g # = acceleration Eq. 28.3 is called the equation of motion, which is similar to the following standard equation of motion t+odz=0 (28.4) where @q= natural frequency of the system. Comparing Eqs. 28.3 and 28.4, MACHINE FOUNDATIONS: 799 or n= VE = Vi tad/sec (28.5) If f, is the natural frequency of the system in cycles per second, we have on_d Oat ake ‘, fo 50-3 Vip syelesisec. wos(28,6) 28.3. VIBRATING SPRING-MASS SYSTEM WITH DAMPING If the spring mass system be provided with dash-pot, having ¢ as the damping factor and focsntrcosseitcit 2 is the velocity of the vibrating sytsem at any instant, the force in the dash-pot, opposite the motion, will be equal to 2. Hence the equation of the motion will be WL-(W+k:) t= t = mi me teeth =0 (28.7) Comparing this with the standard equation for damping vibrations i 42nt +o} 2-0 (28.8) w c we pet -£ (28.9) FIG. 28.3. VIBRATING SPRING-MASS SYSTEM WITH DAMPING or On= m Eq. 28.8 is the standard differential equation which can be solved by putting eel! te Cne! i) P= OM Le iti) ..28.10.a) Putting these in Eq. 28.7, we get me eC ERC! bad «(28.10 or me +arA+k=0 c ey _(k -£2V(5) -(4) =-neVn—on (28.11) -n+Vit- oF and hye-n-Vit-of ‘Three cases may arise from Eq. 28.11 : Case (i) Real, if >on Case (if) Zero, if n= 02 Case (iii) Imaginary or complex if 2° < 0? h Hence Case (ii) gives a value of = A=-n= 800 ‘SOM. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Eq. 28.11 for case (if) reduces to e-'=0, indicating that for this condition there will be no oscillation, but only a rapid retm back to the equilibrium position of the mass [Fig.28.4 (b)]. The value of ¢ for this condition is called critical damping <,. ce = 2m y x -amk ---(28.12) For case (i), the radical is real (#?>0g) , and ¢22Vmk. ¢.afiey 4) Hence from (i), wl e eee (ae -(a) « (28,13) Eq. 28.13 shows that z is not a periodic function of time. Therefore, the motion, when 2?—o}>0 is not a vibration, because it can only approach the equilibrium position at (+, However, the viscous resistance is so pronounced that the weight set in motion from its equilibrium does not vibrate but creeps gradually back to the equilibrium position at time infinity (Fig. 28.4 (@)]. For case (iii) when n (8) Case (i}n? = op 28.8. Also, the sum or dif- z ference of these two solutions mul- tiplied by any constant is also a solution : C ' Glare) oft. (28.15 a) G ty geet Slerteer) (28.15 5) where C, and C, are constants. ‘Substituting the values of 4, and 2, from Eq. 28.14, and See gye FIG. 28.4. TIME DISPLACEMENT CURVES FOR simplifying, we get DAMPED VIBRATIONS. a and 2 (©) Case (ii) n’ <0," n= Ce" sin wet and t=O: 008 oy t Summation of z,+z,=z renders the general solution of Eq. 28.8 in the following form. MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 01 rae" [C, sin agt + C; cos wy] (28.16) ‘The quantity in the bracket represents the simple harmonic motion of the case of vibration without damping while &” is the damping term. Fig. 28.4 (c) shows the time displacement curve for this ease. The peroid T of the damped vibration is given by on ___ie 3 T= oe Volar +(28.17) ‘The term og is called the frequency of damped vibrations, a= Vog - 28.4, FORCED VIBRATIONS Forced vibrations of a system are generated and sustained by the application of an external periodic movememt of the foundation of the system, Forced vibrations constitute the most important type of vibration in machine foundation design, We shall consider the case of forced vibrations with damping. Generally, for oscillating machinery (where the machinery vibrates because an unbalanced rotational force exists), the force can be expressed as a sine or cosine function, such as Fysin az, The equation of motion for such a case may be writen as sj ..(28.18) mi’ + ch + kz = Fosin of (28.19) or e+ fer kA ox (29.19 ay mmm The solution of the above equation may be assumed in the following forms : z= A cot or + Bsin at (28.20 ay By successive differentiation, we obtain £5 Aa sin af + Bo cos of (28.20 by #' =~ Ao! cos wf ~ Bo’ sin or o-(28,20 ey Substiuuing into Eq. 28.19 (a), we get ( Ae €0s wt - Bo* sin an) + (— Ao sin oF + Bo cos 01) + £ (4 00s wt + B sin oy = sin ot (28.21) Equating the co-efficient of sin or to both sides, ~Bo?-£4o+* po (28.22 a m8 Similarly, equating the coefficients of cos ar to both sides, -40*+£p04+£ 420 (28.22 BY moo * Solving Eqs. 28.22 (a) and (b) for co-efficients A and B, we get sor SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Foca Fo (k = mos*) A= -—__,.--_., (28.23 B=——_,, ——,,_ ...(28.23 5) - mo’) + (Co)? ‘ ? (k= may + (CoP « ) Substituting these in Eq. 28.20 (a), we get the solution in the form =Foco Fo(k - mo’) sin ot =e ee ene (28.24) Pe ea mae ea ee map “ORM The equation represents the components due to forced vibrations with the period of ‘The frequency fo vibrations (in cycles per second) is given by ° faq 28.25 a) ‘The natural frequency of vibration, as defined earlier, is given by on= VX radians/see 28.25) talk and pefeg yt (28.25. ©) Substiuting in Eq. 28.24, - Fico Fy (k — mo’) — hoe 2B. —Fotk=me) (28.26 Tay ee mee IF B26 and eT age” 20 #2826 PY we get ret (6in§ cos oste0s 6 sin of)=2 sin (WF6) 28.27) where the angle @ is termed as the phase angle between the exciting force and the motion of vibrating mass. Noting that these terms represent a pair of vectors which must be added to obtain the displacement, the solution for the displacement due to the forced vibrations of Eq. 28.24 becomes z= WP + Fosin (or + O) (28.28) Substituting the values of A and B, and noting from Eq. 28.12 that @nbe cont Vek = 28.29 a) or k= EE (28.29) we get if 1 sin (or +4) (28,30 a) fh in (at + 4) or Tee giph -.(28.30 6) The maximum deflection ipa: is thus given by MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 803 Fork fa = A = eee +-(28.31) © Vee fel (fy ce” fn tn But Bea, sstatic deflection of spring A in | == «(28.31 a) ee Veet & Sn Sn where Az= Zmar = maximum dynamic deflection of the system. Putting $= me == magnification factor or dynamic amplification factor o 7 = frequency ratio damping ratio, we get 1 aot = Qa 83) Fig. 28.5 shows a plot between r Lege 4 the magnification factor and the fre- io r(-Le 2) i quency ratio rf f=) for vc ous values of damping ratio ¢ s(-Z} From Fig. 28.5, it is observed that magnification factor suddenly shoots up for the values of r between 0.6 to 1.5. Atr = 1, resonance occurs for an undamped condition. Even for damped conditions, the magni- F fication factor (and hence the am- plitude) is maxinyum at r< 1. Thus, 2 these curves show the effect of damp- ing on shifting the frequency for ic maximum amplification away from Magnification factor T the natural foundation frequency. The oftrriit = lo aim of the designer should be such Frequency ratio ¢ that the frequency ratio f/f, is either FIG, 28.5. AMPLITUDE FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP less than 0.6 or more than 1.5. How- FOR DAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS. ever, the frequency f of the machine is always constant, and a foundation engineer has to manipulate the natural frequency f, of the machine foundation system by suitably proportioning it, MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 05. -tf_t Vo or Loa iam, In Ve, (28.34 B) where Wy =weight of the vibrator, and W,= weight of the apparent soil mass. Unfortunately, the size of the co-vibrating body of soil cannot be determined exactly as yet because it depends on frequency and is influenced by the size of the base area of the vibrator (foundation) and by the elastic properties of the soil (spacing). ‘We shall consider here three methods of determining the natural frequency of foundation soil system : (1) Barken's method, (2) Balakrishna Rao's method, (3) Pauw's method. 28,7. BARKEN’S METHOD Barken suggested the following equation for the natural frequency of system on= Sut =(28,35 a) where C,= co-efficient of elastic uniform compression of soil A-=contact area of foundation with soil m= mass of machine plus foundation. The amplitude of displacement is given by F aan) where — 4e= no = maximum. displacement Fy =-(28.35. 8) xciting force ; r= frequency ratio = 5 The above formulae for natural frequency takes no account of the mass of soil vibrating with the foundations. Barken gave the following equation for the co-efficient of elastic uniform compression of soil, obtained from the solution of theory of elasticity problem concerning the distribution of normal stresses under the base contact area of a rigid plate : El Cu = 1.13 +-(28.36) re e830 where E= Young's modulus of soll; 1 = Poisson's ratio Thus, C, depends not only on elastic constants £ and je but also on size of the base contact area of foundation. The co-effeicient C, changes in inverse proportion to the square root of the base area of the foundation Coy A a N = (28.37) Table 28.1 gives the recommended value of C, for A= 10m*, for various soils. 806 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS TABLE 28.1. RECOMMENDED DESIGN VALUES OF THE CO-EFFICIENT OF ELASTIC UNIFORM COMPRESSION C, (BARKEN, 1962) Permissible load on soll under | Coefficient of elastie uniform Soit actfon of satic toad only compression Cu Cogn) group (eg em?) Weak soils (clays and silty clays sand, in a plastic state, clayey. and silly sands; also soils of categories I and I up to 15 with laminae of organic silt and of peat) Soil of medium strength (clays and clays with sand, close tothe plastic 15-35 sand) Strong soils (clays and sity clays swith sands of hard consistency; gravels and gravelly sand, loess and loessial soils) Rocks. 28.8. BULB OF PRESSURE CONCEPT ‘The calculations of natural frequency by Barken took no account of the mass of soil vibrating. But the work done by DEGEBO indicates that when a vibrating load acts on a soil, a certain mass of soil ranging from 4 to 5 times the vibratory load participates in the vibration. Balakrishna and Nagraj (1960) proposed the bulb of pressure concept of calculating the apparent mass of soil participating in the vibration. According to this, the vibrating mass of soil is assumed to be contained by the boundary of a pressure bulb. For the purpose of simplicity, the load acting on any surface is replaced by an equivalent concentrated load acting at the mass centre of the original area, If y is the unit weight of the soil in Ib/cu, fi., then according to the pressure bulb concept, the apparent mass of the soil is the mass enclosed by the pressure bulb of intensity a, Ib/sq. ft. such that =lyl «--(28.38) For example, if the unit weight of soil is 110 Ib/cu.ft., the apparent mass of the soil will be the mass of the soil contained by a pressure bulb of intensity 110 Ib/sq. fi, From Boussinesq analysis, the vertical stress o, at a depth z and radial distance is r=0 is given by oars 2 2 Hence byl =o477s Me (28.39) z In the above equation fy} and W, are known, Hence z=diameter of the pressure bulb is known, . 4 fz), 4 [osmsm p Weight W, of soil=3x(2) v-35|(S --(28.40) It should be noted that Eq. 28.40 is nor dimensionally homogeneous, and is applicable only in F.P.S. units, where W, and W, are in pounds and 7 is Ibsicu. ft oe SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS TABLE 28.2. VALUE OF fo AND Bi ‘Soil ype Ea (he /em* ) ‘Clay, semi-solid 0.115 —0.23 ‘Clay, stiff plastic OMS —0.23 Clay, weak plastic 14 — 28 115 —23 O15 — 0.23. The spring constant for the truncated pyramid is calculated by first of all determining the surface deformation 8 given by following infinite integral ; ahi? beg J @rajbtanmra htt a) a 44 or anos eres --(28.44 ) a : ook, met where pare) ssa sand “5 (28.45) The equivalent soil spring constant & in the vertical plane is given by _Py ti k= 52 (by definition) tlt Pf ___am ___ Kk Bb “g (l+m) (1m) (s+m) If the base of foundation is circular, a truncated cone wil be considered in the place of truncated prism, and the above expression will be modified as under : 1a I dm 1, —_a—_ o(2B4T. k pe “5 (+ my(s +m) « » ae ah where m=" and s= 5 ‘The values of k are determined by curves of Fig. 28.7 in which k is given by the equation k= $6) (for rectangular base) + (28.48) b). «(28.48 a) (28.46), 6 = diameter of the foundation. and kat pon (for circular base of dit For given values of a and £ ratios, 2 i detetmtied from the curves, amd thos 7 A is known. Then & is calculated from Eq. 28.38. MACHINE FOUNDATIONS: 509 02 6 5 08 4 z z ° gi i | E § 59 20 fie 4 10 os 5.0 06 04 wos teosy as ese td ob (0) or (Log soak) i a FIG. 28.7. EQUIVALENT SOIL SPRING CONSTANT FOR HORIZONTAL SURFACE. Pauw developed expression for apparent soil mass m; by equating the kinetic energy of the effected zone to the kinetic energy of a mass assumed to be concentrated at the base of the foundation. Following is final form of the expression : m= Cm (where the factor Cy is read from Fig 28.8.) —...(28.49) (Note. The above treatment is valid only if the machine foundation has only one degree of freedom. i.¢., for the vibrations taking place in the vertical directon. In the general case, however, the foundation may be considered as a mass having six degrees of freedom, namely, displacments in the directions of the three coordinate axes and rotations about each of these axes.) After having determined the equiva- lent spring constant k and apparent soil mass ‘m,, the natural frequency of oscillations, and the amplitude of vibrations are deter- mined from the following equations : 1 k foe em, (for lineal oscillation) (28.34 b) and tmar = Ar (Ey J +(% SF +--(28.31) FIG, 28.8 DETERMINATION OF FACTOR Cm MACHINE FOUNDATIONS au A 23-7 Ber % change in 4,-223"=" , 199-23 . “Teer =e When =0,3, % change in A: =——-———5=23% r Stange 1D T1330 When = r=2, — % change in A B35 % Example 28.2, Assuming resonance to have occurred at the frequency of 22 cyclesisecond in a vertical vibration of a test block, 1.0~ 1.0 = 1.0 m size, determine the coefficient of elastic uniform in compression (C,). The weight of oscillator is 62 kg and the force produced by it at 12 cycles per second is 100 kg. Also compute the maxinmun amplitude in vertical direction at 12 eycles/second. Solution. fon = Inf, = In X22 = 442 ibrator = &2 = 62. _ Mass of vibrator= = 557 = 6:3 Lx 1x 1x 2.40 x 1000 Mass of foundation block (concrete) = si = 244.7 im =6.34+244.7=251 5 A= contact area of foundations = 1 m* Substituting these in the expression for ©, On= ee ,we get (lax 22)= or Cu= (440) (251) = 4.76 «108 kg/m? Amplitude a where Fy = total load produced in vertical direction = 100 kg m= 251 5 @y=2n (2) =442 | Ace 1 metres = 3 x 10 om. 251 (44x)* (1 - 0.3) Example 28.3. The resonance of a test block 2 m x 1 mx J m occurred at 25 cyeles/sec in the vertical direction, The other data are as follows : Weight of oscillator = 62 kg. Vertical unbalanced force = 0.5 tonnes. Unit weight of Soil = 1.7t/m . Calculate the apparent mass of soit by Balakrishna Rao method. 0.4775 W, P? Solution, From Eq, 28.40, Sy [287 Me P Ib W, =total load in Ibs (é.e. weight of machine + foundation + unbalanced force) Weight of foundation block = 2x 1 x 2.4 x 100 = 4800. kg Weight of oscillator= 62 kg : Vertical unbalanced force = 500 kg 382 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS ~ Total jy = $362 kg = 11,800 Ib ; y= 1.7 t/m'= 106 Ib/eu ft 4 0.4775 x 11800 FP? _ we=$ nao] A775 <8 = 21500 Ib = 9750 kg 9750 2 m= Zp 7 994 kg- seo%/m Example 28.4, Design the foundation for a gas engine with a vertical cylinder and vertically oscillating paris, for the following data: 1, Toral weight of engine = 4500 kg. 2. Speed of rotation = 260 rpm. 3. Unbalanced vertical force = 1 tonne 4. Base dimensions of the engine = 1m x25 m 5. Elevation of machine base above ground =1m Weak silty sand exists to a depth of 0.5 m followed by a dense sand to a depth of 6 m. The unit weight of moist sand is 1.7 1/ wm. Solution. Let the size of the block be 1.5x3 m at the base of the machine, and 2x 3.5m at its bottom, Let the height of the concrete block be 2.0 m, so that it penetrates 1 m below the ground. Weight of the block = 2x24 tomes =27.6 + ‘This is about 6 times the weight of machine, Hence satisfactory. Total mass of machine and foundation, m, Bats Let us first calculate the spring constant k. G5 «3)+(2x3.5) 2 x 1000 = 3270 kg-sec’/m Y y= 1.7 7m’ = 1700 kg/m Now Assuming a=1 and taking b=2 m 1627 a ee sees: F = 1.15 From Table 28,2, assume, B=4.6 x 10*kg/m'/m . ab From Fig, 28.7, when s=1.35 and Ze175, we se B =2x 422x355 headnpadx oy 35 k= Bb'A = (4.6 x 109 (2) G.5) = 64.6 x 10° kg/m , ‘The apparent soil mass is given by mo Ca 813 MACHINE FOUNDATIONS From Fig. 28.8, When s=1.35 and 2=1.75, = A Coe 1.1 3S w 1.98 and mm, = IOGY 1.95 «2670 kg- seem Hence the natural iven by is LJ kta) 644 x10" . I aeN Gam, "an ¥ 3267+ 2670 ~ 1% CPS 996 Tp.m. ‘The operating frequency of the machine is o =260 r.p.m. © _ 260 aa 99g * 027 ‘The amplitude of vibration is determined from Fo 4e¢—— “NTT TRE aT where © Fy=dynamic load = 1000 kg. Assume z =0.15 1000 1 ZIPP +412 64.4 x 10? x 0.97 64.4 x 10h = 0.0016 cm Reduction factor B= 1 -0.6 = where b=} (2+2.5)=275 m ; z=depth below ground surface=1 m L Bel ~ 06 55 = 1-0.218 = 0.782 (Adma = 0.0016 x 0.782 = 0.00125 cm. Permissible amplitude by Rauch equation is Ay (for f< 1800 r.p.m.) = 534 = 0.0366" = 0.09 cm. Hence the foundation is safe. 28.10. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF BLOCK FOUNDATIONS The methods of Pauw and Balakrishna Rao are based on the assumption that a certain mass of soil participates in the vibration with the foundation, Barken’s method is based on liner spring theory. The method neglects the effects of damping and participating soil mass. Barken’s method is very much used in design offices. A summary of various formula are given below : 1, Equation of Motion ; In the general case, the foundation may be considered as a mass having six degrees of freedom—displacements in the three conordinate axes (x, y, 2) and rotation about each of these axes (Fig. 28.9). The rotations about y, z and x-axes are respectively known as rocking, yawing and pitching. Let us first consider the 816 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 3, Stiffness of elastic supports (a) Soil base, The values of kr ky and ky for the elastic support of soil are given by the following expressions : For vertical motion » GA (28.66 a) For horizontal (sliding) motion + ky= Cy A + (28.66 b) For rocking motion : kay = Co ly (28.66. oh ‘Thus, knowing C,, the values of k, . &, and ko, can be computed . (8) Elastic pads. If, however, the foundation block is supported on elastic pad of comiact area A and thickness 1, then the values of the stiffiness factors are given by the following expressions : For vertical motion > k,= 58 (28.67 a) For horizontal (sliding. motion): k= (28.67 6) For rocking motion : bo, ~ Bit 228,67 3) where £=modulus of clasticity of the pad meterial G= shear modulus of the pad material. (©) Steel spring. If the foundation sc —— 0 block is supported on steel spring with d as the diameter of spring wire, D as the diameter of spring coil, n as the number of windings in each coil, ft as height of each coil and G as the shear modulus of the material, the stiffness factors are given by the following ex- a —o— pressions For vertical motion, 1 Gad* keke (28.68 @) If there are N springs in the coil, the resultant vertical stiffness will be Niky, For horizontal mation (stiding mo- tion), 4 . 1 1 4 ke = ks | ———_—____—— 4 [ise | J of 40 4s SSC (28.68 BY to FIG. 28.10 VALUE OF COEFFICIENT a. 819 MACHINE POUNDATIONS: 28.12. INDIAN STANDARD CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OF FOUNDATION FOR IMPACT TYPE MACHINES ‘The design requirements of the impact types machines, such as drop and forge hammers, are different than those of the reciprocating type machines discussed above. IS : 2974 (Part I) ; 1966 covers the design requirements for the foundations of these heavy impact type machines. Fig. 28.13 showns some typical sections of the foundations for these machines. Definitions, (i) Anvil: Anvil is a base-block for a hammer on which material is forged into shape by repeated striking of the tup. (if) Tup: Tup is a weighted block which strikes the material being forged on the anvil. (iii) Foundation block : It is a mass of reinforced concrete on which the anvil rests. (/v) Protective cushioning layer Goint J, ) : It is an elastic cushioning of suitable material and thick- ness provided between the anvil and the foun- dation block in order to prevent bouncing of anvil and creation of large impact stresses and consequent damages to the top surface of the concrete in the foundation block. (v) Foundation support (joint J, ) = It is a support for resting the foundation block. The block may rest directly on ground or on a resilient mounting such as timber sleepers, springs. cork layer etc. The block may also be supported on pile foundations. Design Criteria (1) The stresses produced at the time of impact in the foundation base (soil, timber, sleeper, cork, spring elements ‘or piles) should be within 0.8 times allowable static stresses. (2) The design of the entire foundation system should be such that the centres of gravity of the anvil, and of the foundation block, as well as the joints at which the (0) Foundation resting directly on soil resultants of forces in the clastic joints i} “* J, and Jy act, coincide with the line of Ts. oundation . ° Elastic layer 4, Foundati fall of the hammer tup. While determining the centre of gravity of the foundation block, the weight of the frame of the tp could also be considered. (3) The maximum vertical vibrational amplitude of the foundation block should not be more than 1.2 mm. In case of foundations on sand below the ground water, the permissible amplitude should not be more than 0.8 mm. (¢) Foundatien resting of piles FIG. 28.13, DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOUNDATION SUPPORTS FOR IMPACT TYPE MACHINES. PART VII PAVEMENT DESIGN 29. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 30. DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT 31. STABILISATION OF SOILS 23) Design of Flexible Pavement 29. . INFRODUCTION : TYPES OF PAVEMENTS ‘A natural earth track is incapable of supporting modern wheel loads. A constructed pavement is required on the top of the soil in order to distribute the wheel load efficiently and to provide the necessary wearing surface. A pavement is, therfore, defined as a relatively stable crust constructed over the natural soil for the purpose of supporting and distributing the wheel loads and providing an adequate wearing surface. Depending upon the mode of supporting and distributing loads, pavements are classified as fiexible, rigid and semi-flexible. ‘The flexible pavements consist of a relatively thin wearing surface built over a base course and sub-base course, and they rest on compacted sub-grade. The flexible pavements are able to resist only very small tensile stresses. In contrast to this, rigid pavements are made up of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have a base course between the pavement and the sub-grade. A rigid pavement can take appreciable tensile stresses and is capable of bridging small weakness and depression in the sub-grade. A. semi-flexible pavement is made of dry-lean concrete or soil cement, and possesses qualities intermediate between the flexible and rigid pavements. A semi-flexible pavement possesses appreciable flexural strength but its modulus of elasticity is considerably lower than that of concrete The essential difference between rigid and flexible pavements is the manner in which they distribute the load over the sub-grade. The design of a flexible pavement is based on the principle that a surface load is dissipated by carrying it deep into the ground through successive layer of granular materials. Hence the strength of a flexible layer is a result of building up thick layers and thereby distributing the load over the sub-grade rather than by the bending action. The thickness design of the flexible pavement is influenced primarily by the strength of the sub-grade. Because of its rigidity and high tensile strengh, a rigid pavement tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil, and a major portion of the structural capacity is supplied by the slab itself, For this reason, minor variations in sub-grade strength have little influence upon the structual capacity of the pavement. The rigid pavements are used for heavier Ioads and can be constructed over relatively poor sub-grade such as black cotton or plastic soils, peat etc. However, since the load is taken up by the bending action of the slab, uniform sub-grade support is the most (825) 826 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS. essential condition for the satisfactory performance of rigid pavement. In the flexible pavements, on the contrary, a high quality, well compacted sub-grade is essential. 29.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT A flexible pavement is usually built up in several layers as shown in Fig. 29.1, each layer having a special function. Generally, the flexible pavement thickness consists of three components : surfacing, base and sub-base course. The wearing course or surfacing is the component. of. a pavement with which the wheels of vehicles are in actual contact. The purpose of the wearing course,’made of bituminous material is to provide a smooth riding surface that is resilient and will resist pressure exerted by the tyres, It should be flexible so that it will not fail if consolidation of the subgrade or base course takes place. A base course is defined as a layer of granular material which lies immediatly below the wearing surface of a flexible pave- ment. A sub-base is a layer of material between the base and sub-grade. Base course and sub-bases are used under flexible pave- “bases are | y SKA ments primarily to increase the load supporting capacity of the pavement by distributing FIG. 29.1. BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS the load through a finite thickness of pavement. OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT. ‘The base course lies close to the pavement surface, and hence it. must possess high resistance to deformation in order to withstand the high pressures imposed upon it. However, a sub-base can be of a lower quality, ‘The sub-grade is the foundation layer, the structure which must eventually support all the loads which come on to the pavement. The performance of the pavement is affected by the characteristics of the sub-grade. Desirable properties which the sub-grade should possess are : strength, drainage, ease of compaction, permanencey of compaction, and permanency of strength. The strength of the sub-grade is increased by compaction, or in some cases by stabilisation. Stability of the sub-grade is influenced by soil texture, water content, density, frost. action, shrinkage and swelling, and other climatic factors. 29.3. STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 1, Stresses in homogeneous mass ; We have seen in chapter 13 that the vertical stress distribution on any horizontal plane at a depth z below the ground surface, duc to a concentrated load takes the form of a bell-shaped surface, The maximum stresses occur on the vertical plane passing through the point of load application. According to Boussinesq’s analysis, the vertical stress a, at any point (r, 2) is given by 3P ++(29.1) DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 27 Integrating the equation over a loaded circular area of radius a, the vertical stress on a vertical line passing through the centre of the loaded area is given by 2 1-54 10 (29.2) [ @ zy? or) where p is the unit load on the circular loaded plate, z is the depth and a is the radius of the plate, Similarly, the horizontal radial stress is given by ere “2 a= “ @rayt* Gea where j= Poisson's ratio. P 2, Elastic deformation under circular load ; The vertical strain €,, due to the triaxial k— Diamoter= 2a load (oz, o;, 0, = o,) under the centre of the z Pavement plate is given by Hocke’s law : (29.3) 1 €:= 5 (2-20) +=(29.4) cayale where E= modulus of elasticity of the = Blasts strain (rom sub-grade, 210 infrity Subsituting Eq. 29.2 and 29.3 in Eq. FIG, 29.2, ELASTIC DEFORMATION 29.4, and integrating between z=z and UNDER CICULAR LOAD. z=, the elastic strain A of the sub-grade is given by 2) oat ay Mite 2 A gle 2p) @ +2’) @ezy7t +2P-Dz -(29.5) Taking =0.5, the above expression reduces to -__3pa* _pa dear (29.6) or aR 29.1) where F,=3 ——|___, - Boussinesq settlement factor. «.(29.8) “[() | Eq. 29.6 or 29.7 give the elastic deformation of the sub-grade only. The elastic deformations from surface to depth z are not considered since the only siginificant deflections are in the sub-grade. If the load is at the surface of the sub-grade (z=0), Eq. 29.6 reduces to 215 22 ais & (29.9) Fig. 29.3 gives the curves for deflection factor for various values of 2 and £ The £ ratio corresponding to Eq. 29.6 is zero and the curve of feo in Fig. 29.3 gives the deflections according 10 Eq. 29.7 (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954). 323 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Detiection factor Fa 02 03 040506 08 10 1520 7 T 'y TLD Jie a 4 } T~ {Ratio 2, 4 8 2 gs aa = _|go Deflection M6 5 69] | 7Hrot 8 Rete] 9 10 Vertical deflection (Poisson's ratio=0.5) FIG. 29.3. CHARTS FOR VERTICAL DEFLECTIONS (FOSTER AND AHLVIN 1954). 3. Burmister analysis : The flexible pavements consist of a number of layers the moduli of clasticity of which decreases wtih depth. In the previous analysis, the effect of the pavement components was ignored while calculating the deflections. Burmister (1943, 45, 58), took into account the effect of various layers. In the simplest case, the whole structure may be thought to be made up of two layers : the base course or pavement layer, and the sub-grade layer, In the analysis of the two layer system, following assumptions are made : (i) the layers are homogeneous, isotropic and elastic, (‘i) the surface layer is infinite in extent in the lateral direction, but of fix nite depth, (ifi) the sub- grade layer is infinite in both horizontal and vertical directions, (iv) both the layers are in continuous contact, and (¥) surface layer is free from shearing and normal stress outside the loaded area. The ver- tical stress at any depth z, at the cente of the plate is given by o:=Cy-p ...(29.10) Subgrado Layer f—>—d © Base course or pavement layer FIG. 29.4. BURMISTER TWO-LAYER STRESS INFLUENCE CURVES (BURSMISTER, 1958) 30 SOIL. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS the dual wheels are equal to those of a single wheel depends upon the spacing of the wheels. Fig. 29.6 shows the influence of mul- tiple wheel on stresses. At a depth approxi- mately half the face-to-face spacing (d), the wheels cease to act independently, and at a depth equal to twice the centre to centre + to spacing (S), the overlap of stresses becomes neg- ligible. An equivalent wheel load can be found either from the equal deflection criterion or equal-stress criterion. Based on ‘the equal deflection criterion, the following expression for the equivalent wheel load P, results : FIG. 29.6. INFLUENCE OF MULTIPLE WHEELS ON STRESSES. FNP. = (Fit Fx) VP 11(29.13) where =P, = equivalent wheels load P wheel load of cach of the dual tyres F,= settlement factor for equivalent wheel load Fy =settlement factor contributed by one tyre of duals F,= settlement factor contributed by the other tyre. The solution of the problem is accomplished by determining values of P, and F, so that the Eq, 29,13 is. satisfied. The load P is known and factors F, and F, can be known from Fig. 29.5 for various values off rati s. The maximum value of F,+F; occurs at a small. distance from the centre of the tyre. However, for practical problems, the values of F, + F, under the centre line, and under a tyre, need by calculated and the greatest of the two may be taken to be used in Eq. 29.13. Thus the R.H.S. of Eq. 29.13 is known. A number of values of P, are assumed and the values of VP,.F, are computed till Eq. 29.13 is. satisfied. 29.5. DESIGN METHODS The flexible pavement design methods can be broadly classified into three distinct groups : (Empirical methods based on soil classification and other factors such as climate and moisture. They include the following: (@ Group index method. (6) Federal aviation agency (U.S.A.) method. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT soaked as well as unsoaked samples are determined. Both during soaking and penetration test, the specimen is covered with equal surcharge weights to simulate the effect of overlying pavement or the particular layer under construction. Each sur- charge slotted weight, 147 mm in diameter with a central hole 53 mm in diameter and weighing 2.5 kg is considered approximately equiva- lem to 6.5 cm of construction. A minimum of two surcharge weights (i.e 5 kg surcharge load) is placed on the specimen, Load is applied ‘on the penetration piston so that the penetration is approximately 1.25 mm/min. The load readings are re~ corded at penetrations, 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm, The maximum load and penetration is recorded if it occurs for a penetration of less than 12.5 mm. The load penetration curve is then plotted as shown in Fig. 29.8. The curve is mainly convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve may be concave upwards due to surface irregularities. A cor- Load on piston in kg 8 |__Gorrected 2.5 mm comene ‘200 I conedeata arta con ‘eo 6 af aE se sas bested Penna FIG. 29.8. LOAD PENETRATION CURVES IN CAR TEST. 933, rection is then applied by drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope. ‘The corrected origin will be the point where the tangent meets the abscissa. The CBR values are usually calculated for penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5 mm, Generally the CBR values at 2.5 mm penetration will be greater than that at 5 mm penetration and in such a case the former is to be taken as the CBR value for design purposes. If the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test is repeated, If identical results follow, the bearing ratio correponding to 5 mm penetration is taken for design. Fig. 29.9 gives the design curves for determining the appropriate thickness of construction required above a material with a given CBR, for different wheel loads and traffic conditions, These design curves for roads have been proposed by the Road Research Laboratory, England, and are also followed in India. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 835 the tip of the cone. A Cone bearing ratio (pi) correction is, therefore, g 8 e232 8 g @ 8 added to or subtracted from all the readings ‘so that the penetration p, under 9 kg becomes half of the penetration Pye under 36 kg. Correction C=pw-2ps -=Q29.17) Knowing the bearing value, the ‘4 thickness of pavement l is determined from Fig. 29.10. A minimum thickness of 24 cm is provided for bearing values of 28 kg/em* or more. 29.9. BURMISTER’S DESIGN METHOD Burmister's design method is based.on the concept of a two-layer system, consisting of the road surfacing, base course and the sub-base as the top layer of thickness /, and the sub-grade as the bottom layer of infinite extent. The displacement of such a system, under a loaded area of radius a with load intensity p is given by Eq. 29.11. = 15% a nF Pavement thickness (inches) FIG. 29.10. NORTH DAKOTA DESIGN CURVE (AFTER WISE, 1955). where E;= modulus of elasticity of the sub-grade F= deflection factor, determined from Fig. 29.5. The method consists in selecting various values of the thickness A of the top layer and finding the value of the deflection corresponding to each value of f, from Eq. 29.11, the value of factor F being taken in each case from Fig. 29.5. The thickness A corresponding to an arbitrary deflection of 4=0.2 inch (5 mm) has been recommended by Burmister ‘as the required thickness of the pavement. Tentative design curves for flexibe runway pavements, using 0.2 in. as limiting deformation have been drawn assuming approximate value of modulus of elasticity for various types of sub-grades. 29.10. U.S, NAVY PLATE BEARING TEST METHOD This method is also based on Burmister’s two-layer theory. It consists of the following three steps : Step 1. The thickness h of the base course is calculated on the basis of the two-layer theory. For this the values of moudulus of elasticity E, and E, for the base course and sub-grade are determined from two plate bearing tests. 336 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Step 2. Trial sections are constructed with the pavement thickness equal to h, je and 3h, Step 3. Plat bearing tests are run on these trial sections and final thickness is chosen on the bar. of these tests which produces a deflection of 0.2 in. (S$ mm). Step 1. In order to use the two layer theory of calculation of required pavement thickness in step 1, it is necessary first of determine the value of &, by the plate bearing tests on the sub-grade. A 30 inch diameter plate is recommended for this test. In performing the test, it is essential to use a series of staked plates to minimize the bending of the plate upon loading. The load P corresponding to a deflection of 0.2 in, is determined from the test, and the modulus of elasticity , is calculated from Eq. 29.12 by taking the plate to be rigid. The deflection factor F for this test is equal to unity since the test on sub-grade soil results in a one layer system. Hence (29.18) From this, £; is determined, After the modulus of elasticity £, is known, a test section consisting of the base course material is built and plate-bearing test is made on this, The test section should be 5 m by 5 m square (or larger) and 15 to 30 cm deep. The load intensity p corresponding to A=0.2 in. is determined from the tests. Knowing E, from the previous test, and A(=0.2 in.) and p from the present test, the factor F is calculated from Eq. 29.12 a-1isB er a A.B or Fea 229.19) Thus, factor F is known. From Fig. 29.5, the value of £, / E, is found corresponding to the value of F and A/a ratio. After having known £, and £,/E, (and hence E, also), the value of F corresponding to a given wheel load intensity p is computed from Eq. 29.11 by taking A= 0.2 in, +02 ins 15 Br == 429.20) (Considering the wheel load to be a flexible plate) In this equation A, £3, p and a (radius of the tyre contact area) are known. Knowing F, and £,/E, ratio, the thickness / of the base course is determined from 29.5. Step 2. Inthe next step, trial sections are constructed of thickness h, 3 and } calculated in step 1. Each trial section of a given thickness is constructed for three different soil condidtions: one on a typical fill section, another on a typical cut section, and a third at a position on grade. Thus, in all, nine trial sections are built. The sub-grade and base courses are compacted to the densities that will be expected during construction. Step 3. Plate-bearing tests are performed on these trial sections. The data then are used to determine the required pavement thickness which will result in the assumed deflection DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 837 of 0.2 in. In making these tests, a plate is employed which has a radius corresponding to the effective tyre radius a. In the above method, the design thickness is the total thickness of base material to sustain a given load at a given deflection, and no consideration of the type or depth of wearing surface is given. However, the structural qualities of wearing surface material are always better, and hence a certain thickness of surface material can be substituted for the base course material. This will, in effect, produce an added factor of safety. 29.11. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS EXPERIMENT 21 : DETERMINATION OF CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO ‘Object and scope. The object of the experiment is to determine the California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R.) of a compacted soil sample in the laboratory, both in soaked as well as unsoaked state, The micthod also covers the detemination of CBR of undisturbed soil sample obtained from the field. Material and equipment, (7) Cylindrial mould (C.B.R, mould) with inside diameter 150° mm and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable extension collar SO mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick, (fi) Spacer disc, 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height, along with a handle for screwing into the disc to facilitate its removal (iii) steel cutting collar which can fit flush with the mould both outside and inside, (iv) Met! rammers : (a) weight 2.6 ke with a drop of 310 mm or (6) weight 4.89 kg, with a drop of 450 mm, (¥) Annular slotted weight weighing 2.5 kg cach 147 mm in diameter with a centre hole 53 mm in dlameter, (xf) Penetration piston, $0 mm diameter and minimum of 100 mm long, (vii) Extension measuring apparatus consisting of : (a) perforated plate 148 mm diameter, with a threaded stem in the centre, (bjadjustable contact head 1 be screwed over the stem, (¢) metal tripod, (vit) Loading device, with a capacity of at feast S000 kg and cquipped with a movable head or base that travels at a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min ; complete with load indicating device, (ic) Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm, (x) Sieve : 4.75 mm and 20 mm IS Sieves, (xi) Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, seales, soaking wnk or pan, drying oven, water content determination tins, filter paper etc. ‘Test Procedure @ PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN 1, Remoulded Specimen : Remoulded specimen may be prepared at Proctors maximum dry density and optimum water coment or at any other desired density and water content. The material used should pass a 20 mm IS Sieve. Allawance for large matcrial should be made by replacing it by an cqual amount ‘of material which passes a 20 mm IS Sieve but is retained on 4.75 mm IS Sieve. The specimen may be prepared either by dynamic compaction of by static compaction. (a) Dynasle compaction. Take about 45 w 5.5 kg of soil and mix it thoroughly with the Gesired water. If the sample is to be compacted at optimum water content and the corresponding dry density ¢ termined by compaction test (light compaction or heavy compaction) take exact weight of soil required and necessary quantity of water so that the water content of the soil sample is equal to the determined. optimum water content. Fix the extension collar to the top of the mould and the base plate to its bottom. Insert the spacer dise over the base (With the central hole of the disc at the lower side). Put a dise of a coarse filter paper on the top of the displacer disc. Compact the mixed soil in the ‘mould using either the light compaction or heavy compaction, For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 56 blows, uniformly distributed, by the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction, compact the soil in $ layers, by giving 56 blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer Remove the collar and trim off excess soil. Turm the mould upside down and remove the base plate 838 ‘SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS and the displacer disc. Weigh the mould with the compacted soil, so that its bulk density and dry density may be determined. Put filler paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated base plate on to it (®) Static compaction, Calculate the weight of wet soil at the required water content to give the desired density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould by the following expression: Wera(h+wyV where We weight of wet soil ; yy desired dry density w=desired water contcnt; V= volume of specimen in the mould =2250 cm? Take about 4.5 t0 5.5 kg of soil and raise its water content to the desired value w. ‘Take weight W (calculated above) of the mix soil and put it in mould filled with the base plate and filer paper at its boom. Tamp the soil by hand during pouring. Place a filer paper and the displacer disc on the top of the soil. Keep the mould asseenbly in any compression machine and compact the soil by pressing the displacer disc till the level of the disc reaches the top of the mould. Keep the load for some time, and then release. Remove the displacer disc. 2. Undisturbed specimen : To oblain undisturbed samples, attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently in the ground, When the mould is sufficiently full of soil, remove it by under-digging. ‘The top and bottom surfaces are then trimmed flat so as to give the required length of the specimen. ‘The density of the soil should be determined by weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method (ouch as the sand replacemem method) on the soil in the vicinity of the spot at which sample is collected. (i) SOAKING OF SPECIMEN AND TEST FOR SWELLING 1, Puta filter paper on the top of the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate ‘on the top of the filter paper. 2. Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of the base material and pavement ‘expected in actual construction, Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalem 10 7 cm of construction. A minimum ‘of two weights should be put. 3. Immerse the mould assembly and weights ctc. in a tank of water allowing free access of water” to the top and bottom of the specimen, 4. Mount the tripod of the expansion measuring device on the edge of the mould and note down I reading of dial gauge. 5. Keep the set-up undisturbed for 96 hours (4 days). Note down readings every day against the time of reading. Maimain constant water level in tank. 6. Take the final reading at the end of period, remove the tripod and take out the mould. Allow the specimen to drain, for 15 minules. Remove all the free water collected in the mould taking care that the surface of the specimen is not disturbed during the process. 7. Remove the weights, perforated plate and top filter paper and weigh the mould with soaked soil specimen, (i) PENETRATION TEST 1, Place the surcharge weights back om the top of the soaked soil specimen, and place the mould assembly on the penetration test machine (loading machine). 2, Seat the penetration piston at the centre of the specimen with the smallest possible load but in no case excess of 4 kg so that full comact is established between the surface of the specimen and the piston, 3. Set the stress and strain dial gauge to zero. Apply the load on the penetration piston so that the penetration rate is approximately 1.25 mm/min. Record the load reading at penetrations of 0, 0.5, the ini DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 839 1.0, 15, 2.0, 25, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm. Record the maximum. load and penetration if it occurs for a penetration of less then 12.3 mm, 4, At the end of the penetration test, detach the mould from the loading equipment, Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top 3 cm layer of the specimen, and keep it for water content determination. ‘Tabulation of observations. The test data and observations are recorded as illustrated in’ Table 29.2. TABLE 292. DATA AND OBSERVATION SHEET FOR C.B.R. DETERMINATION 1. Compaction characteristics (@)__Dynamie Compaction _: 41, Opcimum water content 2. Wt. of mould + compacted specimen 3. Wi. of empry mould 4. Wt. of compacted specimen 5. Volume of specimen 1. Dry density (g/ea) 2. Moulding “water content 8) 3. Wet. wt. (W) of soil compacted ....(g) 2. Soaking and swelling test 1. Dry density before soaking 2. Bulk density before soaking 3. Bulk density after soaking 4. Surcharge weight used during soaking Date and time 4 Dial reading (mm) 1._surcharge _weight_used_.... 2._Water_content_after_penetration_test. Corrected load (ks) 340, ‘SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Calculations and Test Results 1. Expansion ratio. The expansion ratio may be calculated as follows : Expansion rio = 4, 100 where dyefinal_ dial gauge reading (mm) ; dj initial gauge reading (mm) hw intial height of specimen (mm). 2. Load penetration. Plot the load penetration curve (Fig. 29.8). If the initial portion of the curve is coneave upwards, apply the correction by drawing 2 tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope. ‘The corrected origin will be the point where the tangent mects the absci the correctecd load reading corresponding to each penetration, Corresponding to the penetration value at which the C.B.R. is desired, corrected load values are found from the curve and C.B.R. is calculated as follows > Pr CBR =x 100 Ps Pr = corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load penetration curve: Ps Standard load for the same penetration as for Pr taken from Table 29.1. ‘The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and $ mm. If C.B.R. for Siem exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding. fo 5 mm penetration should be taken for design, Find and record 30 Design of Rigid Pavement 30.1. INTRODUCTION Rigid pavements are made up of Portlant cement concrete, and may or may not have a base course between the pavement and the sub-grade. Because of its rigidity, and high tensile strength, a rigid pavement tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil, and a major portion of the structural capacity is supplied by the slab itself. For this reason, minor variations in sub-grade strength have little influence upon the structural capacity of the pavement. The rigid pavements are used for heavier loads and can be constructed over relatively poor sub-grade such as black cotton or plastic soils, peat, ete. A base under rigid pavements may be used for the following reasons : 1. Prevention of pumping of fine grained soil (Pumping is defined as the ejection of water and sub-grade soils through joints, cracks and along the edges of pavements caused by downward slab movement by the passage of heavy axle loads over the pavement after the accumulation of free water on or in the sub-grade). 2. Protection against frost action. 3. Provides drainage. 4. Controls the shrink and swell of sub-grade. 5. It forms a working surface on clays and silts, and thus enables the construction to proceed expeditiously during wet weather. 6. Serves as a levelling course on irregular formations. 7, Lends some structural capacity to the pavement. 30.2. STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENT ‘The factors affecting stresses in rigid pavement can be placed in four broad categories: 1. Stresses due to restrained temperature and moisture deformations. 2. Stresses due to the externally applied loads. 3, Stresses due to volume changes of the supporting material, including frost action, 4, Stresses due to continuity of the sub-grade support as affected by permanent deformations of the sub-grade or loss of support through pumping. (eat) oun SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Relative Stiffness of Slabs : When a load is applied on a slab, it deforms in a saucer shape, and the resistance to deformation depends upon the stiffness of the supporting medium as well as flexural stiffness of the slab. The relative stiffness of the sub-grade and the slab is indicated in terms of radius of relative stifiness, defined by Westergaard (1927) by the following characteristic equation : ; where 1 = radius of relative stiffness (cm) (a linear dimension) modulus of elasticity of the pavement (kg/cm) thickness of pavement (cm) Poisson’s ratio of the pavement modulus of sub-grade reaction ( kg/cm’) The modulus of sub-grade reaction is defined as the intensity of pressure on the horizontal surface of a soil mass required to cause a unit settlement of surface : zB — «+ 0.2) p (30.2) where p= subgrade reaction. p= vertical deflection 30.3. STRESSES DUE TO WHEEL LOAD Westergaard (1926) considered three cases of loading : (1) corner load, (2) load at the edge of the pavement, and (3) interior load. His original equation for interior loading was later modified by him (Westergaard, 1933). The equations for edge and corner loading were modified by Sutherland (1943). The modified equations converted into metric units, are given below : Gimenor = 0.275(1 + we [ 4 tos. (¢)+ logo 112 (1 — p)} - $4.54 a4] «(30,3) 12 wk | Ks P I ’ Geoge = 0.529 (1 + 0.54y) Fal 40g ( 4) + tone 547 )] (30.4) f 24 =2?|,_{@2 | Seoner = Fr( 1 =|} | 80.5) where (G)ueror = maximum tensile stress at the bottom of slab due to loading at the interior (kg/em?) (sedge = maximum tensile stress at the bottom of slab due to loading at the edge kg/cm’) (comer = maximum tensile stress at the top of the slab duc to loading at comer kg/cm’) P=wheel load (kg) DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT 843 A= slab thickness (cm) Poisson’s ratio for concrete radius of relative stiffness (em) modulus of elasticity (kg/cm*) ks= modulus of sub-grade reaction (kg/cm’) b= radius of equivalent distribution of pressure (cm), given by the following equations: ba Vibe th -0.675h , when a<1724h . (30.6) a when a2 1.72%4h (30.7) = radius of area of contact between the slab (cm), the area being assumed circular in case of corner and interior loads, and semi circular for edge loads, Ci. ¢: = correlation factors to allow for a redistribution of sub-grade reactions ; 8 51502 0.2. Pickett (1951) gave the following semi-empirical formulge for corner loading for protected and unprotected corners. : For slab comers protected by load-transfer devices such as bars ete. : 3:36 Pf Nat | omer = Fe t 0.925 +022 a/i! 20.8) For unprotected corners : (one = 422 |) St _| 0.9) i |” 092540.22 a/1| The above two formulae are in FPS units in which P in ibs, o is in Ib/in’ , 4a and hare in inches and k, is in Ib/in. ‘The formulae for the stresses in pavements are complicated for direct calculations. Use may be made of the influence diagrams and charts prepared by Docker (1948) and Pickett (1951). 30.4. STRESSES DUE TO WARPING The surface of the slab is subjected to wide range of temperature during the daily cycle, whereas the temperature of the bottom of the slab in contact with the sub-grade ‘of the base remains relatively more constant, This temperature gradient through the slab causes differential expansion or contraction between the top and bottom of the slab. In the day, top surface expands more than the bottom and the slab assumes a shape convex upwards, The weight of the slab and load transfer devices or friction at joint will restrain free warping and will tend to bend it back into its original shape, and hence compressive stresses at top and tensile at the bottom are created. In the night, the sides and corners warp upwards, and might actually leave the sub-grade. In this position, the weight of the raised portions of the slab tend to bend them down. ats SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS Hence tension at top and compression in the bottom is de- veloped, Bradbury (1938) gave the following equations for edge stress and interior stress due to warping : CE eat (espe = ++4(30,10) EeArl G+ uC 2 (i= (30.11) where ¢, = co-efficient of expan- sion of concrete ( 5x 10° per °F, average) A ts total difference in tem- Values ot end 2 perature (may be taken to be equal 7 to about 1° F per 1 cm thickness FIG, 30.1. WARPING STRESS CO-EFFICIENTS of slab) (BRADBURY, 1938). (@)ntenor = Values of 6 ©, and ©, E= modulus of elasticity of concrete 1 = Poisson's ratio C=co-efficient given by Fig. 30.1, corresponding to L/ ratio C, = co-efficient in the desired direction(say, x direction) C)=co-efficient in the perpendicular direction (say, y direction) L=length of the edge Ly= free length in x direction (i.e., = free width in y direction. 30.5. STRESSES DUE TO SUB-GRADE FRICTION Stresses can also be set up in rigid pavements due to uniform temperature change, which cause the slab to contract or expand. If the slab is free to move and there is ‘no friction between the slab and the sub-grade, no stresses will result. However, if friction exists between the slab and sub-grade, restraint results from the friction forces and the slab is stressed. During expansion, the under-side of the slab is subjected to compressive stress, while during contraction tensile stresses are induced due to the sub-grade fricion. Fig. 30.2 (b) shows the distribution of frictional stresses, as suggested by Kelley (1939). Test results have shown that fully mobilised frictional resistance fy is realised for a distance the direction in which Gimeor is sought) gas, but from there to the centre of the slab, the stress distribution is parabolic in shape. The equations for the average co-efficient of sub-grade resistance f are as follows : DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT: 84s Lite fal 1-2 For r<}L.f Ja( =) -+-0.12) $ For r>}L, fe 2h z +.-(30.13) edhe It has been shown that the minimum amount la) Encton forces acing of displacement required for friction to be fully developed is 0.06 inch (1.5 mm). Free end For equilibrium conditions, the summation '™ of the friction forces from the centres of te aa tag | slab to the free end must be equal to the total L “ tension in the concrete. The frictional resistance dia Tampeniune drop (7) is assumed to be a finite value, dependent upon the weight of the slab and coefficient of sliding (8) Variation of f with length friction. FIG. 30.2. STRESSES RESULTING Let W-= weight of the slab per sq. metre FROM CONTRACTION. (ke/m*) length of the slab, in metres thickness of the slab in cm oo = stress in concrete, kg/cm? average co-efficient of sub-grade resistance (f=2.3 to 1.15 ; average 1.5) Then frictional resistance up to the centre of the slab =Wx bx Lf (kg) (per metre width of the slab) ol) Total tension in the concrete = (Ix 100)#on {per metre width of the slab) — ...(2) Equating (1) and (2), we get BE «100 ha __ wie 2 and oo sage kevem (30.14) Taking unit weight of concrete as 2400 kg/m’, We tc x 7h 12400 = 24h kg (30-15) Substituting in equation 30.14, we get =f o0= 3 (30.16) More exact calculations could be made by taking into account the variation in friction between the free end and the centre of the slab. Combined stresses due to load and temperature : The critical stress condition in the slab is the one in which stresses due to temperature and stresses due to load are additive. This condition can result when the slab comers are warped down ward and a Toad is applied at the interior of the slab. Similarly, during a clear, cool night followed 6 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS by a hot, sunny day, the edges and corners of the slab will warp upward and the comers may then be only partially supported or even unsupported. This condition will give the maximum stresses due to loading. 30.6. DESIGN METHOD Portland Cement Association (1951) has developed a design procedure for rigid highway pavements based upon formulae developed by Pickett (Eqs. 30.8 and 30.9). Fig. 30.3 and 30.4 show the design charts for protected and unprotected comers, based on the formulae by Pickett for the design of highway pavements. The values of 4, are in Ib/in’, ‘The arrows shown on the diagrams indicate the 659 procedure for finding the pavement thickness A for a givén value of allowable stress in concrete, magnitude of wheel load and given value of k, and also for finding the stress in the pave- ment of a given thickness corresponding to a given wheel load and a given value of k. The working stress in the concrete that is used in the analysis is obtained by dividing the modulus of rupture of the concrete by a safety factor of 2,0, Loads which are applied to the pavement are increased 20 per cent to account for im- pact. Concrete pavements designed with the help of agg these charts are considered to have excess strength to offset. working stresses. 250 Fig, 30.5, 30.6 and FIG. 30.3. PCA DESIGN CHARTS FOR RIGID HIGHWAY 30.7 give the PCA (Portland PAVEMENTS PROTECTED CORNERS, FOR LOADS Concrete Association) de- ON DUAL TYRES. sign charts for Rigid airport pavements, with various wheel loads and tyre pressure (indicated dotted lines). 2 " 10 ‘Stresses in Ib/eq inches s 8 8 ‘Thickness h in inches g 4 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 848 (soyou) ssp (sro= ‘1d goo'o00'r=a ) QVO1 MORIN “THAHM WHONVLIVOG “LNAWSAVE ANOTHV-CIO AOA SAAYND NOISHA VOI “LOE “OL (80) ssang (sououy) ssenou (sro = 4 3 psd ‘ooo'y = a) VOT YORMINI STIHHM “TWN “LNAWHAVd LUOdIV GIDTA WOd SHAUND NOISAG YOd ‘90E ‘Old (od) ssong 31 Stabilisation of Soils 31.1, INTRODUCTION Stabilisation, in a broad sense, incorporates the various methods employed for modifying the properties of a soil fo improve its engineering performance. Stabilisation is being used for a variety of engineering works, the most common application being in the construction of road and air-field pavements, where the main objective is to increase the strength or stability of soil and to reduce the construction cost by making best use of the locally available materials. Methods of stabilisation may be grouped under two main types : (a) modification or improvement of a soil property of the existing soil without any admixture, and (b) modification of the properties with the help of admixtures. Compaction and drainage are the examples of the first type, which improve the inherent shear strength of soil. Examples of the second type are : mechanical stabilisation, stabilisation with cement, lime, bitumen and chemicals etc. Some of the more commonly used methods will be discussed in this chapter. 31,2. MECHANICAL STABILISATION Mechanical stabilisation involves two operations : (é) changing the composition of soil by addition or removal of cestain constituents, and (ii) densification or compaction. The particle size distribution and composition are the important factors governing the engineering behaviour of a soil. Significant changes in the properties can be made by addition or removal of suitable soil fractions. For mechanical stabilisation, where the primary purpose is to have a soil resistant to deformation and displacement under loads, soil materials can be divided into two fractions : the granular fraction retained on a 75 micron IS sieve and the fine soil fraction passing a 75-micron sieve. The granular fraction impart strength and hardness. The fine fraction provides cohesion or binding property, water-retention capacity and also acts as a filler for the voids of the coarse fraction. Mechanical stabilisation has been largely used in the construction of cheap roads. Guide of specifications have been drawn for gradation requirements of the bases and surfacing. Typical examples are given in Table 31.1. Instead of strictly observing the specifications, emphasis should be laid on making the maximum use of the locally available materials as many materials are found to be quite satisfactory under load conditons. (49) 580 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS TABLE 31.1. TYPICAL GRADATION SPECIFICATIONS OF MECHANICALLY STABILISED BASES AND SURFACINGS Percentage passing 15 Sieve ase or surfacing Max. sie Max. size Mas, sie fmm | iomm 20mm 10mm 40 mm 100 - - - 20 mm a - 100 | 100 100 - 10 mm 35 - 0 | 80 - 100 8 - 100 100 4.75 mm wo-0@ | 0-5 |) w-8 80 = 100 20 mom so-so | 35 - 60 45 - 70 50 ~ 80 118 mm - - 35 - 0 40 - 65 600 micron 15-35 | 15 - 30 7 300 miroa - - 2-40 20 - 40 78 micron s-s | s-15 19 - 25 10 ~ 25 Note. (i) For bases : Liquid limit not exceeding 25% and plasticity index not exceeding 6. (ii) For surfacing : Liquid limit not exceeding 35% and plasticity index between 4 and 9. If the soil from one source does not meet the gradation and plasiticity requirements of a job, it becomes necessary to mix materials from two more sources for obtaining the desired mixture. The blending of materials can be carried out by making trial combinations. Proper compaction plays a very important role in stabilisation. Compaction has a great effect on soil properties, such as strength and stress-strain characteristics, permeability, compression, swelling and water absorption. The properties of a soil under compaction depend upon the water content, amount of compaction and the type of compaction. compared to coarse grained soils, the properties of fine grained soils are affected to a greater extent by the placement conditions. Compaction has been discussed in Chapter 17. 31.3. CEMENT STABILISATION 1. Soll cement and its influencing factors. The soil stabilised with cement (Portland) is known as soil cement. The cementing action is belived to be the result of chemical reaction of cement with the silicious soil during hydration. The binding action of individual particles through cement may be possible only in coarse-grained soils. In fine grained, cohesive STABILISATION OF SOILS 853 In the mix-in-place method, the sub-grade is first shaped to the required grade and is cleared of undesirable materials. It is then scarified 10 the required depth of treatment and the soils is pulverised, until at least 80% of the material (excluding stones) passcs a 4.75 mm sieve. If another soil is to be blended, it is mixed with the loose, pulverised soil. The pulverised soil is spread and shaped to proper grade. Calculated amount of cement is then evenly distributed over the surface and intimately mixed. Water is added as required for compaction and the soil cement-water is turned into an intimate mixture. The wet mixture operation should not last more than 3 hours, after which the compaction should be completed within the next 2 hours. It is fairly easy to process coarse grained soil. Pulverisation and mixing of plastic clays can be facilitated by adding lime in proportions of 1 to 4%. The compacted soil cement is moistured for at least 7 days. A bituminous wearing surface is normally provided to protect the soil-cement base from abrasion and absorption of water in shrinkage cracks. The mix-in-place method is considered cheaper and more adaptable to different field conditions, but the processing of soil is not so thorough and accurate as with other methods. In the wravelling plant method, the pulverised soil is heaped into a window and the cement is spread on the top. The soil and cement are lifted by an elevator to a mixer carried on a travelling platform where water is added and mixing is done, The mixture is then discharged on to the subgrade, It is spread with a grader and compacted. Unifrom mixing and accurate control on added water can be ensured in the method. A uniform subgrade surface with controlled depth of treatment is possible. The plant is however, costly: In the stationary plant method, the excavated soil is brought to a stationary mixing plant. At the plant, cement and water are added and mixed with the soil. The mixture is then transported back to the desired location, dumped, spread and compacted, Similar to the travelling method, the method affords an accurate proportioning of materials and thorough mixing. The depth of treatment can be easily controlled. The method is slower and may prove expensive due to additional haulage of soil. 31.4, LIME STABILISATION Hydrated (or slaked) lime is very effective in treating heavy, plastic clayey soils Lime may be used alone, or in combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilised these combinations. Lime has been mainly used for stabilising the toad bases and sub-grades. On addition of time to soil, two main types of chemical reactions occur : (i) alteration in the nature of the absorbed layer through base exchange phenomenon, and (if) cementing or puzzolanic action. Lime reduces the plasticity index of highly plastic soils making them more friable and easy to be handled and pulverised. The plasticity index of soils of low plasticity generally increases. There is generally an increase in the optimum water content and a decrease in the maximum compacted density, but the strength and durability increases. The amount of lime required may be used on the unconfined compressive strength or the CBR test criteria. Normally 2 or 8% of lime may be required for coarse grained soils, and 5 to 10% for plastic soils. The amount of fly ash as admixture may vary from 8 to 20% of the soil weight (Lambe, 1962). os SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS ‘The construction procedures of lime stabilised bases are similar to those soil-cement. No strict time limitations for completion of the job are however necessary, since the soil-lime cementation reactions are respectively slow. 31.5, BITUMEN STABILISATION Asphalts and tars are the bituminous materials which are used for stabilisation of soil, generally for pavernent construction. These materials are normally too viscous to be incorporated directly with soil. The fluidity of asphalts is increased by either heating, emulsifying or by cut-back process. Tars are heated or cut back. The bituminous materials when added to a soil impart cohesion or binding action and reduced water absorption, Thus either the binding action or the water proofing action or both the actions, may be utilised for stabilisation. Depending upon these actions and the nature of soils, bitumen stabilisation is classified under the following four types : (i) sand- bitumen, (ii) soil-bitumen, (iii) water-proofed mechanical stabilisation and (iv) oiled earth, 1. Sand bitumen. ‘This term refers to bitumen-stabilised cohesionless soil, such as loose beach, dune, pit or river sand. The primary function of bitumen is to bind the soil particles. Sand should be substantially free from clay and organic matter. The gradation may vary within a wide range, but the fraction passing a 75 micron sieve should normally not exceed 12% ; in case of fine dune sand the fraction may be upto 25%. Crushed stone, rock dust, gravel, etc., may be added to poorly graded sand. ‘The climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature decide the type of bituminous material to be used and the method of mixing and construction to be cemployed. Hot mix sand asphalt is suitable in area of heavy rainfall, and emulsions are preferable in arid zones. Rapid curing cut-backs are recommended for low temperatures and slow curing for high temperatures, The quantity of.bituminous material required is determined by laboratory tests, The approximate proportions on dry weight basis of sand are as follows (Uppal and Bhalla, 1965}; hot mix asphat, 5 to 11% ; cutback, 4 to 10% ; emulsions, 5 to 10%. Hydrated lime, 1 to 2% is sometimes used as an admixture to assist coating of sand grains. 2. Soil bitumen. Tt refers to a cohesive soil in which the main function of bitumen is to preserve the natural cohesive strength by water-proofing the soil or reducing the water absorption. A large variety of soils can be thus stabilised. For best results the following requirements are recommended (HRB, 1946) : 4) Maximum size : not greater than approximately one-third the compacted thickness, (i) Passing 4.75 mm sieve : more than 50% , (iii) Passing 425 micron sieve : 35—100%, div) Passing 75 micron sieve 10—30%, ©) Liquid limit : Less than 40%, (vi) Plasticity index : Less than 18. 74 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS they can be printed by the numerical printer alongwith time and channel no., at programmed time intervals and sequences. ‘The system can be programmed to shift the decimal poinis according to requirement. The data-logger has provision of peak hold facility which stores the peak values of any parameter, attained during the test. 33.3. ELECTRONIC TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST EQUIPMENT Plate XIII shows HEICO electronic triaxial test apparatus. This instrument eliminates the constant recording and computation of the data by the observer, All the above functions are carried out by continuous sertsing of pore pressure, axial strain and axial load with the help of pore pressure transducer, displacement transducer and load cell respectively and their display directly in respective engineering units on the digital read out unit coupled to it through selectable switch. The unit is designed to be connected to micro-processor based data-logger [Plate XI (b)] which continuously scan the data received from the transducer and in addition to their display, prints them in their respective engineering units at programmed time intervals and sequences, A battery is provided to store the data programmed into the data-logger during power failure. 33.4. HYDRAULIC EARTH PRESSURE CELL Earth pressure cells are used to measure the actual carth pressure on retaining walls, building basements, bridge abutments sheet piling surface of tunnel Lining as well as for measurement of total pressure at foundations of earth dams and embankments. Such measurements help in evaluating their post construction behaviour and taking timely remedial measures for the structures showing distress. Earth pressure cells, also called stress ceils, arc gencrally of two categories : (Flexible diaphragm type, and (i) Stiff cylinder type. ‘The flexible diaphragm type earth pressure cell consists of a flexible circular or rectangular diaphragm attached to a rigid stiff case. The pressure is measured due to continuous displaced shape of the flexible diaphragm, the greatest deflection occuring at the centre. In the stiff cylinder type ell, the axial compression of the stiff, prismatic clement, usually enclosed within a case to isolate it from the lateral stresses of the surrounding soil mass, is used to sense the total pressure. Various systems available to measure earth pressure use the following : (i) Electrial resistance strain gauges (i) Semi-conductor strain gauges, (iit) Vibrating wire system, (iv) Closed fluid system (usually called Gloetz or hydraulic pressure cell), and {v) Pneumatic system, where air pressure is used to balance the stiffness of the cell. Out of the above systems, the strain gauge type, the vibrating wire type and the closed fluid system type (i.e hydraulic pressure cell) are commonly used since they are most accurate, Resistance strain gauge type cells are easy to use and have linear rapid response, but they are susceptible to damage and are affected by the moisture of the earth fill material in long use, Vibrating wire type cells are more durable but have non-linear response ; these are described in § 33.5. ADVANCED MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 875 ‘The hydraulic earth pressure cell, also Known as Gloetz cell, has recently come into vogue as means of measuring total pressure changes in soil, earth or rockfill, or at the interface between any of these materials. It may also be used to measure pressure changes in rock, when installed in a machined stot. Plate XIV shows the photograph of @ hydraulic pressure cell manufactured by HEICO. The pressure cell essentially consists of @ sensor flat jack or fluid filled pressure pad connected to a hydraulic or pneumatic diaphragm transducer, which in turn, is connected by a flexible tubing to a read out unit, Pressure transferred from the surrounding soil to the flat jack is measured by balancing the fluid pressure in the cell by a pressure applied to the reverse side of the transducer diaphragin. The flat jack (pressure sensor or cell) is formed from two sheets of stainless steel welded around the periphery. The narrow gap of 1.5 mm between the plates is filled with fluid of comparable deformity to that of the ground, Mercury is used in rocks and oil is used in soils, The cells can be either circular or rectangular in plan with dimensions ranging from 6 to 40 cm, The cell is comnected to a hydraulic wansducer by a short length of stainless steel tubing forming a closed hydraulic circuit. Both the cell and the transducer are embedded in the structure to be monitored. Hydraulic transducer is a hydraulic valve consisting of a flexible steel, plastic or rubber diaphragm, incorporated in metal housing. The diaphragm must completely separate the cell fluid from the measuring fluid. One side of the diaphragm is connected to the cell fluid and the other to the measuring fluid delivery and return tubes. The transducer design is such that the pressure in cell fluid is slightly greater than that in the measuring fluid in order to prevent return of the measuring fluid. When the applied measuring pressure equals the cell fluid pressure, the diaphragm will displace, allowing flow along the measuring fluid return fine. Read out equipment consists of a fluid reservoir, a pump with pressure gauge to measure the applied pressure, and Prossures cals a detector (0 indicate the fluid forcontact ang Shotoreto bnieg return from the cell. Smaller ap. *°UNerpnvial sess plied pressures are measured by using a manometer instead of Pressure gauge, Hydraulic transducer is connected to the terminal panel or directly to the read out unit by two nylon high pressure pipes carrying quick couplings at each end. To take reading, hydraulic Pressure is supplied from the read ‘ut unit to one side of the flexible diaphragm valve incorporated in the transducer. When the supply iG. 33.1 INSTALLATION OF CELLS IN TUNNEL LINING Terminal panel Pottabla hystaudic readout ADVANCED MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. an known, the magnitude of the physical quantity which is measured, such as pressure, strain or force, can be calculated using formula and constants in calibration schemes supplied with each transducer. denen All vibrating-wire type transducers Ri : Resistor contain an electrical pick-up and exciter © : Magnet col circuit as shown in Fig. 33.3. The electrical W : Vibrating-wire components, which are potted in epoxy, Z, : Transient suppressor are mounted inside the body of the Bg faauiaters top) transducer. AIMIL manufactures two types of + cell : P-100 cell and P-105 cell. The active FIG. 33.3. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF membrane diameter of P-100 cells (75 mm) VIBRATING-WIRE STRAIN GAUGE (AIMIL) limits the grain size of the soil to 1.5 mm. For larger grain size (0-2 mm), in earth/rock fill dams and off-shore applications, the P-105 cell with its active membrane diameter of 100 mm is recommended. Because of their thickness/diameter ratio (0.28 for P-100 and 0,22 for P-105), the transducers. are installed in special steel frames when used in earth fills for earth pressure measurements. ‘The P-100 transducer is often used tO measure total pressure or pore pressure acting on different kinds of walls. For low pressures, atmospheric pressure may be maintained inside the transducer through the PE tube encasing the lead wires. The signal cable P-540 is used alongwith this cell. Fi ‘The P-540 cable is made of standard FIG. 334. P40 CABLE. PPOP one-pair shielded cable with OD 10 mm PE tubing outside as an extra protection and to maintain atmospheric pressure inside the transducer. The P-105 transducer is widely used in earth/rockfill dams to measure total earth pressure. Plate XV (c) shows vertical positioned P-105 cell in dam embankment. Gauge redundancy has been provided for by installing two independent vibrating-wire systems (wire and magnet sytsem) inside the transducer. The P-105 transducer is not vented to atmosphere ; hence variations in atmos- pheric pressure should not be ignored at low total pressures. The signal cable P-430 is used with this cell. The P-430 cable is specially de- signed to withstand strong vertical forces, It is steel armoured and has a thick PE outside insulation (Fig, 33.5), The space FIG, 33.5. P-430 CABLE. 378 ‘SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS between the cable cores and also between steel armour wire are filled with petroleum jelly to prevent longitudinal leakages caused by light surface damage to the cable. An extra protecting PE tubing for the P-430 cable (OD 25 x 3 mm) is sometimes used in adverse environments and where large settlements are expected. Reading of P-100 and P-105 transducers may be performed either manually or the automatic recording equipment. Plates XV (a) and XVI show the P-520 F frequency indicator, It may be connected directly 10 the transducer cable or to a switch box. Automatic read out can be obtained by means of a micro-logger with digital print out of all data in engineering units. 33.6. VIBRATING-WIRE EXTENSOMETER, ‘A vibrating-wire extensometer is used to monitor displacements or strains in earth structures. It is particularly useful for monitoring internal deformation and cracking of dam embankment near the abutments. ‘The extensometers are normally linked together with steel pipe and anchor plates to form a con- tinuous chain over the distance to be monitored. Fig. 33.6 shows P-265 extensometer manufac- tured by AIMIL. The complete measuring system consists of three main parts g (i) Extensometer oe’, ~Piates connection (i) Cable FIG, 33.46, VIBRATING-WIRE_ EXTENSOMETER (ii) Read out instrament. The basic principle (Fig. 33.7) of the vibrating-wire strain gauge is that the change in natural frequency of a stretched wire depends on the change of the tension in the wire. In this instrument one end of the wire is attached to the movable head of the extensometer by a steel spring. A displacement of the extensometer is thus transformed to a variation in tension of the spring and also Frequency in the vibrating-wire. Thus, the indicator frequency of the wire is a meas- Pick-up and ure of the displacement between oxcttor extensometer and anchor. The magnate square difference of frequencies is proportional to the displace- ment. The signal cable of P-430 type (Fig. 33.5) is used. The P-430 cable is specially designed to withstand strong external forces in hostile environments, FIG. 33.7. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF VIBRATING-WIRE EXTENSOMETER. ‘Vibrating-wire ELECTRONIC CONSOLIDATION APPARATUS WITH READ-OUT UNIT (HEICO) PLATE XI (To Face Page 880 (oB8 aGeg a2e4 a1) AX aLV1d (QH¥NOaD/TUNEY) ANEW XNVEWNG HAVA NITTS9 sold () LIND LAOGVAY ONY F1GV3 HLM THD sASSEad HLAVE TAM ONLLVAETA (®)

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