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Planning (Invention)
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
For more information and suggestions for planning papers, see these handouts:
Planning (Invention): When you start to write at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan2.html
Planning (Invention): Thought Starters (Asking the Right Questions) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/
general/gl_plan3.html
"A writer keeps surprising himself... he doesn't know what he is saying until he sees it on the page."
-- Thomas Williams
When you sit down to write...

- Does your mind turn blank?
- Are you sure you have nothing to say?
If so, you're not alone! Everyone experiences this at some time or other, but some people have strategies or
techniques to get them started. When you are planning to write something, try some of the following suggestions.
EXPLORE the problem -- not the topic

1. Who is your reader?
2. What is your purpose?
3. Who are you, the writer? (What image or persona do you want to project?)
MAKE your goals operational

1. How can you achieve your purpose?
2. Can you make a plan?
GENERATE some ideas
1. Brainstorm
- Keep writing
- Don't censor or evaluate
- Keep returning to the problem
2. Talk to your reader

- What questions would they ask?
- What different kinds of readers might you have?
3. Ask yourself questions
A. Journalistic questions
Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? So What?
B. Classical topics (patterns of argument)
Definition
- How does the dictionary define ____?
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan1.html Page 1 of 3
- What do I mean by ____?

- What group of things does ____ belong to?
- How is ____ different from other things?
- What parts can ____ be divided into?
- Does ____ mean something now that it didn't years ago? If so, what?
- What other words mean about the same as ____?
- What are some concrete examples of ____?
- When is the meaning of ____ misunderstood?
Comparison/Contrast
- What is ____ similar to? In what ways?

- What is ____ different from? In what ways?
- ____ is superior (inferior) to what? How?
- ____ is most unlike (like) what? How?
Relationship
- What causes ____?

- What are the effects of ____?
- What is the purpose of ____? - What is the consequence of ____?
- What comes before (after) ____?
Testimony
- What have I heard people say about ____?

- What are some facts of statistics about ____?
- Can I quote any proverbs, poems, or sayings about ____?
- Are there any laws about ____?
Circumstance
- Is ____ possible or impossible?

- What qualities, conditions, or circumstances make ____ possible or impossible?
- When did ____ happen previously?
- Who can do ____?
- If ____ starts, what makes it end?
- What would it take for ____ to happen now?
- What would prevent ___ from happening?
C. Tagmemics
Contrastive features
- How is ____ different from things similar to it?

- How has ____ been different for me?
Variation
- How much can ____ change and still be itself?

- How is ____ changing?
- How much does ____ change from day to day?
- What are the different varieties of ____?
Distribution
- Where and when does ____ take place?

- What is the larger thing of which ___ is a part?
- What is the function of ____ in this larger thing?
D. Cubing (considering a subject from six points of view)

1. *Describe* it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)

2. *Compare* it (What is it similar to?)
3. *Associate* it (What does it make you think of?)
4. *Analyze* it (Tell how it's made)
5. *Apply* it (What can you do with it? How can it be used?)
6. *Argue* for or against it
E. Make an analogy
Choose an activity from column A to explain it by describing it in terms of an activity from column B (or vice-versa).
A B
---------- --------
playing cards writing essays

changing a tire growing up
selling growing old
walking rising in the world
sailing studying
skiing meditating
plowing swindling
launching rockets teaching
running for office learning
hunting failing
Russian roulette quarreling
brushing teeth making peace
REST AND INCUBATE!

(Adapted from Linda Flower's Problem-Solving Strategies for Writing, Gregory and Elizabeth Cowan's Writing, and
Gordon Rohman and Albert Wlecke's Prewriting.)
The following information must remain intact on every handout printed for distribution.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan1.html
Copyright 1995-2003 by OWL at Purdue University and Purdue University. All rights reserved.
Use of this site, including printing and distributing our handouts, constitutes acceptance of our
terms and conditions of fair use, available at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/fairuse.html.
To contact OWL, please visit our contact information page at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/contact.html to find the right person to call or email.
Planning (Invention): When you start to write
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu
For more information and suggestions for planning your paper, see these handouts:
Planning (Invention) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan1.html
Planning (Invention): Thought Starters (Asking the Right Questions) at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan3.html
You can try the textbook formula:
I. State your thesis.

II. Write an outline.
III. Write the first draft.
IV. Revise and polish.
. . . but that often doesn't work!
Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:
Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.
There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For example, your
topic might be "dorm food." At this point, you and your potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should
you write about this, and why should anyone read it?
Do you want the reader to pity you because of the intolerable food you have to eat there?
Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?
Do you want to compare Purdue's dorm food to that served at Indiana University?
Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.

How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some movie as the best you've ever seen? Would
you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader
that you really liked it?
Start the ideas flowing

Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps
some friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to
keep adding to the list at odd moments as ideas continue to come to mind.
Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone -- or by several people, if possible (to give
yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several different points of view). What questions would the other person
ask? You might also try to teach the subject to a group or class.
See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy by using the word like . For example, if
you are writing about violence on television, is that violence like clowns fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is
really getting hurt)?
Take a rest and let it all percolate.

Nutshell your whole idea.
Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.
Diagram your major points somehow.

Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for
more material in some places.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan2.html
Write a first draft.
Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else. Watch especially for the need to
clarify or add more information.
You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies.
You may find that one works better than another. You may find yourself trying several strategies at once. If so, then you are
probably doing something right!
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan2.html
Use of this site, including printing and distributing our handouts, constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use,
available at

Planning (Invention): Thought Starters (Asking the Right Questions)
For more information and suggestions for planning papers, see these handouts:
Planning (Invention) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan1.html
Planning (Invention): When you start to write at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan2.html
As a writer, you can begin by asking yourself questions and then answering them. Your answers will bring your subject into focus
and provide you with the material to develop your topic. Here are twenty questions or "thought starters" that present ways of
observing or thinking about your topic. Each question generates the type of essay listed in parentheses after the question.
1. What does X mean? (Definition)
2. What are the various features of X? (Description)
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis)
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)
14. How did X happen? (Narration)
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)
(Adapted from Jacqueline Berke's Twenty Questions for the Writer )
Adding Emphasis
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http:owl.english.purdue.edu
Visual Devices for Achieving Emphasis

In the days before computerized word processing and desktop publishing, the publishing process began with a manuscript
and/or a typescript that was sent to a print shop where it would be prepared for publication and printed. In order to show
emphasis, to highlight the title of a book, to refer to a word itself as a word, or to indicate a foreign word or phrase, the writer
would use underlining in the typescript, which would signal the typesetter at the print shop to use italic font for those words. Even
today, perhaps the simplest way to call attention to an otherwise unemphatic word or phrase is to underline or italicize it.
Flaherty is the new committee chair, not Buckley.

This mission is extremely important for our future: we must not fail !
Because writers using computers today have access to a wide variety of fonts and textual effects, they are no longer limited to
underlining to show emphasis. Still, especially for academic writing, italics or underlining is the preferred way to emphasize words
or phrases when necessary. Writers usually choose one or the other method and use it consistently throughout an individual
essay. In the final, published version of an article or book, italics are usually used. Writers in academic discourses and students
learning to write academic papers are expected to express emphasis primarily through words themselves; overuse of various
emphatic devices like changes of font face and size, boldface, all-capitals, and so on in the text of an essay creates the
impression of a writer relying on flashy effects instead of clear and precise writing to make a point.
Boldface is also used, especially outside of academia, to show emphasis as well as to highlight items in a list, as in the following
examples.
The picture that television commercials portray of the American home is far from realistic.
The following three topics will be covered:
topic 1: brief description of topic 1

Some writers use ALL-CAPITAL letters for emphasis, but they are usually unnecessary and can cause writing to appear cluttered
and loud. In email correspondence, the use of all-caps throughout a message can create the unintended impression of shouting
and is therefore discouraged.
Punctuation Marks for Achieving Emphasis

Some punctuation marks prompt the reader to give a word or sentence more than usual emphasis. For example, a command
with a period does not evoke the same emphatic response as the same command with an exclamation mark.
Watch out!
A dash or colon has more emphatic force than a comma.
The employees were surprised by the decision, which was not to change company policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision--no change in company policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision: no change in company policy.
Choice and Arrangement of Words for Achieving Emphasis

The simplest way to emphasize something is to tell readers directly that what follows is important by using such words and
phrases as especially , particularly , crucially , most importantly , and above all .
Emphasis by repetition of key words can be especially effective in a series, as in the following example.
See your good times come to color in minutes: pictures protected by an elegant finish, pictures you can take with
an instant flash, pictures that can be made into beautiful enlargements.
When a pattern is established through repetition and then broken, the varied part will be emphasized, as in the following
example.
Murtz Rent-a-car is first in reliability, first in service, and last in customer complaints.
Besides disrupting an expectation set up by the context, you can also emphasize part of a sentence by departing from the basic
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_emphasis.html
structural patterns of the language. The inversion of the standard subject-verb-object pattern in the first sentence below into an
object-subject-verb pattern in the second places emphasis on the out-of-sequence term, fifty dollars .
I'd make fifty dollars in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.
Fifty dollars I'd make in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.
The initial and terminal positions of sentences are inherently more emphatic than the middle segment. Likewise, the main
clause of a complex sentence receives more emphasis than subordinate clauses. Therefore, you should put words that you wish
to emphasize near the beginnings and endings of sentences and should never bury important elements in subordinate clauses.
Consider the following example.
No one can deny that the computer has had a great effect upon the business world.
Undeniably, the effect of the computer upon the business world has been great.
In the first version of this sentence, "No one can deny" and "on the business world" are in the most emphasized positions. In
addition, the writer has embedded the most important ideas in a subordinate clause: "that the computer has had a great effect."
The edited version places the most important ideas in the main clause and in the initial and terminal slots of the sentence,
creating a more engaging prose style.
Arrangement of Clauses for Achieving Emphasis

Since the terminal position in the sentence carries the most weight and since the main clause is more emphatic than a
subordinate clause in a complex sentence, writers often place the subordinate clause before the main clause to give maximal
emphasis to the main clause. For example:
I believe both of these applicants are superb even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays.
Even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays, I believe both of these applicants are superb.
Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving Emphasis

An abrupt short sentence following a long sentence or a sequence of long sentences is often emphatic. For example, compare
the following paragraphs. The second version emphasizes an important idea by placing it in an independent clause and placing it
at the end of the paragraph:
For a long time, but not any more, Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw
materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for
junior executives who needed minor league experience.
For a long time Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw materials, as a place
to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for junior executives who
needed minor league experience. But those days have ended.
Varying a sentence by using a question after a series of statements is another way of achieving emphasis.
The increased number of joggers, the booming sales of exercise bicycles and other physical training devices, the
record number of entrants in marathon races--all clearly indicate the growing belief among Americans that
strenuous, prolonged exercise is good for their health. But is it?
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_emphasis.html
available at

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Coherence
When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie
together smoothly and clearly. To establish the links that readers need, you can use the methods listed here.
Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase

This helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track.
Example : The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary
art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some variety in your word choices, helping the
reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed.
Example : Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a
set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them.
Pronouns
This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they , and w e are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be
sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.
Example : When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until
some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that
promise the most rewards.
Transitional Words
There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the
handout on Transitional Devices (Connecting Words) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_transition.html.
There you'll find lists of words such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.
Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and
the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through
here. In addition , that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when
I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.
Sentence Patterns
Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep ideas tied together.
Example : (from a speech by President John F. Kennedy) And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country
can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_cohere.html
Answers to Conciseness Exercise
Please note that these are a sampling of possible answers. These should be used as a guide to show what is
possible, not as a source ofthe only "correct" answers for the exercise. Here are our suggestions:
Part One:
2. Bradley Hall is usually filled with students who do not study the building as a structure.
3. He dropped out of school to support his family.
4. The bus company will probably announce its schedule during the next few days.
5. Any student who wants to meet foreign students can do so in many ways.
6. Rarely will you find someone who has never told a deliberate lie.
7. Disobeying safety regulations causes trouble.
8. Five out of more than a thousand students at a campus rally were arrested for disorderly conduct, and several
others were charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without a permit.
9. Students think that the most important subjects are those that will be useful after graduation.
10. Soon college freshmen must realize that they need to contact their advisors about their choices of majors.
11. Our company provides opportunities for professional growth and stability in the dynamic field of aerospace
technology.
12. There are people who are for and people who are against capital punishment.
Part Two:
1. The cliffs dropped to the reefs seventy-five feet below, which were barely visible through the fog.
2. Their car is gassed up and ready for an all-night drive.
3. Sometimes Stan went running with Blanche, a good athlete on the track team at school.
4. Government leaders like to mention the creation of new jobs, claiming that these jobs indicate a strong
economy, but ignoring the fact that low wage jobs without benefits and security have replaced many good jobs.
Part Three (first paragraph):
Many people who have not committed, seen, or solved a murder, or felt any desire to do any of the above, still
like to read murder mysteries in order to escape the monotony of everday life.
Now it's your turn to be the expert! Using these models, how would you continue condensing the essay in Part
Three?
Exercises for Eliminating Wordiness
For strategies to improve conciseness in your writing, see Methods of Eliminating Wordiness at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_concise.html
Directions: Revise these sentences to state their meaning in fewer words. Avoid passive voice, needless repetition,
and wordy phrases and clauses. The first sentence has been done as an example.
1. There are many farmers in the area who are planning to attend the meeting which is scheduled for next Friday.
1. Many area farmers plan to attend next Friday's meeting.
2. Although Bradley Hall is regularly populated by students, close study of the building as a structure is seldom
undertaken by them.
3. He dropped out of school on account of the fact that it was necessary for him to help support his family.
4. It is expected that the new schedule will be announced by the bus company within the next few days.
5. There are many ways in which a student who is interested in meeting foreign students may come to know one.
6. It is very unusual to find someone who has never told a deliberate lie on purpose.
7. Trouble is caused when people disobey rules that have been established for the safety of all.
8. A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students were arrested by campus police
for disorderly conduct, while several others are charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting
without being issued a permit to do so.
9. The subjects that are considered most important by students are those that have been shown to be useful to
them after graduation.
10. In the not too distant future, college freshmen must all become aware of the fact that there is a need for them
to make contact with an academic adviser concerning the matter of a major.
11. In our company there are wide-open opportunities for professional growth with a company that enjoys an
enviable record for stability in the dynamic atmosphere of aerospace technology.
12. Some people believe in capital punishment, while other people are against it; there are many opinions on this
subject.
Directions: Combine each sentence group into one concise sentence.
1. The cliff dropped to reefs seventy-five feet below. The reefs below the steep cliff were barely visible through the
fog.
2. Their car is gassed up. It is ready for the long drive. The drive will take all night.
3. Sometimes Stan went running with Blanche. She was a good athlete. She was on the track team at school.
4. Taylor brought some candy back from Europe. It wasn't shaped like American candy. The candy tasted kind of
strange to him.
5. Government leaders like to mention the creation of new jobs. They claim that these new jobs indicate a strong
economy. They don't mention that low-wage jobs without benefits and security have replaced many good jobs.
Directions: Revise the following passage, avoiding wordiness and undesirable repetition.
A large number of people enjoy reading murder mysteries regularly. As a rule, these people are not themselves
murderers, nor would these people really ever enjoy seeing someone commit an actual murder, nor would most of
them actually enjoy trying to solve an actual murder. They probably enjoy reading murder mysteries because of
this reason: they have found a way to escape from the monotonous, boring routine of dull everyday existence.
To such people the murder mystery is realistic fantasy. It is realistic because the people in the murder mystery are
as a general rule believable as people. They are not just made up pasteboard figures. It is also realistic because
the character who is the hero, the character who solves the murder mystery, solves it not usually by trial and error
and haphazard methods but by exercising a high degree of logic and reason. It is absolutely and totally essential
that people who enjoy murder mysteries have an admiration for the human faculty of logic.
But murder mysteries are also fantasies. The people who read such books of fiction play a game. It is a game in
which they suspend certain human emotions. One of these human emotions that they suspend is pity. If the
reader stops to feel pity and sympathy for each and every victim that is killed or if the reader stops to feel terrible
horror that such a thing could happen in our world of today, that person will never enjoy reading murder mysteries.
The devoted reader of murder mysteries keeps uppermost in mind at all times the goal of arriving through logic
and observation at the final solution to the mystery offered in the book. It is a game with life and death.
Whodunits hopefully help the reader to hide from the hideous horrors of actual life and death in the real world.
Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness
For practice editing sentences to make them more concise, see our exercises on this topic at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_conciseEX1.html
1. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers

Writers sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to determine narrowly or to modify the
meaning of a noun but don't actually add to the meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be meaningful
in the appropriate context, they are often used as "filler" and can easily be eliminated.
Wordy
Any particular type of dessert is fine with me.
Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help.
More Concise
Any dessert is fine with me.
Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help.
Here's a list of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer:
kind of really definitely

sort of basically actually
type of for all intents and purposes generally
specific particular individual
Wordy
For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on certain factors that are really
more psychological in kind than of any given technological aspect.
More Concise
American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than on technological factors.
2. Change phrases into single words

Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes to wordiness. Convert phrases into single
words when possible.
Wordy
The employee with ambition ...
The department showing the best performance ...
Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting , suggested at our last board meeting the installation of microfilm equipment in
the department of data processing .
As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small errors of spelling,
punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything else is to try to see where a series of words
expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than verbs.
More Concise
The ambitious employee...

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_concise.html
The best-performing department...
At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install microfilm equipment in the
data processing department.
As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases.
3. Change unnecessary that , who , and which clauses into phrases

Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word contributes to wordiness. Convert
modifying clauses into phrases or single words when possible.
Wordy
The report, which was released recently ...
All applicants who are interested in the job must...
The system that is most efficient and accurate ...
More Concise
The recently released report...
All job applicants must...
The most efficient and accurate system...
4. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences

Expletives are phrases of the form it + be -verb or there + be -verb. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis
in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions creates wordy prose. Take the following example:
"It is imperative that we find a solution." The same meaning could be expressed with this more succinct wording: "We must find
a solution." But using the expletive construction allows the writer to emphasize the urgency of the situation by placing the word
imperative near the beginning of the sentence, so the version with the expletive may be preferable. Still, you should generally
avoid excessive or unnecessary use of expletives. The most common kind of unnecessary expletive construction involves an
expletive followed by a noun and a relative clause beginning with that , which , or who . In most cases, you can create a more
concise sentence by eliminating the expletive opening, making the noun the subject of the sentence, and eliminating the
relative pronoun.
Wordy
It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills.
There are four rules that should be observed: ...
There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street.
More Concise
The governor signs or vetoes bills.
Four rules should be observed:...
A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street.
5. Use active rather than passive verbs

See our document on active and passive voice for a more thorough explanation of this topic. It is located at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html
Wordy
An account was opened by Mrs. Simms.
Your figures were checked by the research department.
More Concise
Mrs. Simms opened an account.
The research department checked your figures.
6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as nominalizations . Sentences with many nominalizations usually have
forms of b e as the main verbs. Using the action verbs disguised in nominalizations as the main verbs--instead of forms of
be --can help to create engaging rather than dull prose.
Wordy
The function of this department is the collection of accounts.
The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention.
More Concise
This department collects accounts.
The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention.
7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases

Some infinitive phrases can be converted into finite verbs or brief noun phrases. Making such changes also often results in the
replacement of a b e -verb with an action verb.
Wordy
The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it.
A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customers t o
become dissatisfied with service.
More Concise
A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.
A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customer
dissatisfaction.
8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions

Circumlocutions are commonly used roundabout expressions that take several words to say what could be said more succinctly.
We often overlook them because many such expressions are habitual figures of speech. In writing, though, they should be
avoided since they add extra words without extra meaning. Of course, occasionally you may for rhetorical effect decide to use,
say, an expletive construction instead of a more succinct expression. These guidelines should be taken as general
recommendations, not absolute rules.
Wordy
At this/that point in time...
In accordance with your request...
More Concise
Now/then...
As you requested...
Here are some other common circumlocutions that can be compressed into just one word:
the reason for
for the reason that
owing/due to the fact that
in light of the fact that =because, since, why
considering the fact that
on the grounds that
this is why
on the occasion of
=when
in a situation in which
under circumstances in which
as regards
in reference to
=about
with regard to
concerning the matter of
where ________ is concerned
it is crucial that
it is necessary that
there is a need/necessity for
=must, should
it is important that
cannot be avoided
is able to
has the opportunity to
has the capacity for
=can
has the ability to
it is possible that
there is a chance that
=may, might, could
it could happen that
the possibility exists for
Wordy
It is possible that nothing will come of these preparations.
She has the ability to influence the outcome.
It is necessary that we take a stand on this pressing issue.
More Concise
Nothing may come of these preparations.
She can influence the outcome
We must take a stand on this pressing issue.
9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail

Be sure always to consider your readers as you draft and revise your writing. If you find passages that explain or describe in
detail what would already be obvious to readers, delete or reword them.
Wordy
I received your inquiry yesterday. Yes, we do have...
It goes without saying that we are acquainted with your policy on filing tax returns, and we have every intention of
complying with the regulations that you have mentioned.
Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to learn what the rules are for
how to play the game of chess.
Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms of total attendance at ball parks
and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play on the field that alternates between times when players
passively wait with no action taking place between the pitches to the batter and then times when they explode into
action as the batter hits a pitched ball to one of the players and the player fields it.
More Concise
Yes, we do have...
We intend to comply with the tax-return regulations that you have mentioned.
Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.
Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action.
10. Omit repetitive wording

Watch for phrases or longer passages in your writing in which you repeat words with similar meanings. Below are some general
examples of unnecessary repetition contrasted with more concise versions, followed by lists and examples of specific redundant
word pairs and categories.
Wordy
I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the administrator's dislike of long
sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other items drafted for her signature or approval, as
well as in all correspondence, reports, and studies. Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short.
The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury .
Our branch office currently employs five tellers . These tellers do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but
cannot keep up with the rush on Friday and Saturday.
More Concise
Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters, reports, and studies short.
Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos drafted for her approval recently have been
wordy and thus time-consuming.
The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury.
Our branch office currently employs five tellers, who do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep
up with Friday and Saturday rush periods.
Redundant Pairs
Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete , so the phrase completely finish is redundant in
most cases. So are many other pairs of words:
past memories terrible tragedy

various differences end result
each individual final outcome
basic fundamentals free gift
true facts past history
important essentials unexpected surprise
future plans sudden crisis
A related expression that's not redundant as much as it is illogical is very unique . Since unique means "one of a
kind," adding modifiers of degree such as very , so , especially , somewhat , extremely , and so on is illogical.
One-of-a-kind-ness has no gradations; something is either unique or it is not.
Wordy
Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various differences among all of the many
very unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her future plans.
More Concise
Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences among the unique vacation packages his travel agency
was offering, the customer changed her plans.
Redundant Categories
Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both. We know that a period is a
segment of time, that pink is a color, that shiny is an appearance. In each of the following phrases, the general
category term can be dropped, leaving just the specific descriptive word:
large in size of cheap quality

often times honest in character
of a bright color of an uncertain condition
heavy in weight in a confused state
period in time unusual in nature
round in shape extreme in degree
at an early time of a strange type
economics field
Wordy
During that time period, many car buyers preferred cars that were pink in color and shiny in appearance.
The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar in nature.
More Concise
During that period, many car buyers preferred pink, shiny cars.
The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_concise.html
available at

Overcoming Writer's Block
For more advice on getting started writing, see the Purdue OWL handout Coping with Writing Anxiety at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_anxiety.html.
Because writers have a various ways of writing, a variety of reasons can cause writer's block. When you are blocked, consider
these causes and try the strategies that sound most promising.
IF
You have attempted to begin a paper without doing any preliminary work such as brainstorming or outlining...
THEN
work with a tutor
use invention strategies suggested by a tutor or teacher
refer to the Writing Lab handout "When You Start to Write" at

IF
You have chosen or been assigned a topic which bores you....
THEN
choose a subject you are interested in (if the teacher will allow it)
talk to a tutor about how you can personalize a topic to make it more interesting
IF
You don't want to spend time writing or don't understand the assignment...
THEN
resign yourself to the fact that you have to write the paper
find out what is expected of you (consult a teacher, textbook, student, or tutor)
try some of the strategies listed above
IF
You are anxious about writing the paper...
THEN
refer to the OWL Handout Coping with Writing Anxiety at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_anxiety.html
see a Writing Lab tutor
IF
You're self-conscious about the writing situation, you may have trouble getting started. So, if you're preoccupied with the
idea that you have to write about a subject and feel you probably won't express your most original thoughts regarding the
subject...
THEN
talk over the subject with a friend or tutor
use one of the specific strategies listed below
IF
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_block.html
You can't stand to write down an idea until it is perfectly worded or if you don't want to leave a poorly worded section on
the page after you've written it...
THEN
ease up on your self-criticism
force yourself to write down something, however poorly worded that approximates your thought (you can revise this later)
and go on with the next idea
use some of the specific strategies below
break the task up into steps. Meet the general purpose of the assignment.
IF
You are worrying about what your teacher or other reader will think of your paper or how harshly he or she will evaluate
it...
THEN
think of the present draft as a practice run. Write the draft quickly, and revise it later.
use some of the specific strategies below
Specific Strategies
These specific strategies in overcoming writer's block will prove more helpful when you're drafting the paper. If you're having
trouble coming up with a thesis or generating details, see a Writing Lab tutor or the handout "When You Start to Write" at
Begin in the Middle
Start writing at whatever point you like. If you want to begin in the middle, fine. Leave the introduction or first section until later.
The reader will never know that you wrote the paper "backwards." Besides, some writers routinely save the introduction until later
when they have a clearer idea of what the main idea and purpose will be.
Talk the Paper
"Talk" the paper to someone--your teacher, a friend, a roommate, a tutor in the Writing Lab. Just pick someone who's willing to
give you fifteen to thirty minutes to talk about the topic and whose main aim is to help you start writing. Have the person take
notes while you talk or tape your conversation. Talking will be helpful because you'll probably be more natural and spontaneous
in speech than in writing. Your listener can ask questions and guide you as you speak, and you'll feel more as though you're
telling someone about something than completing an assignment.
Tape the Paper
Talk into a tape recorder, imagining your audience sitting in chairs or standing in a group. Then, transcribe the tape-recorded
material. You'll at least have some ideas down on paper to work with and move around.
Change the Audience
Pretend that you're writing to a child, to a close friend, to a parent, to a person who sharply disagrees with you, to someone
who's new to the subject and needs to have you explain your paper's topic slowly and clearly. Changing the audience can clarify
your purpose. (Who am I writing to when I explain how to change the oil in a car? That guy down the hall who's always asking everyone
for help .) Changing the audience can also make you feel more comfortable and help you write more easily.
Play a Role
Pretend you are someone else writing the paper. For instance, assume you are the president of a strong feminist movement
such as NOW and are asked to write about sexist advertising. Or, pretend you are the president of a major oil company asked to
defend the high price of oil. Consider being someone in another time period, perhaps Abraham Lincoln, or someone with a
different perspective from your own on things--someone living in Hiroshima at the time the bomb was dropped. Pulling yourself
out of your usual perspective can help you think more about the subject than writing about the subject.
(Many of these ideas are from Peter Elbow's Writing with Power, [Ch. 8; 59-77] and Mack Skjei's Overcoming Writing Blocks.)
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_block.html
Coping with Writing Anxiety
For more advice on getting started writing, see the Purdue OWL handout, Overcoming Writer's Block at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_block.html.
Many situations or activities, such as writing, taking tests, competing in sports, or speaking before a large audience, may make
us anxious or apprehensive. It's important to remember that a moderate level of anxiety is helpful and productive. That flow of
adrenaline is a natural response that helps get us ready for action. Without it, we might not perform as well.
If we let our anxiety overwhelm us, it can cause problems. If we control that anxiety, however, we can make it work for us. One
way to do that is to use some of the coping strategies listed below.
Coping Strategies:
Focus your energy by rehearsing the task in your head.
Consciously stop the non-productive comments running through your head by replacing them with productive ones.
If you have some "rituals" for writing success, use them.
Examples:
Follow a protocol you may have for organizing your time. Use a favorite pen if you have one.
Spend a few minutes doing some relaxation exercises.
Take a break: physically walk away from the situation for a few minutes if you can.
Relaxation Strategies
Stretch! If you can't stand up, stretch as many muscle groups as possible while staying seated.
Try tensing and releasing various muscle groups. Starting from your toes, tense up for perhaps five to ten seconds and
then let go. Relax and then go on to another muscle group.
Breathe deeply. Close your eyes; then, fill your chest cavity slowly by taking four of five short deep breaths. Hold each
breath until it hurts, and then let it out slowly.
Use a calming word or mental image to focus on while relaxing. If you choose a word, be careful not to use an
imperative. Don't command yourself to "Calm down!" or "Relax!"
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_anxiety.html
available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_anxiety.html
Sample Outline
For more information about outlines, see the Purdue OWL handout, Developing an Outline at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlin.html. For more information about writing research papers, see our
workshop on this subject at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html. For more information
about general writing concerns, see our list of handouts on that subject at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/index.html.
Purpose: To show how programs written for microcomputers relate to the process of writing.
Thesis: Microcomputer programs can have a positive effect on students' writing if both the potentials and limitations of the
programs are understood.
Audience: Current college and university students.
Microcomputer Programs and the Process of Writing
I. Major Steps in the Writing Process

A. Organizing
B. Writing the first draft
C. Evaluating
D. Revising
II. Writing Programs for the Microcomputer
A. Types of Programs and Their Relationship to the Writing Process
1. Thought
a. Use in organizing
b. Use in revising
2. Word Processors
a. Use in writing the first draft
b. Use in revising
3. Analytical programs: grammar, style, spelling
a. Use in evaluating
b. Use in revising
B. Positive and Negative Aspects of Computer Writing Programs
1. Positive features
a. Less time spent on repetitive or mechanical writing tasks
b. Greater flexibility and versatility in writing process
c. Increased revision strategies
d. Specific learning possibilities
2. Negative features
a. The increased time spent on learning software programs and computers
b. The availability of hardware and software
c. The unrealistic expectations of users
1) A cure-all for writing problems
2) A way to avoid learning correct grammar/syntax/spelling
3) A method to reduce time spent on writing proficiently
4) A simple process to learn and execute
C. Future Possibilities of Computer Programs for Writing
1. Rapid change
2. Improved programs
3. Increased use and availability
4. More realistic assessment of value - critical work
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_outlinS.html
Developing an Outline
To review a sample outline, see the OWL document Sample Outline at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlinS.html. For more information about writing research papers at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html, see our overview page as well as our new, extensive
research paper workshop. For general writing concerns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/index.html, see our
overview page on that topic. See the OWL document When You Start to Write for more help with the early stages of the writing
process at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan2.html.
An outline is:
A logical, general description

A schematic summary
An organizational pattern
A visual and conceptual design of your writing
An outline reflects logical thinking and clear classification.
Purpose
General:
Aids in the process of writing
Specific:
Helps you organize your ideas

Presents your material in a logical form
Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
Defines boundaries and groups
Process
Before you begin:
Determine the purpose of your paper.

Determine the audience you are writing for.
Develop the thesis of your paper.
Then:
Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper.
Organize: Group related ideas together.
Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete.
Label: Create main and sub headings.
Theory
An outline has a balanced structure based on the following principles:
Parallelism
Coordination
Subordination
Division
Parallelism
Whenever possible, in writing an outline, coordinate heads should be expressed in parallel form. That is, nouns should
be made parallel with nouns, verb forms with verb forms, adjectives with adjectives, and so on (Example: Nouns:
computers, programs, users; Verbs: to compute, to program, to use; Adjectives: home computers, new programs,
experienced users). Although parallel structure is desired, logical and clear writing should not be sacrificed simply to
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_outlin.html
maintain parallelism. (For example, there are times when nouns and gerunds at the same level of an outline are
acceptable.) Reasonableness and flexibility of form is preferred to rigidity.
Coordination
In outlining, those items which are of equal significance have comparable numeral or letter designations: an A is equal
to a B , a 1 to a 2 , an a to a b , etc. Coordinates should be seen as having the same value. Coordination is a principle
that enables a writer to maintain a coherent and consistent document.
Correct coordination
A. Word processing programs

B. Database programs
C. Spreadsheet programs
Faulty coordination

B. Microsoft Word
C. Page Maker
Explanation : Word is a type of word processing program and should be treated as a subdivision. Page Maker is a type of
desktop publishing program. One way to correct coordination would be:
A. Types of programs
1. Word processing
2. Desktop publishing
B. Evaluation of programs
1. Word processing
a. Word
b. Word Perfect
2. Desktop Publishing
a. Page Maker
b. Quark Express
Subordination
In order to indicate levels of significance, an outline uses major and minor headings. Thus in ordering ideas, you should
organize it from general to specific or from abstract to concrete- the more general or abstract the term, the higher the
level or rank in the outline. This principle allows your material to be ordered in terms of logic and requires a clear
articulation of the relationship between component parts used in the outline. Subdivisions of each higher division should
always have the same relationship to the whole.
Correct subordination

1. Microsoft Word
2. Word Perfect
B. Desktop publishing programs
1. PageMaker
2. Quark Express
Faulty subordination

1. Word
2. Useful
3. Obsolete
Explanation : There is an A without a B . Also 1, 2, and 3 are not equal; Word is a type of word processing program, and
useful and obsolete are qualities. One way to correct this faulty subordination is:
A. Word
B. Word Perfect
Division
To divide you always need at least two parts; therefore, there can never be an A without a B , a 1 without a 2 , an a
without a b , etc. Usually there is more than one way to divide parts; however, when dividing use only one basis of
division at each rank, and make the basis of division as sharp as possible.
Correct division
A. Personal computers: hardware

1. Types
2. Cost
3. Maintenance
B. Personal computers: software
Faulty division
A. Computers
1. Mainframe
2. Micro
a. Floppy disk
b. Hard disk
B. Computer uses
1. Institutional
2. Personal
Form
The most important rule for outlining form is to be consistent!
An outline can use topic or sentence structure.
A topic outline uses words or phrases for all entries and uses no punctuation after entries.
Advantages: presents a brief overview of work and is generally easier and faster to write than a
sentence outline.
A sentence outline uses complete sentences for all entries and uses correct punctuation.
Advantages: presents a more detailed overview of work including possible topic sentences and is
easier and faster for writing the final paper.
An outline can use Roman numerals/letters or decimal form.
Roman Numeral
I.
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
Decimal
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.2.1
1.2.2.2
See OWL handout for a sample outline at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlinS.html.
Non-Sexist Language
The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:
Generic Use
Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and adult male, its meaning has come to be so
closely identified with adult male that the generic use of MAN and other words with masculine markers should be avoided.
Examples Alternatives
mankind humanity, people, human beings
man's achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
the common man the average person, ordinary people
man the stockroom staff the stockroom
nine man-hours nine staff-hours
Occupations
Avoid the use of MAN in occupational terms when persons holding the job could be either male or female.
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a
meeting), presiding officer, head, chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mail carrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Pronouns
Because English has no generic singular--or common-sex--pronoun, we have used HE, HIS, and HIM in such expressions as "the
student needs HIS pencil." When we constantly personify "the judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so forth, as
male by using the pronoun HE, we are subtly conditioning ourselves against the idea of a female judge, critic, executive, or
author. There are several alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women that results from the pervasive use of
masculine pronouns.
a. Recast into the plural.
Example Alternative
Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished. Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.
b. Reword to eliminate gender problems.
Example Alternative
The average student is worried about his grade. The average student is worried about grades.
c. Replace the masculine pronoun with ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as appropriate.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_nonsex.html
Example Alternative
If the student was satisfied with his performance on the A student who was satisfied with her or his performance on the
pretest, he took the post-test. pretest took the post-test.
d. Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the
reader.)
Example Alternative
Let each student participate. Has he had a chance to Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to talk? Could he
talk? Could he feel left out? feel left out?
Indefinite Pronouns
Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone) also has the effect of
excluding women. In all but strictly formal uses, plural pronouns have become acceptable substitutes for the masculine singular.
Example Alternative
Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring their money
money tomorrow. tomorrow.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_nonsex.html
available at

To review a sample outline, see the OWL document Sample Outline at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlinS.html. For more information about writing research papers at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html, see our overview page as well as our new, extensive
research paper workshop. For general writing concerns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/index.html, see our
overview page on that topic. See the OWL document When You Start to Write for more help with the early stages of the writing
process at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan2.html.
An outline is:
A logical, general description

A schematic summary
An organizational pattern
A visual and conceptual design of your writing
An outline reflects logical thinking and clear classification.
Purpose
General:
Aids in the process of writing
Specific:
Helps you organize your ideas

Presents your material in a logical form
Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
Defines boundaries and groups
Process
Before you begin:
Determine the purpose of your paper.

Determine the audience you are writing for.
Develop the thesis of your paper.
Then:
Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper.
Organize: Group related ideas together.
Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete.
Label: Create main and sub headings.
Theory
An outline has a balanced structure based on the following principles:
Parallelism
Coordination
Subordination
Division
Parallelism
Whenever possible, in writing an outline, coordinate heads should be expressed in parallel form. That is, nouns should
be made parallel with nouns, verb forms with verb forms, adjectives with adjectives, and so on (Example: Nouns:
computers, programs, users; Verbs: to compute, to program, to use; Adjectives: home computers, new programs,
experienced users). Although parallel structure is desired, logical and clear writing should not be sacrificed simply to
maintain parallelism. (For example, there are times when nouns and gerunds at the same level of an outline are
acceptable.) Reasonableness and flexibility of form is preferred to rigidity.
Coordination
In outlining, those items which are of equal significance have comparable numeral or letter designations: an A is equal
to a B , a 1 to a 2 , an a to a b , etc. Coordinates should be seen as having the same value. Coordination is a principle
that enables a writer to maintain a coherent and consistent document.
Correct coordination

B. Database programs
C. Spreadsheet programs
Faulty coordination

B. Microsoft Word
C. Page Maker
Explanation : Word is a type of word processing program and should be treated as a subdivision. Page Maker is a type of
desktop publishing program. One way to correct coordination would be:
A. Types of programs
1. Word processing
2. Desktop publishing
B. Evaluation of programs
1. Word processing
a. Word
b. Word Perfect
2. Desktop Publishing
a. Page Maker
b. Quark Express
Subordination
In order to indicate levels of significance, an outline uses major and minor headings. Thus in ordering ideas, you should
organize it from general to specific or from abstract to concrete- the more general or abstract the term, the higher the
level or rank in the outline. This principle allows your material to be ordered in terms of logic and requires a clear
articulation of the relationship between component parts used in the outline. Subdivisions of each higher division should
always have the same relationship to the whole.
Correct subordination

1. Microsoft Word
2. Word Perfect
B. Desktop publishing programs
1. PageMaker
2. Quark Express
Faulty subordination

1. Word
2. Useful
3. Obsolete
Explanation : There is an A without a B . Also 1, 2, and 3 are not equal; Word is a type of word processing program, and
useful and obsolete are qualities. One way to correct this faulty subordination is:
A. Word
B. Word Perfect
Division
To divide you always need at least two parts; therefore, there can never be an A without a B , a 1 without a 2 , an a
without a b , etc. Usually there is more than one way to divide parts; however, when dividing use only one basis of
division at each rank, and make the basis of division as sharp as possible.
Correct division
A. Personal computers: hardware

1. Types
2. Cost
3. Maintenance
B. Personal computers: software
Faulty division
A. Computers
1. Mainframe
2. Micro
a. Floppy disk
b. Hard disk
B. Computer uses
1. Institutional
2. Personal
Form
The most important rule for outlining form is to be consistent!
An outline can use topic or sentence structure.
A topic outline uses words or phrases for all entries and uses no punctuation after entries.
Advantages: presents a brief overview of work and is generally easier and faster to write than a
sentence outline.
A sentence outline uses complete sentences for all entries and uses correct punctuation.
Advantages: presents a more detailed overview of work including possible topic sentences and is
easier and faster for writing the final paper.
An outline can use Roman numerals/letters or decimal form.
Roman Numeral
I.
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
Decimal
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.2.1
1.2.2.2
See OWL handout for a sample outline at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlinS.html.
Sample Outline

A. Organizing
C. Evaluating
D. Revising
1. Thought
b. Use in revising
2. Word Processors
b. Use in revising
b. Use in revising
1. Rapid change
Non-Sexist Language
The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:
Generic Use
Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and adult male, its meaning has come to be so
closely identified with adult male that the generic use of MAN and other words with masculine markers should be avoided.
mankind humanity, people, human beings
man's achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
the common man the average person, ordinary people
man the stockroom staff the stockroom
nine man-hours nine staff-hours
Occupations
Avoid the use of MAN in occupational terms when persons holding the job could be either male or female.
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a
meeting), presiding officer, head, chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mail carrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Pronouns
Because English has no generic singular--or common-sex--pronoun, we have used HE, HIS, and HIM in such expressions as "the
student needs HIS pencil." When we constantly personify "the judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so forth, as
male by using the pronoun HE, we are subtly conditioning ourselves against the idea of a female judge, critic, executive, or
author. There are several alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women that results from the pervasive use of
masculine pronouns.
a. Recast into the plural.
Example Alternative
Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished. Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.
b. Reword to eliminate gender problems.
Example Alternative
The average student is worried about his grade. The average student is worried about grades.
c. Replace the masculine pronoun with ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as appropriate.
Example Alternative
If the student was satisfied with his performance on the A student who was satisfied with her or his performance on the
pretest, he took the post-test. pretest took the post-test.
d. Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the
reader.)
Example Alternative
Let each student participate. Has he had a chance to Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to talk? Could he
talk? Could he feel left out? feel left out?
Indefinite Pronouns
Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone) also has the effect of
excluding women. In all but strictly formal uses, plural pronouns have become acceptable substitutes for the masculine singular.
Example Alternative
Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring their money
money tomorrow. tomorrow.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_nonsex.html
available at

Paragraphing (length consistency)
Also see the handout on paragraphs at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_pgrph2.html.
Paragraphs are units of thought with one idea developed adequately. Listed here are some rules of thumb to use when
paragraphing. As your writing improves, you'll be able to break these "rules" to meet your own needs. Until then, these
suggestions can be helpful:
Put only one main idea per paragraph.

Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph.
Include on each page about two handwritten or three typed paragraphs.
Make your paragraphs proportional to your paper. Since paragraphs do less work in short papers, have short paragraphs
for short papers and longer paragraphs for longer papers.
If you have a few very short paragraphs, think about whether they are really parts of a larger paragraph--and can be
combined--or whether you can add details to support each point and thus make each into a more fully developed
paragraph.
You can check on whether your paragraphs are balanced by looking at your paper.
Some balanced pages:
Lorem ip sum lor Lorem ip sum lor

lorem i psum l lorem i psum l
orem ipsum lo orem ipsum lo
rem ipsum. Lorem rem ipsum.
ip sum lor lorem i
psum l orem
ipsum lo rem
ipsum. Lorem ip sum lor
lorem i psum l
orem ipsum lo
rem ipsum.
Lorem ip sum lor
lorem i psum l
orem ipsum lo
rem ipsum. Lorem Lorem ip sum lor
ip sum lor lorem i lorem i psum l
psum l orem orem ipsum lo
ipsum lo rem rem ipsum.
ipsum.
Unbalanced pages with ideas not equally developed:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_pgrph.html
Lorem ip sum lor
lorem i psum l orem
Lorem ip sum ipsum lo.
lor lorem i
psum l orem
ipsum lo rem Lorem ip sum lor
ipsum. Lorem lorem i psum l orem
ip sum lor ipsum lo rem ipsum.
lorem i psum l Lorem ip sum lor
orem ipsum lo lorem i psum l orem
rem ipsum. L ipsum lo rem ipsum.
Lorem ip sum lor
lorem i psum l orem
ipsum lo rem ipsum.
Lorem ip sum lor

lorem i psum l Lorem ip sum lor
orem ipsum lo lorem.
rem ipsum.
Use the following graphics as a tool to organize your paper with one main idea in each box.
Use as many pages and boxes as needed.
Introduction
Conclusion
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_pgrph.html
The Paragraph
Also see the handout on paragraphing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_pgrph.html.
The purpose of this handout is to give some basic instruction and advice regarding the creation of understandable and coherent
paragraphs.
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should
contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these
traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.
1. Unity:
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with a one focus or major point of discussion, it should
not end with another or wander within different ideas.
2. Coherence:
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your
paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.
logical bridges:
The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence

Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form
verbal bridges:
Key words can be repeated in several sentences

Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences
3. A topic sentence:
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although
not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph
(as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the
topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less
experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it).
4. Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph
to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three
sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:
Use examples and illustrations

Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
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Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
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available at

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Sentence Variety
For short, choppy sentences

1. Coordination:
and, but, or, nor, yet, for, so
Join complete sentences, clauses, and phrases with coordinators:
example: Doonesbury cartoons satirize contemporary politics. The victims of political corruption pay
no attention. They prefer to demand that newspapers not carry the strip.
revision: Doonesbury cartoons laugh at contemporary politicians, but the victims of political
corruption pay no attention and prefer to demand that newspapers not carry the strip.
2. Subordination:
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that,
though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, whether, which, while
Link two related sentences to each other so that one carries the main idea and the other is no longer a complete
sentence (subordination). Use connectors such as the ones listed above to show the relationship.
example: The campus parking problem is getting worse. The university is not building any new
garages.
revision: The campus parking problem is getting worse because the university is not building any
new garages.
example: The US has been overly dependent on foreign oil for many years. Alternate sources of
energy are only now being sought.
revision: Although the US has been overly dependent on foreign oil for many years, alternate
sources are only now being sought.
Notice in these examples that the location of the clause beginning with the dependent marker (the connector word)
is flexible. This flexibility can be useful in creating varied rhythmic patterns over the course of a paragraph. See
the section below called "For the same pattern or rhythm in a series of sentences."
For the same subject or topic repeated in consecutive sentences

1. Relative pronouns
which, who, whoever, whom, that, whose
Embed one sentence inside the other using a clause starting with one of the relative pronouns listed above.
example: Indiana used to be mainly an agricultural state. It has recently attracted more industry.
revision: Indiana, which used to be mainly an agricultural state, has recently attracted more
industry.
example: One of the cameras was not packed very well. It was damaged during the move.
revision: The camera that was not packed very well was damaged during the move.
example: The experiment failed because of Murphy's Law. This law states that if something can go
wrong, it will.
revision: The experiment failed because of Murphy's Law, which states that if something can go
wrong, it will.
example: Doctor Ramirez specializes in sports medicine. She helped my cousin recover from a
basketball injury.
revision 1: Doctor Ramirez, who specializes in sports medicine, helped my cousin recover from a
basketball injury.
revision 2: Doctor Ramirez, whose specialty is sports medicine, helped my cousin recover from a
basketball injury.
2. Participles
Present participles end in -ing , for example: speaking, carrying, wearing, dreaming.
Past participles usually end in -ed , -en , -d , -n , or -t but can be irregular, for example: worried,
eaten, saved, seen, dealt, taught.
For more on participles, see our handout on verbals at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html.
Eliminate a be verb (am, is, was, were, are) and substitute a participle.
example: Wei Xie was surprised to get a phone call from his sister. He was happy to hear her voice
again.
revision 1: Wei Xie, surprised to get a phone call from his sister, was happy to hear her voice again.
revision 2: Surprised to get a phone call from her, Wei Xie was happy to hear his sister's voice again.
3. Prepositions
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, as, behind, below, beneath, beside,
between, by, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, near, next to, of, off, on, out, over,
past, to, under, until, up, with
Turn a clause into a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with a preposition, such as the ones listed above).
example 1: The university has been facing pressure to cut its budget. It has eliminated funding for
important programs. (two independent clauses)
example 2: The university, which has been facing pressure to cut its budget, has eliminated funding
for important programs. (subject, relative clause, predicate)
example 3: Because it has been facing pressure to cut its budget, the university has eliminated
funding for important programs. (dependent clause, independent clause)
revised: Under pressure to cut its budget, the university has eliminated funding for important
programs. (prepositional phrase, independent clause: the most concise version of the four)
For the same pattern or rhythm in a series of sentences

1. Dependent markers
See the list of dependent markers above called "Subordination."
Put clauses and phrases with dependent markers at the beginning of some sentences instead of starting each
sentence with the subject. In this example the structure and content of the sentences remains the same, but some
elements are moved around to vary the rhythm.
example: The room fell silent when the TV newscaster reported the story of the earthquake. We all
stopped what we were doing. The pictures of the quake shocked us. We could see that large sections
of the city had been completely destroyed.
revised: When the TV newscaster reported the story of the earthquake, the room fell silent. We all
stopped what we were doing. The pictures of the quake shocked us because we could see that large
sections of the city had been completely destroyed.
2. Transitional words and phrases

accordingly, after all, afterward, also, although, and, but, consequently, despite, earlier, even
though, for example, for instance, however, in conclusion, in contrast, in fact, in the meantime, in
the same way, indeed, just as... so, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, not only... but also, now,
on the contrary, on the other hand, on the whole, otherwise, regardless, shortly, similarly,
specifically, still, that is, then, therefore, though, thus, yet
Vary the rhythm by adding transitional words at the beginning of some sentences.
example: Fast food corporations are producing and advertising bigger items and high-fat
combination meals. The American population faces a growing epidemic of obesity.
revised: Fast food corporations are producing and advertising bigger items and high-fat combination
meals. Meanwhile, the American population faces a growing epidemic of obesity.
Vary the rhythm by alternating short and long sentences.
example: They visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native American art. In
Anchorage stores they found some excellent examples of soapstone carvings. But they couldn't find
a dealer selling any of the woven wall hangings they wanted.
revised: They visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native American art, such as
soapstone carvings and wall hangings. Anchorage stores had many soapstone items available. Still,
they were disappointed to learn that wall hangings, which they had especially wanted, were difficult to
find.
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conditions of fair use, available at

Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity
Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link
what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old
information that can link to newer information.
The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead to new
information:
Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of
lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up
on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never
need.
Here is a sentence that is not as clear. It moves from new information to old information:
Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there
are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of
a recent movie (old) I saw.
Did you find the second sentence hard to read or understand? If so, it could be because the old information comes
late in the sentence after the new information. A clearer version that moves from old information to new
information might look like this:
are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw was about the rapid disappearance
of the Indian culture. (new)
Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:
clear (subordinate clause at the end):
Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate
information.
clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):
Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is
increasing rapidly.
not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):
Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is
increasing rapidly.
Use active voice

Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice
constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In addition, changing from passive
voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use active voice unless you have good reason to use
the passive. For example, the passive is useful when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is
obvious, unimportant, or unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.
For more on this topic, consult our handout on active and passive voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html.
clear (active):
The committee decided to postpone the vote.
not as clear (passive):
A decision was reached to postpone the vote.

Use parallel constructions
When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction)
so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.
clear (parallel):
In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become
aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to decide when to seek shelter.
not as clear (not parallel):
aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is
important.
In the second sentence, notice how the string of "things to be aware of in Florida" does not create a parallel
structure. Also, notice how much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning of the second sentence
compared to the first one.
Avoid noun strings

Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way
to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
unclear (string of nouns):
This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects .
clearer:
This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments .
Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."
unclear (use of nominalization):
The implementation of the plan was successful.
clearer:
The plan was implemented successfully.

We implemented the plan successfully.
Avoid multiple negatives

Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.
unclear (multiple negatives, passive):
Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
clearer:
People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
Choose action verbs over forms of be

When possible, avoid using forms of b e as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to
accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a b e verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and
choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas are expressed: 1) that there is a difference
between television and newspaper news reporting, and 2) the nature of that difference. The revised version
expresses these two main ideas in the two main verbs.
Unclear (overuse of be verbs):
One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time
factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that
instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.
Clearer:
Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide
instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.
Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers
to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model,
tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and
adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Clearer:
tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty
and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.
Clearer:
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career choice.
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, and she may choose a forest management career.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_sentclar.html

Using Metaphors in Creative Writing
What is a metaphor?
The term metaphor meant in Greek "carry something across" or "transfer," which suggests many of the
more elaborate definitions below:
a comparison between two things, based on resemblance or most dictionaries and

similarity, without using "like" or "as" textbooks
the act of giving a thing a name that belongs to something else Aristotle
the transferring of things and words from their proper signification Diomedes
to an improper similitude for the sake of beauty, necessity, polish,
or emphasis
a device for seeing something in terms of something else Kenneth Burke
understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another John Searle
a simile contracted to its smallest dimensions Joseph Priestly
Related terms
extended or telescoping metaphor: A sustained The teacher descended upon the exams, sank his
metaphor. talons into their pages, ripped the answers to
shreds, and then, perching in his chair, began to
digest.
implied metaphor: A less direct metaphor. John swelled and ruffled his plumage (versus John
was a peacock)
mixed metaphor: The awkward, often silly use The movie struck a spark that massaged the
of more than one metaphor at a time. To be audience's conscience.
avoided!
dead metaphor: A commonly used metaphor tying up loose ends, a submarine sandwich, a
that has become over time part of ordinary branch of government , and most clichs
language.
simile: A comparison using "like" or "as" Her face was pale as the moon.
metonym: The substitution of one term for the pen is mightier than the sword , the crown
another with which it is commonly associated or (referring to a Queen or King), hands (referring to
closely related. workers who use their hands),
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_metaphor.html
synecdoche: The substitution of a part for the give us this day our daily bread
whole or vice versa (a kind of metonym).
Why use metaphors?

They enliven ordinary language.
People get so accustomed to using the same words and phrases over and over, and always in the
same ways, that they no longer know what they mean. Creative writers have the power to make
the ordinary strange and the strange ordinary, making life interesting again.
They are generous to readers and listeners; they encourage interpretation.
When readers or listeners encounter a phrase or word that cannot be interpreted literally, they
have to think--or rather, they are given the pleasure of interpretation. If you write "I am
frustrated" or "The air was cold" you give your readers nothing to do--they say "so what?" On the
other hand, if you say, "My ambition was Hiroshima, after the bombing," your readers can think
about and choose from many possible meanings.
They are more efficient and economical than ordinary language; they give maximum meaning
with a minimum of words.
By writing "my dorm is a prison," you suggest to your readers that you feel as though you were
placed in solitary, you are fed lousy food, you are deprived of all of life's great pleasures, your room
is poorly lit and cramped--and a hundred other things, that, if you tried to say them all, would
probably take several pages.
They create new meanings; they allow you to write about feelings, thoughts, things,
experiences, etc. for which there are no easy words; they are necessary.
There are many gaps in language. When a child looks at the sky and sees a star but does not
know the word "star," she is forced to say, "Mommy, look at the lamp in the sky!" Similarly, when
computer software developers created boxes on the screen as a user interface, they needed a
new language; the result was windows . In your poems, you will often be trying to write about
subjects, feelings, etc. so complex that you have no choice but to use metaphors.
They are a sign of genius.
Or so says Aristotle in Poetics : "[T]he greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor." It is "a
sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars."
Creative ways to use metaphors

Most books give rather boring examples of metaphors such as my father is a bear or the librarian was a
beast . However, in your poetry (and fiction for that matter) you can do much more than say X is Y, like an
algebraic formula. Definitely play with extended metaphors (see above) and experiment with some of the
following, using metaphors...
as verbs The news that ignited his face snuffed out her smile.
as adjectives and adverbs Her carnivorous pencil carved up Susan's devotion.
as prepositional phrases The doctor inspected the rash with a vulture's eye .
as appositives or modifiers On the sidewalk was yesterday's paper, an ink-stained sponge .
Examples
Scratching at the window with claws of pine, the wind Imogene Bolls, "Coyote Wind"
wants in.
What a thrill--my thumb instead of an onion. The top Sylvia Plath, "Cut"
quite gone except for a sort of hinge of skin....A
celebration this is. Out of a gap a million soldiers run,
redcoats every one.
The clouds were low and hairy in the skies, like locks Robert Frost, "Once by the Pacific"
blown forward in the gleam of eyes.
Little boys lie still, awake wondering, wondering delicate James Wright, "The Undermining of the
little boxes of dust. Defense Economy"
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Printable Handouts: Writing a Thesis Statement Page 1 of 5
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Writing With Computers
Using word processing software on a computer is an efficient way to write. You can delete, revise, and cut and paste with great
ease and speed, without having to retype, and you will find your drafts easier to read as you revise. Even if you cannot type well
(and many successful computer users can't), a computer can be both a convenience and an aid throughout the writing process.
But remember to save your files often and make a backup copy of the file, even when you've carefully saved it. Disks can fail
and not open, and files can be deleted or lost.
Word processing software can aid your efforts in all aspects of the writing process:
Planning
freewriting
If freewriting or brainstorming is a useful invention strategy for you, do either invention strategy on a computer using word
processing software. You can then cut and paste parts of those planning notes into a draft as needed. Some writers find that
they can freewrite more easily by turning down the computer screen, so they cannot see what they type. You may also want to
create separate files for different topics discovered while freewriting.
writing an e-mail message

As you think about your assignment or topic, try writing an e-mail message to a friend, to someone in your class, or to a Writing
Lab tutor (owl@owl.english.purdue.edu). Use that e-mail message to test ideas as you would in a conversation with peer group
members or a tutor. Encourage the person who receives the e-mail to ask you questions that help you clarify your ideas.
making an outline
Set up headings for an outline in large bold letters. Later, as you go back and fill in the subheadings and sub points, you will be
able to see the larger structure of the paper. Some word processing programs either outline for you or permit you to indicate the
outline headings in a way that allows you to go back and forth between a screen showing only the headings and screens showing
the detailed material within sections.
planning visually
Use a drawing or painting program to do some visual planning. To do some clustering, put a topic word or phrase in a circle in
the middle of the page and then surround that circle with clusters of related ideas (also in circles). Use lines to connect these
ideas to the main idea or to other sub-ideas. To try branching, another visual planning strategy, put the main idea at the top of
the page and then list sub-ideas underneath the main idea with related points for each sub-idea branching off.
keeping a journal
If keeping a journal helps you, start a journal file for each assignment and include thoughts and questions that occur to you as
you proceed through the writing. Include a plan for how you will proceed through the assignment, and if there are stages or steps
to complete, write a "to do" list. Include phrases and ideas that occur to you and that may fit into the paper later with some
cutting and pasting from one file to another. You may want to insert page breaks for different sections or thoughts.
Drafting
creating a scrapfile
As you start an assignment, make two separate files, one for the assignment itself and the other for scraps of writing that you
will be collecting. As you write (or plan) use the scrap file to cut and paste anything that doesn't seem to fit in as you write. This
scrap file can be a very useful storage space for material that should be deleted from the paper you are writing now but that may
be useful for other writing assignments. You may also want a separate file for keywords, words that come to mind and that can
be used when needed or phrases that may come in handy as section headings in your paper.
splitting screens
If you are using a Macintosh or Windows, you can have multiple files visible on your screen at the same time. Consider this
strategy if it helps you to look at one bit of information while trying to create another. One box on the screen can display your
outline or visual planning while another can display your draft. Or, you can keep your scrap file visible while writing a draft.
Remember that you can cut, copy, and paste between files.
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adding notes
As you gather material from your reading (or want to save comments to yourself about something you've written), develop a
method to store this kind of material that you may or may not use. For example, put parentheses around material that might
not stay in a later draft, or use bold lettering, or make use of a word processing feature that permits you to store material as
notes. Be sure to delete this material when you are sure you no longer want it.
Organizing
mixing up the order of paragraphs or sentences
Make a new copy of your file. Then, in the new file, use the cut-and-paste feature to move paragraphs. You may see a better
organizing principle than the principle you had been using. Do the same with sentences within paragraphs.
checking your outline

Look again at the bold-lettered headings of the outline you made during planning (or create one now), and reassess whether
that outline is adequate or well organized.
staying on topic in every paragraph

Put your topic sentence at the top of each paragraph to keep the sentence in mind and not lose track of your topic.
Revising
starting at the beginning of the file
Each time you open a file, you are at the beginning of the draft. Start there when you are drafting and revising and read until
you come to a section where you will be working. That rereading has several advantages for you. It helps you get back into the
flow of thought, and it permits you to review what you've written so that you can revise as you read forward. But be careful not to
get caught up in endless revising of the beginning of the paper, especially if like some writers, you find that you need to write
the whole paper before you can write the introduction.
renaming a file
Each time you open your file, save it as a different file so that you always know which is the most recent version you've worked
on. If your first draft is Draft I, the next time you open that file, save it as Draft II.
saving copies of material to cut and paste

When you are moving large blocks of text, highlight what you are going to move and make a copy for your clipboard before
moving. if you lose the portion you are moving, you still have a copy available.
printing out hard copies to read

It may help you to look at a printed copy of your paper as you revise, so you can see the paper's development and
organization.
resisting the neat appearance of a printout

If you print out a draft of your paper, resist the temptation to hand in that draft because it looks neat and seems to have a
finished appearance.
using page or print view to check paragraphs

Switch to the page or print view so that you can see the whole view of each page on screen. Do the paragraphs look to be about
the same length? Does one look noticeably shorter than the others? Does it need more development? Is there a paragraph that
seems to be disproportionately long? For more help with paragraph length consistency, see our handout on paragraphing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_pgrph.html.
highlighting sentence length

Make a copy of your main file and, using that copy, hit the return key after each sentence so that each looks like a separate
paragraph. Are all of your sentences the same length? Do they all start the same way and need some variety?
Editing and Proofreading

using online tools
A number of online tools exist, such as spell checkers, grammar checkers and style analyzers, but grammar and style checkers
are not effective. Distinguishing between appropraite advice and inappropriate advice is difficult and a styke checker relies on
rules you may not be familiar with. Some word processing programs include a thesaurus which is useful for looking up synonyms
for words you've been using too much or for finding more specific words than the ones you have used.
changing the appearance of key features of your writing

Change active verbs to bold letters, put passive constructions in italics, use larger fonts for descriptive words, underline your
thesis statement, and so on. By changing the appearance of these features, you may see that you have too many passives or
that you don't have many descriptive words.
editing on hard copy

It may be easier for you to print out a draft and mark it for editing changes. If you do, put marks in the margins to indicate
lines where changes are to be made, so you can easily find them again.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_computer.html
available at

Editing and Proofreading Strategies for Revision
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu.
For more information on proofreading, see OWL's other handouts on the subject:
Steps in Editing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_stepedit.html

Proofreading Strategies at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_edit.html
Proofreading Your Paper at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_proof2.html
For working on larger issues

Once a rough draft is finished, you should try to set it aside for at least a day and come back to the paper with a fresh mind and
thus more easily catch the errors in it. Youll bring a fresh mind to the process of polishing a paper and be ready to try some of
the following strategies.
Read the Paper Aloud

If we read the paper aloud slowly, we have two senses--seeing AND hearing--working for us. Thus, what one sense misses, the
other may pick up.
Check the Thesis Statement and Organization

Write down your thesis on a piece of paper if it is not directly stated in your essay. Does it accurately state your main idea? Is it
in fact supported by the paper? Does it need to be changed in any way? On that piece of paper, list the main idea of each
paragraph under the thesis statement. Is each paragraph relevant to the thesis? Are the paragraphs in a logical sequence or
order?
Remember that You are Writing for Others

No matter how familiar others may be with the material, they cannot "get inside" your head and understand your approach to it
unless you express yourself clearly. Therefore, it is useful to read the paper through once as you keep in mind whether or not
the student or teacher or friend who will be reading it will understand what you are saying. That is, have you said exactly what
you wanted to say?
Check the Paper's Development

Are there sufficient details? Is the logic valid?
Check the Paper's Coherence and Unity

Are the major points connected? Are the relationships between them expressed clearly? Do they all relate to the thesis?
Review your Diction

Remember that others are reading your paper and that even the choice of one word can affect their response to it. Try to
anticipate their response, and choose your words accordingly.
Original : The media's exploitation of the Watergate scandal showed how biased it was already.
Revision : The media's coverage of the Watergate scandal suggests that perhaps those in the media
had already determined Nixons guilt.
In addition to being more specific, the revision does not force the reader to defend the media. In the first example, though, the
statement is so exaggerated that even the reader who is neutral on the issue may feel it necessary to defend the media. Thus,
the writer of the original has made his job of persuading the reader that much harder.
For working on sentence and word-level issues

No matter how many times you read through a "finished" paper, you're likely to miss many of your most frequent errors. The
following guide will help you proofread more effectively
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_edit.html
General Strategies
Begin by taking a break. Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive
because it will help get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
Try to s-l-o-w d-o-w-n as you read through a paper. That will help you catch mistakes that you might otherwise overlook. As
you use these strategies, remember to work slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to
spot errors:
Reading aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
Reading with a "cover." Sliding a blank sheet of paper down the page as you read encourages you to make a detailed,
line-by-line review of the paper.
Personalize Your Proofreading

You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are
and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
1. Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper(s) with a
Writing Lab tutor.
2. Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help
you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
3. Use specific strategies. Use these strategies to find and correct your particular errors in usage and sentence structure, and
spelling and punctuation.
Check your Writing for Abstract Subjects, Particularly Those you have Combined with
Passive Verbs
Try substituting concrete or personal subjects with active verbs.
Original : More attractiveness is sometimes given an act when it is made illegal.
Revision : When an act becomes illegal, some people find it more attractive.
Cut out Wordiness Wherever Possible

Original : They are desirous of ...
Revision : They want ...
Use Active Verbs

Since verbs tend to carry the meaning of your sentences, use the most precise and active ones possible. Thus, avoid
constructions using the various forms of the verb "to be."
Original : Inflation is a threat to our economy.
Revision : Inflation threatens our economy.
Avoid Using Stretcher Phrases such as "It Is" and "There Are," Unless Needed for Emphasis
Remember the need for strong verbs.
Original : There were several reasons for the United States' entrance into the war.
Revision : The United States entered the war for several reasons.
Replace Colloquialisms with Fresh and more Precise Statements

Because colloquialisms tend to be used so often, they also are not very precise in meaning. A hassle, for example, can be an
annoyance, an argument, or a physical fight.
Original : Her behavior flipped me out.
Revision: Her behavior first stunned, then delighted me.
Review your Sentences . . .

Be sure that no parts of the paper are "short and choppy"; be sure that the rhythm of your paper is not interrupted, except for a
good reason, like emphasis. A good way of smoothing out such a problem is to try combining sentences, and in so doing
showing the relationship between them.
Original : The best show in terms of creating a tense atmosphere is "Jeopardy." This is probably the
most famous of all games shows. It is my favorite show.
Revision : The best show in terms of creating a tense atmosphere is "Jeopardy," which is also
probably the most famous of all game shows and my favorite.
For Usage and Sentence Structure
For subject/verb agreement:
1. Find the main verb in each sentence.
2. Match the verb to its subject.
3. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number.
For pronoun reference/agreement:
1. Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. Look especially at it, this, they, their, and them.
2. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the
pronoun to a noun. If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
See the OWL handout on pronouns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_pronuse.html.
For parallel structure:
1. Skim your paper, stopping at key words that signal parallel structures. Look especially for the following: and, or,
not only...but also, either... or, neither...nor, both...and.
2. Make sure that the items connected by these words (adjectives, nouns, phrases, etc.) are in the same
grammatical form.
For more information, see the OWL handout on parallel structure at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_parallel.html.
For Spelling and Punctuation
For spelling:
1. Examine each word in the paper individually. Move from the end of each line back to the beginning. Pointing
with a pencil helps you really see each word.
2. If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
For more information, see the OWL handouts on spelling at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/#spelling.
For compound sentence commas:
1. Skim for conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so and yet.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the
conjunction.
For more information, see the OWL handout compound sentence commas at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacomp.html.
For introductory commas:
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker, a transition word, a participle, or a preposition.
3. Listen for a possible break point before the main clause.
4. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase or clause (which is before the independent clause).
For more information, see the OWL handout on commas after introductions at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html.
For comma splices:
1. Skim the paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the comma. If so, add a coordinating conjunction
after the comma or replace the comma with a semicolon.
For more information, see the OWL handout on commas at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
For fragments:
1. Look at each sentence to see whether it contains an independent clause.
2. Pay special attention to sentences that begin with dependent marker words (such as "because") or phrases such
as "for example" or "such as."
3. See if the sentence might be just a piece of the previous sentence that mistakenly got separated by a period.
For more information, see the OWL handout on sentence fragments at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_frag.html.
For run-on sentences:
1. Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause. Start with the last sentence
of your paper, and work your way back to the beginning, sentence by sentence.
2. Break the sentence into two sentences if necessary.
See the OWL handout on comma splices at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaproof.html.
For left-out words:
1. Read the paper aloud, pointing to every word as you read. Don't let your eye move ahead until you spot each
word.
2. Also, make sure that you haven't doubled any words.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_edit.html
available at

Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and
Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)
When you are revising your papers, not every element of your work should have equal priority. The most important parts of your
paper, often called "Higher Order Concerns (HOCs)," are the "big picture" elements such as thesis or focus, audience and
purpose, organization, and development. After you have addressed these important elements, you can then turn your attention
to the "Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)," such as sentence structure and grammar.
Some HOCs
Thesis or focus:
Does the paper have a central thesis?
Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about?
Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss.
Audience and purpose:

Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?
Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?
Why would someone want to read this paper?
Does the purpose match the assignment?
Organization:
Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way?
Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see
if you can think of a better organization.
Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part?
Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper
is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good
reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?
Development:
Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed?
Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? (For more help, see our
handout on paragraphing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_pgrph.html.)
Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description,
explanation, or support.
Some LOCs
Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling
Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those.
Read the paper aloud watching and listening for anything that sounds incorrect.
Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in certain places. Do you need to check any punctuation rules?
(For more help see our handouts on punctuation at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_hocloc.html
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html.)
For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_hocloc.html
available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_hocloc.html
Proofreading Strategies
For more information on proofreading, see the Purdue OWL's other handouts on the subjects:

Editing and Proofreading Strategies for Revision at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_edit.html
No matter how many times you read through a "finished" paper, you're likely to miss many of your most frequent errors. This
handout will help you proofread more effectively . . .
by giving you some useful general strategies for proofreading well

by giving you strategies which personalize proofreading so you can identify errors you typically make (You don't need to
check for everything. It's more efficient to know your typical problem areas and make several passes through the paper
for them.)
by giving you specific strategies for finding and correcting those errors.
General Strategies
Begin by taking a break. Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because
it will help get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
The following strategies will help you s l o w d o w n as you read through a paper and will therefore help you catch mistakes that
you might otherwise overlook. As you use these strategies, remember to work slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't
give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
Read aloud
Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
Read with a "cover"
Sliding a blank sheet of paper down the page as you read encourages you to make a detailed,
line-by-line review of the paper.
Role-play
Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
Strategies Which Personalize Proofreading

In addition to using the general strategies already listed, you'll need to personalize the proofreading process.
You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are
and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper(s) with a
Writing Lab tutor.
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you
understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in
organization and paragraphing, usage and sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
To locate and correct errors in your papers, find the strategies on the following pages which correspond to your typical problem
areas and follow the step-by-step instructions provided for you. Each strategy is designed to focus your attention on only one
particular error, so to be most effective, use only one strategy at a time. (Ask a Writing Lab tutor about any terms you don't
understand and/or refer to Lab handouts.)
Organization and Paragraphing
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_proof.html
Thesis/Focus/Main Point
1. Find your paper's thesis statement. Copy it on another sheet of paper. If your thesis is not
directly stated, write down a possible thesis.
2. Locate the central idea of each paragraph and try to reduce that idea to a word or phrase. If you
cannot decide on one phrase, list two or three options.
3. List the paragraph ideas. List these in order under your thesis.
4. Decide whether your paragraphs clearly relate to your thesis. If not, either rewrite your thesis to
incorporate the unrelated ideas or eliminate the unrelated paragraphs.
For more information, consult the OWL handout on thesis statements at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/examp.html.
Paragraph Clarity
1. Locate the central idea of each paragraph. Reduce that idea to a word or phrase.
2. Look at each paragraph randomly. Consider only the information in that paragraph.
3. Ask yourself whether you offer enough details in the paragraph to support that word or idea.
4. Decide whether all of your details are relevant.
5. Ask yourself whether all of the information is related enough to be in the same paragraph.
Should you create another paragraph or move some of the details to another paragraph?
For more information, consult the OWL handout on paragraphs at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_pgrph.html.
Overall Coherence
1. See whether you have clear transitions between paragraphs. If not, clarify existing transitions,
add new ones, and/or rearrange your paragraphs to make transitions clearer.
For more information, consult the OWL handouts on transitions at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_transition.html and coherence at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_cohere.html.
Usage and Sentence Structure

Subject/Verb Agreement
1. Find the main verb in each sentence.
2. Match the verb to its subject.
3. Make sure that the subject and verb agree in number.
For more information, consult the OWL handout on subject/verb agreement at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslsubverb.html.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
1. Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. Look especially at it, this, they, their, and them.
2. Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces. If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand
or change the pronoun to a noun. If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person
with your pronoun.
See the OWL handout on pronouns at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_pronuse.html.
Parallel Structure
1. Skim your paper, stopping at key words that signal parallel structures.
Look especially for and, or, not only...but also, either... or, neither...nor, both...and.
2. Make sure that the items connected by these words (adjectives, nouns, phrases, etc.) are in the
same grammatical form.
For more information, see the OWL handout on parallel structure at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_parallel.html.
Spelling and Punctuation

Spelling
1. Examine each word in the paper individually.
Move from the end of each line back to the beginning. Pointing with a pencil helps you really see
each word.
2. If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
For more information, see the OWL handout on spelling at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html#spelling.
Compound Sentence Commas
1. Skim for the conjunctions and, but, for, or, nor, so and yet.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the conjunction.
If so, place a comma before the conjunction.
For more information, see the OWL handout on compound sentence commas at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html.
Introductory Commas
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker, a transition word, a participle, or a preposition.
3. Listen for a possible break point before the main clause.
4. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase or clause (which is before the independent
clause).
For more information, see the OWL handout on commas after introductions at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html.
Comma Splices
1. Skim the paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether there is a complete sentence on each side of the comma. If so, add a coordinating
conjunction after the comma or replace the comma with a semicolon.
For more information, see the OWL handout on commas at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
Fragments
1. Look at each sentence to see whether it contains an independent clause.
2. Pay special attention to sentences that begin with dependent marker words
(such as because) or phrases such as for example or such as.
3. See if the sentence might be just a piece of the previous sentence that
mistakenly got separated by a period.
For more information, see the OWL handout on sentence fragments at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_frag.html.
Run-On Sentences
1. Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause. Start with
the last sentence of your paper, and work your way back to the beginning, sentence by sentence.
2. Break the sentence into two sentences if necessary.
See the OWL handout on comma splices at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentpr.html.
Apostrophes
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s."
2. See whether or not each "s" word needs an apostrophe. If an apostrophe is needed, you will be
able to invert the word order and say "of" or "of the":
Mary's hat
the hat of Mary
For more information, consult OWL Handout on the apostrophe at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apost.html.
Left-Out Words
1. Read the paper aloud, pointing to every word as you read. Don't let your eye move ahead until
you spot each word.
2. Also, make sure that you haven't doubled any words.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_proof.html
available at

Proofreading Your Paper
For more information on proofreading, see the Purdue OWL's other handouts on the subjects:

Proofreading Your Work

It is always difficult to find errors in one's own work. The words and sentences appear correct on rereading because if the writer
had known better, he or she would not have made the errors in the first place. But a careful rereading of a paper aloud before it
is turned in helps considerably.
Perhaps a checklist of common errors will serve as a guide for you. Keep this list and a grammar book with you as you read your
paper over, checking every sentence for these items.
Run-on Sentences and Sentence Fragments

Check each sentence to make sure it has a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
Have you run two sentences together incorrectly without a period, conjunction or semicolon separating them?
Punctuation
Have you ended every sentence with a period, question mark, or exclamation point?
Are your thoughts within sentences broken up correctly by commas for easier understanding?
Have you broken up series with commas?
Have you used a period after abbreviations?
If you are in doubt about the proper punctuation of a sentence, have you asked or looked at our handouts on punctuation at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html#Punctuation.
Quotation Marks
Did you remember to place exact quotes within quotation marks?
Did you place all periods and commas inside the quotation marks while placing semicolons and colons outside them?
Subject-Verb Agreements
Check every subject and verb to make sure that if you have used a singular subject, you have also used a singular verb.
Similarly, a plural subject needs a plural verb.
Sentence Length
Compute the average number of words per sentence. How close is that number compared to the average of 22?
Have you varied the length of sentences in each paragraph?
If your sentences are too long, break them into shorter units.
Sentences that are very short tend to produce a jerky style of writing.
Does each sentence follow clearly and logically from the one before it? Have you used some type of transitional device between
each sentence?
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_proof2.html
Apostrophes
Have you used them correctly to indicate possession? If you're unsure, check a grammar book.
Tenses
Have you incorrectly jumped about in different tenses?
Have you used the correct form of the verb to express the tense you want?
Capitalization
Have you capitalized names of persons, cities, countries, streets, and titles?
Have you capitalized a quotation according to the original and according to the needs of your sentence?
Spelling
Check any word you have doubts about.
If you are unsure of the spelling of a certain word, look it up.
Be especially careful of the words listed as spelling nightmares: "ei" and "ie" words, words which add "-ing" and "ed," and words
with one or more sets of double letters.
Paragraphing
Does each paragraph have a topic sentence which states the main idea?
Have you used examples and vivid specific details to describe your topic?
Have you used explanatory sentences to give your opinion or judgment on the topic?
Have you included sentences which pertain only to that idea?
Are transitions used between sentences and paragraphs?
Is there a concluding sentence?
Omissions
Have you left out any words in your sentences?
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_proof2.html
available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_proof2.html
Steps in Editing (proofreading) Your Papers
For more information on proofreading, see the Purdue OWL's other handouts on the subject:

Identify typical errors

Review graded or scored comments on your old papers, and list errors which were marked frequently. Be as specific as possible
in gathering your list (for example, problems with introductory commas).
Make a hierarchy
Determine which of the errors on your list occurred most often and/or cost you the most in points or letter grades. Rank order
the items on your list so that the most serious errors are on the top.
Learn concepts
Make sure that you understand why you made the errors on your list. Do a couple of practice exercises, and talk to a Writing Lab
tutor. Using your hierarchy, write rules and sample sentences in your notebook or in the back of your dictionary.
Develop strategies
Ask a Writing Lab tutor for specific, "quick" strategies you can use to locate these errors in your papers. Refer, if needed, to the
OWL handouts listed above. Write each strategy, step by step, next to its corresponding rule in your notebook or dictionary.
Include any relevant key words or phrases.
Write
Write your paper as you normally would, concentrating mainly on your ideas, not on rules or strategies.
Apply your strategies

When you finish writing, take a break, and then apply the strategies one at a time, using the rules and sample sentences as
reminders if you get stuck.
Remember that you are looking for specific errors, not reading the paper. Go completely through the paper looking for only one
kind of error at a time.
You will be able to focus your concentration and energy better that way.
Please note: Editing is not a substitute for, but a supplement to, reading for meaning. For best results, use both methods.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_stepedit.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_stepedit.html
available at

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Literary Terms
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab
Many literary terms describe how an author communicates his or her ideas. Look through the text and try to
identify some of methods he or she uses to convey the patterns of ideas you are most interested in. The following
terms will help you express the methods you see:
characterization: the author's expression of a character's personality through the use of action, dialogue,
thought, or commentary by the author or another character.
conflict: the struggle within the story. Character divided against self, character against character, character
against society, character against nature, character against God. Without it, there is no story.
dialogue: vocal exchange between two or more characters. One of the ways in which plot, character, action,
etc. are developed.
imagery: the collection of images within a literary work. Used to evoke atmosphere, mood, tension. For
example, images of crowded, steaming sidewalks flanking streets choked with lines of shimmering,
smoking cars suggests oppressive heat and all the psychological tensions that go with it.
point of view: the vantage point from which the author presents action of the story. Who is telling the story?
An all-knowing author? A voice limited to the views of one character? The voice and thoughts of one
character? Does the author change point of view in the story? Why? Point of view is often considered the
technical aspect of fiction which leads the critic most readily into the problems and meanings of the story.
symbol: related to imagery. It is something which is itself yet stands for or means something else. It tends
to be more singular, a bit more fixed than imagery. For example, in Lessing's "A Woman on a Roof," the
brief red sun suit seems to symbolize the woman's freedom and independence from externally imposed
standards of behavior.
tone: suggests an attitude toward the subject which is communicated by the words the author chooses. Part
of the range of tone includes playful, somber, serious, casual, formal, ironic. Important because it
designates the mood and effect of a work.
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Introduction
What is an image? This is a question that philosophers and poets have asked themselves for thousands of years
and have yet to definitively answer. The most widely used definition of an image these days is:"...an intellectual
and emotional complex in an instant of time." (Ezra Pound)
But this definition from Pound has a history to it. Before Pound outlined his definition, the image was seen very
differently by most people. Therefore, the question "what is an image?" immediately breaks down into three
fundamental parts:
1) Where do images come from?
2) Once an image is created, what is it?
3) How can an image function in a poem?
Before we answer these questions, we'll want to discuss some terms related to image so that we can use them in
our answers.
Related Terms
Imagery
The category of which all images, as varied and lively as they are, fall into. "Imagery is best defined as
the total sensory suggestion of poetry" (John Ciardi, World Book Dictionary def. of "Imagery.")
Imagination
1) The mental laboratory used for the creation of images and new ideas.
2) "n. A warehouse of facts, with poet and liar in joint ownership." (Ambrose Bierce, 60)
3) "Imagination is not, as its etymology would suggest, the faculty of forming images of reality; it is
rather the faculty of forming images which go beyond reality, which sing reality." (Gaston Bachelard ,"On
Poetic Imagination and Revery," 15)
Imagism
A school of poetry and poetics made popular by Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell and H.D. (Hilda Doolittle) in the
early 20th century that focused on "direct treatment of the thing, whether subjective or objective." H.D.s
"Sea Garden" (available at http://www.cichone.com/jlc/hd/hdpoet.html) is often seen as a good example
of this style.
Concrete detail
A detail in a poem that has a basis in something "real" or tangible, not abstract or intellectual, based
more in things than in thought.
Sensory detail
A detail that draws on any of the five senses. This is very often also a concrete detail.
Where do images come from?
The first question is one best left to psychologists and philosophers of language.
Perhaps one of the most complete philosophical inquiries (and the one that seemed
to create a dramatic break from classical philosophy), was that of Gaston Bachelard.
Bachelard believed that the image originated straight out of human consciousness,
from the very heart of being. Whereas before the image was seen merely as a
representation of an object in the world, Bachelard believed that the image was its "So this is what
own object and that it could be experienced by a reader who allowed him or herself happens at the
the opportunity to "dream" the image (the "revery" of reading poetry). The image moment of writing:
then could not be intellectualized so much as experienced.
the wave takes the
He even went so far as to claim that "Intellectual criticism of poetry will never lead to shape of the fire.
the center of where poetic images are formed." ("Poetic Imagination" 7) He believed What is 'out there'
that the image erupts from the mind of the poet that the poet is not entirely in
control of the image and therefore is not seen as "causing" the image to come into moves inside. The
being. Since the image has no "cause," the image has no past, and, subsequently, is poet becomes
an object in and of itself, separate from its maker and separate from the object it threshold."
describes. He claims "[The image] becomes a new being in our language, expressing
us by making us what it expresses; in other words, it is at once a becoming of
expression, and a becoming of our being." (Larry Levis, Some
Notes on the Gazer
Bachelard is, of course, just one persons opinion on the matter, but his philosphy
does hold true to the somewhat enigmatic and difficult-to-pin-down nature of the Within")
image. Where the image comes from is an issue that will probably never be solved,
but suffice to say that if you approach its making as a mystery (and allow it to simply
happen without too much intellectualizing) you will at least keep in line with one major
aspect of its origin, that of the unknown.
What is an image?
The image is often seen, after it has been written, as being one of two things. It is
either something that represents a thing in the "real" world, or it is seen as its own
thing, divorced from the burden of representing anything other than itself. Again, it
is the latter definition that has come into more common use. As many philosophers
have recently shown, written language is more than simply representational. This
means that the image, rather than being something that stands in for something
else, is seen as something in and of itself; tied to the things of the world, but not
burdened by "representing them directly".
Instead of staying in the abstract, lets look at an example of the formation of an

image. Well start with the following phrase:
The yellow lemon
If image were merely a stand-in for something, then the phrase "The yellow lemon"
would be an image. While we can perhaps see a lemon (albeit a redundant "yellow"
one,) there is little evidence of a mind at work in this phrase. This particular lemon
lacks certain characteristics that would convey that it is being truly experienced by a
person, characteristics that more recent poets have defined more accurately.
Ezra Pound made perhaps the most widely used definition of image in the 20th
century: "An Image is that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in
an instant of time." (Pound 143) In Pounds definition, the image is not just a stand
in for something else; it is a putting-into-words of the emotional, intellectual and
concrete stuff that we experience in any given moment. It is also important to note "An Image is that
that an image in poetry, contrary to popular belief, is not simply visual. It can
engage any of the senses. And, in fact, for it to be an image, it must engage at which presents an
least one of the senses by using sensory detail. intellectual and
emotional complex
Take, for example, the following image (well build on our previous example):
in an instant of
The sunlight in a lemon time." (Ezra Pound)
makes me wince.
The words dont simply stand in for an absent object. There is suddenly a full
experience in the words. It feels more human. There is something intellectual (one
must convert the sunlight into vitamin C in order to know how the sunlight is
involved), there is something sensual (taste, sour), and a bit of emotion (probably
based on whether the reader, unlike the speaker in the poem, likes lemons). The
instant of time is that of the speaker eating the lemon. The moment is frozen, so
to speak, and given to the reader every time they read the image.
Poet Larry Levis felt this "freezing an instant of time" is what makes the image
poignant. He said:
The image draws on, comes out of, the "world of the senses" and,
therefore, originates in a world that passes, that is passing, every moment.
Could it be, then, that every image, as image, has this quality of
poignancy and vulnerability since it occurs, and occurs so wholeheartedly, in
time? (117)
It is the potential of losing the image that gives it its power. The job of the poet is
to freeze the image as well as possible in a way that feels very real and human
(concrete, intellectual and emotional). Taste a lemon and the sensation last for only
a few seconds; write an image that conveys what it is like to eat a lemon and the
sensation lives longer.
What are the uses of an image?
Once an image is created, there is often a need to place it in the context of a larger
poem. While many aspects of an image may be endlessly debatable, this one rarely
is: images are the concrete, gut-level part of a poem. And their function within a
poem reflects that.
The poet Tony Hoagland often speaks about poems having many levels, or
chakras, as he calls them. The heady and purely intellectual stuff of a poem he calls
the "rhetorical". This is where questions are asked, statements are made and
hypotheses are hypothesized. The second level is diction. This is where the voice of
"[The literary
the poet comes through and doesnt concern our discussion too much here. The gut
level is the image. The image, says Hoagland, comes in to fill the spaces made in image] is polyphonic
the rhetorical moves of the poem. Say the poet states: because it is
polysemantic. If
We find sunlight
in the strangest places. meanings become
too profuse, it can
Now there is nothing resembling an image here. This statement is purely
fall into word play. If
intellectual, or, in Hoaglands language, "rhetorical". This statement serves to open
space in the poem, allowing something more grounded and earthy to come in. Our it restricts itself to a
image from earlier may work after this somehow, or many other images could single meaning, it
follow.
can fall into
The amount of space opened by a rhetorical statement or question reflects how didacticism. The true
much room there is to fill in a poem. A small question or statement may merit a poet avoids both
simple, small image. A more grandiose rhetorical movement may call for long lists
dangers." (Gaston
of images. Walt Whitmans lists are a good example; he posits something and then
lists sometimes hundreds of variations on the theme. Bachelard)
This way of looking at the placement of an image into a poem is somewhat limiting
and by no means exhaustive. The key to using images well in a poem is to
remember that images tend to produce gut-level responses in our readers. They
feel the most real. They do, ultimately, convey (in very short order) a complete
human experience in words. And that is why a study of poetry almost always begins
with the image. It is the backbone, the grounding rod, of the poem. Few other
aspects of our language can boast such a strength.
Exercises
Breadbasket of Images
1. Go outside and find 5 objects and describe them briefly in your notebook.
2. Take one of the five objects and add something that makes it "intellectual," something that shows that it is
being observed by a thinking person. Do not just describe the thing; that is not image. Think of it as
augmenting the object with your thoughts.
3. Take the same object and find a way to get something emotional into it. Again, raw description is not the key
here; make it something that evokes an emotional response in you about the object.
4. Repeat with all five objects.
The Poet as Robber Baron
1. Find three images from three different poems that you really admire.
2. Replace the key element of each of the images with a new word. ie: if the key element of the image is "sun,"
try making it "whiffleball".
3. Now take the emotional and intellectual elements of the image and change them slightly to fit the word.
4. Using all three images, write a short poem where all three images come into play with each other.
Works Cited
Bachelard, Gaston. The Poetics of Space. Trans. Maria Jolas. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964.
-- On Poetic Imagination and Reverie. Trans. Colette Gaudin. Dallas: Spring Publications, 1987.
Bierce, Ambrose. The Devils Dictionary. Dover: New York, 1958.
Levis, Larry. The Gazer Within. Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press, 2001.
Pound, Ezra. "A Few Donts by an Imagiste," Poetry (Chicago) 1 [1913], pp. 198-206.
Handout content written by Sean Conrey, July 2002
HTML markup by Erin Karper
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Writing Definitions
A formal definition is based upon a concise, logical pattern that includes as much information as it can within a minimum amount
of space. It consists of three parts.
The term (word or phrase) to be defined
The class of object or concept to which the term belongs.
The differentiating characteristics that distinguish it from all all others of its class
You have readily available to you a number of such definitions, a single sentence in length, which you have been memorizing
since grade school days. "Water (term) is a liquid (class) made up of molecules of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 2 to 1
(distinguishing characteristics)." Practice in the writing of such brief formal definitions is good mental discipline as well as
excellent training in conciseness and care in the use of words.
In writing a definition:
Avoid defining with "is when" and "is where." These adverb phrase introducers do not work well when defining a word. A
noun should be defined with a noun, a verb with a verb, an adjective with an adjective.
Do not define a word by mere repetition.
Define a word in simple and familiar terms.
Keep your class small but adequate. It should be large enough to include all members of the term you are defining but
no larger.
State the differentiating characteristics precisely.
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Writing Descriptions
Because description is a mode of expository writing which is relied upon in other expository modes, we sometimes find difficulty
in imagining a purely descriptive essay. In a narrative, for example, description can make the setting of characters more vivid;
in a process paper it can insure that the audience understands the finished product. Regardless of how we use description, it is
easy to see that it strengthens an essay considerably.
Principles
Students often ask, "But how do I write a purely descriptive essay? What's the point of description? What's so different about it?"
There are three characteristics of a purely descriptive essay which are worthy of remembering.
a descriptive essay has one, clear dominant impression. If, for example you are describing a snowfall, it is important for
you to decide and to let your reader know if it is threatening or lovely; in order to have one dominant impression it
cannot be both. The dominant impression guides the author's selection of detail and is thereby made clear to the reader
in the thesis sentence.
a descriptive essay can be objective or subjective, giving the author a wide choice of tone, diction and attitude. For
instance, an objective description of one's dog would mention such facts as height, weight, coloring and so forth. A
subjective description would include the above details, but would also stress the author's feeling toward the dog, as well
as its personality and habits.
the purpose of a purely descriptive essay is to involve the reader enough so he or she can actually visualize the things
being described. Therefore, it is important to use specific and concrete details.
Conventions
The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its point. Remember, we have five senses, not
one or two.
The author of a descriptive essay must carefully select details to support the dominant impression. In other words, the
author has the license to omit details which are incongruent with the dominant impression unless the dominant
impression is one which points out the discrepancies.
Description very often relies on emotion to convey its point. Because of this, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives convey more
to the reader than do nouns.
Unless the description is objective, you must be sure that the dominant impression conveys an attitude.
Strategies
Try giving all the details first; the dominant impression then is built from these details.
Check your details to be sure that they are consistent with the dominant impression. You might even want to write down
the five senses on a scratch piece of paper and check to see that you have covered them all.
Try moving your reader through space and time chronologically. For instance, you might want to describe a train ride from
start to destination, or a stream from its source to the point at which it joins the river.
Use a then-and-now approach to show decay, change, or improvement. The house where you grew up might now be a
rambling shack. The variations on this strategy are endless.
Select an emotion and try to describe it. It might be more difficult to get started, but it can be worthwhile.
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Writing Essay Exams
What is a well written answer to an essay question?

It is...
Well Focused
Be sure to answer the question completely, that is, answer all parts of the question. Avoid "padding." A lot of rambling
and ranting is a sure sign that the writer doesn't really know what the right answer is and hopes that somehow, something
in that overgrown jungle of words was the correct answer.
Well Organized
Don't write in a haphazard "think-as-you-go" manner. Do some planning and be sure that what you write has a clearly
marked introduction which both states the point(s) you are going to make and also, if possible, how you are going to
proceed. In addition, the essay should have a clearly indicated conclusion which summarizes the material covered and
emphasizes your thesis or main point.
Well Supported
Do not just assert something is true, prove it. What facts, figures, examples, tests, etc. prove your point? In many cases,
the difference between an A and a B as a grade is due to the effective use of supporting evidence.
Well Packaged
People who do not use conventions of language are thought of by their readers as less competent and less educated. If
you need help with these or other writing skills, come to the Writing Lab!
How do you write an effective essay exam?

1 . Read through all the questions carefully.
2 . Budget your time and decide which question(s) you will answer first.
3 . Underline the key word(s) which tell you what to do for each question.
4 . Choose an organizational pattern appropriate for each key word and plan your answers on scratch paper or in the
margins.
5 . Write your answers as quickly and as legibly as you can; do not take the time to recopy.
A. Begin each answer with one or two sentence thesis which summarizes your answer. If possible, phrase the
statement so that it rephrases the question's essential terms into a statement (which therefore directly answers
the essay question).
B. Support your thesis with specific references to the material you have studied.
6 . Proofread your answer and correct errors in spelling and mechanics.
Specific organizational patterns and "key words"

Most essay questions will have one or more "key words" that indicate which organizational pattern you should use in your answer.
The six most common organizational patterns for essay exams are definition, analysis, cause and effect, comparison/contrast,
process analysis, and thesis-support.
Definition
Typical questions
"Define X."
"What is an X?"
"Choose N terms from the following list and define them."

Process
1 . State the term to be defined.
2 . State the class of objects or concepts to which the term belongs.
3 . Differentiate the term from other members of the class by listing the term's distinguishing characteristics.
Example
Q: "What is a fanzine?"
A: A fanzine is a magazine written, mimeographed, and distributed by and for science fiction or comic strip
enthusiasts.
Avoid constructions such as "An encounter group is where ..." and "General semantics is when ... ."
Tools you can use
Details which describe the term
Examples and incidents
Comparisons to familiar terms
Negation to state what the term is not
Classification (i.e., break it down into parts)
Examination of origins or causes
Examination of results, effects, or uses
Analysis
Typical questions
"Analyze X."
"What are the components of X?"
"What are the five different kinds of X?"
"Discuss the different types of X."
Example:
Analysis involves breaking something down into its components and discovering the parts that make up the whole.
Q: "Discuss the different services a junior college offers a community."
A: Thesis: A junior college offers the community at least three main types of educational services: vocational
education for young people, continuing education for older people, and personal development for all individuals.
Outline for supporting details and examples:
A. Vocational education
B. Continuing education
C . Personal development
Useful transition words:
first, second, third, etc.
next
another
in addition
moreover
Cause and Effect

Typical questions:
"What are the causes of X?"
"What led to X?"

"Why did X occur?"
"Why does X happen?"
"What would be the effects of X?"
Example
Cause and effect involves tracing probable or known effects of a certain cause or examining one or more effects
and discussing the reasonable or known cause(s).
Q: "Define recession and discuss the probable effects a recession would have on today's society."
A: Thesis: A recession, which is a nationwide lull in business activity, would be detrimental to society
in the following ways: it would .......A......., it would .......B......., and it would .......C....... .
The rest of the answer would explain, in some detail, the three effects: A, B, and C.
because
consequently
therefore
for this reason
as a result
Comparison-Contrast
Typical questions:
"How does X differ from Y?"
"Compare X and Y."
"What are the advantages and disadvantages of X and Y?"
Example:
Q: "Which would you rather own--a compact car or a full-sized car?"
A: Thesis: I would own a compact car rather than a full-sized car for the following reasons: .......A.......,
.......B......., .......C......., and .......D....... .
Two patterns of development:
Pattern 1
I . Full-sized car
A. Advantages
B. Disadvantages
II. Compact car
1 . Advantages
2 . Disadvantages
Pattern 2
I . Advantages
A. Full-sized car
B. Compact car
II. Disadvantages
A. Full-sized car
B. Compact car
Useful transition word

on the other hand nevertheless
similarly on the contrary
yet though
unlike A, B ... despite
in the same way however
but conversely
while both A and B are ..., only B .. while A is ..., B is ...
Process
Typical questions
"Describe how X is accomplished."
"List the steps involved in X."
"Explain what happened in X."
"What is the procedure involved in X?"
Process (sometimes called process analysis)
This involves giving directions or telling the reader how to do something. It may involve discussing some complex
procedure as a series of discrete steps. The organization is almost always chronological.
Example
Q: "According to Richard Bolles' What Color Is Your Parachute?, what is the best procedure for finding a job?"
A: In What Color Is Your Parachute?, Richard Bolles lists seven steps that all job-hunters should follow: .....A.....,
.....B....., .....C....., .....D....., .....E....., .....F....., and .....G..... .
The remainder of the answer should discuss each of these seven steps in some detail.
Useful transition words
first, second, third, etc. after,

afterwards, after
next this
then subsequently
following this simultaneously,

concurrently
finally
Thesis and Support

Typical questions:
"Discuss X."
"A noted authority has said X. Do you agree or disagree?"
"Defend or refute X."
"Do you think that X is valid? Defend your position."
Thesis and support involves stating a clearly worded opinion or interpretation and then defending it with all the data,
examples, facts, and so on that you can draw from the material you have studied.
Example:
Q: "Despite criticism, television is useful because it aids in the socializing process of our children."
A: Television hinders rather than helps in the socializing process of our children because .......A......., .......B......., and
.......C....... .
The rest of the answer is devoted to developing arguments A, B, and C.
therefore because
for this however

reason
consequently
it follows
that
as a
result
Excercises
A. Which of the following two answers is the better one? Why?
Question: Discuss the contribution of William Morris to book design, using as an example his edition of the works of Chaucer.
a. William Morris's Chaucer was his masterpiece. It shows his interest in the Middle Ages. The type is based on
medieval manuscript writing, and the decoration around the edges of the pages is like that used in medieval
books. The large initial letters are typical of medieval design. Those letters were printed from woodcuts, which was
the medieval way of printing. The illustrations were by Burn-Jones, one of the best artists in England at the time.
Morris was able to get the most competent people to help him because he was so famous as a poet and a
designer (the Morris chair) and wallpaper and other decorative items for the home. He designed the furnishings for
his own home, which was widely admired among the sort of people he associated with. In this way he started the
arts and crafts movement.
b. Morris's contribution to book design was to approach the problem as an artist or fine craftsman, rather than a
mere printer who reproduced texts. He wanted to raise the standards of printing, which had fallen to a low point, by
showing that truly beautiful books could be produced. His Chaucer was designed as a unified work of art or high
craft. Since Chaucer lived in the Middle Ages, Morris decided to design a new type based on medieval script and to
imitate the format of a medieval manuscript. This involved elaborate letters and large initials at the beginnings of
verses, as well as wide borders of intertwined vines with leaves, fruit, and flowers in strong colors. The effect was
so unusual that the book caused great excitement and inspired other printers to design beautiful rather than
purely utilitarian books.
From James M. McCrimmon, Writing with a Purpose, 7th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980), pp. 261-263.
B. How would you plan the structure of the answers to these essay exam questions?
1. Was the X Act a continuation of earlier government policies or did it represent a departure from prior
philosophies?
2. What seems to be the source of aggression in human beings? What can be done to lower the level of
aggression in our society?
3. Choose one character from Novel X and, with specific references to the work, show how he or she functions as an
"existential hero."
4. Define briefly the systems approach to business management. Illustrate how this differs from the traditional
approach.
5. What is the cosmological argument? Does it prove that God exists?
6. Civil War historian Andy Bellum once wrote, "Blahblahblah blahed a blahblah, but of course if blahblah
blahblahblahed the blah, then blahblahs are not blah but blahblah." To what extent and in what ways is the
statement true? How is it false?
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_essay.html
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Writing About Literature
Also see the OWL handout on Writing about Fiction at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_fiction.html.
What makes for a good literature paper?

An argument
When you write an extended literary essay, often one requiring research, you are essentially making
an argument. You are arguing that your perspectivean interpretation, an evaluative judgment, or a
critical evaluationis a valid one.
A debatable thesis statement
Like any argument paper you have ever written for a first-year composition course, you must have a
specific, detailed thesis statement that reveals your perspective, and, like any good argument, your
perspective must be one which is debatable.
Examples
You would not want to make an argument of this sort:
Shakespeares Hamlet is a play about a young man who seeks revenge.
That doesnt say anythingits basically just a summary and is hardly debatable.
A better thesis would be this:
Hamlet experiences internal conflict because he is in love with his mother.
That is debatable, controversial even. The rest of a paper with this argument as its thesis will be an
attempt to show, using specific examples from the text and evidence from scholars, (1) h o w Hamlet
is in love with his mother, (2) why hes in love with her, and (3) what implications there are for
reading the play in this manner.
You also want to avoid a thesis statement like this:
Spirituality means different things to different people. King Lear, The Book of Romans, and Zen
and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance each view the spirit differently.
Again, that says nothing thats not already self-evident. Why bother writing a paper about that?
Youre not writing an essay to list works that have nothing in common other than a general topic like
"spirituality." You want to find certain works or authors that, while they may have several differences,
do have some specific, unifying point. That point is your thesis.
A better thesis would be this:
Lear, Romans, and Zen each view the soul as the center of human personality. Then you prove it,
using examples from the texts that show that the soul is the center of personality.
What kinds of topics are good ones?

The best topics are ones that originate out of your own reading of a work of literature, but here are some common approaches
to consider:
A discussion of a works characters: are they realistic, symbolic, historically-based?
A comparison/contrast of the choices different authors or characters make in a work
A reading of a work based on an outside philosophical perspective (Ex. how would a Freudian read Hamlet? )
A study of the sources or historical events that occasioned a particular work (Ex. comparing G.B. Shaws Pygmalion with
the original Greek myth of Pygmalion)
An analysis of a specific image occurring in several works (Ex. the use of moon imagery in certain plays, poems, novels)
A "deconstruction" of a particular work (Ex. unfolding an underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness)
A reading from a political perspective (Ex. how would a Marxist read William Blakes "London"?)
A study of the social, political, or economic context in which a work was writtenhow does the context influence the work?
How do I start research?

The Internet
Once you have decided on an interesting topic and work (or works), the best place to start is probably the Internet. Here
you can usually find basic biographical data on authors, brief summaries of works, possibly some rudimentary analyses,
and even bibliographies of sources related to your topic.
The library
The Internet, however, rarely offers serious direct scholarship; you will have to use sources found in the library, sources
like journal articles and scholarly books, to get information that you can use to build your own scholarshipyour literary
paper. Consult the librarys on-line catalog and the MLA Periodical Index. Avoid citing dictionary or encyclopedic sources in
your final paper.
How do I use the information I find?

The secondary sources you find are only to be used as an aid. Your thoughts should make up most of the essay. As you
develop your thesis, you will bring in the ideas of the scholars to back up what you have already said.
For example, say you are arguing that Huck Finn is a Christ figure; thats your basic thesis. You give evidence from the novel
that allows this reading, and then, at the right place, you might say the following, a paraphrase:
According to Susan Thomas, Huck sacrifices himself because he wants to set Jim free (129).
If the scholar states an important idea in a memorable way, use a direct quote.
"Hucks altruism and feelings of compassion for Jim force him to surrender to the danger" (Thomas 129).
Either way, you will then link that idea to your thesis.
What about the MLA format?

All research papers on literature use the MLA format, as it is the universal citation method for the field of literary studies.
Whenever you use a primary or secondary source, whether you are quoting or paraphrasing, you will make parenthetical citations
in the MLA format [Ex. (Smith 67).] Your Works Cited list will be the last page of your essay. Consult the OWL handout on MLA
for further instructions at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_mla.html.
Note, however, the following minor things about the MLA format:
Titles of books, plays, or works published singularly (not anthologized) should be underlined. (Ex. Hamlet, Great
Expectations)
Titles of poems, short stories, or works published in an anthology will have quotation marks around them. (Ex. "Ode on a
Nightingale," "The Cask of Amontillado")
All pages in your essay should have your last name the page number in the top right hand corner. (Ex. Jones 12)
Tip
If you're using Microsoft Word, you can easily include your name and page number on each page by
following the these steps:
1 . Open "View" (on the top menu).

2 . Open "Header and Footer." (A box will appear at the top of the page you're on. And a
"Header and Footer" menu box will also appear).
3 . Click on the "allign right" button at the top of the screen. (If you're not sure which button it
is, hold the mouse over the buttons and a small window should pop up telling you which
button you're on.)
4 . Type in your last name and a space.
5 . Click on the "#" button which is located on the "Header and Footer" menu box. It will insert
the appropriate page number.
6 . Click "Close" on the "Header and Footer" window.
That's all you need to do. Word will automatically insert your name and the page number on every
page of your document.
What else should I remember?

Dont leave a quote or paraphrase by itselfyou must introduce it, explain it, and show how it relates to your thesis.
Block format all quotations of more than four lines.
When you quote brief passages of poetry, line and stanza divisions are shown as a slash (Ex. "Roses are red, / Violets
are blue / You love me / And I like you").
For more help, see the OWL handout on using quotes at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quote.html.
Developed by Mark Dollar, Purdue Writing Lab 1999
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_lit.html
available at

Conducting a Productive Web Search
Check out our search engine tutorial for an interactive experience that will show you all about searching the Web at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/internet/index.html!
The two most essential elements of World Wide Web research are Indexes and Search Engines. Both are useful tools,
depending on the scope and goals of your search.
Searching With an Index

There are two main types of indexes: those that are hierarchical (i.e. that lead one from a general topic to a more
specific one) and those that list sources in some sort of order (most commonly alphabetical). The first type of
index often contains a broad range of topics while the second usually contains sources designed to address a
particular topic or concern.
Most search engines have some sort of index attached to them. More prominent and well-developed ones include
Yahoo!, InfoSeek, Google, and Excite.
Indexes are valuable for web researchers who have an area on which they want to focus, but do not yet have a
specific topic. An index can help a writer get general information or a "feel" for the topic.
An Example:
Go to Yahoo! (an index) at http://www.yahoo.com
Find a topic that interests you ("education")
Follow it through specifics ("rural education", "Rural Education Institute")
"Rural Education Institute" is a specific topic that can be feasibly researched, either by following the listed
links or by using that phrase in a keyword search.
Searching with a Search Engine

A search engine is a device that sends out inquiries to sites on the web and catalogs any web site it encounters,
without evaluating it. Methods of inquiry differ from search engine to search engine, so the results reported by
each one will also differ.
Search engines maintain an incredibly large number of sites in their archives, so you must limit your search terms
in order to avoid becoming overwhelmed by an unmanageable number of responses.
Search engines are good for finding sources for well-defined topics. Typing in a general term such as "education"
or "Shakespeare" will bring back far too many results, but by narrowing your topic, you can get the kind (and
amount) of information that you need.
Example:
Go to Google (a search engine) at http://www.google.com

Type in a general term ("education")
Add modifiers to further define and narrow your topic ("rural education Indiana")
Be as specific as you can ("rural education Indiana elementary school")
Submit your search.
Adjust your search based upon the number of responses you receive (if you get too few responses, submit
a more general search; if you get too many, add more modifiers).
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_websearch.html
available at

Searching the World Wide Web
Check out our search engine tutorial for an interactive experience that will help you learn about searching the web at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/internet/search/index.html.
Searching the World Wide Web can be both beneficial and frustrating. You may find vast amounts of information, or you may
not find the kinds of information you're looking for. Past studies have indicatde that search engines index only about 16% of the
total content on the Web and that they are biased toward well known information. (One study found that Northern Light has
about 16% of the total content and Snap and Alta Vista each have about 15.5%; Lycos has about 2.5%.) Moreover, the content
on search engines can be at least several months old, although new indexing techniques are making this less likely.
So, using search engines is not the only way to find material on the web, but they are one tool you can use. Knowing a few
search strategies and hints, as you use these engines, can make the search more profitable.
One way to improve your Web searching techniques is to meet with a Writing Lab tutor in the Lab (226 Heavilon, 494-3723),
work together on the Web on one of our computers, and get some advice from the tutor. We also have a search engine tutorial
at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/internet/search/index.html, and several PowerPoint presentations on searching the web at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/pp/index.html. In addition, the following suggestions should help.
Kinds of Search Engines || Using a Search Engine || List of Search Engines || Other Strategies For Your Searches
Kinds of Search Engines

1. Catalogues
These are broken down into categories and are good for broad searches of established sites. For example, if you are
looking for information on the environment but not sure how to phrase a potential topic on holes in the ozone, you could
try browsing through Yahoo's categories. In Yahoo's "Society and Culture" category (at http://www.yahoo.com), there is a
subcategory of "environment" that has over subcategories listed under that. One of those subcategories is "ozone
depletion," with over twenty references, including a FAQ site. Those references can help you determine the key terms to
use for a more focused search.
2. Search engines
These ask for key words and phrases and then search the Web for results. Some search engines look only through page
titles and headers. Others look through documents. Many search engines now include some categories as well.
3. Metasearch engines
These (such as Dogpile at http://www.dogpile.com and Metacrawler at http://www.metacrawler.com) search other search
engines and often search smaller, less well known search engines and specialized sites.
Using a Search Engine

Learn how the search engine works
Read the instructions and FAQs to learn how that particular site works. Each search engine is slightly different, and a few
minutes learning how to use the site properly will save you large amounts of time and prevent useless searching.
Each search engine has different advantages; for example, Alta Vista (at http://www.altavista.com) offers the option of
selecting which language you want to search in and HotBot (at http://www.hotbot.com) permits you to specify date,
location, media type, etc. for the references it searches for. Infoseek (http://www.infoseek.com) permits you to ask
questions.
Select your terms carefully

Using inexact terms or terms that are too general will cause you problems. If your terms are too broad or general, the
search engine may not process them. Search engines are programmed with various lists of words the designers
determined to be so general that a search would turn up hundreds of thousands of references. Check the search engine
to see if it has a list of such stopwords. One stopword, for example, is "computers."
If your early searches turn up too many references, try searching some relevant ones to find more specific or exact
terms. You can start combining these specific terms with NOT (see the section on Boolean operators below) when you see
which terms come up in references that are not relevant to your topic. In other words, keep refining your search as you
learn more about the terms.
You can also try to make your terms more precise by checking the online catalog of a library. For example, check THOR
at http://www.lib.purdue.edu, the Purdue University Library online catalog, and try their subject word search. Or try
searching the term in the online databases in the library.
If you use AltaVista (at http://www.altavista.com), you'll find their LiveTopics very useful. After you enter your key terms
and get the results, you will notice a LiveTopics option on the top of the page that has a list of possible related keywords.
You can highlight some and reject others to narrow your search.
Know Boolean operators

Most search engines allow you to combine terms with words (referred to as Boolean operators) such as "and," "or," or
"not." Knowing how to use these terms is very important for a successful search.
AND
AND is the most useful and most important term. It tells the search engine to find your first word AND your second
word or term.
AND can, however, cause problems, especially when you use it with phrases or two terms that are each broad in
themselves or likely to appear together in other contexts.
For example, if you'd like information about the basketball team Chicago Bulls and type in "Chicago AND Bulls,"
you will get references to Chicago and to bulls. Since Chicago is the center of a large meat packing industry, many
of the references will be about this since it is likely that "Chicago" and "bull" will appear in many of the references
relating to the meat-packing industry.
OR
OR is not always a helpful term because you may find too many combinations with OR. For example, if you want
information on the American economy and you type in "American OR economy," you will get thousands of
references to documents containing the word "American" and thousands of unrelated ones with the word
"economy."
Use OR when a key term may appear in two different ways. For example, if you want information on sudden infant
death syndrome, try "sudden infant death syndrome OR SIDS."
NEAR
NEAR is a term that appears only on some search engines, and it can be very useful. It tells the search engine to
find documents with both words but only when they appear near each other, usually within a few words.
For example, suppose you were looking for information on mobile homes, almost every site has a notice to "click
here to return to the home page." Since "home" appears on so many sites, the search engine will report
references to sites with the word "mobile" and "click here to return to the home page" since both terms appear on
the page. Using NEAR would eliminate that problem.
NOT
NOT tells the search engine to find a reference that contains one term but not the other.
Some search engine sites have advanced or power options for searches, and you can read about those to see how they
can help you.
Know the limitations of the Web and of search engines

The World Wide Web is a superb resource, but it doesn't contain all the information that you can find in libraries. Don't
expect to limit your search to what's on the Internet, and don't expect search engines to find some very recent
information or to find everything that is on the Web. After you try several search engines, you will see that you get
different results from different sites. Also, remember that some information appears and then disappears from Web
sites.
Search engines will put the most relevant sites at the top of their lists, but most engines determine relevancy by the
number of key term matches. This means that the most repetitive site will be the most relevant in their list, and that may
not turn up the best sites for your use.
Search Engines
Some of the most powerful search engines include the following that you'll find on OWL's Search Tools & Directories on the Net at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/internet/tools/index.html.
Alta Vista at http://www.altavista.com/

Dogpile at http://www.dogpile.com/ (is a metasearch engine and will search other search engines)
Excite at http://www.excite.com/
Google at http://www.google.com/
HotBot at http://www.hotbot.com/
Infoseek at http://www. infoseek.com/
Lycos at http://www.lycos.com/
Metacrawler at http://www.metacrawler.com/ (is a metasearch engine and will search other search engines)
Northern Light at http://www.nisearch.com
Open Text at http://index.opentext.net
Snap at http://www.snap.com
WebCrawler at http://webcrawler.com
World Wide Web Worm at http://www.goto.com
Yahoo at http://www.yahoo.com
DejaNews at http://www.dejanews.com (searches newsgroup postings)
People Search at http://people.yahoo.com/ (has online white-page directories for telephone numbers, addresses, e-mail
addresses, etc.)
Big Yellow at http://www1.bigyellow.com (has electronic yellow pages)
WebSeer at http://webseer.cs.uchicago.edu (has a huge database of graphics)
All4one at http://www.all4one.com allows simultaneous searching of 4 search engines.
Other strategies for your searches

Don't limit your Internet searching to using search engines. Be creative and think about which Internet sites might have
the information you are looking for. For example, might any of the following lead you to the sites that will provide the
information you are looking for?
Our OWL also has a list of starting points for Internet research (at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/internet/tools/research.html) grouped by different fields of interest, and some other
general reference tools (at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/internet/resources/sourceofinfo.html) for searching the web that
may help you to find what you're looking for.
Looking for information about job opportunities? Look at some of the sites listing job vacancies. Try university
websites that sometimes list jobs through their placement offices, or try professional organizations which also
sometimes list jobs in that field. Or look through the websites of various large companies because they usually
have a section on job opportunities in their company.
Looking for information likely to be discussed on newsgroups or chat rooms? Look through the lists of newsgroups
or use a search engine like DejaVu.
Looking for information about a current topic? Check the newspaper and current newsmagazine sites. Most have
a search engine for articles in their publications.
Looking for data that might have been collected on a government site? Start with sites such as the Library of
Congress (at http://www.loc.gov/) or The White House (at http://www.whitehouse.gov/). If the data concerns a
state or a foreign country, is there a site for that political entity?
This site (at http://www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm) has some valuable information on how to evaluate Internet
resources. For more help, see the handout on Evaluating Sources of Information at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_evalsource.html.
(This document written by M. Harris, August 1997, revised July 1999, revised again in June 2001)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_websearch2.html
available at

Evaluating Sources of Information Page 1 of 4
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APA Formatting and Style Guide - The OWL at Purdue Page 1 of 4
This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue

(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/). When printing this page, you must
include the entire legal notice at bottom.
APA Formatting and Style Guide
This resource was written by David Neyhart and Erin Karper.

Last full revision by Jodi Wagner.
Last edited by Karl Stolley on August 20th 2006 at 8:46PM
Summary: APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to

cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the
5th edition of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA
research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page.
General Format
General APA Guidelines
Your essay should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches)
with margins of 1 inch on all sides. Your final essay should include, in the order
indicated below, as many of the following sections as are applicable, each of which
should begin on a separate page:
Title page: includes a running head for publication, title, and byline and affiliation.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ 8/28/2006
Image Caption: Sample APA title page; running head and page number in upper right-hand corner,
definition of running head IN ALL CAPS, and vertically and horizontally centers the title of the paper,
its author and her affiliation to the page.
Page numbers and running head: in the upper right-hand corner of each page,
include a 1-2 word version of your title. Follow with five spaces and then the page
number.
Abstract: If your instructor requires an abstract, write a 75-100 word overview of

your essay, which should include your main idea and your major points. You also may
want to mention any implications of your research. Place the abstract on its own page
immediately after the title page. Center the word Abstract and then follow with the
paragraph.
Headings: Although not absolutely necessary, headings can be helpful. For
undergraduate papers, only one level of heading is necessary. Major headings should
be centered. Capitalize every word in the heading except articles (a, the), short
prepositions (in, by, for), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or).
Visuals: Visuals such as tables and figures include graphs, charts, drawings, and
photographs. Try to keep the visuals as simple as possible and clearly label each
visual with an Arabic numeral (ex: Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and include the title of the
visual. The label and the title should appear on separate lines above the table, flush
left. Below the table, provide the source. A sample Figure treatment is shown below.
List of
References:
Create your list of
references on its
own page after the
last page of your
text. Center the
title References
one inch from the
top of the page.
Double space.
Alphabetize the
list of references
by the last name
of the authors. If
the work has no
author or editor,
alphabetize the
work by the first
word of the title
(excluding A, An,
or The).
For more
information about
formatting an
APA style paper,
Image Caption: A sample figure and caption in APA style.
consult the
publication manual, visit APA Style Essentials, or view a Sample APA Report or an
APA Simulated Journal Article. Annotated bibliography writers might want to visit
APA Format for Annotated Bibliographies. (Additional formatting resources,

including Microsoft Word templates, are available in our Additional Resources
section.)
Legal Information
Copyright 1995-2006 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights
reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without
permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact
Karl Stolley to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-
validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says
test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very
latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox).
Please report any technical problems you encounter. Site design & programming by Karl Stolley.
MLA Formatting and Style Guide - The OWL at Purdue Page 1 of 4
This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue

(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/). When printing this page, you must
include the entire legal notice at bottom.
MLA Formatting and Style Guide
This resource was written by Dave Neyhart and Erin E. Karper.

Last full revision by Karl Stolley.
Last edited by Karl Stolley on August 20th 2006 at 8:23PM
Summary: MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to

write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This
resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
(6th ed.) and the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (2nd ed.),
offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations,
endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.
General Format
MLA style specifies guidelines for formatting manuscripts and using the English
language in writing. MLA style also provides writers with a system for referencing
their sources through parenthetical citation in their essays and Works Cited pages.
Writers who properly use MLA also build their credibility by demonstrating
accountability to their source material. Most importantly, the use of MLA style can
protect writers from accusations of plagiarism, which is the purposeful or accidental
uncredited use of source material by other writers.
If you are asked to use MLA format, be sure to consult the MLA Handbook for
Writers of Research Papers (6th edition). Publishing scholars and graduate students
should also consult the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (2nd
edition). The MLA Handbook is available in most writing labs and reference libraries;
it is also widely available in bookstores, libraries, and at the MLA web site. See the
Additional Resources section of this handout for a list of helpful books and sites about
using MLA style.
Paper Format
The preparation of papers and manuscripts in MLA style is covered in chapter four of
the MLA Handbook, and chapter four of the MLA Style Manual. Below are some basic
guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style.
General Guidelines
Type your paper on a computer and print it out on standard, white 8.5 x 11-inch
paper,
Double-space the text of your paper, and use a legible font like Times New
Roman or Courier.
Leave only one space after periods or other punctuation marks (unless otherwise
instructed by your instructor).
Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides. Indent the first line of a
paragraph one half-inch (five spaces or press tab once) from the left margin.
Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand
corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin. (Note: Your
instructor may ask that you omit the number on your first page. Always follow
your instructor's guidelines.)
Use either italics or underlining throughout your essay for the titles of longer
works and, only when absolutely necessary, providing emphasis.
If you have any endnotes, include them on a separate page before your Works
Cited page.
Formatting the First Page of Your Paper
Do not make a title page for your paper unless specifically requested.
In the upper left-hand corner of the first page, list your name, your instructor's
name, the course, and the date. Again, be sure to use double-spaced text.
Double space again and center the title. Don't underline your title or put it in
quotation marks; write the title in Title Case, not in all capital letters.
Use quotation marks and underlining or italics when referring to other works in
your title, just as you would in your text, e.g.,
Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas as Morality Play
Human Weariness in "After Apple Picking"
Double space between the title and the first line of the text.
Create a header in the upper right-hand corner that includes your last name,
followed by a space with a page number; number all pages consecutively with
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), one-half inch from the top and flush with the
right margin. (Note: Your instructor or other readers may ask that you omit last
name/page number header on your first page. Always follow their guidelines.)
Here is a sample first page of an essay in MLA style:
Image Caption: A sample first page of an MLA-formatted paper.
Legal Information
Copyright 1995-2006 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights
reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without
permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact
Karl Stolley to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-
validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says
test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very
latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox).
Please report any technical problems you encounter. Site design & programming by Karl Stolley.
OWL at Purdue University: Resources for Documenting Sources: Printable Handouts 2/3/03 3:24 PM
Resources for Documenting Sources

Each discipline uses its own citation style; therefore, when it comes time to document sources for a paper, you will
have to make sure that you choose and follow the appropriate guidelines for the discipline you are writing in. This
handout will help you find resources for citing sources and formatting your paper in various disciplines. If you just
need help documenting electronic sources, we have a separate handout for just that purpose at http://
owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_docelectric.html.
The best source for information about citing sources and formatting papers in any discipline is their style manual.
Many disciplines now also have supplementary web sites to accompany their style manuals, which will include the
latest updates for citation formats, particularly for documenting electronic sources. Here is a list (with MLA
formatted citations) of some style manuals for various disciplines and their accompanying websites (if available).
The list also includes links to material that explains how to use these citation styles in more detail, including
material available on our OWL.
Most of these style manual listings were taken from the MLA style manual and the University of Memphis Libraries
list of style manuals at http://www.lib.memphis.edu/instr/style.htm. If you know of other official style manuals and
related websites for your discipline or for a discipline not listed here, please send us an email at
link@owl.english.purdue.edu with the information and we will add it to the page.
A good general resource that compares various styles (and provides color coded annotations) is Citation Style for
Research Papers (available at http://www.liunet.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citation.htm), provided by Long
Island University.
Anthropology
The American Anthropological Association uses the Chicago Manual of Style and and Merriam-Websters Collegiate
Dictionary (10th edition, 2000).
Official Website: http://www.aaanet.org/pubs/style_guide.htm

Explanatory Website: http://www.usd.edu/anth/handbook/bib.htm
Biology
Council of Biology Editors. CBE Style Manual: A Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers in the Biological Sciences.
Washington: American Chemical Society, 1986.
Official Website: http://www.councilscienceeditors.org/

Explanatory Website: http://www.lib.ohio-state.edu/guides/cbegd.html
Chicago Style (used in many disciplines)
The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993.
Official Website: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/cmosfaq.html

Explanatory Website: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocChicago.html
Chemistry
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_docsources.html Page 1 of 4
American Chemical Society. The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors. Washington: American Chemical
Society, 1986.
Official Website: http://pubs.acs.org/

Explanatory Website: http://pubs.acs.org/books/references.shtml
English (and some disciplines in the humanities)
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 2nd ed. New York: The Modern Language
Association of America, 1998.
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses and Dissertations. 5th ed. New York:
The Modern Language Association, 1995.
Official Website: http://www.mla.org

Explanatory Website: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_mla.html
Engineering
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Information for IEEE Transactions and Journal
Authors. New York: IEEE, 1989.
Official Website: http://www.computer.org/cspress/instruct.htm
Geology
Bates, Robert L., Rex Buchanan, and Marla Adkins-Heljeson, eds. Geowriting: A Guide to
Writing, Editing, and Printing in Earth Science. 5th ed. Alexandria: Amer. Geological Inst., 1995.
United States Geological Survey. Suggestions to Authors of the Reports of the United States Geological Survey. 7th ed.
Washington: GPO, 1991.
Official Website: http://www.usgs.gov/

Explanatory Website: http://www.agu.org/pubs/contrib.html
Government
Gapner, Diane L., and Diane H. Smith. The Complete Guide to Citing Government Information
Resources: A Manual for Writers and Librarians. Rev. ed. Bethesda: Congressional Information
Service, 1993.
Explanatory Website: http://exlibris.memphis.edu/govpubs/citeweb.htm
History
Gray, Wood. Historians Handbook: A Key to the Study and Writing of History. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1991.
Most historians use either Chicago style or Turabian style.
Official Website: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/cmosfaq.html

Explanatory Website: http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/hacker/resdoc/history/bibliography.htm
Information Sciences and Computer Science
American National Standard for Information Sciences. Scientific and Technical Reports : Organization,
Preparation, and Production. New York: ANSI, 1987.
Official Website: http://www.computer.org/author/style/cs-style.htm

Explanatory Website:http://www.computer.org/author/style/refer.htm
Journalism
Associated Press Staff. The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1994.
UPI Stylebook: The Authoritative Handbook for Writers, Editors & News Directors. 3rd ed. Lincolnwood, IL: National
Textbook Company, 1992.
Official Website: http://www.ap.org

Explanatory Website: http://www.usu.edu/~communic/faculty/sweeney/ap.htm
Law and Legal Studies
The Bluebook : A Uniform System of Citation. 16th ed. Cambridge: Harvard Law Review Association, 1996.
Official Website: http://www.legalbluebook.com/

Explanatory Website: http://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/
Linguistics
Linguistic Society of America. LSA Bulletin, December issue (annually).
Official Website: http://www.lsadc.org/web2/dec99bull/langstyl.html
Mathematics
American Mathematical Society. A Manual for Authors of Mathematical Papers. 8th ed. Providence: American
Mathematical Society, 1990.
Official Website: http://www.ams.org
Management
American Management Association. The AMA Style Guide for Business Writing. New York : AMACOM,1996.
Official Website:http://www.amanet.org/books/catalog/0814402976.htm
Medicine
American Medical Association. AMA Manual of Style. 8th ed. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1990.
Official Website: http://www.ama-assn.org/

Explanatory Website: http://healthlinks.washington.edu/hsl/styleguides/ama.html
Physics
American Institute of Physics. Style Manual for Guidelines in the Preparation of Papers. 4th ed. New York: American
Institute of Physics, 1990.
Official Website:http://www.aip.org/pubservs/style/4thed/toc.html (download the manual free of charge!)
Psychology (and other social sciences)
American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 5th ed. Washington:
American Psychological Association, 2001.
Official Website: http://www.apastyle.org

Explanatory Website:http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html
Political Science
American Political Science Association Committee on Publications. Style Manual for Political Science. Washington, DC:
American Political Science Association, 1988.
Official Website: http://www.apsanet.org/

Explanatory Website: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPSA.html
Sociology
American Sociological Association. ASA Style Guide. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1997.
Official Website: http://www.asanet.org/pubs/style.html

Explanatory Website: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_docsocio.html
This handout created June 2001 by Erin Karper
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/

r_docsources.html

Annotated Bibliographies
Definition
A bibliography is a list of sources (books, journals, websites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for researching a topic. A
bibliography usually just includes the bibliographic information (i.e., the author, title, publisher, etc.).
An annotation is a summary and/or evaluation. Therefore, an annotated bibliography includes a summary and/or evaluation of
each of the sources. Depending on your project or the assignment, your annotations may do one or more of the following:
Summarize: Some annotations merely summarize the source. What are the main arguments? What is the point of
this book or article? What topics are covered? If someone asked what this article/book is about, what would you
say? The length of your annotations will determine how detailed your summary is.
For more help, see our handout on paraphrasing sources at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html.
Assess: After summarizing a source, it may be helpful to evaluate it. Is it a useful source? How does it compare
with other sources in your bibliography? Is the information reliable? Is it this source biased or objective? What is
the goal of the this source?
For more help, see our handouts on evaluating resources at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_evalsource3.html.
Reflect: Once you've summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into your research. Was this
source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your argument? How can you use this source in your research
project? Has it changed how you think about your topic?
Your annotated bibliography may include some of these, all of these, or even others. So it's important, if you're doing this for a
class, to get specific guidelines from your instructor.
Purpose
To learn about your topic: Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a research project. Just
collecting sources for a bibliography is useful, but when you have to write annotations for each source, you're
forced to read each source more carefully. You begin to read more critically instead of just collecting information.
To help you formulate a thesis: Every good research paper is an argument. The purpose of research is to state
and support a thesis. So a very important part of research is developing a thesis that is debatable, interesting,
and current. Writing an annotated bibliography can help you gain a good perspective on what is being said about
your topic. By reading and responding to a variety of sources on a topic, you'll start to see what the issues are,
what people are arguing about, and you'll then be able to develop your own point of view.
To help other researchers: Extensive and scholarly annotated bibliographies are sometimes published. They
provide a comprehensive overview of everything that has been and is being said about that topic. You may not
ever get your annotated bibliography published, but as a researcher, you might want to look for one that has been
published about your topic.
Format
The format of an annotated bibliography can vary, so if you're doing one for a class, it's important to ask for specific guidelines.
The bibliographic information: Generally, though, the bibliographic information of the source (the title, author,
publisher, date, etc.) is written in either MLA or APA format. For more help with formatting, see our MLA handout,
available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_mla.html, our APA handout, available at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html, or our handout on other types of formats, available
at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_docsources.html.
The annotations: The annotations for each source are written in paragraph form. The lengths of the annotations
can vary significantly from a couple of sentences to a couple of pages. The length will depend on the purpose. If
you're just writing summaries of your sources, the annotations may not be very long. However, if you are writing an
extensive analysis of each source, you'll need more space.
Examples
See our handout for sample entries for an annotated bibliography at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_annotatedbibEX.html.
Written by Geoff Stacks and Erin Karper, July 2001.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_annotatedbib.html
available at

Writing Research Papers: A Step-by-Step Procedure
For more information about writing research papers, see our overview page on this subject at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/index.html. For extensive documentation covering all aspects of the research
process in detail, see our new handbook-style workshop on research papers at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html.
The Preliminaries
___ 1. Choose a topic
___ 2. Begin preliminary reading
___ 3. Restrict the subject
___ 4. Develop a preliminary thesis statement
Gathering Data
___ 1. Compile the working bibliography
___ 2. Prepare the bibliography on cards in correct form (3" x 5" cards)
___ 3. Begin extensive work in the library reference room; be sure to check:
___ a. general bibliographies
___ b. trade bibliographies
___ c. indexes (books and collections, literature in periodicals, newspaper indexes, pamphlet indexes)
___ d. library electronic catalogue
Taking Notes
___ 1. Develop a preliminary outline
___ 2. Evaluate your source material; which is primary material and which is secondary material?
___ 3. Begin note-taking on cards (4" x 6" cards)
___ 4. Avoid plagiarism
Writing the Paper

___ 1. Develop the final outline; test your outline
___ 2. Prepare to write:
___ a. put your note cards in the order that your outline is in
___ b. consider your (real and imagined) readers and how their expectations may affect your tone and style
___ 3. Write the rough draft
___ 4. Check your documentation carefully
___ 5. Revise and rewrite
___ 6. Check the format of the text, citations, notes, and bibliography (most instructors recommend MLA at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_mla.html or APA format at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html)
___ 7. Proofread
Most of this format is based on the process described by James D. Lester in Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide , 2nd ed.
(1971; rpt. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1976).
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_resstep.html
available at

Paraphrase: Write it in Your Own Words
Learn to borrow from a source without plagiarizing. For more information on paraphrasing, as
well as other ways to integrate sources into your paper, see the Purdue OWL handout Quoting
Paraphrasing, and Summarizing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html. For more information about
writing research papers, see our workshop on this subject at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html. Purdue students will
want to make sure that they are familiar with Purdue's official academic dishonesty policy
(http://www.purdue.edu/odos/administration/integrity.htm) as well as any additional policies
that their instructor has implemented. Another good resource for understanding plagiarism is
the WPA Statement on Plagiarism
(http://www.ilstu.edu/~ddhesse/wpa/positions/WPAplagiarism.pdf).
A paraphrase is...
your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else,
presented in a new form.
one legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a
source.
a more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main
idea.
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...

it is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.
it helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
the mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full
meaning of the original.
6 Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you
envision using this material. At the top of the note card, write a key word or phrase
to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately
expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have
borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit
it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.
Some examples to compare

The original passage:
Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they
overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your
final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should
strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking
notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.
A legitimate paraphrase:
In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material
down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it
is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).
An acceptable summary:
Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help
minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).
A plagiarized version:
Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in
too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of
the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit
the amount of source material copied while taking notes.
After reviewing this handout, try an exercise on paraphrasing at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_paraphrEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/researsch/r_paraphr.html

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
Also, see our handout on paraphrasing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html.
This handout is intended to help you become more comfortable with the uses of and distinctions among quotations,
paraphrases, and summaries. The first part of the handout compares and contrasts the terms, while the second part offers a
short excerpt that you can use to practice these skills.
What are the differences among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing?

These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the
source writing.
Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source
document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.
Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed
to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader
segment of the source and condensing it slightly.
Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is
necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and
take a broad overview of the source material.
Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?

Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to . . .
provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing

refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
give examples of several points of view on a subject
call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with
highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original
distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are not your own
expand the breadth or depth of your writing
Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. As part of a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book,
a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended with quotations of striking or suggestive phrases as in the
following example:
In his famous and influential work On the Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud
argues that dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page), expressing in
coded imagery the dreamer's unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the
"dream work" (page). According to Freud, actual but unacceptable desires are
censored internally and subjected to coding through layers of condensation and
displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself (pages).
How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries

Practice summarizing the following essay, using paraphrases and quotations as you go. It might be helpful to follow these steps:
Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas.
Summarize in your own words what the single main idea of the essay is.
Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the essay.
Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you believe should be quoted directly.
There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation works well when integrated into a
sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a
good reason to include a direct quotation when you decide to do so. You'll find guidelines for citing sources and punctuating
citations at our documentation guide pages. We have one guide for the format recommended by the Modern Language
Association (MLA) for papers in the humanities (at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_mla.html) and another for
the format recommended by the American Psychological Association (APA) for papers in the social sciences (at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html).
Sample essay for summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting

So That Nobody Has To Go To School If They Don't Want To
by Roger Sipher
A decline in standardized test scores is but the most recent indicator that American education is in trouble.
One reason for the crisis is that present mandatory-attendance laws force many to attend school who have no
wish to be there. Such children have little desire to learn and are so antagonistic to school that neither they nor
more highly motivated students receive the quality education that is the birthright of every American.
The solution to this problem is simple: Abolish compulsory-attendance laws and allow only those who are
committed to getting an education to attend.
This will not end public education. Contrary to conventional belief, legislators enacted compulsory-attendance laws
to legalize what already existed. William Landes and Lewis Solomon, economists, found little evidence that
mandatory-attendance laws increased the number of children in school. They found, too, that school systems
have never effectively enforced such laws, usually because of the expense involved.
There is no contradiction between the assertion that compulsory attendance has had little effect on the number of
children attending school and the argument that repeal would be a positive step toward improving education. Most
parents want a high school education for their children. Unfortunately, compulsory attendance hampers the ability
of public school officials to enforce legitimate educational and disciplinary policies and thereby make the
education a good one.
Private schools have no such problem. They can fail or dismiss students, knowing such students can attend public
school. Without compulsory attendance, public schools would be freer to oust students whose academic or
personal behavior undermines the educational mission of the institution.
Has not the noble experiment of a formal education for everyone failed? While we pay homage to the homily,
"You can lead a horse to water but you can't make him drink," we have pretended it is not true in education.
Ask high school teachers if recalcitrant students learn anything of value. Ask teachers if these students do any
homework. Quite the contrary, these students know they will be passed from grade to grade until they are old
enough to quit or until, as is more likely, they receive a high school diploma. At the point when students could
legally quit, most choose to remain since they know they are likely to be allowed to graduate whether they do
acceptable work or not.
Abolition of archaic attendance laws would produce enormous dividends.
First, it would alert everyone that school is a serious place where one goes to learn. Schools are neither day-care
centers nor indoor street corners. Young people who resist learning should stay away; indeed, an end to
compulsory schooling would require them to stay away.
Second, students opposed to learning would not be able to pollute the educational atmosphere for those who
want to learn. Teachers could stop policing recalcitrant students and start educating.
Third, grades would show what they are supposed to: how well a student is learning. Parents could again read
report cards and know if their children were making progress.
Fourth, public esteem for schools would increase. People would stop regarding them as way stations for
adolescents and start thinking of them as institutions for educating America's youth.
Fifth, elementary schools would change because students would find out early they had better learn something or
risk flunking out later. Elementary teachers would no longer have to pass their failures on to junior high and high
school.
Sixth, the cost of enforcing compulsory education would be eliminated. Despite enforcement efforts, nearly 15
percent of the school-age children in our largest cities are almost permanently absent from school.
Communities could use these savings to support institutions to deal with young people not in school. If, in the
long run, these institutions prove more costly, at least we would not confuse their mission with that of schools.
Schools should be for education. At present, they are only tangentially so. They have attempted to serve an
all-encompassing social function, trying to be all things to all people. In the process they have failed miserably at
what they were originally formed to accomplish.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_quotprsum.html
available at

Sample Outline

A. Organizing
C. Evaluating
D. Revising
1. Thought
b. Use in revising
2. Word Processors
b. Use in revising
b. Use in revising
1. Rapid change
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_outlinS.htmls
available at

Sentence Punctuation Patterns
To punctuate a sentence, you can use and combine some of these patterns. For more information on independent and
dependent clauses plus independent and dependent markers, see the following page on independent and dependent clauses.
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html for those of you reading a print copy.)
Pattern One: Simple sentence
Independent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma .
This pattern is an example of a simple sentence.
Pattern Two : Compound Sentence
Independent clause , coordinating conjunction independent clause .
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma , but they don't know the reasons for it .
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
Independent clause ; Independent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma ; they are unsure of its cause .
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
Independent clause ; independent marker , independent clause .
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its
causes.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from ; therefore , they have called for more research into its .
asthma causes

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence
Dependent marker + dependent clause , Independent clause .
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, then, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its
causes.
Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate , they have called for more research into its causes .
from asthma
This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.
Pattern Six
Independent clause dependent marker + dependent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness .
Pattern Seven
First part of an independent clause , non-essential clause or phrase , rest of the independent clause .
For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print copy).
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate
from asthma.
Many doctors , including both pediatricians and family practice , are concerned about the rising death rate from .
physicians asthma
Pattern Eight
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause .
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its
causes.
Many who are concerned about the rising death rate from have called for more research into its causes .
doctors asthma
For more about punctuating sentences and grammar, see our grammar handouts section at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_sentp.html
available at

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9:
The Apostrophe
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab.
The apostrophe has three uses:
1) to form possessives of nouns

2) to show the omission of letters
3) to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.
Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.
Forming possessives of nouns
To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..."
phrase. For example:
the boy's hat = the hat of the boy
three days' journey = journey of three days
If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is
needed!
room of the hotel = hotel room
door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create
one.
add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car
James's hat
add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game
the geese's honking
add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses' roofs
three friends' letters
add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money
add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:

Todd and Anne's apartment
Showing omission of letters
Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one
or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission.
Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a
contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some
examples:
don't = do not
I'm = I am
he'll = he will
who's = who is
shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not
could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)
'60 = 1960
Forming plurals of lowercase letters
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears
to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the
plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating
a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors,
teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:
p's and q's = a phrase indicating politeness, possibly from "mind

your pleases and thankyous"?
Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4
There are two G4s currently used in the writing classrom.
many &s = many ampersands
That printed page has too many &s on it.
Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun

plurals.
Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already
show possession -- they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all
possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:
wrong: his' book
correct: his book
wrong: The group made it's decision.

correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and
its is a possesive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is
raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't
use an apostrophe for the possesives his or hers, so don't do it with its!)
wrong: a friend of yours'
correct: a friend of yours
wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.
Proofreading for apostrophes:
A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following
strategies:
If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to
see if it needs an apostrophe.
If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can
justify it with a rule for using apostrophes.
You can try an exercise on using apostrophes at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apostEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_apost.html

Commas After Introductions
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Witing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu
Introductory Clauses
Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the stage" for the main
part of the sentence, the independent clause. For example:
If they want to win , athletes must exercise every day. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Because he kept barking insistently , we threw the ball for Smokey. (introductory dependent clause, main
clause)
Clue: Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after , although , as , because , before , if , since , though , until ,
when , etc.
Introductory Phrases
Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they are not complete clauses.
Phrases don't have both a subject and a verb that are separate from the subject and verb in the main clause of
the sentence. Common introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, participial phrases,
infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases.
To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory infinitive phrase, main
clause)
Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him. (introductory participial phrase, main clause)
A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favorite in the campaign for governor.
(introductory appositive phrase, main clause)
The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter. (introductory absolute phrase, main
clause)
After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate profits have grown.
(introductory prepositional phrases, main clause)
Introductory Words
Introductory words like however , still , furthermore , and meanwhile create continuity from one sentence to the
next.
The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile , the athletes trained on the Nautilus equipment.
Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still , the credibility of some witnesses was in question.
When to Use a Comma

Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the following cases:
after an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)
after a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are
there more than five words before the main clause?)
after introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.
if there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment
after the introductory element?)
to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)
When not to Use a Comma

Some introductory elements don't require a comma, and sometimes the subject of a sentence looks like an
introductory element but isn't. Do not use a comma in the following cases:
after a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)
after a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_appos.html.)
to separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)
Each of the following sentences may look like it requires a comma after the opening segment (marked with an x ),
but the opening segment is really the subject. It's sometimes easy to confuse gerund- or infinitive-phrase
subjects like the following with nonessential introductory phrases, so be careful. (For more help with gerunds, see
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html.)
Preparing and submitting his report to the committee for evaluation and possible publication[x] was one of
the most difficult tasks Bill had ever attempted.
To start a new business without doing market research and long-term planning in advance[x] would be
foolish.
Extracting the most profit for the least expenditure on labor and materials[x] is the primary goal of a
capitalist.
There is an exercise with an answer key. Click here for he exercise at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaintEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaint.html
available at

Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences 10/22/02 11:01 AM
Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a sentence or an
independent clause. Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence, and sometimes two
independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound sentence. Depending on the
circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used between the independent clauses in a
compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is yours.
Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:
I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.
Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive
adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise,
nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the night.
For more information about compound sentence patterns, see the Purdue OWL handout, Sentence Punctuation
Patterns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentp.html.
You can try an exercise on using commas and semicolons in compound sentences at http://
owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacompEX1.html, with a separate answer key at http://
owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacompA1.html.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commacomp.html Page 1 of 2
Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences 10/22/02 11:01 AM
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/

g_commacomp.html

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commacomp.html Page 2 of 2
Commas with Nonessential Elements
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/.
Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term, while others are nonessential
and don't restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set
off with commas.
Rule: Use commas before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements embedded in the sentence that
interrupt it without changing the essential meaning.
Clue: If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence
change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.
Nonessential vs. Essential

The average world temperature, however , has The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was
continued to rise significantly. (word) arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death.
(word)
Company managers, seeking higher profits , hired
temporary workers to replace full-time staff. The person checking tickets at the counter
(phrase) asked for a form of identification. (phrase)
My uncle, who is eighty years old , walks three The woman who interviewed you is my sister.
miles every day. (clause) (clause)
Deciding whether an element is essential or nonessential can sometimes be tricky. For help identifying two common types of
phrases that can be either essential or nonessential, see the OWL handout on verbals at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html (handout #5) which includes information on participial
phrases, as well as the handout on appositives at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_appos.html (handout
#71) which covers appositive phrases. Both of these documents address the essential/nonessential distinction for these kinds of
phrases.
You can try three different exercises that allow you to practice these rules, each with its own answer key.
Exercise #1 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX1.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html.
available at

Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas

1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and , nor , but , so , for , or , and yet .
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For
more help, see our handout on independent clauses at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples :
She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.
Comma Splices
1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.
3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent
clauses at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html)
add a coordinating conjunction after the comma
replace the comma with a semicolon
replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause
comma splice : Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.
Introductory Commas
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while , because , when , if , after , when , etc. (see our
Commas After Introductions at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html).
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples :
While I was writing, the phone rang.

Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.
Other introductory commas

1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase . . .
ends in -ing
is an infinitive (to + verb)
is an introductory word (well , yes , moreover , etc.)
3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples :
To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.
4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in , at , on , between , with , etc.),
place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before
the main clause. Examples :
On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.

In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.
Disruptive Commas
General guidelines
1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.
2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects

1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and , or , nor , but , so , for , or , and yet .
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a
comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma : They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs

1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a
pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but
rarely is a single comma acceptable. (For more help, see our handout on nonessential clauses at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html.)
disruptive comma : That man sitting in the train station, is the person I'm supposed to meet.
correct : That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm supposed to meet.
Series Commas
1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.
2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence:
no comma after the word clause ). Examples :
People who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat, and tropical oils.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
Commas with Nonessential Elements

1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or
phrase that comes before it. (See also our handout, Commas With Nonessential Elements at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html.)
2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs
two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the
meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the
following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves.

Fred, who often cheats , is just harming himself.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaproof.html
available at

Using Commas
The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable
segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for
specific purposes, these rules may be broken.
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and ,
but , for , or , nor , so , yet .
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.

The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after , although , as ,
because , if , since , when , while . (For more information, see our handout on introductory clauses at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html.)
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for
cases of extreme contrast).
1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases,
absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words). (For more
information, see our handout on verbals at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html and
our handout on appositives at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_appos.html.)
Having finished the test, he left the room.

To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes , however , well .
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.

Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the
meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end
of the pause.
Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:
If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with
commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday , is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand , is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however , you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses).
That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.

The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A .

He is dreaming that he can fly .
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her .
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive .
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.

The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats , is just harming himself.

My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit , is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money , lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit , are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear , announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team , was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane , to finish.
She was, however , too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think , is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive,
and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra
comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to
the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some
examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)

They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.

The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such
phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the
modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
1. Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)

2a. Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (incorrect: Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
2b. Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
2c. Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street
number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.

July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.
Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the year: "The average temperatures
for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."

"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected
pauses.
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. (incorrect)

The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions. (incorrect)
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study. (incorrect)
I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car. (incorrect)
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married. (incorrect: compound
subject)
Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me. (incorrect: compound
object)
15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme
contrast).
1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)
There are five exercises (with answer keys) on using commas that you can try, available at the following URLs:
exercise 1: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX1.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
available at

Using Hyphens
For information on dashes and other punctuation, see our handout Semicolons, Parentheses, Dashes, Quotation Marks, and
Italics at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html.
Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For
example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:
hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser
Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist , not hair stylist . Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities
do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.
1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a
noun:
a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.

The author was well known.
2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

forty-six
sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.
3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)
4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former ), self- , all- ; with the
suffix -elect ; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s
5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the
break only between syllables:
pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist
For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
mass-produced
self-conscious
For line breaks in words ending in -ing , if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate
between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:
plan-ning
run-ning
driv-ing
call-ing
Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a
new line:
lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u ; do not leave the initial e - at the end of a line.)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_hyphen.html
available at

Punctuation Exercise
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/index.htm.
Before trying this exercise, you can review the Purdue online Writing Lab's handout, Semicolons, Colons, Dashes, Quotation
Marks and Italics at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html.
Put in semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, Italics (use an underline), and parentheses where ever they are needed in
the following sentences.
1. The men in question Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene deserve awards.
2. Several countries participated in the airlift Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.
3. Only one course was open to us surrender, said the ex-major, and we did.
4. Judge Carswell later to be nominated for the Supreme Court had ruled against civil rights.
5. In last week's New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland's article How Not to Go Camping.
6. Yes, Jim said, I'll be home by ten.
7. There was only one thing to do study till dawn.
8. Montaigne wrote the following A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.
9. The following are the primary colors red, blue, and yellow.
10. Arriving on the 8 10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate her husband and Tim, their son.
11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied All the members of my family are poor spellers. Why
not me?
12. He used the phrase you know so often that I finally said No, I don't know.
13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.
14. Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9 19 flight, he came instead on the 10 36 flight.
15. Whoever thought said Helen that Jack would be elected class president?
16. In baseball a show boat is a man who shows off.
17. The minister quoted Isaiah 5 21 in last Sunday's sermon.
18. There was a very interesting article entitled The New Rage for Folk Singing in last Sunday's New York Times newspaper.
19. Whoever is elected secretary of the club Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha must be prepared to do a great deal of work, said
Jumita, the previous secretary.
20. Darwin's On the Origin of Species 1859 caused a great controversy when it appeared.
You can check your answers to this exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvwA1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_overvwEX1.html
available at

Quotation Marks
For additional information on quoting sources, see the Purdue OWL handout Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html. For practice using quotation marks, try the separate
exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quoteEX1.html (with Answer Key at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quoteA1.html). For more information on writing research papers and citing
sources, see our extensive research paper workshop at
Quotation Marks with Direct and Indirect Quotations

Quoting Prose
Direct quotations are another person's exact words--either spoken or in print--incorporated into your own writing.
Use a set of quotation marks to enclose each direct quotation included in your writing.
Use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of a whole sentence. Do not use a capital letter with the first
word of a direct quotation of part of a sentence.
If the quotation is interrupted and then continues in your sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the quotation.
Mr. and Mrs. Allen, owners of a 300-acre farm, said, "We refuse to use that pesticide because it might
pollute the nearby wells."
Mr. and Mrs. Allen stated that they "refuse to use that pesticide" because of possible water pollution.
"He likes to talk about football," she said, "especially when the Super Bowl is coming up."
Indirect quotations are not exact words but rather rephrasings or summaries of another person's words. Do not use quotation
marks for indirect quotations.
According to their statement to the local papers, the Allens refuse to use pesticide because of potential
water pollution.
Below are some further explanations and examples of how to integrate quoted prose into your own writing.
Quotation within a quotation

Use single quotation marks for a quotation enclosed inside another quotation. For example:
The agricultural reporter for the newspaper explained, "When I talked to the Allens last week, they said,
'We refuse to use that pesticide.' "
Omitted words in a quotation

If you leave words out of a quotation, use an ellipsis mark to indicate the omitted words. If you need to insert something within
a quotation, use a pair of brackets to enclose the addition. For example:
The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to help every family
full quotation
that we'd like to help because we don't have the funds to do so."
omitted material with The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to help every family .
ellipsis . . because we don't have the funds to do so."
added material with The welfare agency representative explained that they are "unable to help
brackets every family that [they would] like to help."
Block quotations
A quotation that extends more than four typed lines on a page should be indented one inch from the left margin (the equivalent
of two half-inch paragraph indentations). Maintain double spacing as in the main text, and do not use quotation marks for the
block quotation.
Quoting Poetry
Short quotations
When you quote a single line of poetry, write it like any other short quotation. Two lines can be run into your text with a slash
mark to indicate the end of the first line. Use quotation marks.
In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost writes: "Something there is that doesn't love a wall, / That sends
the frozen-ground-swell under it."
Long quotations
If the quotation is three lines or longer, set it off like a block quotation (see above). Some writers prefer to set off two-line verse
quotations also, for emphasis. Quote the poem line by line as it appears on the original page, and do not use quotation marks.
Indent one inch from the left margin.
In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost questions the building of barriers and walls:
Before I built a wall I'd ask to know

What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offense.
Writing Dialogue
Write each person's spoken words, however brief, as a separate paragraph. Use commas to set off dialogue tags such as "she
said" or "he explained." Closely related narrative prose can be included in a paragraph with dialogue. If one person's speech
goes on for more than one paragraph, use quotation marks to open the speech and at the beginning--but not the end--of each
new paragraph in the speech. To close the speech, use quotation marks at the end of the final paragraph.
Quotation Marks for Titles of Minor Works and Parts of Wholes

Use quotation marks for:
titles of short or minor works, such as songs, short stories, essays, short poems, one-act plays, and other literary works
that are shorter than a three-act play or a complete book.
titles of parts of larger works, such as chapters in books; articles in newspapers, magazines, journals, or other periodical
publications; and episodes of television and radio series.
Use underlining or italics for titles of major works or of works that contain smaller segments such as books; plays of three or
more acts; newspapers, magazines, journals, or other periodical publications; films; and television and radio series.
Do not use quotation marks for referring to the Bible or other sacred texts or to legal documents.
Quotation Marks for Words

Use quotation marks to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual way.
The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.
For words used as words themselves or for technical or unfamiliar terms used for the first time (and defined), use italics.
The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color."
The use of chiasmus , or the inversion of syntactic elements in parallel phrases, can create rhetorically
powerful expressions.
Punctuation with Quotation Marks

Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a dependent clause, for
example, "He asked," "She stated," "According to Bronson," or "As Shakespeare wrote." Use a colon to introduce a quotation
after an independent clause.
As D. H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to
another."
D. H. Nachas explains cultural differences in greeting customs: "Touching is not a universal sign of
greeting. While members of European cultures meet and shake hands as a gesture of greeting, members
of Asian cultures bow to indicate respect."
Put commas and periods within closing quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows the quotation.
He said, "I may forget your name, but I never remember a face."
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."
Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (27).
Put colons and semicolons outside closing quotation marks.
Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family support, personal
commitment, and great coaching.
Put a dash, question mark, or exclamation point within closing quotation marks when the punctuation applies to the quotation
itself and outside when it applies to the whole sentence.
Philip asked, "Do you need this book?"

Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?
Sharon shouted enthusiastically, "We won! We won!"
I can't believe you actually like that song, "If You Wanna Be My Lover"!
Unnecessary Quotation Marks

Do not put quotation marks around the titles of your essays.
Do not use quotation marks for common nicknames, bits of humor, technical terms that readers are likely to know, and
trite or well-known expressions.
You can practice these rules by doing the accompanying exercise at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quoteEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_quote.html
available at

Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike 3/25/03 2:01 PM
Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike

Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between
some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and
more complete definition of the word in a new window.
Forms to remember
Accept, Except
accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously.

except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Affect, Effect
affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major change in university
policy.
A memory-help for affect and effect is is RAVEN: Remember, A ffect is a V erb and Effect is a Noun.
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Advise, Advice
advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious.
advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done: I'd like to ask
for your advice on this matter.
Conscious, Conscience
conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience
wouldn't let him.
Idea, Ideal
idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception
formed by generalization: Jennifer had a brilliant idea -- she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor:
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best; Jennifer
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelhomo.html Page 1 of 4
was an ideal student.
Its, It's
its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.
it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for three days.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
Lead, Led
lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.
led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: The evidence led
the jury to reach a unanimous decision.
Than, Then
Than used in comparison statements: He is richer than I .

used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
Then a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.
next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.
Their, There, They're
Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books.

There = that place: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words
are being shortened into one.)
To, Too, Two
To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to swim.
Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.
Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")
We're, Where, Were
We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are
being shortened into one.)
Where = location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
Were = a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by side.
Your, You're
Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied.

You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied. (Pronouns have apostrophes
only when two words are being shortened into one.)
One Word or Two?
All ready/already
all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness

already: an adverb expressing time
At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.
All right/alright
all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in scientific &
academic writing: Will you be all right on your own?
alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and business publications,
and especially common in
fictional dialogue: He does alright in school.
All together/altogether
all together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up: All together, there were thirty-two
students at the museum.
altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely: His comment raises an altogether
different problem.
Anyone/any one
anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an award.
any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with of: Any one of
those papers could serve as an example.
Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one
Anyway/any way
anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected, but she went anyway.
any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner: Any way we chose
would lead to danger.
Awhile/a while
awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it nonstandard; usually needs no
preposition: Won't you stay awhile?
a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for: We talked for a while, and
then we said good night.
Maybe/may be
maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the rain stops.
may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our only chance to win the championship.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelhomo.html.

Spelling: Accept/Except and Affect/Effect
Errors in writing that involve sound-alike words (homophones) are known as "wrong word" errors. Such errors are more significant
than simple spelling mistakes, since they involve word-level confusion, not merely incorrect spelling of the correct word. Two
common sources of wrong word errors are the homophone pairs accept/except and affect/effect . For more information on
sound-alike words, see our handout on this topic at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelhomo.html.
Accept and Except

Meanings for the most common uses:
accept (transitive verb) [Middle English, from Middle French accepter , from Latin acceptare , frequentative of accipere to receive,
from ad - toward + capere to take]
1a: to receive willingly <accept a gift> b: to be able or designed to take or hold (something applied
or added) <a surface that will not accept ink>
2: to give admittance or approval <to accept her as one of the group>
3a: to endure without protest or reaction <accept poor living conditions> b: to regard as proper,
normal, or inevitable <the idea is widely accepted > c: to recognize as true; believe <refused to
accept the explanation>
4a: to make a favorable response to <accept an offer> b: to agree to undertake (a responsibility)
<accept a job>
5: to assume an obligation to pay; also: to take in payment <we don't accept personal checks>
1. except (preposition) [Originally past participle; see meaning 3, below] with the exclusion or exception of <open daily except
Sundays>
2. except (conjunction)
1: on any other condition than that; unless <you face punishment except if you repent>
2: with the following exception <was inaccessible except by boat>
3: only (often followed by that) <I would go except that it's too far>
Meanings for less common uses:
3. except (transitive verb) [Latin exceptus , past participle of excipere to take or draw out, to except; e x - out + capere to take]
To take or leave out (anything) from a number or a whole; to exclude; to omit <if we only except
the unfitness of the judge, the trial was a perfect enactment of justice> <Adam and Eve were
forbidden to touch the excepted tree (past participle)>
You can try exercises on using accept and except correctly at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprobEX1.html.
Affect and Effect

Meanings for the most common uses:
Affect
1. affect (transitive verb) [Middle English, from affectus , past participle of afficere ]
to produce an effect upon, as a: to produce a material influence upon or alteration in <paralysis

affected his limbs> b: to act upon (as a person or a person's mind or feelings) so as to bring about
a response; influence
Effect
1. effect (noun) [Middle English, from Middle French & Latin; Middle French, from Latin effectus , from efficere to bring about,
from ex - out (of) + facere to make, do]
1a: purport; intent <the effect of their statement was to incite anger> b: basic meaning; essence
<her argument had the effect of a plea for justice>
2: something that inevitably follows an antecedent (as a cause or agent) <environmental
devastation is one effect of unchecked industrial expansion>
3: an outward sign; appearance <the makeup created the effect of old age on their faces>
4: accomplishment; fulfillment <the effect of years of hard work>
5: power to bring about a result; influence <the content itself of television is therefore less
important than its effect >
6 plural: movable property; goods <personal effects >
7a: a distinctive impression <the color gives the effect of being warm> b: the creation of a desired
impression <her tears were purely for effect > c (1): something designed to produce a distinctive or
desired impression, usually used in plural (2) plural: special effects
8: the quality or state of being operative; operation <the law goes into effect next week>
in effect: in substance; virtually <the committee agreed to what was in effect a reduction in the
hourly wage>
to the effect: with the meaning <issued a statement to the effect that he would resign>
Meanings for less common uses:
Affect:
2. affect (transitive verb)
1: to make a display of liking or using; cultivate <affect a worldly manner>

2: to put on a pretense of; feign <affect indifference, though deeply hurt>
3. affect (noun) [pronunciation: stress on first syllable, unlike verb forms of this word]
the conscious subjective aspect of an emotion considered apart from bodily changes <he displayed
a distressing lack of affect >
Effect
2. effect (transitive verb)
1: to cause to come into being <the citizens were able to effect a change in government policy>
2a: to bring about often by surmounting obstacles; accomplish <effect a settlement of a dispute>
b: to put into operation <the duty of the legislature to effect the will of the citizens>
Usage: The confusion of the verbs affect and effect not only is quite common but has a long history. The verb
effect was used in place of affect (1, above) as early as 1494 and in place of affect (2, above) as early as 1652.
If you think you want to use the verb effect but are not certain, check the definitions here. The noun affect is
sometimes mistakenly used for the noun effect . Except when your topic is psychology, you will seldom need the
noun affect .
You can try an exercise on using affect and effect correctly at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprobEX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelprob.html
available at

Spelling: IE/EI
Rule
Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e : relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight
Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species,
sufficient
You can try out these rules by doing two exercises, Exercise #1 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelieEX1.html and Exercise #2 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelieEX2.html. Both have separate answer keys.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/spelie.html.
available at

Spelling: Noun Plurals
Plurals of nouns can be created in the following ways:

(See our handout on Count and Non-Count Nouns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslcount.html for more
information on nouns.)
1. Add an -s to form the plural of most words.
elephant--elephants
stereo--stereos
2. For words that end in a "hissing" sound (-s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh), add an -es to form the plural.
box--boxes
church--churches
3. If the word ends in a vowel plus -y (-ay, -ey, -iy, -oy, -uy), add an -s to the word.
tray--trays
key--keys
4. If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, change the -y into -ie and add an -s to form the plural.
enemy--enemies
baby--babies
5. For words that end in -is, change the -is to -es to make the plural form.
synopsis--synopses
thesis--theses
6. Some words that end in -f or -fe have plurals that end in -ves.
knife--knives
self--selves
7. The plurals of words ending in -o are formed by either adding -s or by adding -es. The plurals of many words can be formed
either way. To determine whether a particular word ends in -s or -es (or if the word can be spelled either way), check your
dictionary or the list below. There are two helpful rules:
a. All words that end in a vowel plus -o (-ao, -eo, -io, -oo, -uo) have plurals that end in just -s:
stereo--stereos
studio--studios
duo--duos
b. All musical terms ending in -o have plurals ending in just -s.
piano--pianos
cello--cellos
solo--solos
c. Plural forms of words ending in -o:
-os -oes -os or -oes
albinos echoes avocados/oes

armadillos embargoes buffaloes/os
autos heroes cargoes/os
bravos potatoes desperadoes/os
broncos tomatoes dodoes/os
cantos torpedoes dominoes/os
casinos vetoes ghettos/oes
combos grottoes/os
gazebos hoboes/os
infernos innuendoes/os
kimonos lassos/oes
logos mangoes/os
maraschinos mosquitoes/os
ponchos mottoes/os
sombreros mulattos/oes
tacos noes/os
torsos palmettos/oes
tobaccos peccadilloes/os
typos tornadoes/os
volcanoes/os
zeros/oes
If you are unsure of how to make a noun plural, you can look up the singular form of the
noun in a dictionary to get the plural form.
Source: Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/spelnoun.html.
available at

Spelling: -ible vs. -able
Rule
-ible -able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible . If the root is a complete word, add -able .
aud + ible = audible accept + able = acceptable
Examples: Examples:
visible fashionable
horrible laughable
terrible suitable
possible dependable
edible comfortable
eligible
incredible If the root is a complete word ending in - e , drop the final - e and add -able .
permissible
excuse - e+ able = excusable
Examples:
advisable
desirable
valuable
debatable
Some exceptions:
contemptible
digestible
flexible
responsible
irritable
inevitable
You can try some exercises for spelling -ible and -able correctly at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelibleEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelible.html.
available at

Writing Numbers
Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures
for other numbers:
Words Figures
over two pounds after 126 days
six million dollars only $31.50
after thirty-one years 6,381 bushels
eighty-three people 4.78 liters
Here are some examples of specific situations.
Days and Years
December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965

A.D. 1066
in 1900
in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
the eighties, the twentieth century
the 1980's or the 1980s
Time of Day
8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning

4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon
Addresses
16 Tenth Street
350 West 114 Street
Identification Numbers
Room 8
Channel 18
Interstate 65
Henry VIII
Page and Division of Books and Plays
page 30
chapter 6
in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii
Decimals and Percentages
a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton
Large Round Numbers
four billion dollars (or) $4 billion

16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million
Notes on Usage
Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.
The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.
Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.
two apples, six oranges, and three bananas

NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed
Write out numbers beginning sentences.
Six percent of the group failed.

NOT: 6% of the group failed.
Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will
keep your writing clear.
Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who were born in the city.
(may cause the reader to read '690' as one number.)
Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who were born in the
city.
Try our exercise on writing numbers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslnumberEX1.html.
For more information on plural cases, see our handout on Noun Plurals at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/grammar/g_spelnoun.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslnumber.html

Writing Numbers: Exercise
Correct any errors in number usage in the following sentences by writing the correction to the left of the sentence. If the
sentence is correct, mark C on the line to the left.
________ 1 . 351 people attended the performance.
________ 2 . There were one hundred and thirty-five pieces in the puzzle.
________ 3 . Class started at eight-thirty A.M. in Room Twenty.
________ 4 . In the sixties there were sit-ins at 100's of colleges.
________ 5 . Every afternoon at two o'clock the chimes rang.
________ 6 . The stock deal, which involved $4.5 billion, paid a twelve and a half percent dividend.
________ 7 . The Lafayette television station is Channel Eighteen.
________ 8 . They needed eight ten-foot poles for the construction.
________ 9 . The vote was 126 in favor of the action and only sixteen opposed.
________ 10. The assignment was to read chapter 6, pages 31-39.
________ 11. Only fifty percent of high school students go on to college.
________ 12. We were assigned a report of about 10 pages in length.
You can check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslnumberA1.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslnumberEX1.html
available at

OWL at Purdue: Printable Handouts:Writing Numbers: Exercise 11/13/02 12:18 PM
Writing Numbers: Exercise

The errors in number usage are corrected here. Those that were correct in the exercise have a "C" to the left of
the sentence.
Three
hundred 1 . 351 people attended the performance.
fifty-one
135 2 . There were one hundred and thirty-five pieces in the puzzle.
8:30 A.M. 3 . Class started at eight-thirty A.M. in Room Twenty.
hundreds 4 . In the sixties there were sit-ins at 100's of colleges.
C 5 . Every afternoon at two o'clock the chimes rang.
12.5 6 . The stock deal, which involved $4.5 billion, paid a twelve and a half percent dividend.
18 7 . The Lafayette television station is Channel Eighteen.
C 8 . They needed eight ten-foot poles for the construction.
16 9 . The vote was 126 in favor of the action and only sixteen opposed.
C 10. The assignment was to read chapter 6, pages 31-39.
50 11. Only fifty percent of high school students go on to college.
ten 12. We were assigned a report of about 10 pages in length.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslnumberA1.html Page 1 of 2
OWL at Purdue: Printable Handouts:Writing Numbers: Exercise 11/13/02 12:18 PM
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslnumberA1.html

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslnumberA1.html Page 2 of 2
Appositives
Graphics for this handout were produced by Michelle Hansard.
An appositive is a noun or pronoun -- often with modifiers -- set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. Here
are some examples of appositives.
An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.
Punctuation of appositives
In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of
the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be
clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Here are some examples.

Here we do not put commas
around the appositive,
because it is essential
information. Without the
appositive, the sentence
would be The popular US
president was known for his
eloquent and inspirational
speeches. We wouldn't know
which president was being
referred to.
Here we put commas around

the appositive because it is
not essential information.
Without the appositive, the
sentence would be John
Kennedy was known for his
eloquent and traditional
speeches. We still know who
the subject of the sentence is
without the appositive.
Here we do not put commas

around either appositive
because they are both
essential to understanding
the sentence. Without the
appositives, the sentence
would just be John Kennedy
was quite different from John
Kennedy. We wouldn't know
what qualities of John
Kennedy were being referred
to without the appositive.
Exercise
Underline the appositives in the following sentences.
1. My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.

2. The captain ordered the ship's carpenters to assemble the shallop, a large rowboat.
3. Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs. Hammon.
4. The actor Paul Newman directed only one picture.
5. Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally troubled woman.
Underline and punctuate the appositives in the following sentences. Remember: not all require punctuation.
6. Sweetbriar a company known throughout the South is considering a nationwide advertising campaign.
7. An above-average student and talented musician John made his family proud.
8. The extremely popular American film Titanic was widely criticized for its mediocre script.
9. The greatest American film ever made Citizen Kane won only one Academy Award.
10. 60 Minutes the TV news magazine program featured a story on the popular singer Whitney Houston.
Answers to this exercise are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apposA1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_appos.html
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Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions)
When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about whether a sentence is or is not
a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will
help you with this.
This handout will:
define independent and dependent clauses

explain proper ways to punctuate sentences that use them
note some common errors to avoid
Definitions
Independent Clause (IC)
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent
clause is a sentence.
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz. (IC)
Dependent Clause (DC)
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent
clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word.
Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (DC)
Dependent Marker Word (DM)
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.
Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. (DM)
Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though,
unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent clause: coordinating
conjunctions and independent marker words.
1. Coordinating Conjunction (CC)
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent clause are and,
but, for, or, nor, so, and yet . When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating
conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the
noise. (CC)
2. Independent Marker Word (IM)
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words
can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an
independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the
noise. (IM)
Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and
therefore.
Proper Punctuation Methods

This table gives some examples of ways to combine independent and dependent clauses and shows how to punctuate them
properly.
IC. IC. I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.
IC; IC. I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.
IC, CC IC. I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.
IC; IM, IC. I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.
DC, IC. When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.
IC DC. I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.
Some Common Errors to Avoid

Comma Splices
A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma
to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by
making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.
Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
(or ) I like this class; it is very interesting.
(or) I like this class and it is very interesting.
(or ) I like this class because it is very interesting.
(or ) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.
Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also
known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two
sentences.
Incorrect : My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.
Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.
(or ) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.
(or ) My professor is intelligent and I've learned a lot from her.
(or ) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can
usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.
Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.
(or ) I forgot the exam was today.
Related Materials on OWL

Run-Ons, Comma Splices, Fused Sentences (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentpr.html)
Sentence Variety (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_sentvar.html)
Using Commas (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_clause.html
available at

Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity
Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link
what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old
information that can link to newer information.
The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead to new
information:
Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of
lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up
on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never
need.
Here is a sentence that is not as clear. It moves from new information to old information:
are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of
a recent movie (old) I saw.
Did you find the second sentence hard to read or understand? If so, it could be because the old information comes
late in the sentence after the new information. A clearer version that moves from old information to new
information might look like this:
are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw was about the rapid disappearance
of the Indian culture. (new)
Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:
clear (subordinate clause at the end):
Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate
information.
clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):
Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is
increasing rapidly.
not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):
Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is
increasing rapidly.
Use active voice

Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice
constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In addition, changing from passive
voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use active voice unless you have good reason to use
the passive. For example, the passive is useful when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is
obvious, unimportant, or unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.
For more on this topic, consult our handout on active and passive voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html.
clear (active):
The committee decided to postpone the vote.
not as clear (passive):
A decision was reached to postpone the vote.

Use parallel constructions
When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction)
so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.
clear (parallel):
aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to decide when to seek shelter.
not as clear (not parallel):
aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is
important.
In the second sentence, notice how the string of "things to be aware of in Florida" does not create a parallel
structure. Also, notice how much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning of the second sentence
compared to the first one.
Avoid noun strings

Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way
to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
unclear (string of nouns):
This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects .
clearer:
This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments .
Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."
unclear (use of nominalization):
The implementation of the plan was successful.
clearer:
The plan was implemented successfully.

We implemented the plan successfully.
Avoid multiple negatives

Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.
unclear (multiple negatives, passive):
Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
clearer:
People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
Choose action verbs over forms of be

When possible, avoid using forms of b e as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to
accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a b e verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and
choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas are expressed: 1) that there is a difference
between television and newspaper news reporting, and 2) the nature of that difference. The revised version
expresses these two main ideas in the two main verbs.
Unclear (overuse of be verbs):
One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time
factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that
instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.
Clearer:
Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide
instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.
Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers
to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.

tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and
adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Clearer:
tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty
and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.
Clearer:
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career choice.
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, and she may choose a forest management career.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_sentclar.html

Sentence Fragment Exercises#1
The sentences below appeared in papers written by students. Act as their editor, marking a C if the sentences in the group are
all complete and an F if any of the sentences in the group is a fragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments are
incomplete sentences?
____ 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior high that was a bad experience.
____ 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various shades
of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind.
____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did not
encourage students' questions.
____ 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose from. It was difficult to distinguish between them.
____ 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar for a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, they
were ready for anything.
____ 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional. Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that you should be
in control.
____ 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated, prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a value
judgment and in circumstances not a true premise.
____ 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man.
____ 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not realizing at the time that we would never enter that door in her home
again.
____10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights. To
think about this makes me happy.
____11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen red roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology.
____12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe's oldest and best friends had a little too much to drink.
____13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve miles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed
like a high-speed job to me.
____14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for the pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boiling
water to spill.
____15. The small, one-story houses are all the same size and style. With no difference except the color.
____16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first joined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can check answers to this exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragA1.html, return to the

handout on fragments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_frag.html, or continue on to exercise 2 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX1.html.
available at

Sentence Fragments: Answer Key to Exercise #1
F 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior high that was a bad experience. (dependent clause)
F 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various shades of
red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind. (dependent clause)
C 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did not
encourage students' questions.
F 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose from. It was difficult to distinguish between them. (no main verb)
C 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar for a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, they were
ready for anything.
C 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional. Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that you should be in
control.
F 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated, prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a value
judgment and in circumstances not a true premise. (dependent clause)
F 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man.
(dependent clause)
F 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not realizing at the time that we would never enter that door in her home
again. (dependent clause)
C 10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights. To think
about this makes me happy.
F 11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen red roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology. (dependent
clause)
F 12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe's oldest and best friends had a little too much to drink. (dependent
clause)
F 13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve miles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed
like a high-speed job to me.
C 14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for the pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boiling water
to spill.
F 15. The small, one-story houses are all the same size and style. With no difference except the color. (dependent clause)
F 16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first joined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot. (dependent clause)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can return to the handout on sentence fragments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_frag.html or

continue on to exercise 2 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragA1.html.
available at

Sentence Fragments: Exercise 2
These paragraphs need proofreading for possible fragments. Use the space below each paragraph for revising.
1. How can a person find patriotism in a local night club? Well, it did not take me too long. About four weeks ago in a little night
club in Louisville, Kentucky, a couple of my friends, Rick and Lon, the duo who were providing the entertainment that night for
the club.
2. For the past twenty years, the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has been measuring the level of
Americans' trust and confidence in their politicians and quasi-political trust and confidence in their political institutions and their
leaders. "Political" being all levels of government, and "quasi-political" churches, labor unions, large professional/business
associations, educational institutions, and the like. The result is that a very sharp decline has taken place every year since 1964.
3. For 200 years Americans believed in better jobs, better homes, a better life for one's children. This confidence no longer
exists. Polls now indicate that fewer Americans who feel they are better off today than they were five years ago. A public-opinion
analysis group has found that large numbers of Americans, at some times and in some places, see themselves as lower on the
ladder. Adding worse living conditions and anticipation of further decline over the next five years.
4. Well, in looking at the picture at the left you see an old lady. She has a very funny look on her face. As if she's lonely and
just wants to be left alone. She also looks as if she has seen a lot and experienced lots of things.
5. A president is an appointed leader. Someone who is a decision maker in the executive branch of our government. This
doesn't necessarily mean that the person the people elect is capable. Just hopefully assumes. Assumes through his past record
as a politician, over the years' buildup of experience and handling situations.
-----------------------------
You can check your answers to exercise 2 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragA2.html, return to the

handout on fragments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_frag.html, or continue on to exercise 3 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX3.html.
available at

Sentence Fragments: Answers to Exercise 2
Suggested answers are printed here as indented paragraphs. You may have had other solutions.
1. How can a person find patriotism in a local night club? Well, it did not take me too long. About four weeks ago in a little night
club in Louisville, Kentucky, a couple of my friends, Rick and Lon, the duo who were providing the entertainment that night for
the club. (dependent clause)
How can a person find patriotism in a local night club? Well, it did not take me too long. About four weeks ago in a
little night club in Louisville, Kentucky, a couple of my friends, Rick and Lon, the duo who were providing the
entertainment that night for the club, opened with the Star Spangled Banner and then America, the Beautiful .
2. For the past twenty years, the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has been measuring the level of
Americans' trust and confidence in their politicians and quasi-political trust and confidence in their political institutions and their
leaders. "Political" being all levels of government, and "quasi-political" churches, labor unions, large professional/business
associations, educational institutions, and the like. The result is that a very sharp decline has taken place every year since 1964.
(no main verb)
For the past twenty years, the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has been measuring the level
of Americans' trust and confidence in their politicians and quasi-political trust and confidence in their political
institutions and their leaders. "Political" refers to all levels of government, and "quasi-political" includes churches,
labor unions, large professional/business associations, educational institutions, and the like. The result is that a
very sharp decline has taken place every year since 1964.
3. For 200 years Americans believed in better jobs, better homes, a better life for one's children. This confidence no longer
exists. Polls now indicate that fewer Americans who feel they are better off today than they were five years ago. A public-opinion
analysis group has found that large numbers of Americans, at some times and in some places, see themselves as lower on the
ladder. Adding worse living conditions and anticipation of further decline over the next five years. (dependent clause)
For 200 years Americans believed in better jobs, better homes, a better life for one's children. This confidence no
longer exists. Polls now indicate that fewer Americans feel they are better off today than they were five years ago.
A public-opinion analysis group has found that large numbers of Americans, at some times and in some places,
see themselves as lower on the ladder with worse living conditions and anticipation of further decline over the next
five years.
4. Well, in looking at the picture at the left you see an old lady. She has a very funny look on her face. As if she's lonely and
just wants to be left alone. She also looks as if she has seen a lot and experienced lots of things. (dependent clause)
Well, in looking at the picture at the left you see an old lady. She has a very funny look on her face, as if she's
lonely and just wants to be left alone. She also looks as if she has seen a lot and experienced lots of things.
5. A president is an appointed leader. Someone who is a decision maker in the executive branch of our government. (no main
verb) This doesn't necessarily mean that the person the people elect is capable. Just hopefully assumes. (no subject) Assumes
through his past record as a politician, over the years' buildup of experience and handling situations.
A president is an appointed leader, someone who is a decision maker in the executive branch of our government.
This doesn't necessarily mean that the person the people elect is capable. This just hopefully assumes so based
on his past record as a politician, over the years' buildup of experience and handling situations.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can return to the handout on fragments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_frag.html or continue

on to exercise 3 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX3.html.
available at

Sentence Fragments: Exercise 3
The following paragraph has no capital letters or periods to mark the beginnings and ends of sentences. Add capitals, periods,
commas, and/or other punctuation that may be needed to make the word groups into complete sentences. Your goal is to be
sure that there are no fragments.
my brother was always my best friend when I was a child especially as we two were almost alone in the world we lived with our old
grandmother in a little house, almost a shack, in the country whenever I think of him now I see a solemn, responsible boy a boy
too old for his years who looked out for me no matter what once there was a bully John Anson who looked enormous to me
though he was probably an average twelve-year-old John had it in for me because he liked Littice Grant who liked me he decided
to beat me up right before her eyes I was lucky my brother came by he didn't interfere any he just stood there somehow though
his presence gave me confidence I licked the stuffing out of John Anson if my brother hadn't been there I don't think I could
have done it.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragA3.html, or return to the handout

on fragments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragA3.html.
available at

Sentence Fragments: Answers to Exercise 3
My brother was always my best friend when I was a child, especially as we two were almost alone in the world. We lived with our
old grandmother in a little house, almost a shack, in the country. Whenever I think of him now, I see a solemn, responsible
boy, a boy too old for his years, who looked out for me no matter what. Once there was a bully, John Anson, who looked
enormous to me, though he was probably an average twelve-year-old. John had it in for me because he liked Littice Grant, who
liked me. He decided to beat me up right before her eyes. I was lucky my brother came by. He didn't interfere any. He just stood
there. Somehow, though, his presence gave me confidence. I licked the stuffing out of John Anson. If my brother hadn't been
there, I don't think I could have done it.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can return to the handout on fragments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_frag.html for more

information.
available at

Sentence Fragments
We also have more information about sentences at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_sentp.html and general writing concerns at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/index.html.
Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected
from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and
the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to make corrections
are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the
main clause.
Fragment (phrase or dependent clause) Possible Revision
Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Purdue offers many majors in engineering,
Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial such as electrical, chemical, and industrial
engineering. engineering.
Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by
walking off the field in the middle of a walking off the field in the middle of a
game. Leaving her team at a time when we game, leaving her team at a time when we
needed her. needed her.
I need to find a new roommate. Because the I need to find a new roommate because the
one I have now isn't working out too well. one I have now isn't working out too well.
The current city policy on housing is

Because the current city policy on housing is
incomplete as it stands. Which is why we
incomplete as it stands, we believe the
believe the proposed amendments should
proposed ammendments should be passed.
be passed.
You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as a separate
sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last example above. This is a
conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing
situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main clause; they are
written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.
Fragment (incomplete main clause) Possible Revisions
Appositive : Gilman's "The Yellow

No main verb Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts
A story with deep thoughts and and emotions, has impressed critics for
emotions. decades.
Direct object : She told a story with deep
thoughts and emotions.
Complete verb : Toys of all kinds were

Toys of all kinds thrown
thrown everywhere.
everywhere.
Direct object : They found toys of all kinds
thrown everywhere.
Direct object : I've noticed a record of

A record of accomplishment
accomplishment beginning when you were
beginning when you were first
first hired.
hired.
Main verb : A record of accomplishment
began when you were first hired.
No subject
With the ultimate effect of all Remove preposition : The ultimate effect of
advertising is to sell the product. all advertising is to sell the product.
By paying too much attention to

Remove preposition : Paying too much
polls can make a political leader
attention to polls can make a political
unwilling to propose innovative
leader unwilling to propose innovative
policies.
policies.
Remove preposition : Doing freelance work

For doing freelance work for a
for a competitor got Phil fired.
competitor got Phil fired.
Rearrange : Phil got fired for doing
freelance work for a competitor.
These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions , that is, sentences
constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular
predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the
subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.
(For more information on gerunds, see our handout at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbals.html.)
Please refer to our fragment exercises at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX1.html

for editing practice.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_frag.html.

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree: Exercise Answers
Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
1. Annie and her brothers are at school.
2. Either my mother or my father is coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats are outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat is always on the floor.
5. George and Tamara don't want to see that movie.
6. Benito doesn't know the answer.
7. One of my sisters is going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds lives on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, takes about two hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, want to win.
11. Either answer is acceptable.
12. Every one of those books is fiction.
13. Nobody knows the trouble I've seen.
14. Is the news on at five or six?
15. Mathematics is John's favorite subject, while Civics is Andrea's favorite subject.
16. Eight dollars is the price of a movie these days.
17. Are the tweezers in this drawer?
18. Your pants are at the cleaner's.
19. There were fifteen candies in that bag. Now there is only one left!
20. The committee debates these questions carefully.
21. The committee lead very different lives in private.
22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, greets the press cordially.
23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, are in this case.
You can review the exercises at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverbEX1.html or review the

handout on Making Subjects and Verbs Agree at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverbA1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverbA1.html.

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree: Exercises
Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.
2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.
5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.
6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.
7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.
11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.
12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.
13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.
14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?
15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite subject.
16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.
17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?
18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.
19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!
20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.
21. The committee (leads, lead) very different lives in private.
22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, (greets, greet) the press cordially.
23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this case.
You can check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverbA1.html or review the

handout on Making Subjects and Verbs Agree at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverb.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverbEX1.html.

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree 1/13/03 1:45 PM
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb
should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a contraction of do
not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person
and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject,
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverb.html Page 1 of 4
not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no
one are singular and require a singular verb.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but
when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the
verb agrees with what follows.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a
singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.
In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are thought of and specifically referred to.
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the
number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
Exercises for this handout are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/

eslsubverbEX1.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverb.html.

Sentence Punctuation Patterns
To punctuate a sentence, you can use and combine some of these patterns. For more information on independent and
dependent clauses plus independent and dependent markers, see the following page on independent and dependent clauses.
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html for those of you reading a print copy.)
Pattern One: Simple sentence
Independent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma .
This pattern is an example of a simple sentence.
Pattern Two : Compound Sentence
Independent clause , coordinating conjunction independent clause .
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma , but they don't know the reasons for it .
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
Independent clause ; Independent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma ; they are unsure of its cause .
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
Independent clause ; independent marker , independent clause .
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its
causes.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from ; therefore , they have called for more research into its .
asthma causes

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence
Dependent marker + dependent clause , Independent clause .
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its
causes.
Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate , they have called for more research into its causes .
from asthma
Pattern Six
Independent clause dependent marker + dependent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness .
Pattern Seven
First part of an independent clause , non-essential clause or phrase , rest of the independent clause .
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate
from asthma.
Many doctors , including both pediatricians and family practice , are concerned about the rising death rate from .
physicians asthma
Pattern Eight
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause .
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its
causes.
Many who are concerned about the rising death rate from have called for more research into its causes .
doctors asthma
For more about punctuating sentences and grammar, see our grammar handouts section at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_sentp.html
available at

Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions)
When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about whether a sentence is or is not
a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will
help you with this.
This handout will:
define independent and dependent clauses

explain proper ways to punctuate sentences that use them
note some common errors to avoid
Definitions
Independent Clause (IC)
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent
clause is a sentence.
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz. (IC)
Dependent Clause (DC)
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent
clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word.
Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (DC)
Dependent Marker Word (DM)
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.
Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. (DM)
Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though,
unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent clause: coordinating
conjunctions and independent marker words.
1. Coordinating Conjunction (CC)
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent clause are and,
but, for, or, nor, so, and yet . When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating
conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the
noise. (CC)
2. Independent Marker Word (IM)
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words
can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an
independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the
noise. (IM)
Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and
therefore.
Proper Punctuation Methods

This table gives some examples of ways to combine independent and dependent clauses and shows how to punctuate them
properly.
IC. IC. I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.
IC; IC. I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.
IC, CC IC. I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.
IC; IM, IC. I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.
DC, IC. When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.
IC DC. I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.
Some Common Errors to Avoid

Comma Splices
A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma
to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by
making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.
Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
(or ) I like this class; it is very interesting.
(or) I like this class and it is very interesting.
(or ) I like this class because it is very interesting.
(or ) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.
Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also
known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two
sentences.
Incorrect : My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.
Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.
(or ) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.
(or ) My professor is intelligent and I've learned a lot from her.
(or ) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can
usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.
Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.
(or ) I forgot the exam was today.
Related Materials on OWL

Run-Ons, Comma Splices, Fused Sentences (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentpr.html)
Sentence Variety (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_sentvar.html)
Using Commas (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_clause.html
available at

Dangling Modifiers
Definition:
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier
describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Consider this sentence:
Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must
be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing
the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier.
Now consider this sentence:
Having finished is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV
sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated,
the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier. (For more information on participles, see our handout at
Examples of dangling modifiers and revisions:

dangling modifier:
(The article--the subject of the main clause--did not read the original study.)
possible revisions:
-or-
The article remains unconvincing in light of the original study. (no modifying phrase)
dangling modifier:
(Your home--the subject of the main clause--is not relieved of your responsibilities.)
possible revision:
Characteristics of dangling modifiers:
They most frequently occur at the beginning of sentences (often as introductory clauses or phrases) but can also
appear at the end. (For more information on introductory clauses, see our handout at
dangling modifier at end of sentence:
(The experiment--the subject of the main clause--is not supposed to study the lab
manual.)
possible revision:
They often have an -ing word (gerund) or a to+verb (infinitive) phrase near the start of the sentence. (For more
information on gerunds and infinitives, see our handout at
Squinting modifiers:
Related to dangling modifiers, squinting modifiers occur when the word modified is not clear or could be more than
one word. These problems can usually be solved by rearranging the elements already present in the sentence.
squinting modifier:
possible revisions:
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
dangling
modifier:
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who
actually arrived late.
possible
revision:
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase
(arrived late).
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that
clause :
dangling
modifier:
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide
who was trying to introduce him.
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
possible
revision: The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the
sentence, so is not considered "dangling."
(For more information on introductory clauses, see our handout at

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
dangling
modifier:
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve
its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence.
possible
revision: He improved his results by doing the experiment again.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html.

Parallel Structure
For more information about sentence structure, see our workshop on this topic at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_sentclar.html.
Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of
importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with
the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or." (For more information on coordinating conjunctions, see
our handout at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html.
1. Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:
Parallel: Mary likes hiking , swimming , and bicycling .
With infinitive phrases:

Parallel: Mary likes to hike , to swim , and to ride a bicycle.
OR
Mary likes to hike , swim , and ride a bicycle.
(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)
For more information on gerunds and infinitives, see our handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html.
Do not mix forms.

Example 1
Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking , swimming , and to ride a bicycle.
Parallel: Mary likes hiking , swimming , and riding a bicycle.
Example 2
Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly , accurately , and in a detailed
manner .
Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly , accurately , and thoroughl y .
Example 3
Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waite d until the last minute to study
for the exam, complete d his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waite d until the last minute to study for
the exam, complete d his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacke d motivation.
2. Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing
the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
Example 1
Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too
much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too
much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
-- or --
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and d o some
warm-up exercises before the game.
Example 2
Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would
be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers.
(passive)
Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be
time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.
3. Lists after a colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.
Example 1
Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings , pronunciations ,
correct spellings , and looking up irregular verbs .
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings , pronunciations , correct
spellings , and irregular verbs .
Proofreading Strategies to try:

Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether
the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of
sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm
being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be
made parallel.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_parallel.html.

Active and Passive Voice
Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
The dog bit the boy.
Watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield reminds me of watching a movie or TV.
In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.
Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The
agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.
Research will be presented by Pooja at the conference.
Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesis.
(agent performing action has been omitted.)
I am reminded of watching a movie or TV by watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield.
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive
voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is
more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers
as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective,
fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents.
Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal
interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of b e , such as a m , is , was ,
were , are , or been . The presence of a b e -verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice.
Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent
performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at
Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in
scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose
interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than
those in passive voice.
passive (indirect) active (direct):
She slammed on the brakes as the car sped downhill.
I have damaged your bicycle.
Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express
action in active voice than in passive.
passive (more wordy) active (more concise)
The committee is considering action on the bill.
Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who
or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb
accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.
Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice
most of the class Most of the class is reading the book.
agent not specified;

most likely agents
such as "the
researchers"
the CIA director and

his close advisors

most likely agents We made mistakes.
such as "we"
Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is
rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences
conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent
performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the
last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because
it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.
active passive
The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed
liver-transplant operation yesterday. successfully yesterday.
"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.
In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the
action itself and what is acted upon.
Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action
expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of
the sentence, and change the verb to a form of b e + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.
Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice
The presiding
officer
The leaders
The scientists
In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.
Some suggestions
1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.
Unnecessary shift in voice Revised

Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink,
bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently. but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other
he was still laughed at by the other students. students still laughed at him.
2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word
not clearly stated in the sentence. (See also our handout on dangling modifiers at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html.)
Dangling modifier with passive voice Revised

To save time, the paper was written on a computer.
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
(Who was saving time? The paper?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame,
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired
consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was
consultants to break the bad news.
seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)
3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive
constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgement, or ask another human being for their
opinion about which sentence sounds best.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_actpass.html.

Count and NonCount Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and
Quantity Words)
Section 1: Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

Count or Noncount?
The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.
Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be
perceived by the senses.
Examples:
table finger bottle

chair remark award
word girl candidate
Example sentences:
I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)
I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)
I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)
Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into
parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture ).
Examples:
anger courage progress

furniture education weather
warmth leisure precision
Example Sentences:
I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The
question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)
I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)
I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be

counted.)
Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into
parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount
nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake
Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the above
definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is countable in another language
may not be countable in English, and vice versa.
Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing
The Rule
From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:
most count nouns pluralize with -s

noncount nouns don't pluralize at all
This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before
reading further.
An Exception to the Rule
For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have
both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count
meaning concrete and specific. Compare:
Count
I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems)
The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures)
The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights
and noises)
Noncount
She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being
difficult)
I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)
Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general)
Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a
usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same
category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s),
bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:
There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)

I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)
We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)
A recent entry into this class is homework , which at least among some students has the count plural homeworks in
addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks from the first part of the
course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check
with your instructor before using it in writing.
A Revision of the Rule
These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense
pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.
The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be
either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the
other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to
decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.
To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:
Pluralizes with -s Doesn't Pluralize
XX
Count Noun
XX
Count Use
XX
Noncount Noun
XX
Noncount Use
Articles
Nouns and Articles
Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on
whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular
or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.
Combinations of Nouns and Articles
The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have
been included because, like the , they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun
refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from
their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.
a, an the this, that these, those no article
Count XX XX XX
singular
XX XX XX
Count plural
XX XX XX
Noncount
Examples:
Count Singular:
I ate a n apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.
Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.
Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.
Cats are interesting pets.
Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.
Quantity Terms
The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used
in combinations such as many more , many fewer , much more , and much less , any of which can be preceded by
how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.
some, any, many, both,
much, less, most, more, several,
each, every,
little, a little, all, a lot of, few/fewer/fewest,
any, one
very little no, none of a few, one of the, a
the couple of
XX
Count singular
XX XX
Count plural
XX XX
Noncount
Examples:
Count Singular:
I practice every day.
I'd like one donut, please.
Count Plural:
Can I have some chips?
She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.
I have fewer pencils than you.
Noncount:
Can I have some water?
She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.
I have less courage than you.
For more on count and noncount nouns, see our second handout on this topic at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2.html.
After reviewing this handout, try our exercises at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcountEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount.html

Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives)
Try our exercises (with answers) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX1.html and

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX2.html
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural form.
Concrete nouns may be countable.
There are a dozen flowers in the vase.

He ate an apple for a snack.
Collective nouns are countable.
She attended three classes today.

London is home to several orchestras .
Some proper nouns are countable.
There are many Greeks living in New York.

The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer mansion.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.
Abstract nouns are uncountable.
The price of freedom is constant vigilance.

Her writing shows maturity and intelligence .
Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).
The price of oil has stabilized recently.

May I borrow some rice ?
While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable
sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in
the following chart:
Uncountable Sense Countable Sense
Art is often called an imitation of life. I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden.
Life is precious. A cat has nine lives.
He likes to eat pizza. How many pizzas should we order?
Religion has been a Many religions are practiced in the United States.
powerful force in history.
The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.
She has beautiful skin.
We have several sculptures in our home.
Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture.
We use only recycled paper in our office. Where are those important papers?
Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a , an ) or definite (the ) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the
definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense.
The guest of honor arrived late.
You are welcome as a guest in our home.
The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise.
Guests are welcome here anytime.
Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an ), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with
uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.
Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.

The information in your files is correct.
Sugar has become more expensive recently.
Please pass me the sugar .
Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract Material Generic Non-Plurals with - s
advice meat fruit mathematics
help rice wildlife economics
information bread equipment physics
knowledge cake machinery civics
trouble coffee furniture ethics
work ice cream mail mumps
enjoyment water luggage measles
fun oil jewelry news
recreation grass clothing tennis
relaxation hair mo n ey (other games)
For more on using articles with countable and uncountable nouns, see our document on that topic.
Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any
Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.
There are some cookies in the jar. (countable)

There is some water on the floor. (uncountable)
Did you eat any food ? (uncountable)

Do you serve any vegetarian dishes ? (countable)
Much, Many
Much modifies only uncountable nouns.
How much money will we need?

They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick.
Much effort will be required to solve this problem.
Many modifies only countable nouns.
How many children do you have?

They had so many books that they had to stack them in the hall.
Many Americans travel to Europe each year.
A lot of, Lots of

These words are informal substitutes for much and many .
Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem. (uncountable)

A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)
Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few

Little and quite a little modify only uncountable nouns.
We had a little ice cream after dinner.

They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only a small amount")
They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning "a large amount") (See quite a bit of , below.)
Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns.
A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team.

Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "only a small number")
Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "a large number")
A little bit of, Quite a bit of

These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used
more commonly.
There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")
There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount")
Enough
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup.

We have enough money to buy a car.
Plenty of
This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland.

She has plenty of money in the bank.
No
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There were no squirrels in the park today.

We have no time left to finish the project.
These terms and their uses are summarized in the chart on our other countable and uncountable nouns page at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslcount.html
Try our exercises (with answers) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX1.html and

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2.html
available at

Answers to Count and Noncount Noun Exercises
Count and Noncount Nouns

Exercise 1
Are the following nouns count or noncount? Put an N next to the noncount nouns and a C next to the count nouns.
If the noun can be either noncount or count depending on the context, put a D next to it.
world C banana C
textbook C conduct N
acid D progress N
smoking N biology N
poetry N essay C
applause N crystal D
thought D shopping N
Exercise 2
Put an X next to the words in the following list that can be used as either count or noncount nouns, depending on
the context.
defense X rain X
beauty X rug ___
garbage ___ nature ___
experience X bag ___
baggage ___ emotion X
Exercise 3
Fill in the blank with the form of the noun in parentheses that is appropriate to the grammatical context of the
sentence and the meaning of the passage as a whole.
Diabetes: Beyond the Basics
Because diabetes can cause devastating damage to virtually all body systems, people with diabetes should not
underrate the seriousness of their disease. Learning to live with a chronic illness such as diabetes must be an
ongoing process.
The Hospital's Center for Family Life Education is sponsoring a five-part educational series on diabetes. The series
will begin on April 30 and continue through May 29. The program will be held in the second floor classroom of the
Education Center from 7-9 p.m.
The diabetes series is free and open to the public and will be of specific interest to people who have diabetes and
their families and friends.
Exercise 4
On the basis of the rules for using articles, which combinations of words below are permitted and which ones aren't?
Put an X next to the incorrect combinations.
____ a table ____ the poetry

X these person ____ a difficulty
____ this furniture X a research
____ that assignment X this eggs
____ a boy X those argument
Exercise 5
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate article if one is needed.
The Computer Jungle
Though you can make the decision on purely economic grounds, buying a computer is often more like joining a
religious cult. Buy an Apple, for example, and almost by default you join Apple chairman Steve Jobs in his crusade
against IBM. Every machine has its "users' groups" and a band of loyal enthusiasts who tout its merits. That
makes it all the more difficult for the uninitiated to decide what machine to buy. Students have a huge advantage,
however. The computer companies are so eager for students' business (it builds "brand loyalty") that many offer
huge discounts.
In the past six months, IBM, Apple, and others have brought out new computers, and the fierce competition has
forced prices down. Also, time is on your side: next year at this time you'll have even more choice and more
computing power and features for the same price. On the other hand, this will probably be true for many years. So
for those who need or want a computer now, it's a great time to buy one.
Review the exercises at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcountEX1.html, review the handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount.html, or go on to our second handout on count and
noncount nouns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2.html.
For more information about nouns and other parts of speech, see our parts of speech workshop at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/index2.html#parts.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcountA1.html

Count and Noncount Nouns Exercises
Count and Noncount Nouns

Exercise 1
Are the following nouns count or noncount? Put an N next to the noncount nouns and a C next to the count nouns.
If the noun can be either noncount or count depending on the context, put a D next to it.
world banana
textbook conduct
acid progress
smoking biology
poetry essay
applause crystal
thought shopping
Exercise 2
Put an X next to the words in the following list that can be used as either count or noncount nouns, depending on
the context.
defense rain
beauty rug
garbage nature
experience bag
baggage emotion
Exercise 3
Fill in the blank with the form of the noun in parentheses that is appropriate to the grammatical context of the
sentence and the meaning of the passage as a whole.
Diabetes: Beyond the Basics

Because diabetes can cause devastating _________ (damage, damages) to virtually all body ________ (system,
systems), people with diabetes should not underrate the seriousness of their disease. Learning to live with a
chronic ________ (illness, illnesses) such as diabetes must be an ongoing process.
The Hospital's Center for Family Life Education is sponsoring a five-part educational series on diabetes. The series
will begin on April 30 and continue through May 29. The _________ (program, programs) will be held in the second
floor classroom of the Education Center from 7-9 p.m.
The diabetes series is free and open to the public and will be of specific _________ (interest, interests) to people
who have diabetes and their families and friends.
Exercise 4
On the basis of the rules for using articles discussed in the OWL file "Count and Noncount Nouns," which
combinations of words below are permitted and which ones aren't? Put an X next to the incorrect combinations.
a table the poetry

these person a difficulty
this furniture a research
that assignment this eggs
a boy those argument
Exercise 5
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate article if one is needed.
The Computer Jungle

Though you can make ____ decision on purely economic grounds, buying ____ computer is often more like joining
____ religious cult. Buy ____ Apple, for example, and almost by default you join Apple chairman Steve Jobs in his
crusade against IBM. Every machine has its "users' groups" and ____ band of loyal enthusiasts who tout its merits.
That makes it all ____ more difficult for ____ uninitiated to decide what machine to buy. Students have ____ huge
advantage, however. The computer companies are so eager for students' business (it builds "brand loyalty") that
many offer huge discounts.
In the past six months, IBM, Apple, and others have brought out new computers, and ____ fierce competition has
forced prices down. Also, time is on your side: next year at ____ time you'll have even more choice and more
computing power and features for ____ same price. On ____ other hand, this will probably be true for many years.
So for those who need or want ____ computer now, it's a great time to buy one.
Check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcountA1.html, return to the handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount.html, or review our second handout on count and noncount nouns at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcountEX1.html

Using Pronouns Clearly
Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so that your
reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.
Therefore, pronouns should:
1. AGREE in NUMBER
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.
If a student parks a car on campus, he has to buy a parking sticker.
(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)
REMEMBER: The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY, SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc. are singular and
take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his best. (NOT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)
2. AGREE in PERSON
If you are writing in the "first person" ( I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" ( you) or "third person"
(he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."
When a person comes to class, he should have his homework ready.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
3. REFER CLEARLY to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous.
NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)
NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)
NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)
NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?)
NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/pronuse.html
available at

Pronoun Case
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.
1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.

2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.
Pronouns as SUBJECTS Pronouns as OBJECTS Pronouns that show POSSESSION

I me my (mine)
you you your (yours)
he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its)
we us our (ours)
they them their (theirs)
who whom whose
The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICH do not change form.
Some problems of case:

1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop
the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.

(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
NOT: Us men like the coach.

(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:

He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).
Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the
parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can
choose the correct case for the pronoun.
NOT: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, "than me am tall"?)
3. In formal and semiformal writing:

Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
FORMAL: It is I.
INFORMAL: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.

FORMAL: To whom am I talking?
INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_proncase.html
available at

Active and Passive Voice
Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
The dog bit the boy.
Watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield reminds me of watching a movie or TV.
In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at
Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The
agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.
Research will be presented by Pooja at the conference.
Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesis.
(agent performing action has been omitted.)
I am reminded of watching a movie or TV by watching a framed, mobile world through a car's windshield.
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive
voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is
more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers
as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective,
fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents.
Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal
interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of b e , such as a m , is , was ,
were , are , or been . The presence of a b e -verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice.
Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at
Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in
interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than
those in passive voice.
passive (indirect) active (direct):
She slammed on the brakes as the car sped downhill.
I have damaged your bicycle.
Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express
action in active voice than in passive.
passive (more wordy) active (more concise)
The committee is considering action on the bill.
Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who
or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb
accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.
Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice
most of the class Most of the class is reading the book.

most likely agents
such as "the
researchers"
the CIA director and

his close advisors

most likely agents We made mistakes.
such as "we"
Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is
rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences
conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent
performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the
last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because
it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.
active passive
The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed
liver-transplant operation yesterday. successfully yesterday.
"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.
In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the
action itself and what is acted upon.
Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action
expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of
the sentence, and change the verb to a form of b e + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.
Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice
The presiding
officer
The leaders
The scientists
In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.
Some suggestions
1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.
Unnecessary shift in voice Revised

Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink,
bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently. but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other
he was still laughed at by the other students. students still laughed at him.
2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word
not clearly stated in the sentence. (See also our handout on dangling modifiers at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html.)
Dangling modifier with passive voice Revised

To save time, the paper was written on a computer.
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
(Who was saving time? The paper?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame,
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired
consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was
consultants to break the bad news.
seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)
3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive
constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgement, or ask another human being for their
opinion about which sentence sounds best.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_actpass.html.

Irregular Verbs
Present Past Past Participle

be was, were been
become became become
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
do did done
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
let let let
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
make made made
meet met met
pay paid paid
quit quit quit
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke (waked) woken (waked)
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
LIE versus LAY

lie, lying (to tell a falsehood) I lied to my mother. I have lied under oath.
I lay on the bed because I was
lie, lying (to recline) He has lain in the grass.
tired.
We have laid the dishes on
lay, laying (to put, place) I laid the baby in her cradle.
the table.
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?
SIT versus SET

sit (to be seated or come to resting
I sat in my favorite chair. You have sat there for three hours.
position)
She has set her books on my desk
set (to put or place) I set my glass on the table.
again.
Let's set the table before we sit down to rest.

RISE versus RAISE
rise (steady or customary upward
The balloon rose into the air. He has risen to a position of power.
movement)
They raised their hands because they I have raised the curtain many
raise (to cause to rise)
knew the answer. times.
The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslirrverb.html

Sequence of Tenses
Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as
in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called
auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to recreate much of the reality of time in his writing. The
six are
Simple Present: They walk

Present Perfect: They have walked
Simple Past: They walked

Past Perfect: They had walked
Future: They will walk

Future Perfect: They will have walked
Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary
or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.
ring, rang, rung

walk, walked, walked
The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have,"
"had," are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.
Present Perfect
The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have." It designates action
which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which still continues.
1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)

2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)
The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.
1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.

2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.
Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and sometimes problems arise when
infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future
(I wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking
the action which began and usually was completed before the action in the main verb.
1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign!

2. John had hoped to have won the trophy.
Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect infinitive has been completed.
(Notice present, present perfect sequence in the comment.)
Past Perfect
The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is
action completed in the past before another action.
1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past)

2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect)
The vegetables were raised before they were sold.
1. Renee washed the car when George arrived (simple past)

2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived. (past perfect)
In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed the car. In (2), she had already finished washing the car by the
time he arrived.
In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the condition.
1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.
Notice: There can be only one "would have" action group in a sentence.
Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.
1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)

2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)
Review
1. Judy saved thirty dollars. (past)
2. Judy will save thirty dollars. (future)
3. Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect)
4. Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last month. (past perfect)
5. Judy will have saved thirty dollars by the end of this month. (future perfect)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_seqtense.html.

Verb Tense Consistency
Throughout this document, example sentences with nonstandard or inconsistent usage have verbs in red.
Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense

Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main purpose in writing; sometimes we
include brief anecdotes or hypothetical scenarios as illustrations or reference points in an essay. Even an essay
that does not explicitly tell a story involves implied time frames for the actions discussed and states described.
Changes in verb tense help readers understand the temporal relationships among various narrated events. But
unnecessary or inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one tense for the main
discourse and indicate changes in time frame by changing tense relative to that primary tense, which is usually
either simple past or simple present. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses consistently
and clearly.
General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or
state is the same.
Examples:
1. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers and streams.
Contains is present tense, referring to a current state; washed down is past, but should
be present (wash down ) because the minerals are currently continuing to wash down.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.
2. About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announces the approaching
storm.
Darkened and sprang up are past tense verbs; announces is present but should be
past (announced ) to maintain consistency within the time frame.
Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble
announced the approaching storm.
3. Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.
Had walked is past perfect tense but should be past to maintain consistency within the
time frame (yesterday); rode is past, referring to an action completed before the
current time frame.
Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later rode the bus home.
General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or state to
another.
Examples:
1. The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves.
Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it now;) built is past,
referring to an action completed before the current time frame (they are not still
building it.)
2. Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had reached a verdict.
Began is past tense, referring to an action completed before the current time frame;
had reached is past perfect, referring to action from a time frame before that of
another past event (the action of reaching was completed before the action of
beginning.)
3. Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in tonight's concert will need
amplification.
Are installing is present progressive, referring to an ongoing action in the current time
frame (the workers are still installing, and have not finished;) will need is future,
referring to action expected to begin after the current time frame (the concert will start
in the future, and that's when it will need amplification.)
Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to
other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.
Hints:
Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities
(biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over
time).
Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or
those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to describe action in a literary
work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic effect, you may wish to narrate an event
in present tense as though it were happening now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the
narrative, making shifts only where appropriate.
Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will , shall , is going to , are about
to , tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.
Using Other Tenses in Conjunction with Simple Tenses

It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or progressive tenses from simple ones
in isolation, for example, the difference between simple past progressive ("She was eating an apple") and present
perfect progressive ("She has been eating an apple"). Distinguishing these sentences in isolation is possible, but
the differences between them make clear sense only in the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions
suggested by different tenses are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding sentences
or clauses.
Example 1: Simple past narration with perfect and progressive elements
On the day in question...
By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung three times. As usual, he had been
listening to loud music on his stereo. He turned the stereo down and stood up to answer the door.
An old man was standing on the steps. The man began to speak slowly, asking for directions.
In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening and was standing suggest action underway at the time
some other action took place. The stereo-listening was underway when the doorbell rang. The standing on the
steps was underway when the door was opened. The past perfect progressive verb had been listening suggests
action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that was still underway as another
action began.
If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or present perfect progressive is used
to indicate action that is or has been underway as some other action begins. This narrative style might be used to
describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action in fictional narratives is conventionally treated as always
present. For example, we refer to the scene in Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his
dead father or the final scene in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present) the day after Mookie
has smashed (present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the example narrative above were a scene in a play, movie,
or novel, it might appear as follows.
Example 2: Simple present narration with perfect and progressive elements
In this scene...
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung three times. As usual, he has been
listening to loud music on his stereo. He turns the stereo down and stands up to answer the door.
An old man is standing on the steps. The man begins to speak slowly, asking for directions.
In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is standing indicate action
underway as some other action takes place. The present perfect progressive verb has been listening suggests
action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that is still underway as another
action begins. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first example.
In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates ongoing action, that is, action
underway as another action occurs. The general comments about tense relationships apply to simple and perfect
tenses, regardless of whether there is a progressive element involved.
It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for example, the predictions of a psychic
or futurist. If the example narrative above were spoken by a psychic, it might appear as follows.
Example 3: Simple future narration with perfect and progressive elements
Sometime in the future...
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already rung three times. As usual, he will have
been listening to loud music on his stereo. He will turn the stereo down and will stand up to answer
the door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The man will begin to speak slowly, asking for
directions.
In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening and will be standing indicate
ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb will have been listening suggests action that will begin in the
time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that will still be underway when another action begins. The
verb notices here is in present-tense form, but the rest of the sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us
to understand that it refers to future time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two
examples.
General guidelines for use of perfect tenses
In general the use of perfect tenses is determined by their relationship to the tense of the primary narration. If the
primary narration is in simple past, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described
in past perfect. If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before the time frame of the
primary narration is described in present perfect. If the primary narration is in simple future, then action initiated
before the time frame of the primary narration is described in future perfect.
Past primary narration corresponds to Past Perfect (had + past participle) for earlier time frames
Present primary narration corresponds to Present Perfect (has or have + past participle) for earlier
time frames
Future primary narration corresponds to Future Perfect (will have + past participle) for earlier time
frames
The present perfect is also used to narrate action that began in real life in the past but is not completed, that is,
may continue or may be repeated in the present or future. For example: "I have run in four marathons"
(implication: "so far... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct from the simple past, which is used for action
that was completed in the past without possible continuation or repetition in the present or future. For example:
"Before injuring my leg, I ran in four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more
marathons").
Time-orienting words and phrases like before , after , by the time , and others--when used to relate two or more
actions in time--can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.
By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had lost (past perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech, the audience has lost
(present perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the audience will
have lost (future perfect) interest.
After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we offered (past) our guests dessert.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we offer (present: habitual action) our
guests dessert.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will offer (future: specific one-time
action) our guests dessert.
Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect) at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds have arrived (present perfect) at the
feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds will have arrived (future
perfect) at the feeder.
Sample paragraphs
The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts are inappropriate and are indicated in bold.
The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels of the bus as it swung into the station.
Outside the window, shadowy figures peered at the bus through the darkness. Somewhere in the
crowd, two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman, her son, and possibly her husband.
I could not prevent my imagination from churning out a picture of them, the town, and the place I
will soon call home. Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images flashing through my
mind. (adapted from a narrative)
Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such as those that appear in the above paragraph, are sometimes hard
to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the narrative and begins to relive the event as an ongoing experience.
The inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample, will should be would , and rise should be rose .
The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts--all appropriate--are indicated in bold.
A dragonfly rests on a branch overhanging a small stream this July morning. It is newly emerged
from brown nymphal skin. As a nymph, it crept over the rocks of the stream bottom, feeding first on
protozoa and mites, then, as it grew larger, on the young of other aquatic insects. Now an adult, it
will feed on flying insects and eventually will mate. The mature dragonfly is completely transformed
from the drab creature that once blended with underwater sticks and leaves. Its head, thorax, and
abdomen glitter; its wings are iridescent in the sunlight. (adapted from an article in the magazine
Wilderness)
This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a particular July morning. However,
both past and future tenses are called for when she refers to its previous actions and to its predictable activity in
the future.
Exercises on verb tense consistency are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_tensecEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_tensec.html.

OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts: Two part Phrasal verbs 10/28/02 3:33 PM
Two-Part (Phrasal) Verbs (Idioms)

Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a particle), and these two-part verbs,
also called phrasal verbs, are different from verbs with helpers. (For more about verbs with helpers, visit http://
owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslverbaux.html.)
The particle that follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal verb in idiomatic ways:
VERB MEANING EXAMPLE

drop off decline gradually The hill dropped off near the river.
drop off(2) fall asleep While doing his homework, he dropped off.
stop and give something to
drop off(3) Would you drop this off at the post office?
someone
drop out cease to participate After two laps, the runner dropped out.
Some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun and pronoun can be inserted, and some particles
can't be separated from the verb. In addition, some phrases are intransitive, meaning they cannot take a direct
object.
add up (meaning: to
Separable Correct: She added up the total on her calculator.
add)
Correct: She added it up on her calculator.

get around (meaning:
Inseparable Correct: She always gets around the rules.
to evade)
Incorrect: She always gets the rules around (This construction

makes no sense in English.)
catch on (meaning: Correct: After I explained the math problem, she began to
Intransitive
to understand) catch on.
Incorrect: She began to catch on the math problem. (catch on

cannot take a direct object in this meaning.)
Correct: She began to catch on to the math problem. (the
word to makes the math problem an indirect object, which is
acceptable in this meaning.)
Unfortunately, there is usually no indicator whether an idiomatic phrase is separable, inseparable, or intransitive.
In most cases the phrases must simply be memorized. Below is a partial list of each kind of phrase.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslphrasal.html Page 1 of 7
Separable
add up - add
back up - cause to move backwards; support; blow up; cause to explode; destroy by explosives
break down - analyze; list the parts of separately
break into - go into a house or room forcibly; suddenly; begin; bring about - cause to happen
bring off - accomplish
bring on - cause
bring out - publish; emphasize
bring over - bring
bring to - revive
bring up - raise; care for from childhood
brush out - brush the inside of
burn down - destroy by burning
burn up - consume by fire
buy out - by the other person's share of a business
buy up - buy the whole supply of
call off - cancel; order away
call up - telephone; summon for military service
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue
carry out - fulfill; complete; accomplish; perform
carry over - carry; continue at another time or place
cheer up - cause to become cheerful
chew up - chew thoroughly
chop up - chop into small pieces
clean off - clean the surface of
clean out - clean the inside of
clean up - clarify; tidy
clear out - clear the surface of
clear up - clear the inside of
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
count in - include
count out - exclude
count up - calculate; count; add to a total
cross out - eliminate
cut off - interrupt; sever; amputate
cut out - eliminate; delete
cut down - reduce in quantity
draw up - write; compose (a document)
dress up - put clothes on; adorn
dust out - dust the inside of
eat up - eat completely
figure out - interpret; understand
figure up - compute
fill in - complete (a printed form)
fill out - complete (a printed form)
fill up - fill completely (a container)
find out - discover
fix up - repair; arrange in a suitable manner
get across - cause to be understood
give back - return
give out - distribute; announce
give up - surrender something
hand down - deliver; pronounce formally; leave as an inheritance
hand over - yield control of
hang up - suspend
have on - be dressed in
have over - entertain someone informally at one's home
hold off - delay; restrain
hold up - delay; rob; threaten with a weapon
keep up - continue; keep the same pace
leave out - omit
let down - disappoint
let out - release from confinement; make larger (in sewing)
light up - light; illuminate thoroughly
live down - live in such a way as to cause something to be forgotten
make over - remake
move over - move to the side
pass out - distribute

pass up - not take advantage of (as an opportunity)
pass on - transmit
pay back - repay
pay off - discharge a debt completely; give someone his final pay
pick up - come to meet an escort; lift with hands or fingers; learn casually;
initiate an association publicly
play down - minimize
play up - emphasize
point out - indicate
pull down - pull in a downward direction; raze
push across - cause to be understood or accepted
put off - postpone
put on - dress in; deceive or fool
put up - preserve (food); receive as an overnight guest
quiet down - be quiet
ring up - the telephone
rinse off - rinse the surface of
rinse out - rinse the inside of
rule out - eliminate
run down - trace; disparage; hit with a vehicle
run off - cause to depart; reproduce mechanically
save up - accumulate
see through - complete; in spite of difficulties
see off - accompany someone to the beginning of a trip
send back - send to a place where formerly located
send over - send to where someone is
set up - arrange
show off - exhibit ostentatiously
shut off - cause to cease functioning
slow up - cause to move more slowly
spell out - enumerate; state in detail
stand up - fail to keep an appointment with
sweep out - sweep the inside of
take back - return; retract a statement
take down - remove from a high position; write from dictation
take in - understood; fool; deceive; make smaller (in sewing)
take over - take; assume command of
tear down - destroy
tear up - tear into small pieces
tell off - scold; reprimand
think over - consider
think through - consider from beginning to end
think up - create; invent
throw away - discard
throw over - reject
tie up - tie securely or tight
tire out - cause to be exhausted
touch up - repair
try on - put on a garment to verify the fit
try out - test
turn down - refuse; lower the volume
turn out - produce; force into exile, extinguish (a light)
wash off - wash the surface of
wash out - wash the inside of
wear out - use until no longer usable; tire greatly
wind up - finish, tighten the spring of a watch or machine
wipe off - wipe the surface of
wipe out - wipe the inside of; decimate
work out - solve
write down - record
write out - write down every detail; spell out
write up - compose; prepare (a document)
Inseparable
back out of - desert; fail to keep a promise
bear down on - lean on; browbeat
bear on - have to do with
bear up under - endure
break in on - interrupt
break into - interrupt
call for - come to get; require
care for - like; guard; supervise; maintain
carry on with - continue
catch up with - cover the distance between oneself and
check up on - examine; verify
come across - find accidentally
come along with - accompany; make progress
come by - find accidentally
come down with - become ill with
come out with - utter; produce
come up with - utter; produce
count on - rely on
cut in on - interrupt
disagree with - cause illness or discomfort to
do away with - abolish
do without - deprive oneself of
drop in at/on - visit casually without planning
drop out of - leave; quit
face up to - acknowledge
fall behind in - lag; not progress at required pace
fall back on - use for emergency purpose
fall out with - quarrel with
fill in for - substitute for
get ahead of - surpass; beat
get around - evade; avoid
get away with - do without being caught or punished
get by with - manage with a minimum of effort
get down to - become serious about; consider
get in - enter (a vehicle)
get off - descend from; leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount
get on with - proceed with
get through with - terminate, finish
go back on - desert; fail to keep (a promise)
go for - like a great deal
go in for - be interested in; participate in
go on with - continue
go over - review
go with - harmonize with; look pleasing together
go without - abstain from
hang around - remain idly in the vicinity of
hear from - receive a communication from
hear of - learn about (sometimes accidentally)
hit on - discover accidentally
hold on to - grasp tightly
hold out against - resist
keep at - persevere at
keep to - persist in; continue
keep up with - maintain the pace of
lie down on - evade; fail to do
live on - support or sustain oneself by means of
live up to - maintain the standard demanded of
look after - take care of
look back on - remember nostalgically
look down on - feel superior to
look forward to - anticipate
look up to - respect; admire
make up for - compensate for
pass on - transmit
pick on - tease; bully
play up to - flatter for personal advantage
put up with - tolerate
read up on - search out information on
run against - compete against in an election
run away with - leave; escape from
run for - campaign for
see about - consider; arrange
see to - arrange; supervise
settle on - decide on; choose
stand for - represent; permit

stand up for - support; demand
stand up to - resist
stick to - persist
stick up for - support; defend
take after - resemble
talk back to - answer impolitely
talk over - discuss
tell on - report misbehavior to authority
touch on - mention briefly
turn into - become
wait on - serve
wait up for - not go to bed while waiting for
watch out for - be careful for
Intransitive
back down - retreat from a position in an argument
back out - desert; fail to keep a promise
back up - move backwards
bear up - endure
blow in - drop in to visit unexpectedly
blow over - pass without doing harm
blow up - explode; lose one's temper
call up - telephone
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue as before; misbehave
catch on - understand
catch up - cover the distance between oneself and a moving goal
check up - investigate
check out - leave; pay one's bill
cheer up - become cheerful
clear out - leave
clear up - become clear
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
came about - happen
come along - accompany; make progress
come back - return
come by - visit someone in his home
come out - appear; make a social debut
come over - come to someone's house, to where someone is
come through - succeed
come to - regain consciousness
cut in - interrupt
die away - fade; diminish
die down - fade; diminish
die off/out - disappear; become extinct
dress up - don fancy or unusual clothes
drive back - return by car
drop in - visit someone casually without planning
drop out - abandon some organized activity; leave; quit
drop over - visit someone casually
fall behind - not progress at required pace
fall off - decrease; lose weight
fall through - fail; not be accomplished
fill in - substitute
find out - learn
fly back - return by air
fly over - fly to where someone is
get ahead - make progress
get along - have a friendly relationship
get around - circulate; move about
get away - escape
get by - manage; either just barely or with a minimum of effort
get in - enter
get off - descend from leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount (a horse, etc.)
get on/along - progress; be compatible
get up - rise
get through - finish

give out - become exhausted
give up - surrender; fail to finish
go back - return
go off - explode
go on - happen; continue
go out - stop burning; leave one's residence
go over - go; succeed
grow up - mature
hang around - remain idly; dawdle
hang up - replace a telephone receive on its hook
hold on - grasp tightly; persevere; wait while telephoning
hold out - continue to resist; persevere; persist
keep on - continue
keep up - maintain the required pace or standard; continue
let up - diminish in intensity
lie down - recline
look on - be a spectator
make out - progress; succeed
make up - become reconciled
move over - move to the side
pan out - turn out well; be successful
pass out - become unconscious
pass on - die
pick up - grow; increase
pull in - arrive
pull out - deport
pull through - survive (barely)
ride over - ride to where someone is
run away - escape; leave; leave quickly without permission
run down - slowly lose power so as to stop functioning
run off - depart running; drain
sell out - sell the ownership or responsibility
settle up - pay one's bills or debts
show off - boast by words or actions
show up - arrive; appear unexpectedly
shut up - stop talking
slow up - reduce speed
stand by - wait; be prepared to assist
stand up - stand; rise from sitting; last; endure
stay over - remain at someone's house overnight or longer
step aside - move to one side
take off - leave the ground
take over - assume command
talk back - answer impolitely
throw up - vomit
turn around - turn so that one is facing another direction
turn in - go to bed
turn out - succeed; come; appear, as at a public meeting
turn up - arrive; be found unexpectedly
wait up - remain awake in anticipation
wake up - awaken
walk back - return on foot to where one was
walk over - walk to where someone is
wash out - fade or disappear from washing
watch out - be careful
wear off - fade; disappear through use or time
wear out - become unusable through use; become used up
work out - be successful
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslphrasal.html

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Verbs with Helpers
1. Recent Past (Present Perfect)

A conjugation of Have + [VERB+ed] describes an action that began in the past and continues into the present
or that occurred in the recent past.
Examples:
The child has finished the candy.

I have gone to college for one year.
He has worked hard all day.
2. Distant Past (Past Perfect)

Had + [VERB+ed] describes actions that began and ended in the past.
Examples:
Mike had promised to repair Joe's bike.

I had eaten dinner before he came.
3. Present Continuous Action (Present Progressive)

Is + [VERB+ing] shows action that is in progress now or is going to happen in the future.
Examples:
I am taking Spanish this semester.

He is getting ready for the party this evening.
Next week they are going to Florida.
4. Past Continuous Action (Past Progressive)

Was + [VERB+ing] shows action that was in progress at a certain time in the past.
Examples:
Yesterday I was working in the garden.

He was smoking a pack a day before he quit.
The dogs were barking all night.
5. Other helping verbs (Modals)

[HELPER] + [VERB], such as CAN, WILL, SHALL, MAY, COULD, WOULD, SHOULD, MIGHT, MUST
keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.
Examples:
I |
you |
he | can do that assignment easily.
we |
There are also modal phrases (some of which don't change form), such as:
COULD HAVE + Verb
WOULD HAVE + Verb
MUST HAVE + Verb
(Not could "of" or would "of")

Example:
I could have won the prize if I had entered the contest.

He must have bought the ticket already.
OR
USED TO + Verb
HAVE TO + Verb
HAVE GOT TO + Verb
BE ABLE TO + Verb
OUGHT TO + Verb
BE SUPPOSED TO + Verb
Examples:
I used to think that all dogs have fleas.

I am supposed to come back next week.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslverbaux.html
available at

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives
In this handout, the three types of verbals are discussed: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of this handout because they can both end in
-ing but have different functions in a sentence.
Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared
and contrasted in the last section below.
Throughout this document, occasional example sentences with wording that might be considered nonstandard, ambiguous, or at
least peculiar in formal writing are marked with an asterisk (*).
Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds
of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun,
it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement,
and object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.

The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
Gerund as direct object:
They do not appreciate my singing.

They do not appreciate my assistance.
Gerund as subject complement:
My cat's favorite activity is sleeping .

My cat's favorite food is salmon.
Gerund as object of preposition:
The police arrested him for speeding .

The police arrested him for criminal activity.
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or
noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or
state expressed in the gerund, such as:
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the
sentence.
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're
Finding (gerund)
trying to do.
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the

verb appreciate .
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the
gerund)
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity .
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in
gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject

complement.
Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents . lying to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action expressed in
gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the

preposition for .
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work . faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the

sentence.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff , via state of
being expressed in gerund)
Punctuation
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.
Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.
Exercise on Gerunds:
Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label how they function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject
complement, object of preposition).
1. Swimming keeps me in shape.

2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
3. Telling your father was a mistake.
4. The college recommends sending applications early.
5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
6. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
7. Going to work today took all my energy.
8. Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.
Answers to all exercises are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbalsA1.html.
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed . The term verbal indicates that a
participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However,
since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles
and past participles. Present participles end in -ing . Past participles end in -ed , -en , -d , -t , or -n , as in the words asked ,
eaten , saved , dealt , and seen .
The crying baby had a wet diaper.

Shaken , he walked away from the wrecked car.
The burning log fell off the fire.
Smiling , she hugged the panting dog.
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or
noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or
state expressed in the participle, such as:
The participial phrase functions as an adjective
modifying Jack .
Removing his coat , Jack rushed to the river.
Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)

modifying cousin .
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline .
walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)

modifying children .
Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual
introduced (to) (participle)
skills.
music (direct object of action expressed in participle)
early (adverb)

modifying Lynn .
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise. Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn , via state of
being expressed in participle)
Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and
the noun must be clearly stated.
Carrying a heavy pile of books , his foot caught on a step. *

Carrying a heavy pile of books , he caught his foot on a step.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying .
Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since
the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person
must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place
immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence. (For more information on dangling modifiers, see our
handout at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_dangmod.html.)
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
Arriving at the store , I found that it was closed.

Washing and polishing the car , Frank developed sore muscles.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information
is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Sid, watching an old movie , drifted in and out of sleep.

The church, destroyed by a fire , was never rebuilt.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the
sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.
The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies K e n , not residents .)
Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies T o m , not woman .)
Points to remember:
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed , -en , -d , -t , or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns
must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element,
or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.
Exercise on Participles:
Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.
1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.

2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadn't worked hard enough in high school.
3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that seventy percent of American colleges offer remedial English classes
emphasizing composition.
4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.
5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.
In each of the following sentences, underline the participial phrase(s), draw a line to the word(s) modified, and punctuate the sentence correctly.
Remember that some sentences may not need punctuation.
6. Starting out as an army officer Karen's father was frequently transferred.
7. Mrs. Sears showing more bravery than wisdom invited thirty boys and girls to a party.
8. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.
9. Applicants must investigate various colleges learning as much as possible about them before applying for admission.
10. The crying boy angered by the bully began to fight.
Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly) with the correct placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.
11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending on federal social programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment time passed unnoticed.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective,
or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore
expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement,
adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the t o + verb form, deciding what function
it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)

Everyone wanted to go . (direct object)
His ambition is to fly . (subject complement)
He lacked the strength to resist . (adjective)
We must study to learn . (adverb)
Be sure not to confuse an infinitive--a verbal consisting of t o plus a verb--with a prepositional phrase beginning with to , which
consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.
Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong
Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s)
that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the
infinitive, such as:
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of

the verb intended .
We intended to leave early.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)
The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective

modifying paper .
I have a paper to write before class.
to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)

the verb agreed .
Phil agreed to give me a ride . to give (infinitive)
me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)

the verb asked .
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
They asked me to bring some food .
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action expressed in
infinitive)

the verb wanted .
Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team . to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol , via state of
being expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)
Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action
or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject , however, since an infinitive phrase is not
a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (m e ,
not I , in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase;
others can't have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.
Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:
agree begin continue decide
fail hesitate hope intend
learn neglect offer plan
prefer pretend promise refuse
remember start try
Examples:
Most students plan to study.
We began to learn.
They offered to pay.
They neglected to pay.
She promised to return.
In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:
advise allow convince remind
encourage force hire teach
instruct invite permit tell
implore incite appoint order
Examples:
He reminded me to buy milk.
Their fathers advise them to study.
She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
You've convinced the director of the program to change her position.
I invite you to consider the evidence.
In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that use either pattern:
ask expect (would) like want
Examples:
I asked to see the records.
I asked him to show me the records.
Trent expected his group to win.
Trent expected to win.
Brenda likes to drive fast.
Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.
In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an actor.
Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma;
otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.
To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.

To improve your writing , you must consider your purpose and audience.
Points to remember:
1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.
Spilt infinitives:
Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting
the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.
Examples:
I like t o on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)

On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
I needed t o quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)
I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)
Exercise on Infinitives:
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence, adding any punctuation as needed.
1. I want to go.
2. I want you to go home.
3. We want to see the play.
4. To see a shooting star is good luck.
5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.
Now underline the infinitive phrase and label how it is used in the sentence.
6. To design a new building for them would be challenging.
7. I want him to be my bodyguard.
8. Jim is expected to program computers at his new job.
9. They will try to build a new stadium in ten years.
10. To distill a quart of moonshine takes two hours.
11. The president wants to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
12. She has the money to buy it.
13. We demonstrated to attract attention to our agenda.
14. I do not like to give poor grades.
15. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.
16. To be great is to be true to yourself and to the highest principles of honor.
17. To see is to believe.

Comparing Gerunds and Participles
Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund (functioning as a noun) allows the meaning to be
expressed more precisely than in the second. In the first sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is precisely
indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation. In the second the cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who
just happens to have been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle, not a gerund, since it
functions as an adjective modifying Bill .)
I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting.

I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting.
The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of each pair, a gerund (noun-function) is used; in the
second, a participle (adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in meaning between the two sentences in each pair.
Examples:
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was extraordinary.)
The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was extraordinary, demonstrating the technique.)
He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not impress him.)
He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as they competed.)
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.

Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing.* (Ambiguous: who is running and laughing?)
Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives

The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from comparing the following lists:
Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming

Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dream
Their functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always function as nouns, but infinitives often also serve as nouns. Deciding which to
use can be confusing in many situations, especially for people whose first language is not English.
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one or the other functions as the direct object in a
sentence. In English some verbs take gerunds as verbal direct objects exclusively while other verbs take only infinitives and still
others can take either. Many such verbs are listed below, organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.
Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects
agree decide expect hesitate
learn need promise neglect
hope want plan attempt
propose intend pretend
Examples:
I hope to go on a vacation soon.
(not: I hope going on a vacation soon.*)
He promised to go on a diet.
(not: He promised going on a diet. *)
They agreed to sign the treaty.
(not: They agreed signing the treaty.*)
Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak.

(not: Because she was nervous, she hesitated speaking.*)
They will attempt to resuscitate the victim
(not: They will attempt resuscitating the victim.*)
Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects

deny risk delay consider
can't help keep give up be fond of
finish quit put off practice
postpone tolerate suggest stop (quit)
regret enjoy keep (on) dislike
admit avoid recall mind
miss detest appreciate recommend
get/be through get/be tired of get/be accustomed to get/be used to
Examples:
They always avoid drinking before driving.
(not: They always avoid to drink before driving.*)
I recall asking her that question.
(not: I recall to ask her that question.*)
She put off buying a new jacket.

(not: She put off to buy a new jacket.*)
Mr. Allen enjoys cooking.
(not: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook.*)
Charles keeps calling her.
(not: Charles keeps to call her.*)
Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct objects
start begin continue hate
prefer like love try
remember
Examples:
She has continued to work at the store.
She has continued working at the store.
They like to go to the movies.

They like going to the movies.
Brent started to walk home.
Brent started walking home.
Forget and remember
These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the object.
Examples:
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)
Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime later.)
Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly remembers.)
Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembers now.)
Jack remembered to take out the cat. (He did it.)
Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembered sometime later.)
In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive gerund form having taken can be used in place of
taking to avoid any possible confusion.
Sense verbs that take an object plus a gerund or a simple verb
Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb (infinitive form minus the word t o ). With many
of the verbs that follow the object, the use of the gerund indicates continuous action while the use of the simple verb indicates a
one-time action. Still, sometimes the simple verb can indicate continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the
context.
feel hear notice watch
see smell observe
Examples:
We watched him playing basketball. (continuous action)
We watched him play basketball. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pumping vigorously. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pump vigorously. (continuous action)
She saw them jumping on the bed. (continuous action)

She saw them jump on the bed. (one-time action)
Tom heard the victim shouting for help. (continuous action)
Tom heard the victim shout for help. (one-time action)
The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails. (continuous action)
The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one-time action)
We could smell the pie baking in the kitchen. (continuous action)
We could smell the pie bake in the kitchen. (continuous action)
Sometimes the simple-verb version might seem unconventional, so it's safer in most cases to use the gerund version.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbals.html.
available at

Verbs - Voice and Mood http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_vmood.html
Verbs - Voice and Mood

Active and Passive voice:
Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs in the passive voice show
something else acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more
forceful and tend to stay away from passives unless they really need them.
ACTIVE: Tim killed the chicken hawk.

PASSIVE: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim.
Check out our handout on active and passive verbs at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_actpass.html.
Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood:
Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates something:
Examples:
He was here.
I am hungry.
She will bring her books.
Some verbs are in the imperative mood, which expresses commands or requests.
Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.
Examples:
Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.)

Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.)
Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.)
When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are in the subjunctive mood.
When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or
past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were
rather than was:
Examples:
If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.)

I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.)
It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you
haven't brought them.)
1 of 2 5/27/03 11:59 AM
Verbs - Voice and Mood http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_vmood.html
Review:
INDICATIVE: I need some help.

IMPERATIVE: Help me!
SUBJUNCTIVE: If I were smart, I'd call for help.
The following information must remain intact on every handout printed for
distribution.
This page is located at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_vmood.html.
Copyright 1995-2003 by OWL at Purdue University and Purdue University. All rights
reserved.
Use of this site, including printing and distributing our handouts, constitutes
acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use, available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/contact.html to find the right person to call or
email.
2 of 2 5/27/03 11:59 AM
Articles: A versus An 1/21/03 12:33 PM
A or An?
"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.
a cat
a dog
a purple onion
a buffalo
a big apple
with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.
an honorable peace
an honest error
"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:
an apricot
an egg
an Indian
an orbit
an uprising
with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, then a is used.
a union
a united front
a unicorn
a used napkin
a U.S. ship
Note: The exceptions for the articles are based upon the orthographic or written representation
of the word-initial letter not the phonetic or sound quality of the letter. So, if you consider the
rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic
representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a
vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn)
is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated
as a consonant, requiring 'a'.
After reviewing this handout, try a practice exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esliartEX1.html.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esliart.html Page 1 of 2
Articles: A versus An 1/21/03 12:33 PM
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http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esliart.html Page 2 of 2
A or An? Exercises
In the following phrases, supply either a or an :
1. ____ bingo game
2. ____ idiot
3. ____ good job
4. ____ rotten plum
5. ____ used fork
6. ____ uncle
7. ____ historian
8. ____ apple
9. ____ hair
10. ____ artichoke
11. ____ horrible movie
12. ____ opera
13. ____ fine opera
14. ____ television
15. ____ earthquake
16. ____ icicle
17. ____ plant
18. ____ eggplant
19. ____ honorable discharge
20. ____ intelligent man
21. ____ table
22. ____ up stairway
23. ____ paper clip
24. ____ animal
25. ____ usual feeling
26. ____ interest
27. ____ alibi
28. ____ early bird
29. ____ couch
30. ____ airplane
31. ____ grade
32. ____ pair
33. ____ idea

34. ____ energy level
Check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esliartA1.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esliartEX1.html
available at

A or An? Answer Key
In the following phrases, supply either "a" or "an":
1. a bingo game
2. an idiot
3. a good job
4. a rotten plum
5. a used fork
6. an uncle
7. a historian
8. an apple
9. a hair
10. an artichoke
11. a horrible movie
12. an opera
13. a fine opera
14. a television
15. an earthquake
16. an icicle
17. a plant
18. an eggplant
19. an honorable discharge
20. an intelligent man
21. a table
22. an up stairway
23. a paper clip
24. an animal
25. a usual feeling
26. an interest
27. an alibi
28. an early bird
29. a couch
30. an airplane
31. a grade
32. a pair
33. an idea
34. an energy level
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OWL at Purdue University: Adjective or Adverb?
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Basic Rules
1. Adjectives modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs.
You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -ly to an
adjective.
Here are some sentences that demonstrate some of the differences between an adjective
and an adverb by showing what is being modified in each sentence. In each sentence, light
blue arrows point to adjectives and green arrows point to adverbs.
Here careless is an adjective that modifies the

proper noun Richard.
Here carelessly is an adverb that modifies the

verb talks.
Here happy is an adjective that

modifies the proper noun Priya and
extremely is an adverb that
modifies the adjective happy.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esladjadv.html (1 of 7)10/1/2003 2:00:07 PM

Here quickly is an adverb that

modifies the verb finished and
unusually is an adverb that
modifies the adverb quickly.
Adverbs can't modify nouns, as you can see from the following incorrect sentences.
He is a quietly man. The correct sentence should say He is a quiet man.
I have a happily dog. The correct sentence should say I have a happy
dog.
On the other hand, it's sometimes easy to make the mistake of using an adjective to
modify a verb, as the incorrect sentences below show.
He talks careless about your

The correct sentence should say He
wife. talks carelessly about your wife.
He is breathing normal again. The correct sentence should say He

is breathing normally again.
2. An adjective always follows a form of the verb to be when it

modifies the noun before the verb.
Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows point from the adjective to
the noun that it modifies.

3. Likewise, an adjective always follows a sense verb or a verb of

appearance -- feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, and seem --
when it modifies the noun before the verb.
Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows point from the adjective to
the noun it modifies.
Here bad is an adjective that modifies the noun

cough. Using the adverb badly here would not
make sense, because it would mean her cough
isn't very good at sounding.
Here awful is an adjective that modifies the noun

oil. Using the adverb awfully here would not make
sense, because it would mean that castor oil isn't
very good at tasting.
Here fresh is an adjective that modifies the noun

air. Using the adverb freshly here would not make
sense, because it would mean that the air has a
sense of smell that it uses in a fresh manner.
Here unhappy is an adjective that modifies the

pronoun she. Using the adverb unhappily here
would not make sense, because it would mean
that she isn't very good at seeming.
Here dark is an adjective that

modifies the noun images. Using
the adverb darkly here would not
make sense, because it would
mean that the images were
suddenly popping into view in a
dark manner.
Be careful to notice whether the word modifies the subject or the verb in the sentence. If
the word modifies the subject, you should use an adjective. If the word modifies the verb,
you should use an adverb. The difference is shown in the following pair of sentences.

Here sweet is an adjective that modifies the noun

apple. Using the adverb sweetly here would not
make sense, because it would mean that the
apple can smell things in a sweet manner.
Here carefully is an adverb that modifies the verb

smells. Using the adjective careful here would not
make sense, because it would mean that the dog
gives off an odor of carefulness.
Avoiding Common Errors

Bad or Badly?
When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjective (Why? Feel is a
sense verb;see rule #3 above). So you'd say, "I feel bad." Saying you feel badly would be
like saying you play football badly. It would mean that you are unable to feel, as though
your hands were partially numb.
Good or Well?
Good is an adjective, so you do not do good or live good, but you do well and live well.
Remember, though, that an adjective follows sense-verbs and be-verbs, so you also feel
good, look good, smell good, are good, have been good, etc. (Refer to rule #3 above for
more information about sense verbs and verbs of appearance.)
Confusion can occur because well can function either as an adverb or an adjective. When
well is used as an adjective, it means "not sick" or "in good health." For this specific sense
of well, it's OK to say you feel well or are well -- for example, after recovering from an
illness. When not used in this health-related sense, however, well functions as an adverb;
for example, "I did well on my exam."
Double-negatives
Scarcely and hardly are already negative adverbs. To add another negative term is
redundant, because in English only one negative is ever used at a time
They found scarcely any animals on the island. (not scarcely no...)
Hardly anyone came to the party. (not hardly no one...)
Sure or Surely?
Sure is an adjective, and surely is an adverb. Sure is also used in the idiomatic expression
sure to be. Surely can be used as a sentence-adverb. Here are some examples that show
different uses of sure and surely. Light blue arrows indicate adjectives and green arrows
indicate adverbs.

Here sure is an adjective that

modifies the pronoun I.
Here surely is an adverb that

modifies the adjective ready.
Here sure to be is an idiomatic

phrase that functions as an
adjective that modifies the
pronoun she.
Here surely is an adverb

that modifies the verb has
been.
Real or Really?
Real is an adjective, and really is an adverb. Here are some examples that demonstrate
the difference between real and really. Light blue arrows indicate adjectives and green
arrows indicate adverbs.
Here really is an adverb that modifies

the adverb well.
Here really is an adverb that modifies

the verb phrase going out.
Here real is an
adjective that modifies
the noun problems.
Near or Nearly?
Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition. Nearly is used as an adverb
to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite." Here are some examples that
demonstrate the differences between various uses of near and nearly. Light blue arrows
indicate adjectives and green arrows indicate adverbs. Subjects and verbs are marked in
purple.

Here neared is a verb in the past

tense.
Here nearly is an adverb that

modifies the verb finished.
Here near is an adjective that

modifies the noun future.
Here near is an adverb of place

that modifies the verb crept.
Here nearly is an
adverb that modifies
the verb related.
Here near is a
preposition. The
prepositional phase
near the end of the
movie modifies the
noun scene.
After reviewing this handout, try the following interactive exercises and check your answers online.
Adjective/Adverb Exercise #1
Adjective/Adverb Exercise #2
This handout revised December 2001 by Michelle Hansard
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OWL @ Purdue: printable handouts: Adjective or Adverb Exercise #1 Page 1 of 3
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Adjective or Adverb Exercise #1 Answers
These are the answers for Adjective or Adverb? Exercise 1, available at

http;//owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esladjadvEX1.html
1. He correctly defined the terms. The answer sounded correct.
2. She quickly adjusted the fees. She adapted quickly to any situation.
3. He measured the floor exactly. They proved to be perfectly exact measurements.
4. The stillness of the tomb was awful. The tomb was awfully still.
5. It was a dangerous lake to swim in. The man was dangerously drunk. The gas smelled dangerous.
6. She performed magnificently. It was a magnificently beautiful performance.
7. Her voice sounds beautiful. She sang the song exactly as it was written. We heard it perfectly.
8. He was very sensible person. He acted very sensibly.
9. Mike wrote too slowly on the exam. He always writes slowly.
10. Talk softly or don't talk at all. The music played softly.
11. Andrea knows the material very well. She always treats us well.
12. You must send payments regularly. We deal on a strictly cash basis.
13. The mechanic's tools were good. The foreman said that his work was well done.
14. She worked carefully with the sick child. She was a very careful worker.
15. He did not pass the course as easily as he thought he would.
16. I find this novel very interesting. It was interestingly written.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/
available at

OWL @ Purdue: Printable Handouts: Adjective or Adverb Exercise #2 Page 1 of 2
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Adjective or Adverb Exercise #2
In the following sentences, cross out the incorrect words and write in the correct form in the blanks. If the sentence is correct as it
is, write "correct" in the blank.
1. Terrence plays quarterback as well as Brian._______________
2. The game hadn't hardly begun before it started to rain.____________
3. This was sure a mild winter.__________________
4. Jane behaves more pleasant than Joan.________________
5. When you are a parent, you will think different about children.___________
6. I felt badly about not having done good on my final exams._____________
7. Whether you win is not near as important as how you play._____________
8. Asian music often sounds oddly to Western listeners.______________
9. Does your car run well enough to enter the race?_________________
10. I felt safely enough to go out at night on my own._________________
11. You can see the distant mountains clear with these binoculars.______________
12. Our team was real sharp last Saturday afternoon during the game.___________
Check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esladjadvA2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esladjadvEX2.html
available at

Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Some/Any:
Both modify countable and uncountable nouns.
There is some water on the floor.

There are some Mexicans here.
Do you have any food?

Do you have any apples?
Much/Many:
MUCH modifies only uncountable nouns.
They have much money in the bank.
MANY modifies only countable nouns.
Many Americans travel to Europe.
A lot of/lots of:

These are informal substitutes for MUCH and MANY. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean MUCH and with
countable nouns when they mean MANY.
They have lots of money in the bank.

A lot of Americans travel to Europe.
Little/Few:
LITTLE modifies only uncountable nouns.
He had little food in the house.
FEW modifies only countable nouns.
There are a few doctors in town.
A little bit of:

This phrase is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.
There is a little bit of pepper in the soup.
Enough:
ENOUGH modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There is enough money to buy a car.

I have enough books to read.
Plenty of:
This phrase modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
They have plenty of money in the bank.

There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.
No:
NO modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There is no time to finish now.

There are no squirrels in the park.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esladjnoun.html

Articles Exercise #1
Directions: Fill in the blank with the appropriate article, a , an , or the , or leave the space blank if no article is needed.
1. I want ____ apple from that basket.
2. ____ church on the corner is progressive.
3. Miss Lin speaks ____ Chinese.
4. I borrowed ____ pencil from your pile of pencils and pens.
5. One of the students said, "____ professor is late today."
6 Eli likes to play ____ volleyball.
7. I bought ____ umbrella to go out in the rain.
8. My daughter is learning to play ____ violin at her school.
9. Please give me ____ cake that is on the counter.
10. I lived on ____ Main Street when I first came to town.
11. Albany is the capital of ____ New York State.
12. My husband's family speaks ____ Polish.
13. ____ apple a day keeps the doctor away.
14. ____ ink in my pen is red.
15. Our neighbors have ____ cat and ____ dog.
You can check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartA1.html, go back to the handout on

articles at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslart.html, or go on to exercise 2 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartEX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartEX1.html
available at

Articles Exercise #1: Answer Key
1. I want an apple from that basket.
2. The church on the corner is progressive.
3. Miss Lin speaks Chinese. (no article needed)
4. I borrowed a pencil from your pile of pencils and pens.
5. One of the students said, "The professor is late today."
6. Eli likes to play volleyball. (no article needed)
7. I bought an umbrella to go out in the rain.
8. My daughter is learning to play the violin at her school.
9. Please give me the cake that is on the counter.
10. I lived on Main Street when I first came to town. (no article needed)
11. Albany is the capital of New York State. (no article needed)
12. My husband's family speaks Polish. (no article needed)
13. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
14. The ink in my pen is red.
15. Our neighbors have a cat and a dog.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartA1.html
available at

Articles Exercise #2
Directions: Write the following paragraphs, inserting a , an , and the where needed.
1. I have horse of my own. I call her Pretty Girl. She is intelligent animal, but she is not thoroughbred horse. I could never enter
her in race, even if I wanted to. But I do not want to. She is companion, for my own pleasure. I took her swimming day or two
ago.
2. Horse knows when he is going to race. How does he know? His breakfast was scanty. (He is angry about that.) He does not
have saddle on his back. He is being led, not ridden, to grandstand. He is led under grandstand into unusual, special stall.
Horse is nervous. Sometimes he does not know what to do when starting gate flies open and track is before him. If he does not
begin to run instantly, other horses are already ahead of him. During race, when he sees another horse just ahead of him, he
will try to pass him. Sometimes jockey holds him back to save his energy for last stretch. Eventually horse gets to run as fast as
he can.
Exercise boy, watching owner's favorite jockey riding horse he has exercised day after day, says nothing. Secretly, he is planning
for day when he will be jockey himself, and his horse will be first to cross finish line.
3. Most people have fewer hours to give to time-consuming activities of clubs than they used to have, but most people in small
town belong to club or two. One of clubs is likely to be social and benevolent organization, such as Rotary or Elks. Business
people are likely to belong, also to either Kiwanis Club or Lions. Such business people's organizations may meet as often as
once a week in one of private dining rooms of town's leading hotel for lunch. They have good lunch, hear good program, and
continue their fundraising program for worthy organization, such as local hospital.
You can check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartA2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartEX2.html
available at

OWL @ Purdue: Printable Handouts: Articles Exercise #2 Answer Key 3/3/03 3:48 PM
Articles Exercise #2 Answer Key

1. I have a horse of my own. I call her Pretty Girl. She is an intelligent animal, but she is not a thoroughbred
horse. I could never enter her in a race, even if I wanted to. But I do not want to. She is a companion, for my own
pleasure. I took her swimming a day or two ago.
2. A horse knows when he is going to race. How does he know? His breakfast was scanty. (He is angry about that.)
He does not have a saddle on his back. He is being led, not ridden, to the grandstand. He is led under the
grandstand into an unusual, special stall. The horse is nervous. Sometimes he does not know what to do when the
starting gate flies open and the track is before him. If he does not begin to run instantly, other horses are already
ahead of him. During the race, when he sees another horse just ahead of him, he will try to pass him. Sometimes
the jockey holds him back to save his energy for the last stretch. Eventually the horse gets to run as fast as he
can. The exercise boy, watching the owner's favorite jockey riding the horse he has exercised day after day, says
nothing. Secretly, he is planning for the day when he will be a jockey himself, and his horse will be the first to
cross the finish line.
3. Most working people have fewer hours to give to time-consuming activities of clubs than they used to have, but
most people in a small town belong to a club or two. One of the clubs is likely to be a social and benevolent
organization, such as the Rotary or Elks. Business people are likely to belong, also to either the Kiwanis Club or
the Lions. Such business people's organizations may meet as often as once a week in one of the private dining
rooms of the town's leading hotel for lunch. They have a good lunch, hear a good program, and continue their
fundraising program for a worthy organization, such as a local hospital.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartA2.html

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartA2.html Page 1 of 1
The Use and Non-Use of Articles
Grahpics for this handout were produced by Michelle Hansard.
Definition of articles
English has two types of articles: definite (the ) and indefinite (a, an .) The use of these articles depends mainly on
whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to a specific member of a group:
1. Indefinite Articles: a and an

A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These indefinite articles
are used with singular nouns when the noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used
for plural general nouns. The rule is:
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a b oy

an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: a n e lephant
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a u ser (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a
consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
some + plural noun: some girls
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective
that immedately follows the article:
a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or
religion.
I am a teacher.
Brian is a n Irishman.
Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.
2. Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific. T h e signals
that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite
articles in the following examples:
Indefinite (a or an ) Definite (the )
a dog (any dog) the dog (that specific dog)

Singular
an apple (any apple) the apple (that specific apple)
some dogs (any dogs) the dogs (those specific dogs)

Plural
some apples (any apples) the apples (those specific apples)
The is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general sense:
[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.

[no article] Japanese was his native language.
[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting modifying phrase or clause:
The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.

The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.
The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:
the White House

the theory of relativity
the 1999 federal budget
Note: Geographical uses of the
Do not use the before:
names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the US
names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami)
names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.)
names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the
Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
names of continents (Asia, Europe)
names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides,
or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific)

points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)
deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian
Peninsula)
Further Uses of Articles

In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following the article possesses one of these
paired qualities:
Countable vs. noncountable

First vs. subsequent mention
General vs. specific
1. Countable vs. Noncountable

A and a n are used if the noun can be counted.
I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.
Therefore, use a .)
I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)
I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)
The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.
I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The
question doesn't make any sense because water is noncountable.
Therefore, use the .)
I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted)
I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be

counted)
2. First vs. Subsequent Mention

A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing. T h e is used
afterward each time you mention that same noun.
An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have attracted so much
attention. But when it was leaked that Soviet President Konstantin Chernenko would be
presenting medals to three cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time ,
Sept. 17, 1984.
Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at the beginning of a paragraph or
essay.
There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up on the desk,
the robin flies away.
3. General vs. Specific

A , an , and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class to which individual countable
nouns belong. This use of articles is called generic , from the Latin word meaning "class."
A tiger is a dangerous animal. (any individual tiger)

The tiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tiger as a generic category)
The difference between the indefinite a and a n and the generic a and a n is that the former means any one
member of a class while the latter means all of the members of a class.
The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning:
no article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all tigers)
no article with a noncountable noun: Anger is a destructive emotion. (any kind of anger)
Omission of Articles
While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they are countable or noncountable,
others simply never take either article. Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
1. Names of languages and nationalities
Chinese
English
Spanish
Russian
2. Names of sports
volleyball
hockey
baseball
3. Names of academic subjects
mathematics
biology
history
computer science
After reviewing this handout, try some exercises:
Exercise #1 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartEX1.html
Exercise #2 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslartEX2.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslart.html

Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to): Exercises Page 1 of 3
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Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In
(to)
Graphics for this handout were developed by Michelle Hansard.
Prepositions of Direction: To, On(to), In(to)

This handout explains prepositions that express movement toward something: to,
onto, and into. First, the prepositions will be introduced as a group. Then, the special
uses of each one will be discussed.
To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositions of location at, in, and
on. Each pair can be defined by the same spatial relations of point, line/surface, or
area/volume. To learn more about the spatial relationships expressed by these pairs
of prepositions, read the first section of "Prepositions of Location: At, On, and In"
before you start reading this handout.
Introduction
1. The basic preposition of a direction is 'to'.
TO: signifies orientation toward a goal
When the goal is physical, such as a destination, "to" implies movement in the
direction of the goal.
(1) Sa'id returned to his
apartment.
When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to" marks a verb; it is
attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose. The preposition may occur alone or
in the phrase in order.
(2) Li Ling washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas.
The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:
2. The other two prepositions of direction are

compounds formed by adding "to" to the
corresponding prepositions of location.
The preposition of location determines the meaning of the preposition of direction.
ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a

surface
IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the

interior of a volume
("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean about the same
thing.)
3. With many verbs of motion, "on" and "in" have a
directional meaning and can be used along with
"onto" and "into".
(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is why "to" is inside
parentheses in the title of the handout, showing that it is somewhat optional with
the compound prepositions. Thus, the following sentences are roughly synonymous:
(4) Tai-shing jumped in/into the pool.
(5) Porfirio fell on/onto the floor.
(6) The crab washed up on/onto the

shore.
To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition conveys the
completion of an action, while the simple preposition points to the position of the
subject as a result of that action. This distinction helps us understand how
directional and locational prepositions are related: they stand in the relationship of
cause and effect.
Completion of Position of
an Action Subject
(7) Jean fell

Jean is on the
on(to) the
floor.
floor.
(8) Susumu
Susumu is in the
dived in(to)
water.
the water.
Uses of "to"
To occurs with several classes of verbs.
1. verb + to + infinitive
Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or obligation.
willingness: be willing, consent, refuse

desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer
intention: intend, plan, prepare
obligation: be obligated, have, need
Examples:
(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.

(10) I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.
(11) I plan to graduate this summer.
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar's office.
2. In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary

preposition.
verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate, appeal (in the
sense of 'plead,' not 'be attractive')
verbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly, travel
Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to. However, "to"
suggests movement toward a specific destination, while "toward" suggests
movement in a general direction, without necessarily arriving at a destination:
(13) Drive toward the city

limits and turn north.
(Drive in the direction of the city limits;

turnoff may be before arriving there.)
(14) The plane was headed

toward a mountain. (It was headed in the direction of a
mountain; it may not have reached or
hit the mountain.)
(15) Take me to the airport,

please.
(I actually want to arrive at the
airport.)
Uses of "onto"
1. Onto can generally be replaced by on with verbs of
motion.
(16) Dietrich jumped on(to) the

mat.
(17) Huan fell on(to) the floor.
(18) Athena climbed on(to) the

back of the truck.
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the

subject causes itself or some physical object to be
situated in a certain place (compare #15-17 above).
Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto, with the latter
being preferred by some speakers.
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.
Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is put.
Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a direct
object), pour, and add.
(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.

(27) We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.
(28) We're adding a porch onto the house.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple preposition. This
contrast points to a fairly important and general rule:
Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound

prepositions cannot.
Note also that in (27), the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a position on a
surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather than horizontal-- the side of a
building. The use of "onto" in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above.
3. There are a number of verb-preposition

combinations which are formally like "add on" but
have the meaning "of continuing or resuming an
action" when used in the imperative mood.
(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which takes both
on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of these combinations, some
of which are idiomatic, are given in parentheses.
Hang on(to the rope)! ('continue to grasp tightly')

carry on ('resume what you were doing')
sail on ('resume or continue sailing')
dream on ('continue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying 'that is an
unattainable goal')
lead on ('resume or continue leading us')
rock on ('continue playing rock music')
Uses of "into"
1. With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are
interchangeable except when the preposition is the
last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of
time, manner, or frequency.
In this case only in (or inside) can be used.
(29) The patient went into the doctor's office.

(30) The patient went in. (not into)
(31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. ('to
take up residence in a new home')
(32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of the
preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in an information question, "into" also
can be last word except for an adverbial when its object is questioned by a wh-
word:
(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?
2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on"

or "in" with the ordinary meanings of those
prepositions.
If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the construction may
have an idiomatic meaning.
(36) The cat sat on the mat.
(37) The doctor is in his office.
(38) The doctor is in. ('available

for consultation')
In(to) has two special uses with move.
3. When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it

has the sense of "approach".
(39) The lion moved in for the kill.
(40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the building.
In (39) and (40) "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; We cannot say:
"The lion moved into for the kill."
4. When "into" is used with move, it functions as an

ordinary preposition to convey the idea of moving
something from one place to another.
(41) We'll move your brother's old

bed into your room.
This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and (29).
Exercises for this handout are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprepEX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprep.html

Prepositions of Location: At, In, On
Graphics for this handout were developed by Michelle Hansard.
Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds: prepositions of location

and prepositions of direction. Both kinds may be either positive or negative.
Prepositions of location appear with verbs describing states or conditions, especially
be; prepositions of direction appear with verbs of motion. This handout deals with
positive prepositions of location that sometimes cause difficulty: at, on, and in.
The handout is divided into two sections. The first explains the spatial relationships
expressed by the three prepositions. The second examines more closely the uses of
in and on.
Dimensions and Prepositions

Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions they refer to. We can
group them into three classes using concepts from geometry: point, surface, and
area or volume.
Point
Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows them is
treated as a point in relation to which another object is positioned.
Surface
Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an object is defined
with respect to a surface on which it rests.
Area/Volume
Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the boundaries
of an area or within the confines of a volume.
Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together because both are two-
dimensional, in grammar area and volume go together because the same
prepositions are used for both.
In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as follows:
at ....... point
on .......
surface
in .......
area/volume
The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some sample
sentences:
1) My car is at the
house.
2) There is a new roof
on the house.
3) The house is in
Tippecanoe county.
4) There are five rooms

in the house, which has
a lovely fireplace in the
living room.
All of these sentences answer a question of the form, "Where is _______?" but each
gives different information. Before going on, explain to yourself the spatial relations
shown in each sentence.
1) locates a car in relation to a house, understood as a fixed point. 2) treats the

house as a surface upon which another object, the roof, is placed. 3) locates the
house within a geographical area. 4) treats the house as a three-dimensional
structure that can be divided into smaller volumes, namely, rooms, inside one of
which is an object, the fireplace.
Using "at"
At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the prepositions in its
spatial orientation, it has a great variety of uses. Here are some of them:
location
5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at the

bank.
5b) Sue spent the whole afternoon at

the fair.
destination
6a) We arrived at the house.
6b) The waiter was at our table

immediately.
direction
7a) The policeman leaped at the

assailant.
7b) The dog jumped at my face and
really scared me.
In 5a), the bank can be understood as a point defining Tom's location, much as in 1)
above. It makes less sense to think of a fair as a point in 5b) since fairs are usually
spread out over a fairly large area. Probably at is used in this case just because it is
the least specific preposition; it defines Sue's location with respect to the fair rather
than some other place. In 6a), at exhibits its cause/effect relationship with to, which
cannot be used here: arrival at a place is the result of going to it. For more on this
relationship, see the handout Prepositions of Direction: To, (On)to, (In)to. 7a) and
7b) show that with certain verbs of motion at may be used with the same meaning
as its directional counterpart to, that is, direction toward something. Again, see the
directional prepositions handout.
In the remainder of the handout, we will look at special problems that arise in
choosing between in and on.
"in" and "on"

1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window, take both on and in.
The prepositions have their normal meanings with these nouns: on is used when the
space is considered as a surface, in when the space is presented as an area:
Three players are

practicing on the field.
(surface)
Three cows are grazing in
the field. (area)
The frost made patterns

on the window. (surface)
A face appeared in the

window. (area)
Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas on implies only that the
following noun denotes a surface and not necessarily an enclosed area:
The sheep are grazing in the

pasture. (enclosed by a
fence)
The cattle are grazing on the
open range. (not enclosed by
a fence )
Three players are on the

basketball court. (not
enclosed)
Three players are on the

soccer field. (not enclosed)
Two boxers are in the ring.

(enclosed by ropes)
2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries, such as when field
means "academic discipline," in is used:
She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field.
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two follow the
general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom that must be learned as a
unit.
a) The children are playing in the
street.
b) Our house is on Third Street.
c) He declared bankruptcy last

(This is an idiom meaning that he's
week, and now he's out on the
poor.)
street.
In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by the sidewalks on either side.

Compare b) with the discussion of sentence 3) in the first section. Here on locates
the house on either side of Third Street: it doesn't mean that the street is a surface
on which the house sits. Because the street is understood as a line next to which the
house is situated, on functions much like at in its normal use: it locates the house in
relation to the street but does not specify the exact address. For that purpose, at is
used because the address is like a particular point on the line. Compare: "Our house
is at 323 Third Street." In c) out on the street is an idiom meaning "poor" or
"destitute."
4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used with a car, on
with public or commercial means of transportation:
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship
Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of

transportation, using in when the carrier is stationary and on when it is in motion.
My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.
Exercises for this handout are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprep2EX1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprep2.html

Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to
Introduce Objects
One point in time
On is used with days:
I will see you on Monday.

The week begins on Sunday.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
My plane leaves at noon.

The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
He likes to read in the afternoon.

The days are long in August.
The book was published in 1999.
The flowers will bloom in spring.
Extended time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, fromto,
from-until, during,(with)in
She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)
I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)
The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point
itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about
a general vicinity, at. For more detail, see our handouts on Prepositions of Location and
Prepositions of Direction.
There is a wasp in the room.

Put the present inside the box.
I left your keys on the table.
She was waiting at the corner.
Higher than a point
To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following
prepositions: over, above. For more detail, see our handout on Prepositions of Spatial
Relationship.
He threw the ball over the roof.

Hang that picture above the couch.
Lower than a point
To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following
prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below. For more detail, see our handout on
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.
The rabbit burrowed under the ground.

The child hid underneath the blanket.
We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
The valley is below sea-level.
Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions:
near, by, next to, between, among, opposite. For more detail, see our handout on
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.
She lives near the school.

There is an ice cream shop by the store.
An oak tree grows next to my house
The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
I found my pen lying among the books.
The bathroom is opposite that room.
To introduce objects of verbs
English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare
She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
You didn't laugh at his joke.
I'm looking at the computer monitor.
We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
That pretty girl smiled at you.
Stop staring at me.
Of: approve, consist, smell
I don't approve of his speech.

My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
He came home smelling of alcohol.
Of (or about): dream, think
I dream of finishing college in four years.

Can you think of a number between one and ten?
I am thinking about this problem.
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish
Did someone call for a taxi?

He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
I'm looking for my keys.
We'll wait for her here.
You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

Prepositions of Spatial Relationship
above
Write your name above the line.
across Draw a line across the page.
against She leans against the tree.
ahead of The girl is ahead of the boy.

There is lace along the edge of
along
the cloth.
among He is among the trees.
around Draw a circle around the answer.
The boy is behind the girl.

behind
below Write your name below the line.
beneath He sat beneath the tree.
The girl is standing beside the

beside
boy.
between She is between two trees.

from He came from the house.
in front of The girl is in front of the boy.
inside He is inside the house.
nearby There is a tree nearby the house.
off His hat is off.
out of He came out of the house.

through She went through the door.
toward She is walking toward the house.
under He is hiding under the table.
Please mark only within the

within
circle.

Job Search Self-Analysis: Finding a Position that Meets Your Needs
One of the key (and often overlooked) items to consider when looking at a job is not what you can do for the job, but what the
job can do for you. This requires some self-analysis and understanding of who you are and what you want to do with your career.
This guide will help you compare the values of the organization to your own needs.
The following questions will help you guide your job search choices
Here is one question that you may want to consider first . . .

When picking an organization, what are the things you consider to be most important? (upward mobility, size, location, possible
experiences, their mission, the work conditions, the value to society, etc.)
And some others to look at. . .

What do you value most in your personal life?
What do you value most in your career?
What are your professional goals?(do you see yourself staying in one position for a long time?)
Do you place your career first over other parts of your life? (can you work in an organization that expects you to do that?)
Do you plan on moving to another job after a while?
Then apply the answers to your knowledge of the organization.
Finally, after analyzing the results, consider this overriding question:

Do you think you will be happy working at this organization? (long or short term?)
If you can answer "yes," to this final question, then keep the organization on your list of possibilities. If not, eliminate it
from your search and continue to look at other jobs.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_slfana.html
available at

Skills Inventory
Purpose: The purpose of this skills inventory is to help you to be able to come up
with different skills that you may be having a hard time thinking of yourself.
How to use the Skills Inventory: The following is a sample list of skills found in a cross section of careers. Circle every skill that
applies to you. Jot down examples of situations in your working life that demonstrate this skill. Then try to incorporate these
skills into your resume and/or cover letter. Good Luck!
administering programs planning agendas/meetings updating files

advising people planning organizational needs setting up demonstrations
analyzing data predicting futures sketching charts or diagrams
assembling apparatus rehabilitating people writing reports
auditing financial reports organizing tasks writing for publication
budgeting expenses prioritizing work expressing feelings
calculating numerical data creating new ideas checking for accuracy
finding information meeting people classifying records
handling complaints evaluating programs coaching individuals
handling detail work editing work collecting money
imagining new solutions tolerating interruptions compiling statistics
interpreting languages confronting other people inventing new ideas
dispensing information constructing buildings proposing ideas
adapting to new procedures coping with deadlines investigating problems
negotiating/arbitrating conflicts promoting events locating missing information
speaking to the public raising funds dramatizing ideas
writing letters/papers/proposals questioning others estimating physical space
reading volumes of material being thorough organizing files
remembering information coordinating schedules/times managing people
interviewing prospective employees running meetings selling products
listening to others supervising employees teaching/instructing/training
individuals
relating to the public enduring long hours inspecting physical objects
entertaining people displaying artistic ideas distributing products
deciding uses of money managing an organization delegating responsibility
measuring boundaries serving individuals mediating between people
counseling/consulting people motivating others persuading others
operating equipment reporting information summarizing information
supporting others encouraging others delegating responsibilities
determining a problem defining a problem comparing results
screening telephone calls maintaining accurate records drafting reports
collaborating ideas administering medication recommending ideas
overseeing operations motivating others generating accounts
teaching/instructing/training individuals thinking in a logical manner making decisions
becoming actively involved defining performance standards resolving conflicts
analyzing problems recommending courses of action selling ideas
preparing written communications expressing ideas orally to conducting interviews
individuals or groups
performing numeric analysis conducting meetings setting priorities
setting work/committee goals developing plans for projects gathering information
taking personal responsibility thinking of creative ideas providing discipline when necessary
maintaining a high level of activity enforcing rules and regulations meeting new people
developing a climate of enthusiasm, interacting with people at different picking out important information
teamwork, and cooperation levels
creating meaningful and challenging work taking independent action skillfully applying professional
knowledge
maintaining emotional control under stress knowledge of concepts and providing customers with services
principles
knowledge of community/government
affairs
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_skillinv.html
available at

OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts: Resume Design Page 1 of 6
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Chris Q. Surname
Campus Address Permanent Address

1234 Waldron Avenue 1234 Oriole Trail
West Lafayette, IN 47906 Long Beach, IN 46360
(317)-123-4567 (219)-123-4567
chrisq@email.address.com http://web.address/~chrisq
Objective
A sales and marketing internship allowing me to utilize my leadership and communication skills and apply my knowledge of the
health care industry
Education
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN May 1999

Krannert School of Management Major GPA: 3.1/4.0
B.S. in Management GPA 2.9/4.0
Marketing Minor
Human Resources Minor
Familiar Computer Applications

Microsoft Office Netscape Communicator
Microsoft Access Internet Explorer
Special Course Project
Acted as client liaison for Memorial Hospital as part of Business Writing team project
Conducted research and prepared report on more efficient communication systems
Volunteer Service
Volunteer, Memorial Hospital Pharmacy, Michigan City, IN December 1993 to May 1994
Prepared prescriptions to meet diverse needs of patients and customers

Ordered various pharmaceutical products from different suppliers, handled billing
Offered over 100 hours of volunteer service in health care facility
Work Experience
Cashier, Alvin's Supermarket, Michigan City, IN May 1995-August 1997
Trained new employees in customer relations and efficient money handling

Balanced cash register drawers and maintained high level of accuracy
Assisted manager with inventory and ordering procedures
Sales Associate, Nana's Cottage, Michigan City, IN July 1992-November 1994

Balanced registers and opened/closed store in a responsible manner
Leadership Activities
Old Masters Delta Sigma Pi Professional Fraternity

Krannert Employers Forum Hostess
Central Committee Co-Chair Management Ambassadors
Hostess Purdue Water Ski Club
Publicity March of Dimes Walk-America
Delta Gamma Sorority

Scannable Resumes
What is a scannable resume?
A scannable resume can be scanned into a computer using the latest document imaging technology, allowing employers to
search for applicants. It is a personal summary of your professional history and qualifications. It includes information about your
goals, education, work experience, activities, honors, and any special skills you might have. To view a sample in a browser, visit
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_scansamp.html.
You are probably thinking that a scannable resume sounds just like a traditional resume. You are right! You still want to include
all the same information but with a few adjustments that should be made to enhance the quality of your document. Using
keywords, proper format, and font/typestyle are very important because computer software is highly sensitive and a database
search is generally conducted with nouns and keywords most often used by that particular employer's industry. To avoid having
your resume overlooked, make sure to follow these guidelines.
Format
Left justify the entire document.
Avoid punctuation as much as possible.
If the computer is conducting a word search, it might not recognize a word with a comma or period after it. For example if
you type "leader, team player" the computer will read the comma as a letter in the word and reject or scramble the word
leaving that part of your resume unreadable. If you must have punctuation, be sure it doesn't touch the word.
Avoid vertical and horizontal lines, graphics, and boxes.

Use white or light-colored 8 x 11 paper.
Provide a laser-printed original if possible.
Do not fold or staple.
Place your name at the top on the page on its own line.
Use standard address format below your name.
If you have more than one address, one should be placed on top of the other.
Cornel West
2222 Ivy League Blvd
Harvard, MA 99999
Cornel West 4444

Scholarship Lane
Harvard, MA 77777
List each phone number on its own line.

Use only those abbreviations that are familiar with your field of study.
Use more nouns than action verbs. For exmaple, instead of writing "designed promotional materials" use a noun such as
"promotions designer" or "designer of promotions."
Keywords
Keywords are the most important part of the scannable resume. They can be incorporated in two ways. You can either use them
in your experience section or you can create a keyword summary that is placed at the end of your resume. Note: It is acceptable
to have one and half to two page resume.
Keywords are words that are commonly used in a particular industry. For example, a mechanical engineer might use words like
"manufacturing," "design," and "injection molding" in the experience section. But don't forget to turn those words into useful
nouns like "manufacturing supervisor," and "injection molding operator."
Several experts suggest using a keyword summary at the end of the scannable resume.* Here's an example:
Systems engineering Bachelor of Science degree Experience with power engineering consulting firm and municipal utility Research
in human machine interface of maintenance subsystem designs and procedures Staff budget and inventory manager for small
business
Font / Typestyle
Use standard type faces or sans serif fonts such as Times New Roman, New Century,
Schoolbook, Courier, Future, Geneva, Universe, and Palatino.
Use a font size of 10 to 12 points.
Avoid fancy font styles such as italics, underline, and shadows.
Boldface and CAPITAL letters are acceptable as long as the letters dont touch each
other.
Provide white space between words.
For example: separate an area code from its phone number with a space rather than parentheses: 765 123 - 4567
(also notice the space before and after the hyphen).
Avoid condensing the space between letters because they may touch.
Avoid using special characters such as bullets.
Mailing Tips
Do not fold or staple the scannable resume.
Mail in a 9 1/2 x 12 envelope.
Never send your traditional resume along with your scannable! The employer might scan the wrong one. If you are
concerned about the status of your application (unless explicitly stated otherwise) contact the human resources
department of your potential employer.
Handout written by Chad Gilezan, 1999

Revised by Marrese, 2000; Hughes, 2001
* Weddle, Peter. Internet Resumes . Manassas Park, VA: Impact Publications, 1998.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_scanres.html
available at

Skills List
These are some words commonly used to describe your skills on your resume.
Accomplish Delegate Innovate Publish

Achieve Demonstrate Inspect Qualify
Act Design Install Raise
Adapt Detail Institute Recommend
Administer Determine Instruct Reconcile
Advertise Develop Integrate Record
Advise Devise Interpret Recruit
Aid Direct Interview Rectify
Analyze Distribute Introduce Redesign
Apply Draft Invent Reduce
Approach Edit Investigate Regulate
Approve Employ Lead Relate
Arrange Encourage Maintain Renew
Assemble Enlarge Manage Report
Assess Enlist Manipulate Represent
Assign Establish Market Reorganize
Assist Estimate Mediate Research
Attain Evaluate Moderate Resolve
Budget Examine Modify Review
Build Exchange Monitor Revise
Calculate Execute Motivate Scan
Catalogue Exhibit Negotiate Schedule
Chair Expand Obtain Screen
Clarify Expedite Operate Select
Collaborate Facilitate Order Sell
Communicate Familiarize Organize Serve
Compare Forecast Originate Settle
Compile Formulate Oversee Solve
Complete Generate Perceive Speak
Conceive Govern Perform Staff
Conciliate Guide Persuade Standardize
Conduct Handle Plan Stimulate
Consult Head Prepare Stimulate
Contract Hire Present Summarize
Control Identify Preside Supervise
Cooperate Implement Process Support
Coordinate Improve Produce Survey
Correct Increase Program Synthesize
Counsel Index Promote Systematize
Create Influence Propose Teach
Decide Inform Provide Train
Define Initiate Publicize Transmit
Update Write
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_skilist.html
available at

Management Resumes
Tailoring Your Resume for a Management Position
Employers may receive hundreds of resumes for one position and often spend as little as a minute looking at each resume.
Often after a quick look an employer will decide whether to reject your resume or spend more time looking over it with care. It is
very important to create a resume that can make it past the first brief reading that it might get. Your resume will have a better
chance of being noticed if you have qualifications that the company is looking for.
Companies that hire management students generally look for students with:
previous experience(s) related to the job

educational background related to the job (major and minor)
strong communication skills
computer literacy
effective organization skills
ability to learn material quickly
qualities of a team player
Knowing what information to exclude from your resume is as important as knowing what to include. This will also help with
making more space available on your resume. Omit:
salary demands or expectations

preferences for work schedules, days off, or overtime
comments on fringe benefits
height, weight, hair or eye color
any disabilities
comments on personal life (ex: family)
Sections Of A Resume
Name, Address, Phone
Center this information at the top of the page. Make sure your name is in capital letters. Include your permanent and current
addresses below your name. Include your phone number as well as your email address.
DIANE HANDIE
6660 North River Road 555 S. Willy Wonka Ave.
West Lafayette, IN 47906 West Lafayette, IN 47906
(765) 555-3366 (765) 555-6666
E-Mail: dianehandie@purdue.edu
Career Objective Statement
One of the first things an employer reads is your objective statement. Include the title of the position for which you are applying,
the skills you have for that position, and what makes you an asset for the particular company. Your resume should prove that
your objective statement is true. This statement tells the employer what kind of job you are looking for and in what ways you are
qualified to hold it. Ask yourself these questions to get started on an objective statement:
What kind of job do I want? Or, what is the job for which I am applying?
What kind of job am I qualified for?
What kinds of skills and qualifications do I possess?
Example: A position as an Informational Technology Intern for General Electric providing opportunities to use my communication
and problem solving skills in an dynamic environment.
Education
In this section you should provide the name of your school, major, minor, GPA, and expected graduation date. Be sure to
include any study abroad experiences in this section as well. This is also the section in which to include any relevant major or
minor courses. Also, consider including computer skills have you mastered, such as computer languages and software
knowledge. Including computer related courses on your resume will emphasize your technical skills, which employers consider a
requirement for some management positions.
Example:
EDUCATION
Purdue University, School of Management, West Lafayette, IN May 2002

Bachelor of Science in Management, Minor in Management Information Systems
Overall G.P.A: 3.8/4.0
Major G.P.A. 3.5/4.0
Relevant Course Work:
Business Writing, Accounting, Finance, Organizational Behavior, Statistics, Database Management
Computer Skills:
Visual Basic 6.0, Microsoft Access, Microsoft Word, Excel, Java
Experience
Your previous experience, whether earned during internships or through other kinds of work, is the key category for many
employers hiring for management positions. This section indicates that you have held jobs before and that you are responsible,
as well as some of the specific skills that you could bring to your new job.
Here are some guidelines for writing your experience section:
Begin with your most recent position. List the company, location (city, state), and your title.
Highlight the position or positions you have had that are most relevant to the position you are seeking, but also make sure that you provide a
comprehensive employment history that includes your current job.
Provide a bulleted list description of your duties and achievements using action verbs. Make sure to use the past tense in your descriptions
unless you are currently interning or working for the company.
In describing your position(s), emphasize any responsibilities that involved handling money, teamwork, dealing with customers, etc. Employers
are interested in students with leadership experience as well.
Do not exaggerate or lie about your job duties.
If you do not have work experience that relates to the job that you are seeking, develop your previous work experience in detail using the above
techniques. Also, emphasize in greater detail the related skills you do have that are necessary for the position for which you are applying.
Use parallel verbs.
Example:
EXPERIENCE
GE APPLIANCES, Louisville, KY August 2000-December 2000

Information Technology Internship
Developed interactive mechanisms for email newsletter

Created TeamSite for Answercenters intranet site
Published research regarding click through rates from external companies with competitive newsletters
Worked with Interactive Marketing Group as well as Answer Center group
Achievements and Honors
This is the section where most students include activities that display their leadership abilities as well as their communication
skills and group involvement. It is necessary for students to imply that they are well-rounded individuals. This will emphasize the
skills you claimed to possess in your objective statement and can help you to stand apart from other students. Employers
sometimes seek students who are involved with campus activities. Including activities on your resume also suggests that you are
able to work on multiple projects successfully and demonstrates leadership experience. This is also the section where students
mention academic honors, such as being on the Deans List and/or belonging to honor societies. Have you won any awards or
scholarships or received a raise or other promotion?
Example:
ACHIEVEMENTS AND HONORS
Alpha Lambda Delta Honor Society

Habitat for Humanity Actively involved in construction of homes as well as publicity committee
Purdue Convocation Volunteered at many performances and on publicity committee
Delta Sigma Pi Professional Management Fraternity, recruitment and publicity committee
References
It is not necessary to include references on a management resume. Make sure to have a separate reference sheet listing all
your references in case the company asks you to produce them. It is not necessary to put "References available upon request,"
unless you have space and would like to do so.
Works Cited
1. Asher, Donald. The Overnight Resume . Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1999.
2. Henry, Kay. Personal Interview. 5 March 2001.
3. Kohne, Shay. Personal Interview. 5 March 2001.
This handout was written by Rumya Gangadharan.

HTML conversion and markup by Erin Karper.
July 2001
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_manresumes.html
available at

Your Resume
The most important fact to keep in mind when you begin compiling information for your resume is that it is YOUR resume; you
can do anything with it that you think is appropriate for the company and position you want. There is no "fill in the blank" way of
writing a resume. In your resume, employers usually want to see how you are qualified to work with their company and how you
can convey your specific qualifications effectively in print.
You should try to be as persuasive as possible when writing your resume; you are trying to sell yourself and your skills. The
employer will not struggle to find hidden information, and very small print is extremely difficult to read. To avoid this pitfall, clear
and easy-to- read font sizes/styles are recommended. However, even the most legible resume is not effective unless it seems
to meet the specific needs of the company.
Research the company and think about what qualifications the employer will most likely be looking for. Next, tailor your resume
to show off any special abilities or training you have in the area. This emphasis on resume focus can be accomplished, in part,
by the format you choose for your resume. There are several typical formatting and organizational arrangements for resumes.
The next few pages will give you a summary and example of some of the most widely used styles. Use whatever combination of
organizational styles you think would best highlight your individual qualifications.
You can design your resume to show your skills, personality, and qualifications for a position. Many times a resume is your first
contact with a prospective employer, and you should make it count. This is your chance to stand out from the crowd and to show
off your unique qualifications for the position. Try to highlight the experiences that make your background or education special.
The emphasis of your resume can be shifted, in part, by the format you choose to use in your resume.
Resumes have several standard sections which contain information that the employer will want or need to know such as Name,
Address, Career Objective, Education, Job Related Courses, Work Experience, Skills, Activities, Honors, References, and Portfolio.
Not all of these sections are necessary on every type of resume, and the sections do not necessarily have to go in any particular
order. Some of the most common organizational styles are Functional, Skills, Chronological, and Imaginative.
Other handouts in our professional writing section will help you to learn more about the resume. Visit
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/index.html to see more.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_yresindex.html
available at

Section Information and Examples
We now have an entire set of handouts on sections of the resume available at
http:/owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/sections/index.html that includes exercises that can help you generate the sections
yourself. The content here is just a brief overview.
Most resumes have certain things in common because every employer needs information such as your name, address, and
phone number. This section of the handout offers a list of some of the commonly seen resume items along with explanations
and examples of each. Each section is not used on all types of resumes, and they are not listed in any particular order.
Remember, you are working on your resume, so pick and choose what works best for your needs.
Name, Address, and Phone Number
All resumes should include your name, address, and phone number, unless they are being posted on the World Wide Web. If
you are posting your resume on the Internet, consider excluding contact information other than your email address to protect
your privacy.
Example:
Sara J. Shelton
RR#2 Box QQQQ 123 College Dr.

Thorntown, IN 12345 West Lafayette, IN 54321
(765) 555-7863 (765) 555-5949
(After 4-30-97) (Before 4-29-97)
Objective
This section gives the employer a brief glimpse of how your qualifications will benefit the company. Try not to fall into the
me-me-me trap of telling employers what they can do for you. Instead, show employers what you can do for them.
Example of "me-me" : A position where I can gain experience in writing computer documents.
Revision: A position which allows me to use my background in computer science to write computer documentation.
Education
This section is very important for most new graduates. It sometimes includes information such as university attended, degrees
earned, major, minors, grade point average, date of program completion, and so forth.
Examples:
Purdue University
Bachelor of Arts: May 1997
Major: Professional Writing
Minor: Industrial Technology
GPA: major 5.5 overall 5.19
-or-
B.A. Professional Writing, Technical Option

Minor: Computer Applications in Industry
Purdue University May 1997
GPA (6.0 scale): major 5.5 overall 5.19
Job Related Courses

Some students wish to emphasize certain aspects of their education by listing course names (not university course numbers) of
specific classes they have completed. You may want to specify courses that have provided skills and/or knowledge which would
be beneficial to the position you are seeking. The employment recruiters are familiar with the basic requirements such as
Introduction to Sociology and English Composition I and II. You should list the courses that set you apart from the crowd, not
make you seem like just another graduate.
Examples:
Business Accounting (4 semesters)

Technical Writing
Writing for the Computer Industry
Molecular Biology
Cellular Neurobiology
Plant Physiology
Work Experience
Work experience refers to positions you have held which are, in some way, related to the position you are seeking. This area
may include information such as job title, company name and address, dates, and duties performed. Usually job descriptions are
broken down into lists of action phrases that itemize the significant details of your duties.
Example:
Technical Writer, Documentation Department

Howard Sams and Company, 300 Parkway Dr., Indianapolis, IN 46202
(317) 875-1000
May 1994 - December 1997
edited user manuals for electronic equipment

designed graphics for electronic schematic repair manuals
wrote articles for monthly company newsletter
used various computer software and desktop publishing applications
Skills
If you are using a skills format, this section demonstrates the skills you have mastered that would be useful for the position you
are seeking. These skills do not necessarily have to be the result of employment. Course assignments often provide valuable
exposure to skills. For a list of verbs you can use here, see the Writing Lab's Skills List handout at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_skilist.html.
Example:
designed resume handout currently used by Purdue University Writing Lab

produced complete instruction manual for using Postnews/Readnews in Purdue Writing Lab
wrote user manual for Mail-X mailer in technical writing course
Activities and Honors

This section gives you a chance to note special activities you participated in or special accolades that you would like the employer
to know you have received.
Examples:
Dean's List (Fall 1992, Spring 1993, Fall 1994, Spring 1995)
National winner of Society of Technical Communications Scholarship
References and Portfolios

A reference sheet is a list of professional acquaintances who are willing to talk with prospective employers about you and your
demonstrated abilities. For more about reference sheets, visit http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_reference.html
Your portfolio is a selection of professional quality work that you can give the employer as examples of your capabilities.
You may either send these items with your resume and cover letter or wait until the company requests copies of them. To notify
the company that these items are available, many people make note of the fact at the bottom of their resume.
Example:
Portfolio and References: Available Upon Request

References Provided Upon Request
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_yresection.html
available at

Resume Styles
Functional Resume Style
This style is one of the most commonly used resume styles, and it works well for people who have had internships
or cooperative experiences. This type of resume highlights previous work experience that has given you
background experience for the job you are seeking. You might want to try listing the company name first if you
have worked for a particularly prestigious company. Otherwise, listing the title first gives the employer a good
sense of your work progress and duties. However, you should be consistent in using either title first or company
first. You can also skip any jobs that do not apply, and you do not have to put the jobs in chronological order. It
usually looks best to list the most important or impressive job first, and work downward in importance regardless of
the dates of employment.
Example:
Kevin Dolan
1965 E 250 N
Lebanon, IN 46052
(317) 325-2519
Employment Objective
A summer position that would utilize my experience in program
development and human relations
Education
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Bachelor of Science in General Management, May 1995
Bachelor of Arts in Sociology, May 1994
GPA (6.0 scale): Management - 5.8 Sociology - 5.5
Overall - 5.6
Distinguished Student Program
Experience
President, Purdue Grand Prix Foundation, May 1993-May 1994
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
- Coordinated work and activities for 175 students
- Set up and managed $3,000,000 budget
- Oversaw planning of 15 major events involving over 17,000
students and 6,000 non-students
- Designed statewide publicity program utilizing alumni
representatives of five major corporations
- Raised over $50,000 for individual and general scholarships
Assistant Chair, Purdue Grand Prix Foundation, June 1992-May 1993

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
- Secured over $2,000 in donations
- Allocated fuel for cart crews
Chair, Purdue Boiler Bouts Association, May-October 1993

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
- Organized fraternity boxing matches to raise money for charity
- Raised over $2,700 for Boys' Club and United Way Fund
Additional Activities
FSBIT Advisory Board
Student Alumni Coalition
President's Council
References
Available Upon Request
Skills Resume Style

The skills style is well suited to students who have gained valuable experience through a number of unrelated jobs
and courses. This format is also appropriate for people who are making a significant change in careers. It
emphasizes what you can do, not where you have worked. Applicable skills can be established through any
activities that you feel will demonstrate your qualifications: courses, work, volunteer activities, personal life, and so
forth. For example, if you talked to customers as you waited on them at McDonald's, investigated shipper's
complaints or problems at a household moving company; and gave presentations in a psychology course, you
have demonstrated communications skills. However, try to match your skills to the position you are applying for. If
you are applying for a Customer Service Representative position, you might list the McDonald's and the moving
company activities under a heading called Customer Service Skills.
Jennifer Iannucilli
Permanent Address (after 5-92) Current Address (before 5-92)

1010 Thrush Lane 241 Sheetz St.
Mt Pleasant, SC 29083 West Lafayette, IN 47907
(812) 555-1212 (317) 555-6789
Professional Goal
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A career in personnel management that would involve coordinating
and training skills
Education
~~~~~~~~~
Purdue University: expected graduation, May 1998
Bachelor of Arts in Public Relations
Minor: General Management
GPA (4.0 scale) Major 3.8 Minor 3.9 Overall 3.7
Major Related Courses
Personnel Management, Interviewing, Labor Relations, Industrial
Psychology, Organizational Psychology, Business Law, Marketing
Skills
~~~~~~
Coordinating
- planned and organized campaign for Grand Prix Queen candidate
- assisted in planning and organizing a sorority rush program
- supervised dining room preparation at the Sheraton Plaza
- developed and presented peer counseling seminar for the
American Personal Guidance Convention, Washington DC, 1994
Training
- supervised the implementation of peer counseling programs in
St. Louis high schools
- instructed other employees in proper food and beverage
services
- tutored students in College Algebra and Marketing courses
Work Experience (paid for 100% of college expenses)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Waitress, Sagamore Room, Purdue Memorial Union, 8/94 to present
Salesperson, University Book Store, Purdue University, 7/95 to 8/97
References
~~~~~~~~~~
Available upon request
Chronological Resume Style

This style of organization is very conservative, and it is most useful for people who have work experience in
positions which are closely related to their desired employment. This style is also most suited to people who have
not had long periods of unemployment time between jobs. This format starts with the present, or most recent, job
and progresses back in time.
Example:
David Allan Taylor
Home Address: Work Address:

230 South Chauncey Street 1021 Melrose Drive
West Lafayette, IN 47906 Anderson, IN 46011
(765) 743-4907 (765) 642-7029
Career Objective
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A career in landscape design with emphasis on housing and real estate
development
Education
~~~~~~~~~
Purdue University
Bachelor of Science in Landscape Architecture Candidate May 1994
Grade Point Average 5.46 on 6.00 scale
Work Experience
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Selig Landscaping, Box 324 St. Rd 36, Indianapolis, IN
May 1993 - August 1993
- Drafted planting designs for commercial and residential projects
- Figured cost estimates for subcontractor bidding
- Installed landscape designs and plant materials
Philip L. Strock Residence, 1018 N Madison Ave, Anderson, IN

- Drafted residential planting designs
- Installed landscape plans
Indianapolis Museum of Art, 1200 W 38th St., Indianapolis, IN

- Maintained the landscape of the Lily Mansion and Art Museum
- Worked in turf maintenance, tree pruning, and shrub care
TGZ Interiors, 21 E 23rd St., Anderson, IN

Summer 1990, 1989, 1988
- Waited on clients
- Received and priced inventory
Honors and Activities

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Sigma Lambda Alpha - Landscape Architecture Honorary
Pi Alpha Xi - Horticulture Honorary
Dean's List - Fall 1991, Fall 1992, Spring 1993
Imaginative Resume Style

This style is most effective for people who are seeking employment in a field which demands creativity and
individuality, such as graphic design, creative writing, or landscape architecture. Some employers, however, prefer a
more conservative resume style. You should research your companies thoroughly to see if they are open to
creative resumes. This type of resume acts like a mini-portfolio item because it demonstrates a combination of
layout, graphics, text integration, and audience selection. These resumes can be extremely impressive if they are
well-designed.
The use of color graphics is usually applicable, but the cost of duplicating and printing color resumes
is sometimes a problem. Color graphics were not feasible for this example, so a black and white
image was designed for it.
Applicant
Kim Ballard
115-4-Marshall Drive
West Lafayette, IN 47906
(765) 743-2806
Career Goals
A graphic design position in a fast-paceddesign firm which
requires both traditional and computer
assisted graphic processes
Education
BS in Graphic Design
May 1987
AS in Technical Graphics
August 1986
Professional Experience
Senior Art Director
Signs-R-Us
120 W. Main St.
Lafayette, IN 47906
May 1985 to Present
Designer
Point Blank
1106 S. Elm St.
Delphi, IN 46087
June 1984 to March 1985
Art Assistant
Powell Design
2110 E. Park Dr.
Lebanon, IN 46052
December 1982 to April 1984
References and Portfolio Available

Upon Request
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_yrestyles.html

Reference Sheets
A reference sheet is a list of professional acquaintances who know your work and are willing to talk to prospective employers. You
should always ask permission before you include any information on your reference sheet. You might also offer to give your
reference people copies of your resume; an employer may ask questions that will be easier to answer if the person has a copy
of your resume information.
You can use a variety of format styles for your reference sheet, but the format you choose should reflect the style of your
resume and cover letter because many employers put all of your documents into one file. Any inconsistency in formatting will
look unprofessional.
For more about reference sheets, visit our handout at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_reference.html
Example:
Thompson E. Boyd
123 E. Salisbury #4
(765) 555-1234
References
Dr. Mary W. Shelley Dr. Franz Kafka

Heavilon Hall, Room 226 Lilly Life Sciences, #1-105
Purdue University Purdue University
(765) 494-1817 (765) 494-1011
Dr. Shelley is my current I worked closely with Dr. Kafka

academic advisor in the in a Department of Entomology
Creative Writing and experiment series.
Science Fiction program.
Mr. Elliot Ness Ms. U. Jean O'Neill

Federal Research Division, #PI Heavilon Hall, Room 513
Office of Personnel Management Purdue University
Washington, DC 20006 West Lafayette, IN 47907
No phone contact, please (765) 494-1923
Mr. Ness was a former Ms. O'Neill and I counseled

instructor for a criminal emotionally disturbed adults
justice course at during a Sociology of Family
Purdue University. Relationships project.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_yresreference.html
available at

Resume Sections
This file is a compilation of all of the parts of the "Sections of the Resume" hypertext available
at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/sections/index.html. If you would like to
download handouts of each section or exercises for each section, please visit
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/index.html.
Creating a resume can be a difficult task, but this task will be easier if you are familiar with the
different sections that you can use to create your resume. This multi-part handout outlines
sections that can be included on a resume. Some of the sections should always be included on
a resume; you can choose whether or not to include some of the other sections. Most writers
do not include all of the possible sections, but include only those that highlight their own
unique skills. Remember that the goal of the resume is to get an interview with an employer,
so you should include the sections that portray you at your best.
Remember: When applying for a job in the United States, do not include personal information
about your age, sex, marital status, children or religion on your resume. Your employer may
not legally ask for this information, and you may put him/her in an awkward situation by
volunteering it.
Name
College Address--Permanent Addresss
Career or Job Objective, Professional Objective, Career Goal
Education
Related Coursework, Significant Courses
Special Projects
Academic Awards
Work Experience or Experience
Skills, Abilities or Qualifications
Activities and Honors, College Activities, Affiliations
References
Your Name and Address
Name
Place your full legal name prominently at the top of your resume. You may use your full middle
name or just an initial. Most writers center their name and highlight it by using a larger font,
bolding, or underlining.
Address
It is important to provide your prospective employer with as many means of contacting you as
possible. If you are a college or university student, or if you are planning on changing
addresses for any reason, it is important to include both addresses and dates for when you will
be at them.
Your address section should include:
Both your school address and permanent address (if you are a college or university
student) and dates for when you will be at each address.
If you are changing addresses for any reason, provide both your current and future
addresses and dates for when you will be at each address.
Provide telephone numbers at each address that appears on your resume.
You may also include your email address and home page address, if available.
Here is an example of a name and address section for a university student.
DIANE HANDIE
(765) 555-3366 (765) 555-6666
Your Objective Statement

Try our objective statement exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_objectiveEX.html to help you generate an
objective statement.
An objective statement is a 1-3 sentence summary of your qualifications for a specific position.
You might think of it as the thesis statement for your resume. Everything contained in the
resume should work to prove that what you have said in your objective statement is true and
that you are qualified for the position you want. Although objective statements are not
technically required elements of the resume, they are essential for readers to be able to
understand what position you want and what your qualifications are.
Relate your career objective directly to the job you want. Be as specific as possible so that
your reader will understand what job you are seeking and the way in which you can contribute
to the organization. This statement should forecast the remainder of the resume by noting
skills gained through your education, work experience or activities.
Your objective statement should include:
the length of the position you are seeking

the job title you for which you are applying (if possible)
the field or industry in which you wish to work
your most relevant skills or qualifications
Here are some examples of objective statements.
A full-time position involving the development of management information systems on mini or

microcomputers, using my communication and problem solving skills, and leading to
responsibilities as a systems analyst.
A summer internship as a project engineer with a construction company that will utilize my
experience in field engineering, cost controlling and estimating.
A position as a systems analyst which will allow me to use my programming, technical writing
and supervisory skills to lead a group of dynamic employees.
Your Education
Try our education section exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_educationEX.html to help you generate this
section of your resume.
This section is an important one for most students, and it is a required element of the
resume. In this section, you should include:
The name and location of your college or university

Your degree and graduation date
Your major(s) and minor(s)
Grade point average (your cumulative GPA and your major GPA are
optional)
Use placement of information, bold type or underlining to highlight the features you want to
emphasize. It is sometimes necessary to pinpoint a feature or features that make you standout
among other students. For example, students bold their university or college if they feel like
that is a distinctive feature. Others may decide to bold their type of degree.
Here are two examples of education sections, with different information emphasized.
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

Bachelor of Science, May 1999
Major: Supervision; GPA 5.5/6.0
Bachelor of Science in Accounting, May 1999

Minor in Finance, GPA: 5.5/6.0 Major, 5.2/6.0 Overall
Related Coursework
This is an optional part of your Education section, which can be quite impressive and
informative for potential employers. Students seeking internships may want to list all
completed major-related courses. Graduates might list job-related courses different than those
required to receive the degree (employers will already be aware of those). Include high-level
courses in optional concentrations, foreign languages, computer applications or
communications classes. You may choose more meaningful headings such as "Computer
Applications" if you wish to emphasize particular areas.
Remember - employers and recruiters are familiar with the basic courses required in your
major. Limit these sections to special courses or skills you have to offer.
Special Projects
This optional section may be added to point out special features of your education that are
particularly interesting to employers or that may make you more qualified than others for the
job you are seeking. Students often include research, writing, or computer projects. Limit your
description to the most important facts. You may expand your discussion in your application
letter.
Academic Awards
Your scholarships and academic awards can be included in your Education section if you wish.
This will identify them as being different from your club affiliations and activities. You may,
also place them under a general heading of "Activities and Honors" as described later in this
handout.
Your Work Experience

Try our experience section exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_experienceEX.html to help you generate an
experience section.
This is the most complex section of your resume, and it is required, although you have a great
deal of freedom in the way your present your experiences. To get started on this section, make
a list of your job titles and the names, dates and locations of places where you worked.
Break each job (paid or unpaid) into short, descriptive phrases or sentences that begin with
action verbs. These phrases will highlight the skills you used on the job, and help the employer
envision you as an active person in the workplace. Use action words to describe the work you
did.
You may choose special typestyles, bolding, underlining, or placement to draw your reader's
attention to the information you want to emphasize. When the company you worked for is
more impressive than your job title, you may want to highlight that information.
Here are some examples of experience sections.
LOAN CLERK
Applied payments to principal and interest on student loans

Deposited payments
Assisted in balancing year-end accounts and ledgers
Answered college switchboard
Chadron State College, Chadron, NE, May - August, 1986
CHADRON STATE COLLEGE, Chadron, NE, May - August, 1986

Loan Clerk
Applied payments on student loans

Deposited payments
Try our experience section exercise at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_experienceEX.html to help you generate an
experience section.
Your Skills and Qualifications

While not all resumes contain a skills section, this may be helpful when you want to emphasize
the skills you have acquired from your various jobs or activities, rather than the duties, or the
job title. If you do not have enough previous experience for a specific job you are seeking for,
it is important to emphasize your skills pertaining to that job.
Skills can be just as important as work experience to employers. To prepare this section you
should:
List jobs, activities, projects and special offices.

Think of skills you have gained through those experiences.
Group these skills into 3 - 5 job related skills categories and use these as headings.
List your skills with significant details under the headings.
Arrange headings in order of importance as they relate to your career objective.
Arrange skills under headings in order of importance according to your goal.
Example:
Leadership
Conducted monthly club and board meetings for Lafayette Junior Woman's Club.
Headed club's $8,000 philanthropic project sponsored by Tippecanoe County Historical
Association.
Coordinated responsibilities of committees to sell and serve food to 1500 people at fund
raiser.
Business Communication
Completed a formal report for Business Writing course.

Wrote annual state and district reports of all club's community service projects,
volunteered hours and monetary donations.
Compiled, type, mimeographed and distributed club books to each member.
Financial Management
Supervised the collection and dispersion of $4,000 in funds to various agencies and
projects.
Wrote and analyzed periodic business statements regarding funds to specific
projects/agencies.
Your Activities and Honors

This optional section points out your leadership, sociability and energy level as shown by your
involvement in different activities. This should be your shortest section and should support
your career objective. Additional information about activities can be included in your
application letter or discussed at your interview.
Try our honors and activities section exercise at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_honorsactEX.html to help you develop this
section.
You should:
Select only activities and honors that support your career objective.
List your college organizations and arrange them in order of importance as they relate to
your career objective.
Include any office or official position you held.
Spell out any acronyms your employer may not recognize.
Include dates.
Example:
Accounting Club, President

Alpha Zeta Professional Fraternity
Purdue Grand Prix Foundation, President
Purdue Association for the Education of Young Children (PAEYC)
Your References
You can choose whether to include references on your resume or only include a statement
saying, "References Available Upon Request." Most writers include the statement and then
compile a reference sheet to submit to employers when references are requested. Regardless
of which option you choose, before submitting information about references to a potential
employer, permission should be sought from your references to use them as personal contacts.
For more about references, see our handout on preparing your reference sheet at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_reference.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/sections/p_allsections.html
Use of this site, including printing and distributing our handouts, constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of
fair use, available at

Resume Sections: Your Name and Address
While these guidelines are recommended for traditional resumes that you will hand out and mail to companies, consider
excluduing contact information other than your email address for resumes that will be posted on the Internet where anyone will
have access to your address and phone number.
Name
Place your full legal name prominently at the top of your resume. You may use your full middle name or just an initial. Most
writers center their name and highlight it by using a larger font, bolding, or underlining.
Address
It is important to provide your prospective employer with as many means of contacting you as possible. If you are a college or
university student, or if you are planning on changing addresses for any reason, it is important to include both addresses and
dates for when you will be at them.
Your address section should include:
Both your school address and permanent address (if you are a college or university student) and dates for when you will
be at each address.
If you are changing addresses for any reason, provide both your current and future addresses and dates for when you will
be at each address.
Provide telephone numbers at each address that appears on your resume.
You may also include your email address and home page address, if available.
Here is an example of a name and address section for a university student.
DIANE HANDIE
(765) 555-3366 (765) 555-6666
To learn more about protecting your privacy when posting resumes on the Internet, see the following sites:
http://www.Job-Hunt.Org/privacy.shtml
http://www.Job-Hunt.Org/resumecybersafe.shtml
http://www.Job-Hunt.Org/internetresume.shtml
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/sections/p_address.html
available at

Objective Statements Exercise
To practice writing your objective statement, read through the information and answer the questions contained in this handout.
What is an objective statement?
A short section (usually 1-3 lines), often in the form of a sentence fragment, immediately below your contact information.
An "at a glance" picture of you and your career interests.
Other names: Professional Objective, Resume Capsule, Career Goals, etc.
Why write one?
An objective statement will allow you to:
Emphasize key qualifications, skills and/or goals

Help your readers find what they need to know quickly
Make a good first impression
A good objective statement answers questions:
What position(s) are you applying for?

What are your main qualifications?
What are your career goals?
What is your professional identity?
How do you get started?
Research individual employers in your field: In what ways are employers alike? Different?
Reflect on your overall qualifications and career goals: In what ways are they typical? Unique?
Questions to ask about yourself:
What are your main qualifications, strengths, skills, and areas of expertise?
What position(s)--or type of position--are you seeking?
What are some of your professional goals?
What type of organization or work setting are you most interested in?
Questions to ask about employers:
What qualifications are most desired by employers in your field?

What positions are available on the job market? What are they titled?
What are some goals of the organizations that interest you?
What kinds of organizations are now hiring?
Which objective statement is best?
The one that best
Emphasizes your qualifications and/or goals

Appeals to employer expectations
Youll probably need to write more than one objective statement.
Tailor for each type of position that interests you and, for best results, modify for each particular employer (as necessary)
Practice in writing objective statements
To write instant objective statements for practice, fill in the parts in brackets:
To utilize my [qualifications, strengths, or skills] as a [position title]

A position as a [position title] for [company name] allowing me to develop my [qualifications, strengths, or skills]
An opportunity to [professional goal] in a [type of organization, work environment, or field] using my [qualifications,
strengths, or skills]
[position title] with emphasis in [areas of expertise]
This handout revised July 2001 by the business writing staff.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_objectiveEX.html
available at

Resume Sections: Your Objective Statement
Try our objective statement exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_objectiveEX.html to help you generate an
An objective statement is a 1-3 sentence summary of your qualifications for a specific position. You might think of it as the
thesis statement for your resume. Everything contained in the resume should work to prove that what you have said in your
objective statement is true and that you are qualified for the position you want. Although objective statements are not technically
required elements of the resume, they are essential for readers to be able to understand what position you want and what your
qualifications are.
Relate your career objective directly to the job you want. Be as specific as possible so that your reader will understand what job
you are seeking and the way in which you can contribute to the organization. This statement should forecast the remainder of
the resume by noting skills gained through your education, work experience or activities.
Your objective statement should include:
the length of the position you are seeking

the job title you for which you are applying (if possible)
the field or industry in which you wish to work
your most relevant skills or qualifications
Here are some examples of objective statements.
A full-time position involving the development of management information systems on mini or microcomputers, using my
communication and problem solving skills, and leading to responsibilities as a systems analyst.
A summer internship as a project engineer with a construction company that will utilize my experience in field engineering, cost
controlling and estimating.
A position as a systems analyst which will allow me to use my programming, technical writing and supervisory skills to lead a
group of dynamic employees.
Try our objective statement exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_objectiveEX.html to help you generate an

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/p_objective.html
available at

Education Section Exercise
Read this information and work through these questions to help yourself develop the education section of your resume. You may
want to print out this handout and write down answers to the questions in order to help yourself generate ideas.
What is an education section?
A section that emphasizes your educational background and formal training

Usually a major section for college students and recent graduates
Where should you place your education section?
Above or below your experience section? It depends . . .
Which is stronger, your education or work experience section?

How much relevant work experience do you have?
Place the strongest and most relevant section closest to the top of the page.
What should you include in your education section?
There is some information that the education section should always include. To get started, write down all of the following
information:
Schools you have attended including universities, community colleges, technical schools, etc.
Location of school(s)
Date of graduation, actual or anticipated
Degree(s) earned or pursued
Grade Point Average (GPA)
You may include either your overall GPA or only your "Major GPA" which includes your average grade point for classes
taken in your major.
Other information may be placed in this section as well. Answer the following questions:
What are my major and minor GPAs?

How was my degree funded?
Did I receive academic honors related to my degree?
Did I work on any special projects for class? List of describe these briefly.
Were there, are there, or will there be any honors related to my degree?
How is my education funded?
What are my major(s) and minor(s)? What are my areas of emphasis, specialization, or concentration?
What special course or degree-related projects may be relevant?
What courses have I taken that are related to my career goals?
With what computer programs am I most familiar?
What language proficiencies do I have?
Do I have any certifications or licenses?
Do I have any on-the-job educational training such as in-house training programs?
How do you organize an education section and tailor it for your readers?
Selecting content for readers:
After answering the questions above, you may find you have too much information to include on your resume. It may be
necessary to choose which information to include and which to leave off. To decide what information to include:
Consider how much space you have on the resume

Read job ads closely
Highlight all educational experiences that you have that may prove relevant to the job
Select your most relevant educational experiences or those for which you have space
Organizing content for readers:
It is a good idea to organize the information in your education section so that it is easy to read and so that the most important
information stands out.
Organization depends on content selected and emphasis desired

Do you need sub-sections?
Do you need to develop content into separate sections?
List educational experiences in chronological order or in order or in order of importance.
Designing content for readers:
Consider using the following formatting choices to present your content:

Subheadings
Indenting
Columns/tables
Parentheses
Bulleted lists
Paragraphs
Make sure that your education section will match with the rest of the sections of your resume in terms of layout, fonts, and other
formatting choices.
Sample Education Section
Education
B.A. in Professional Writing, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana,

May 2001 (Funded 100% of Schooling)
Concentration: Business and Technical Writing
Select Coursework: Computer-aided Publishing, Writing for the Computer Industry, Business Writing, Technical Writing,
Advanced Professional Writing
Overall GPA: 3.4/4.0 Major GPA: 3.7/4.0
Taken from "Developing Your Resume: The Education Section" by Bryan Kopp.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_educationEX.html
available at

Resume Sections: Your Education
Try our education section exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_educationEX.html to help you generate this
This section is an important one for most students, and it is a required element of the resume. In this section, you should
include:
The name and location of your college or university

Your degree and graduation date
Your major(s) and minor(s)
Grade point average (your cumulative GPA and your major GPA are
optional)
Use placement of information, bold type or underlining to highlight the features you want to emphasize. It is sometimes
necessary to pinpoint a feature or features that make you standout among other students. For example, students bold their
university or college if they feel like that is a distinctive feature. Others may decide to bold their type of degree.
Here are two examples of education sections, with different information emphasized.

Bachelor of Science, May 1999
Major: Supervision; GPA 5.5/6.0
Bachelor of Science in Accounting, May 1999

Minor in Finance, GPA: 5.5/6.0 Major, 5.2/6.0 Overall
Related Coursework
This is an optional part of your Education section, which can be quite impressive and informative for potential employers.
Students seeking internships may want to list all completed major-related courses. Graduates might list job-related courses
different than those required to receive the degree (employers will already be aware of those). Include high-level courses in
optional concentrations, foreign languages, computer applications or communications classes. You may choose more meaningful
headings such as "Computer Applications" if you wish to emphasize particular areas.
Remember - employers and recruiters are familiar with the basic courses required in your major. Limit these sections to special
courses or skills you have to offer.
Special Projects
This optional section may be added to point out special features of your education that are particularly interesting to employers
or that may make you more qualified than others for the job you are seeking. Students often include research, writing, or
computer projects. Limit your description to the most important facts. You may expand your discussion in your application letter.
Academic Awards
Your scholarships and academic awards can be included in your Education section if you wish. This will identify them as being
different from your club affiliations and activities. You may, also place them under a general heading of "Activities and Honors"
as described later in this handout.
Try our education section exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_educationEX.html to help you generate this
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_education.html
available at

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Resume Sections: Your Work Experience
Try our experience section exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_experienceEX.html to help you generate an
experience section.
This is the most complex section of your resume, and it is required, although you have a great deal of freedom in the way your
present your experiences. To get started on this section, make a list of your job titles and the names, dates and locations of
places where you worked.
Break each job (paid or unpaid) into short, descriptive phrases or sentences that begin with action verbs. These phrases will
highlight the skills you used on the job, and help the employer envision you as an active person in the workplace. Use action
words to describe the work you did.
You may choose special typestyles, bolding, underlining, or placement to draw your reader's attention to the information you want
to emphasize. When the company you worked for is more impressive than your job title, you may want to highlight that
information.
Here are some examples of experience sections.
LOAN CLERK
Applied payments to principal and interest on student loans

Deposited payments
Chadron State College, Chadron, NE, May - August, 1986
CHADRON STATE COLLEGE, Chadron, NE, May - August, 1986

Loan Clerk
Applied payments on student loans

Deposited payments
Try our experience section exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_experienceEX.html to help you generate an

experience section.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/sections/p_experience.html
available at

Honors and Activities Section Exercise
Read this information and work through these questions to help yourself develop the honors and activities section of your
resume. You may want to print out this handout and write down answers to the questions in order to help yourself generate
ideas.
What is an honors and activities section?
The honors and activities section is a section that emphasizes your participation in relevant activities and any honors you
have received.
Other names for it are: Awards, Memberships, Volunteer Work, Hobbies.
What goes into this section?
Your title or position

Sponsors or affiliated organizations
Dates of involvement
Where should you put this section?
Usually the last section on on the page

Sometimes omitted.
May follow this section with "References Available upon Request"
How do you get started with this section?
List past and present activities: include extracurricular activities, membership in professional clubs and organizations,
volunteer activities, and hobbies.
List past and present honors: include awards, grants, prizes, and special honors
What if you dont have enough room to include all of your honors and activities?
The size of your honors and activities section depends on three factors: potential relevance, potential interest-value to
employers, and space available. Your honors and activities section may be short list at bottom or may be a major section,
resembling your work experience section.
It is a good idea to draft the honors and activities section last, after you have written your objective, education and experience
sections, in order to see how much room is left for extra information. . Keep in mind that you do not have to include everything
in this or any resume section. Include only enough to spark interest in the eyes of resume readers.
Consider the following questions when putting together this section:
How relevant are your honors and activities? Circle your most relevant honors and activities.
Which honors and activities would most interest prospective employers? Circle the most interesting honors and activities
on your list.
How much space do you have? This section may be a short list at the bottom or it may be a major section, resembling
work experience.
How can you tailor this section?
Select content that supports your qualifications and matches the job description.
Consider organizing your activities and honors by order of importance.
Use professional wording and integrate job-specific terms into your descriptions.
Sample Honors and Activities Sections
You can use either a minimal or more elaborate approach for your honors and activities section.
Minimal approach
Photography Club, University of Illinois, January 1999-Present
More elaborate approach
President, Photography Club, University of Illinois, January 1999-Present
Organized campus contest

Increased membership with promotional efforts

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_honorsactEX.html
available at

Resume Sections: Your Activities and Honors
This optional section points out your leadership, sociability and energy level as shown by your involvement in different activities.
This should be your shortest section and should support your career objective. Additional information about activities can be
included in your application letter or discussed at your interview.
Try our honors and activities section exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_honorsactEX.html to help you
develop this section.
You should:
Select only activities and honors that support your career objective.
List your college organizations and arrange them in order of importance as they relate to your career objective.
Include any office or official position you held.
Spell out any acronyms your employer may not recognize.
Include dates.
Example:
Accounting Club, President

Alpha Zeta Professional Fraternity
Purdue Grand Prix Foundation, President
Purdue Association for the Education of Young Children (PAEYC)
Try our honors and activities section exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_honorsactEX.html to help you
develop this section.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/sections/p_activities.html
available at

Resume Sections: Your References
You can choose whether to include references on your resume or only include a statement saying, "References Available Upon
Request." Most writers include the statement and then compile a reference sheet to submit to employers when references are
requested. Regardless of which option you choose, before submitting information about references to a potential employer,
permission should be sought from your references to use them as personal contacts.
For more about references, see our handout on preparing your reference sheet at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_reference.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/sections/p_reference.html
available at

Application Letters: How to Sell Yourself
Your application letter is one of your most important job-search documents. An effective letter can get you a phone call for an
interview, but a poorly written application letter usually spells continued unemployment. The difference can be a matter of how
you handle a few key points. The following are some tips to help you develop effective application letters.
Individualizing Your Letter

Give your readers some insight into you as an individual. In the example below the writer chose to describe particular
experiences and skills that could not be generalized to most other recent graduates. Draft your letter to show how your individual
qualities can contribute to the organization. This is your letter, so avoid simply copying the form and style of other letters you've
seen. Instead, strive to make your letter represent your individuality and your capabilities.
Addressing a Specific Person

Preferably, the person you write to should be the individual doing the hiring for the position you're seeking. Look for this
person's name in company publications found at the University Placement Service, the Krannert Business Library, or the Reserve
Desk in the Undergraduate Library. If the name is unavailable in these places, phone the organization and ask for the person's
name or at least the name of the personnel manager.
Catching Your Reader's Attention

Your introduction should get your reader's attention, stimulate interest, and be appropriate to the job you are seeking. For
example, you may want to begin with a reference to an advertisement that prompted your application. Such a reference makes
your reason for contacting the company clear and indicates to them that their advertising has been effective. Or you may want to
open by referring to the company's product, which you want to promote. Such a reference shows your knowledge of the company.
Whatever opening strategy you use, try to begin where your reader is and lead quickly to your purpose in writing.
First Paragraph Tips

Make your goal clear.
If you're answering an advertisement, name the position stated in the ad and identify the source, for example: "your
advertisement for a graphic artist, which appeared in the Chicago Sun Times , May 15, 1998,..."
If you're prospecting for a job, try to identify the job title used by the organization.
If a specific position title isn't available or if you wish to apply for a line of work that may come under several titles, you
may decide to adapt the professional objective stated in your resume.
Additionally, in your first paragraph you should provide a preview of the rest of your letter. This tells your reader what to look for
and lets him or her know immediately how your qualifications fit the requirements of the job. In the example letter, the last
sentence of the first paragraph refers to specific work experience that is detailed in the following paragraph.
Highlighting Your Qualifications

Organize the middle paragraphs in terms of the qualifications that best suit you for the job and the organization. That is, if your
on-the-job experience is your strongest qualification, discuss it in detail and show how you can apply it to the needs of the
company. Or if you were president of the Marketing Club and you are applying for a position in marketing or sales, elaborate on
the valuable experience you gained and how you can put it to work for them. If special projects you've done apply directly to the
job you are seeking, explain them in detail. Be specific. Use numbers, names of equipment you've used, or features of the
project that may apply to the job you want.
One strong qualification, described so that the reader can picture you actively involved on the job, can be enough. You can then
refer your reader to your resume for a summary of your other qualifications. If you have two or three areas that you think are
strong, you can develop additional paragraphs. Make your letter strong enough to convince readers that your distinctive
background qualifies you for the job but not so long that length will turn readers off. Some employers recommend a maximum
of four paragraphs.
Other Tips
Refer to your resume. Be sure to refer to your enclosed resume at the most appropriate point in your letter, for example,
in the discussion of your qualifications or in the closing paragraph.
Conclude with a clear, courteous request to set up an interview, and suggest a procedure for doing so. The date and
place for the interview should be convenient for the interviewer. However, you're welcome to suggest a range of dates and
places convenient to you, especially if you travel at your own expense or have a restricted schedule. Be specific about how
your reader should contact you. If you ask for a phone call, give your phone number and the days and times of the week
when you can be reached.
Be professional. Make sure your letter is professional in format, organization, style, grammar, and mechanics. Maintain a
courteous tone throughout the letter and eliminate all errors. Remember that readers often "deselect" applicants because
of the appearance of the letter.
Seek advice. It's always good idea to prepare at least one draft to show to a critical reader for comments and
suggestions before revising and sending the letter.
Sample Letter
311 Nestor Street
June 6, 1998
Ms. Christine Rennick

Engineer
Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis, Inc.
P.O. Box 233
Gulltown, MD 21038
Dear Ms. Rennick:
Dr. Saul Wilder, a consultant to your firm and my Organizational Management professor, has informed me that Aerosol
Monitoring and Analysis is looking for someone with excellent communications skills, organizational experience, and leadership
background to train for a management position. I believe that my enclosed resume will demonstrate that I have the
characteristics and experience you seek. In addition, I'd like to mention how my work experience last summer makes me a
particularly strong candidate for the position.
As a promoter for Kentech Training at the 1997 Paris Air Show, I discussed Kentech's products with marketers and sales
personnel from around the world. I also researched and wrote reports on new product development and compiled information
on aircraft industry trends. The knowledge of the aircraft industry I gained from this position would help me analyze how
Aerosol products can meet the needs of regular and prospective clients, and the valuable experience I gained in promotion,
sales, and marketing would help me use that information effectively.
I would welcome the opportunity to discuss these and other qualifications with you. If you are interested, please contact me at
(317) 555-0118 any morning before 11:00 a.m., or feel free to leave a message. I look forward to meeting with you to discuss
the ways my skills may best serve Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis.
Sincerely yours,
First Lastname
Enclosure: resume
Adapted from:
Halpern, Jeanne W., Judith M. Kilborn, and Agnes Lokke. Business Writing Strategies and Samples. New York: Macmillan, 1988.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_applettr.html
available at

The Basic Business Letter
When writing a business letter, you must pay attention to both the parts of a business letter and to your choice of
formats. This handout will explain both concepts.
Parts of a business letter

Date
The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is completed over a number
of days, use the date it was finished in the date line. When writing to companies within the United States, use the
American date format. (The United States-based convention for formatting a date places the month before the
day. For example: June 11, 2001. ) Write out the month, day and year two inches from the top of the page.
Depending which format you are using for your letter, either left justify the date or center it horizontally.
Senders Address
Including the address of the sender is optional. If you choose to include it, place the address one line below the
date. Do not write the senders name or title, as it is included in the letters closing. Include only the street
address, city and zip code. Another option is to include the senders address directly after the closing signature.
Inside Address
The inside address is the recipients address. It is always best to write to a specific individual at the firm to which
you are writing. If you do not have the persons name, do some research by calling the company or speaking with
employees from the company. Include a personal title such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a womans preference in
being addressed as Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a womans preference in being addressed, use Ms. If
there is a possibility that the person to whom you are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually,
people will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess. To write the address, use the
U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of the country in all-capital letters on the last
line. The inside address begins one line below the senders address or one inch below the date. It should be left
justified, no matter which format you are using.
Salutation
Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If you know the person and typically
address them by their first name, it is acceptable to use only the first name in the salutation (i.e., Dear Lucy:). In
all other cases, however, use the personal title and full name followed by a colon. Leave one line blank after the
salutation.
If you dont know a readers gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as "To Whom it May Concern." It is also
acceptable to use the full name in a salutation if you cannot determine gender. For example, you might write Dear
Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's gender.
Body
For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each paragraph within the body of the letter.
Leave a blank line between each paragraph. When writing a business letter, be careful to remember that
conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly opening and then a statement of the main
point. The next paragraph should begin justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs,
continue justification with background information and supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the
purpose of the letter and, in some cases, request some type of action.
Closing
The closing begins at the same horizontal point as your date and one line after the last body paragraph. Capitalize
the first word only (i.e., Thank you) and leave four lines between the closing and the senders name for a
signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should follow the closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation
after the closing.
Enclosures
If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this simply by typing
Enclosures one line below the closing. As an option, you may list the name of each document you are including in
the envelope. For instance, if you have included many documents and need to insure that the recipient is aware of
each document, it may be a good idea to list the names.
Typist initials
Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you typed the letter yourself, omit the typist
initials.
A note about format and font

When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used. The most common
layout of a business letter is known as block format. Using this format, the entire letter is left justified and single
spaced except for a double space between paragraphs. Another widely utilized format is known as modified block
format. In this type, the body of the letter is left justified and single-spaced. However, the date and closing are in
alignment in the center of the page. The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified
block style except that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.
The following table shows examples of the different formats.
March 16, 2001 March 16, 2001 March 16, 2001
Ernie English Ernie English Ernie English

1234 Writing Lab Lane 1234 Writing Lab Lane 1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345 Write City, IN 12345 Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English: Dear Mr. English: Dear Mr. English:
The first paragraph of a typical The first paragraph of a typical The first paragraph of a typical
business letter is used to state the business letter is used to state the business letter is used to state the
main point of the letter. Begin with main point of the letter. Begin with main point of the letter. Begin with
a friendly opening; then quickly a friendly opening; then quickly a friendly opening; then quickly
transition into the purpose of your transition into the purpose of your transition into the purpose of your
letter. Use a couple of sentences to letter. Use a couple of sentences to letter. Use a couple of sentences
explain the purpose, but do not go explain the purpose, but do not go to explain the purpose, but do not
in to detail until the next in to detail until the next go in to detail until the next
paragraph. paragraph. paragraph.
Beginning with the second Beginning with the second Beginning with the second
paragraph, state the supporting paragraph, state the supporting paragraph, state the supporting
details to justify your purpose. details to justify your purpose. details to justify your purpose.
These may take the form of These may take the form of These may take the form of
background information, statistics background information, statistics background information, statistics
or first-hand accounts. A few short or first-hand accounts. A few short or first-hand accounts. A few short
paragraphs within the body of the paragraphs within the body of the paragraphs within the body of the
letter should be enough to support letter should be enough to support letter should be enough to support
your reasoning. your reasoning. your reasoning.
Finally, in the closing paragraph, Finally, in the closing paragraph, Finally, in the closing
briefly restate your purpose and why briefly restate your purpose and paragraph, briefly restate your
it is important. If the purpose of why it is important. If the purpose purpose and why it is important. If
your letter is employment related, of your letter is employment the purpose of your letter is
consider ending your letter with your related, consider ending your letter employment related, consider
contact information. However, if the with your contact information. ending your letter with your contact
purpose is informational, think However, if the purpose is information. However, if the
about closing with gratitude for the informational, think about closing purpose is informational, think
readers time. with gratitude for the readers time. about closing with gratitude for the
readers time.
Sincerely, Sincerely,
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
Lucy Letter Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345
Block Format Modified Block Format Semi-block format
If your computer is equipped with Microsoft Office 2000, the Letter Wizard can be used to take much of the
guesswork out of formatting business letters. To access the Letter Wizard, click on the Tools menu and then
choose Letter Wizard. The Wizard will present the three styles mentioned here and input the date, sender address
and recipient address into the selected format. Letter Wizard should only be used if you have a basic understand
of how to write a business letter. Its templates are not applicable in every setting. Therefore, you should consult a
business writing handbook if you have any questions or doubt the accuracy of the Letter Wizard.
Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the chosen font. The generally accepted font is Times New
Roman, size 12, although other fonts such as Arial may be used. When choosing a font, always consider your audience.
If you are writing to a conservative company, you may want to use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing
to a more liberal company, you have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.
As far as punctuation after the salutation and closing is concerned, the standard is to use a colon after the
salutation (never a comma) and a comma after the closing. There is also a less accepted format, known as open
punctuation, in which punctuation is excluded after the salutation and the closing.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_basicbusletter.html

OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts: Academic Cover Letters Page 1 of 7
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Letters Concerning Employment
For some students the job-seeking process involves interviews at the University Placement Service and visits to company
headquarters; for other job-seekers, it means sending job applications with resumes and hopefully receiving invitations for
interviews at company offices. In either case, you will find that additional correspondence will not only be necessary but will also
enhance your chances of being the applicant chosen for the job.
The secrets to the success of these letters are in part your timing and also the exactness of detail. Do not allow your letter to
sound like every one else's. Avoid using the clichs and generalizations found in so many employment letters. It is also good
advice to stay away from form letters. The purpose of your letter is to make yourself stand out from other applicants. If you
utilize the aid of a form letter, you may finish your letter quickly, but it will likely be ordinary and lack the finesse to get your
qualifications noticed.
Applicant's Request For a Reference

During your job search, a prospective employer may request a list of references prior to or during an interview. This request may
take the form of a response to a written job application, a question on a company application or as an addendum to your
resume. Your reference sheet should list the names, addresses and relation to you for each reference. For more information see
the OWL handout on writing a reference sheet at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_reference.html.
As a courtesy, you should get in touch with the people you wish to include on your reference list and ask permission to use their
names. This contact will allow them to prepare adequate answers to questions about you so they will not be caught by surprise
when prospective employers call or write. Also, those contacted can decline you permission, if they wish. You may find it
worthwhile to reintroduce yourself to the people on your list, particularly if you have not spoken to them for a while. The
suggestions below will be helpful if you need to write a letter to contact your references.
What do you include?
Reintroduce yourself. Be sure that your reference remembers the situations the two of you were involved in.
If you have not spoken to your reference in awhile, it is extremely important to provide a summary of your most recent
qualifications and experience.
Be sure to let the reference know where you are in your studies. List your year in school, your field of study and possibly
your career aspirations.
Formally ask to use the person as a reference and state how the reference will be used.
Be sure that the reference understands that if you do not hear from them you will assume they do not mind being used
as a reference.
Include a copy of your resume.
View a model Request for a Reference Letter at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_requrefmodel.html
Follow-up to an Interview
The interview follow-up, when you have visited a business location, is a courteous letter of acknowledgment. You may also write
a follow-up to an interview when your interview took place on campus. It is a good idea to write a follow-up thank you letter
anytime a company has invested time with you. The letter should show the reader that you are thorough, courteous, efficient,
and sincerely interested in the job. On the personal level, writing this letter allows you to wrap up your application for the job; it
is your last chance to tie up all the loose ends neatly.
Convey your gratitude at being selected for an interview.

The tone of the letter is courteous and thankful.
Consider including an analysis of your visit to the company or your interview.
This may include impressions of the company itself, analysis of the interview proceedings or new facts you learned about
the company.
Include any new information about your qualifications or education since your interview.
This letter will show the interviewer that you are thorough and sincerely interested in the job.
View a model Follow-up to an Interview Letter at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_followupmodel.html
Inquiry about Cover Letter and Resume

When you have received no response to your application or cover letter, you might consider writing an inquiry letter. This letter is
relatively simple to write considering that you might have no new information to convey, and investing a considerable amount of
time at this point seems inefficient. If you still do not receive a response to your application, consider the company a dead end
and move on to other opportunities.
Restate the position for which you are applying.

Include a forecasting statement, which states why you are qualified for the position.
Give situational examples of your qualifications.
Update the company by including any new information about your qualifications or education by giving examples.
State your contact information and when you are available to be contacted.
View a model Inquiry about Cover Letter and Resume Letter at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_inquirylettermodel.html
Follow-Up After No Response to Your Interview

The follow-up letter required when you receive no response to an interview is the subtlest of the follow-up letters. It is normally
employed for two reasons: either the company is painfully slow in making decisions, or you have other offers pending and you
want to hurry the decision along. If you have other offers, you must in all fairness contact the firms who have spent money and
time on your interviews and visits to the firm before accepting another position. The main purpose of the letter is to request that
a decision about your application be made.
Restate the position you interviewed for.

Make specific reference to your visit to the company or your interview.
If given a deadline by your interviewer as to when you should expect to hear from the company, state it. Also include any
deadlines you have received from other companies.
Request that action be taken to either inform you of the status of your application or make an employment decision.
Remember to use an appropriate tone when writing this letter -- you don't want to cause the scales to tip the other way!
Acceptance Letter
The acceptance of a job offer is one of the most pleasant letters to write. Your contact at the company should have sent you a
written job offer that briefly reaffirms the offer. This is their way of completing the legal contract between you and the company.
It is your responsibility to confirm that you understand the details of the offer. This letter could also be used if the elements of
the offer were not clearly stated. Use it to request clarification in your acceptance letter and state explicitly what you are agreeing
to. This part is particularly important if critical items are not mentioned in the offer letter or remain vague, as often happens if
the offer is made verbally.
Thank the company for the offer.

Accept the position.
Restate the terms of your contract. These may include salary, benefits, location and others
.Restate any instructions given to you by the company. These might include your start date or the hours you will be
working.
State your happiness at joining the company.
View a model Acceptance Letter, at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_acceptancemodel.html.
Rejection of Job Offer

A polite refusal is an applicant's responsibility as well as a professional courtesy. You notify the employer that you are not
interested in working for the company and thereby allow him/her to continue to search as quickly as possible. Also closing the
door gently, ending negotiation pleasantly on a note of goodwill, makes good sense in terms of the future. In writing the refusal
letter, use the indirect plan, giving reasons before saying no as described below.
Do not put off writing refusal letters. They are not crucial to you personally, but they are important to the employer and to others
who may be under consideration for the position you are refusing. The sooner you step out of the way, the easier it will be for
others.

Be polite, but firmly reject the offer.
Give reasons why you turned the offer down. Doing this will improve the experience for future applicants.
Leave the door open in case you wish to apply for another position at the company in the future.
View a model Rejection of a Job Offer Letter at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_recrejectmodel.html.
Request for Further Negotiations

This letter is similar to both the acceptance and the refusal, except for an added "if" clause. In other words, you would most
likely accept the offer if certain conditions are met or addressed.
Either party can instigate negotiations concerning responsibilities, salary, or benefits. Do not be reluctant to ask for adjustments
in the offer if you are sure your request is fair. But assess the situation first to determine whether your request will cost you the
job. Remember the employment situation may involve both a buyers' and a sellers' market. Ask yourself how difficult it would be
for an employer to find someone else for the position that would accept the original terms of the offer.
Thank the employer for the offer.

Make a direct request for further negotiations or write a conditional statement.
List the points of your contract that require negotiation and state the reasons for the negotiation.
Suggest that the employer contact you with their opinions about your points of negotiation.
Letter When You Receive a Rejection
Consider writing a letter even when you receive a rejection. Sometime later when you have had additional experience or training,
you may want to apply to the firm once more. The letter shows that you were extremely interested in working for the particular
company and states your interest in applying for another position at a later date.
Thank the company for considering you for the position.

Discuss your positive impressions of the company during the entire application process.
Mention the possibility that you may reapply to the company again at a later date.
View a model of a Letter When you Receive a Rejection at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_recrejectmodel.html.
Thank You Letters

When you know a firm contacted one of your references, you should thank the individual in person or by letter. In your letter,
you should show appreciation for the assistance and describe the job you received.
University Placement Service personnel who have been especially helpful or individuals who may have notified you of job
openings would be pleased to receive an appreciative note from you once you obtain a job.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_alletters.html
available at

Applicant's Request For a Reference
During your job search, a prospective employer may request a list of references prior to or during an interview. This request may
take the form of a response to a written job application, a question on a company application or as an addendum to your
resume. Your reference sheet should list the names, addresses and relation to you for each reference. For more information see
the OWL handout on writing a reference sheet at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_reference.html.
As a courtesy, you should get in touch with the people you wish to include on your reference list and ask permission to use their
names. This contact will allow them to prepare adequate answers to questions about you so they will not be caught by surprise
when prospective employers call or write. Also, those contacted can decline you permission, if they wish. You may find it
worthwhile to reintroduce yourself to the people on your list, particularly if you have not spoken to them for a while. The
suggestions below will be helpful if you need to write a letter to contact your references.
Reintroduce yourself. Be sure that your reference remembers the situations the two of you were involved in.
If you have not spoken to your reference in awhile, it is extremely important to provide a summary of your most recent
qualifications and experience.
Be sure to let the reference know where you are in your studies. List your year in school, your field of study and possibly
your career aspirations.
Formally ask to use the person as a reference and state how the reference will be used.
Be sure that the reference understands that if you do not hear from them you will assume they do not mind being used
as a reference.
Include a copy of your resume.
View a model Request for a Reference Letter at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_requrefmodel.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_refrequest.html
available at

Follow-up to an Interview
The interview follow-up, when you have visited a business location, is a courteous letter of acknowledgment. You may also write
a follow-up to an interview when your interview took place on campus. It is a good idea to write a follow-up thank you letter
anytime a company has invested time with you. The letter should show the reader that you are thorough, courteous, efficient,
and sincerely interested in the job. On the personal level, writing this letter allows you to wrap up your application for the job; it
is your last chance to tie up all the loose ends neatly.
Convey your gratitude at being selected for an interview.

The tone of the letter is courteous and thankful.
Consider including an analysis of your visit to the company or your interview.
This may include impressions of the company itself, analysis of the interview proceedings or new facts you learned about
the company.
Include any new information about your qualifications or education since your interview.
This letter will show the interviewer that you are thorough and sincerely interested in the job.
View a model Follow-up to an Interview Letter at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_followupmodel.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_followup.html
available at

Inquiry about Cover Letter and Resume
When you have received no response to your application or cover letter, you might consider writing an inquiry letter. This letter is
relatively simple to write considering that you might have no new information to convey, and investing a considerable amount of
time at this point seems inefficient. If you still do not receive a response to your application, consider the company a dead end
and move on to other opportunities.
Restate the position for which you are applying.

Include a forecasting statement, which states why you are qualified for the position.
Give situational examples of your qualifications.
Update the company by including any new information about your qualifications or education by giving examples.
State your contact information and when you are available to be contacted.
View a model Inquiry about Cover Letter and Resume Letter at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_inquirylettermodel.html
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_inquiry.html
available at

Follow-Up After No Response to Your Interview
The follow-up letter required when you receive no response to an interview is the subtlest of the follow-up letters. It is normally
employed for two reasons: either the company is painfully slow in making decisions, or you have other offers pending and you
want to hurry the decision along. If you have other offers, you must in all fairness contact the firms who have spent money and
time on your interviews and visits to the firm before accepting another position. The main purpose of the letter is to request that
a decision about your application be made.
Restate the position you interviewed for.

Make specific reference to your visit to the company or your interview.
If given a deadline by your interviewer as to when you should expect to hear from the company, state it. Also include any
deadlines you have received from other companies.
Request that action be taken to either inform you of the status of your application or make an employment decision.
Remember to use an appropriate tone when writing this letter -- you don't want to cause the scales to tip the other way!
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_followupno.html
available at

Acceptance Letter
The acceptance of a job offer is one of the most pleasant letters to write. Your contact at the company should have sent you a
written job offer that briefly reaffirms the offer. This is their way of completing the legal contract between you and the company.
It is your responsibility to confirm that you understand the details of the offer. This letter could also be used if the elements of
the offer were not clearly stated. Use it to request clarification in your acceptance letter and state explicitly what you are agreeing
to. This part is particularly important if critical items are not mentioned in the offer letter or remain vague, as often happens if
the offer is made verbally.

Accept the position.
Restate the terms of your contract. These may include salary, benefits, location and others
.Restate any instructions given to you by the company. These might include your start date or the hours you will be
working.
State your happiness at joining the company.
View a model Acceptance Letter, at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_acceptancemodel.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_accept.html
available at

Rejection of Job Offer
A polite refusal is an applicant's responsibility as well as a professional courtesy. You notify the employer that you are not
interested in working for the company and thereby allow him/her to continue to search as quickly as possible. Also closing the
door gently, ending negotiation pleasantly on a note of goodwill, makes good sense in terms of the future. In writing the refusal
letter, use the indirect plan, giving reasons before saying no as described below.
Do not put off writing refusal letters. They are not crucial to you personally, but they are important to the employer and to others
who may be under consideration for the position you are refusing. The sooner you step out of the way, the easier it will be for
others.

Be polite, but firmly reject the offer.
Give reasons why you turned the offer down. Doing this will improve the experience for future applicants.
Leave the door open in case you wish to apply for another position at the company in the future.
View a model Rejection of a Job Offer Letter at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_recrejectmodel.html.
available at

OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts: Request for Negotiations Letter Page 1 of 2
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OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts: Request for Negotiations Letter Page 2 of 2
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http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_requestnego.html 8/27/2006
Letter When You Receive a Rejection
Consider writing a letter even when you receive a rejection. Sometime later when you have had additional experience or training,
you may want to apply to the firm once more. The letter shows that you were extremely interested in working for the particular
company and states your interest in applying for another position at a later date.
Thank the company for considering you for the position.

Discuss your positive impressions of the company during the entire application process.
Mention the possibility that you may reapply to the company again at a later date.
View a model of a Letter When you Receive a Rejection at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_recrejectmodel.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_recreject.html
available at

Reference Sheets
Purpose
The purpose of a reference sheet is to have a list of people who can verify and elaborate on your professional experience for a
potential employer. Past employers, professors, and advisors are the best professional references to have. It is important to
have a reference sheet because potential employers will often ask for a list of references they can contact. If you included a
statement such as "References Available Upon Request" on your resume, you should be able to produce a reference sheet as
soon as one is requested. In any case, having a reference sheet will save you time later on during the interview process.
Things to Remember
Make sure to include people who know what type of person you are and who are familiar with your work. It is important to select
individuals who know your distinctiveness so that they can provide a positive and accurate description of you to the employer or
company in which you are seeking employment. You should ALWAYS contact your references before including them on a
reference sheet. It is also a good idea to give them a copy of your resume and talk to them about the job you are seeking so
they will know how to best represent you.
What to Include
Your name
Your present and permanent address(es)
Your reference person or persons information, which includes that person's:
Name
Department/Company
Title/Position
Address
Telephone number
Brief statement as to how you know this person.
Sample Reference Sheet
CARRIE E. COMPLETE
PRESENT ADDRESS PERMANENT ADDRESS
123 Hawkins Graduate House 12334 N. College Avenue
West Lafayette, IN 47906 Indianapolis, IN 46220
(317) 555-1123 (317) 555-1829
REFERENCES
1. Professor John English

Sociology Department
Purdue University
Stone Hall
(317) 555-6000
Professor English is my academic advisor and is presently supervising my research in an independent study sociology course.
2. Mrs. Diana Handie

Food Services Supervisor
Hawkins Graduate House
Purdue University
(317) 555-2323
Mrs. Handie was my supervisor when I worked in the Hawkins Cafeteria.
3. Mrs. Jennifer Active

Activity Therapy Staff Wabash Valley Mental Health Center
2900 North River Road
(317) 564-9600
Mrs. Active is my current employer.

This handout revised July 2001 by Rumya Gangadharan.
HTML markup and conversion by Erin Karper.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_reference.html
available at

Tailoring Employment Documents For a Specific Audience
What does it mean to tailor employment documents?
Employment documents include resumes, cover letters, and any business message that concerns employment. Your message
will be directed to your contact(s) in the organization and will vary depending on what your intent is upon writing. Regardless of
the type of message, it is very important to make sure that you use a writing strategy that will effectively reach your reader.
In any piece of writing it is important to keep your audience in mind. Ask yourself, who will read my document? When you tailor a
document to a particular audience, you are adapting your writing for a reader. It is important to consider what you want your
message to convey to the audience.
Why is it important for me to tailor my employment documents?

It is important to tailor your employment documents for a specific audience in order to convey your message clearly and
convincingly. Considering your audience will help you to personalize the document and make it relevant to the reader. If you
write without a specific audience in mind, the document might be far too general and vague, or it might include too much
information. When you tailor a document to a specific audience, the document will have better "unity of purpose and style," and
it will make the reader feel more involved (Hale).
Audience is important for all pieces of writing, and even more so for any employment document because employment
documents must be able to persuade the reader that what you are saying is true in order to be effective. You are directly
communicating with the organization, and you want the reader to understand your message and its relevance.
For what types of readers should I tailor my employment documents?

There are two kinds of readers that an employment document should be tailored for: Skimmers and Skeptics.
Skimmers are readers that are typically very busy. Pressed for time, they often skim employment documents in a rather short
period of time. Consequently, the documents you prepare for this particular reader should:
State the main point clearly and up front

Place the most important information at the beginning or ending of paragraphs
Highlight key dates or figures
Both of the following examples represent the same experiences. A skimmer would be able to understand Example 2 much more
quickly, though.
Example 1 Example 2
Managed $10,000 in project accounts, compiled and published Managed $10,000 in project accounts.
engineering reports as assistant to Vice President, Compiled and published engineering reports as
coordinated registrations, payments, and literature for Assistant to Vice President
software training seminars. Coordinated registrations, payments, and literature for
software training seminars.
The second type of reader is a Skeptic. A Skeptic is a reader that is cautious and doubtful. Skeptical readers will tend to read a
document carefully, questioning its validity. Ultimately, they will question the writers claims. In order to meet the needs of the
Skeptic, it is necessary to support your statements with sufficient details and evidence. Provide specific examples, numbers,
dates, names, and percentages to meet the needs of the skeptical reader.
For example:
NOT: I performed very well in my classes.
BUT: I received the Deans List Honors 7/8 semesters and received a Women in Communications Scholarship in May 2001.
How do I tailor an employment document to an audience?

In addition to following general guidelines for writing to both busy and skeptical readers, it is a good idea to determine who your
particular reader is likely to be and to write specifically for that person.
Determine your specific audience.
Ask, "Who am I writing to and what is her or his position(s) in the organization?" You can gain a surprising amount of
information about your reader simply from carefully reading job ads.
Example:
John Doe is an Advertising Director at a city newspaper. This may clue you in to the fact that he is a sales-oriented individual,
highly motivated, and creative.
Jane Smith is a Pharmacist. You might assume simply from the position she holds that she is very customer oriented and skilled
in the area of pharmaceutical sciences.
In some cases, you may not know who to write to if a name or title is not listed in an ad. Take the time to contact the
organization and ask for this specific information. However, you may at times run across a blind ad, which means that there is no
contact information other than an address available. When this happens, specifically mention in your cover letter where you saw
the job advertisement and tailor your document to meet the needs of the position. You may address these documents to the
Human Resource Manager.
In any case, it is necessary to consider your reader, their background, and what they may expect from the employees they
decide to hire.
Research and analyze the reader and the organization.
What are their objectives, values, needs, time restraints? This can be done by reading and evaluating company literature and
profiles. This research will give you some background information about the organization and any current issues they are facing.
When you find out what is relevant to the company, you can tailor your document accordingly.
Consider these points as guides:
Determine what qualifications the employer is likely to look for in a job applicant by asking yourself what qualifications you would look for if
you were the employer.
Visit the company's website, if they have one, to become aware of current events and news releases that pertain to the company's mission,
goals, and objectives.
Read the companys mission statement; it will illustrate the goals and objectives of the organization.
Fully research the company so you can adequately address your reader and assume a more knowledgeable base for your
statements. Ultimately, if you know the company well you can make sure that you illustrate how you can meet and surpass their
expectations.
Example:
You are writing a resume to apply for a customer service position at Joes Grocery Store. On their website, the job description
stated:
"Looking for a highly motivated, customer-oriented individual to work full-time at the customer service desk."
You could then tailor your objective statement to use key words that the company included in its own profile and utilize them in a
way that accurately reflects their qualifications.
Objective: To obtain a customer service position at Joes Grocery Store, where I may apply interpersonal and customer service
skills, to create friendly and productive interaction between the store and its customers.
In this case, the writer used key words that the company included in its own profile and utilized them in a way that accurately
reflects their qualifications.
Recognize and utilize key words
Key words are words that stand out as especially significant within the text. When you are reading job ads, key words are those
words that signal what an employer considers important or essential in hiring for a position.
Consider the previous example again. On their website, the job description stated:
"Looking for a highly motivated, customer oriented individual to work full-time at the customer service desk."
The key words have been underlined. It is necessary to read for keywords, and you should keep these in mind as you research
and prepare your business or employment documents.
Where should I address my audience?

Ideally, all writing in an employment document should be written with the audience in mind. From how you structure your resume
to how you decide to write a job acceptance letter, you need to write for a specific audience.
There are times in your document when you may specifically mention your reader. This establishes greater rapport with your
audience. For example, in a resume you may mention the position you are applying for and the organization you are applying
with in the Objective Statement. In a Cover Letter, you may mention a previous meeting or interview with the reader in the
introductory paragraph. You should always address your Cover Letter to a specific person as well, unless you are writing in
response to a blind ad.
Example:
Objective: Seeking a position in pharmaceutical sales at FEELBETTER Industries where I may utilize my health care expertise and
interpersonal capabilities.
Cover Letter: I appreciate that you took the time to meet with me last week for an informational interview. It was very exciting to
learn more about FEELBETTER Industries.
Did I effectively reach my audience?

Evaluate your writing and consider whether or not you effectively addressed your reader. This is part of the revision process, and
ultimately part of the writing process. It may be necessary to rewrite or reorganize the document to make your message clear.
To proofread for skimmers: Perform a 20-second test on your document to see if your message effectively reaches skimmers.
Simply skim your document for twenty seconds, as an employer may do, and see what stands out most to you in that amount of
time and if what stands out is able to convey your message clearly. Even better, have someone else skim your document before
sending it, and see if your message is clear to them as well.
To proofread for skeptics: In order to proofread for skeptical readers, you should question each of your assertions and be sure
that you provide specific and sufficient evidence to support each assertion in your employment document.
You should also ask yourself:
Is my main point stated clearly in the first paragraph?

Did I include enough details and examples to support my main point?
Is it clear by the end of the message what I want the reader to do or know?
Do I provide enough context for the message or is more background information required?
Have I included keywords in my document?
Did I specifically mention my readers name (or the companys name)?
Did I use language that the reader will understand?
Does my message have a sincere and appropriate tone?
For more information about tailorng writing for an audience, see: Hale, Dr. Steven. "Choosing and Writing for an Audience" at
http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/%7Eshale/humanities/composition/handouts/audience.html
This handout written by Victoria Kellough.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_audiencetailor.html
available at

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Writing the Personal Statement
An excellent source of help is a book available in the Writing Lab (226 Heavilon Hall):
Richard Stelzer's How to Write a Winning Personal Statement for Graduate and Professional School (Princeton, NJ:
Peterson's Guides, 1989). $9.95
The book has guidelines for writing, examples of successful statements, and advice from admissions officers. This
handout summarizes Stelzer's guidelines and contains a few of the examples he includes of statements and
admissions officers' advice. If you wish to read more examples and do not purchase the book, you may read the
Writing Lab's copy, which is on reserve in the lab.
The personal statement, your opportunity to sell yourself in the application process, generally falls into one of two
categories:
1. The general, comprehensive personal statement:
This allows you maximum freedom in terms of what you write and is the type of statement often prepared
for standard medical or law school application forms.
2. The response to very specific questions:
Often, business and graduate school applications ask specific questions, and your statement should
respond specifically to the question being asked. Some business school applications favor multiple essays,
typically asking for responses to three or more questions.
Questions to ask yourself before you write:

What's special, unique, distinctive, and/or impressive about you or your life story?
What details of your life (personal or family problems, history, people or events that have shaped you or
influenced your goals) might help the committee better understand you or help set you apart from other
applicants?
When did you become interested in this field and what have you learned about it (and about yourself) that
has further stimulated your interest and reinforced your conviction that you are well suited to this field?
What insights have you gained?
How have you learned about this field--through classes, readings, seminars, work or other experiences, or
conversations with people already in the field?
If you have worked a lot during your college years, what have you learned (leadership or managerial skills,
for example), and how has that work contributed to your growth?
What are your career goals?
Are there any gaps or discrepancies in your academic record that you should explain (great grades but
mediocre LSAT or GRE scores, for example, or a distinct upward pattern to your GPA if it was only average in
the beginning)?
Have you had to overcome any unusual obstacles or hardships (for example, economic, familial, or
physical) in your life?
What personal characteristics (for example. integrity. compassion. persistence) do you possess that would
improve your prospects for success in the field or profession? Is there a way to demonstrate or document
that you have these characteristics?
What skills (for example, leadership, communicative, analytical) do you possess?
Why might you be a stronger candidate for graduate school--and more successful and effective in the
profession or field than other applicants?
What are the most compelling reasons you can give for the admissions committee to be interested in you?
General advice
Answer the questions that are asked
If you are applying to several schools, you may find questions in each application that are somewhat
similar.
Don't be tempted to use the same statement for all applications. It is important to answer each question
being asked, and if slightly different answers are needed, you should write separate statements. In every
case. be sure your answer fits the question being asked.
Tell a story
Think in terms of showing or demonstrating through concrete experience. One of the worst things you can
do is to bore the admissions committee. If your statement is fresh. Lively. different. you'll be putting
yourself ahead of the pack. If you distinguish yourself through your story. you will make yourself
memorable.
Be specific
Don't, for example. state that you would make an excellent doctor unless you can back it up with specific
reasons. Your desire to become a lawyer, engineer, or whatever should be logical, the result of specific
experience that is described in your statement. Your application should emerge as the logical conclusion to
your story.
Find an angle
If you're like most people. your life story lacks drama, so figuring out a way to make it interesting becomes
the big challenge. Finding an angle or a "hook" is vital.
Concentrate on your opening paragraph

The lead or opening paragraph is generally the most important. It is here that you grab the reader's
attention or lose it. This paragraph becomes the framework for the rest of the statement.
Tell what you know

The middle section of your essay might detail your interest and experience in your particular field, as well
as some of your knowledge of the field. Too many people graduate with little or no knowledge of the nuts
and bolts of the profession or field they hope to enter. Be as specific as you can in relating what you know
about the field and use the language professionals use in conveying this information. Refer to experiences
(work, research, etc.), classes, conversations with people in the field, books you've read, seminars you've
attended, or any other source of specific information about the career you want and why you're suited to it.
Since you will have to select what you include in your statement, the choices you make are often an
indication of your judgment.
Don't include some subjects

There are certain things best left out of personal statements. For example, references to experiences or
accomplishments in high school or earlier are generally not a good idea. Don't mention potentially
controversial subjects (for example, controversial religious or political issues).
Do some research, if needed

If a school wants to know why you're applying to it rather than another school, do some research to find out
what sets your choice apart from other universities or programs. If the school setting would provide an
important geographical or cultural change for you, this might be a factor to mention.
Write well and correctly

Be meticulous. Type and proofread your essay very carefully. Many admissions officers say that good written
skills and command of correct use of language are important to them as they read these statements.
Express yourself clearly and concisely. Adhere to stated word limits.
Avoid clichs
A medical school applicant who writes that he is good at science and wants to help other people is not
exactly expressing an original thought. Stay away from often-repeated or tired statements.
Some examples of successful statements

Statement #1
My interest in science dates back to my years in high school, where I excelled in physics, chemistry, and math.
When I was a senior, I took a first-year calculus course at a local college (such an advanced-level class was not
available in high school) and earned an A. It seemed only logical that I pursue a career in electrical engineering.
When I began my undergraduate career, I had the opportunity to be exposed to the full range of engineering
courses, all of which tended to reinforce and solidify my intense interest in engineering. I've also had the
opportunity to study a number of subjects in the humanities and they have been both enjoyable and enlightening,
providing me with a new and different perspective on the world in which we live.
In the realm of engineering, I have developed a special interest in the field of laser technology and have even
been taking a graduate course in quantum electronics. Among the 25 or so students in the course, I am the sole
undergraduate ate. Another particular interest of mine is electromagnetics, and last summer, when I was a
technical assistant at a world-famous local lab, I learned about its many practical applications, especially in relation
to microstrip and antenna design. Management at this lab was sufficiently impressed with my work to ask that I
return when I graduate. Of course, my plans following completion of my current studies are to move directly into
graduate work toward my master's in science. After I earn my master's degree, I intend to start work on my Ph.D.
in electrical engineering. Later I would like to work in the area of research and development for private industry. It
is in R & D that I believe I can make the greatest contribution, utilizing my theoretical background and creativity as
a scientist.
I am highly aware of the superb reputation of your school, and my conversations with several of your alumni have
served to deepen my interest in attending. I know that, in addition to your excellent faculty, your computer
facilities are among the best in the state. I hope you will give me the privilege of continuing my studies at your
fine institution.
(Stelzer pp. 38-39)
Statement #2
Having majored in literary studies (world literature) as an undergraduate, I would now like to concentrate on English
and American literature.
I am especially interested in nineteenth-century literature, women's literature, Anglo-Saxon poetry, and folklore
and folk literature. My personal literary projects have involved some combination of these subjects. For the oral
section of my comprehensive exams, I specialized in nineteenth century novels by and about women. The relation
ship between "high" and folk literature became the subject for my honors essay, which examined Toni Morrison's
use of classical, biblical, African, and Afro-American folk tradition in her novel. I plan to work further on this essay,
treating Morrison's other novels and perhaps preparing a paper suitable for publication.
In my studies toward a doctoral degree, I hope to examine more closely the relationship between high and folk
literature. My junior year and private studies of Anglo-Saxon language and literature have caused me to consider
the question of where the divisions between folklore, folk literature, and high literature lie. Should I attend your
school, I would like to resume my studies of Anglo-Saxon poetry, with special attention to its folk elements.
Writing poetry also figures prominently in my academic and professional goals. I have just begun submitting to the
smaller journals with some success and am gradually building a working manuscript for a collection. The dominant
theme of this collection relies on poems that draw from classical, biblical, and folk traditions, as well as everyday
experience, in order to celebrate the process of giving and taking life, whether literal or figurative. My poetry draws
from and influences my academic studies. Much of what I read and study finds a place in my creative work as
subject. At the same time, I study the art of literature by taking part in the creative process, experimenting with
the tools used by other authors in the past.
In terms of a career, I see myself teaching literature, writing criticism, and going into editing or publishing poetry.
Doctoral studies would be valuable to me in several ways. First, your teaching assistant ship program would provide
me with the practical teaching experience I am eager to acquire. Further, earning a Ph.D. in English and American
literature would advance my other two career goals by adding to my skills, both critical and creative, in working with
language. Ultimately, however, I see the Ph.D. as an end in itself, as well as a professional stepping stone; I
enjoy studying literature for its own sake and would like to continue my studies on the level demanded by the
Ph.D. program.
(Stelzer pp. 40-41)
Some advice from admissions representatives:

Lee Cunningham
Director of Admissions and Aid
The University of Chicago Graduate School of Business
The mistake people make most often is not to look at what the questions are asking. Some people prepare
generic statements because they're applying to more than one school and it's a lot of work to do a personal essay
for each school. On the other hand, generic statements detract from the applicant when we realize that we're one
of six schools and the applicant is saying the same thing to each and every school despite the fact that there are
critical differences between the kinds of schools they may be applying to. They don't take the time. They
underestimate the kind of attentions that is paid to these essays. Take a look at what the essay asks and deal
with those issues articulately and honestly.
At least 2, and sometimes 3, people read each essay. I read them to make the final decision. Our process works
so that each person who reads the application does a written evaluation of what he or she has read and the written
evaluations are not seen by the other reader.
(adapted from Stelzer, p. 49)
Steven DeKrey
Director of Admissions and Financial Aid
J. L. Kellogg Graduate School of Management (Northwestern University)
We're looking for a well-written, detailed essay that responds directly to the question. The questions are about
extracurricular activities, motivation, challenges, commitment to the school that kind of thing. We see a variety and
that's fine. Our approach is very individualized. The way the applicant devises the answer, determines the length,
develops the response, is all part of the answer. The level of effort applicants put into essays varies considerably,
which sends messages to the admissions committee as well. Over-involved, elaborate essays send one message,
while very brief and superficial essays send another message.
Trying to second-guess what we are looking for is a common mistake--which we can sense.
We can tell when applicants use answers to other schools' questions for our essays; we're sensitive to this. Poorly
written essays are a bad reflection on the applicant.
Don't over-elaborate; we're reading a lot of these kinds of essays. Also, don't be too brief or superficial. We like to
have major ideas presented well.
( adapted from Stelzer, p. 55)
Michael D. Rappaport
Assistant Dean of Admissions
UCLA School of Law
Applicants should take the time to look at what the law school is asking them to write about. At UCLA, we say, "we
know you have lots of extracurricular activities--we want to know how you differ, what makes you unique? What can
you bring to the first year class that's going to make you distinctive from the other 99 people who are already
there?" The fact that you were active in your fraternity or sorority is really not going to do it. What we're looking for
is somebody who, in their personal statement, stands out as being so unusual, so diverse, that they're extremely
attractive as a law student for the first-year class. Maybe what's going to make them distinctive is the fact they
spent six months living in a log cabin in Alaska. You try to give the law school some justification for admitting you.
With a lot of people, there's nothing that's going to make them distinctive. If that's the case, they've got to
recognize that, indeed, the essay is not going to make that much difference here at UCLA.
We're also asking if there's any reason their LSAT or grades are not predictive. You'd be amazed at the number of
people who completely ignore this--they don't take advantage of the opportunity.
Most law schools operate fairly similarly. There's a certain group of applicants whose grades and LSAT scores are so
high that the presumption is that the applicants are going to be admitted unless they do something terribly stupid
to keep themselves out. I have seen applicants whose personal statement has done that, but it's extremely rare.
At the other extreme is another group of applicants who, no matter what they write, are not going to get in.
The applicant has to realize, first of all, where he or she stands. If you have a straight-A grade point average and
a perfect LSAT score, you don't have to spend a lot of time worrying about your personal statement. On the other
hand, if you know you're in the borderline area, that's where the personal statement becomes very, very important.
The applicant should take the time to read the application to see what the schools are asking for. Sometimes the
school will ask for a general description of why you want to go to law school, or why they should admit you,
something of that nature. In such case you can be fairly sure that the school is just interested in the essay to see
how well you write. So what you say isn't as important as how you say it. On the other hand, some schools are
more specific--UCLA being a very good example of that.
Make sure the essay is grammatically and technically correct and well written. Avoid sloppy essays, coffee stained
essays, or ones that are handwritten so you can't read them. You'd be amazed at what we get!
(Stelzer, pp. 70-71)
Beth O'Neil
Director of Admissions and Financial Aid
University of California at Berkeley School of Law (Boalt Hall)
We're trying to gauge the potential for a student's success in law school, and we determine that, principally, on the
basis of what the student has done in the past. The personal statement carries the responsibility of presenting the
student's life experiences.
Applicants make a mistake by doing a lot of speculation about what they're going to do in the future rather than
telling us about what they've done in the past. It is our job to speculate, and we are experienced at that.
Applicants also tend to state and not evaluate. They give a recitation of their experience but no evaluation of what
effect that particular experience head on them, no assessment of what certain experiences or honors meant.
They also fail to explain errors or weaknesses in their background. Even though we might wish to admit a student,
sometimes we can't in view of a weakness that they haven't made any effort to explain. For example, perhaps
they haven't told us that they were ill on the day that they took the LSAT or had an automobile accident on the
way. Such things are legitimate reasons for poor performance. I mean, we understand that life is tough
sometimes. We need to know what happened, for example, to cause a sudden drop in the GPA.
Another mistake is that everyone tries to make himself or herself the perfect law school applicant who, of course,
does not exist and is not nearly as interesting as a real human being.
Between l and 5 people read each application.
(Stelzer, p. 72)
Dr. Daniel R. Alonso

Associate Dean for Admissions
Cornell University Medical College
We look for some originality because nine out of ten essays leave you with a big yawn. "I like science, I like to
help people and that's why I want to be a doctor." The common, uninteresting, and unoriginal statement is one
that recounts the applicant's academic pursuits and basically repeats what is elsewhere in the application. You look
for something different, something that will pique your interest and provide I some very unique insight that will
make you pay some l notice to this person who is among so many other qualified applicants. If you're screening
5,500 applications over a four- or six-month period, you want to see something that's really interesting.
I would simply say: Do it yourself, be careful, edit it, go through as many drafts as necessary. And more important
than anything: be yourself. really show your personality. Tell us why you are unique, why we should admit you. The
premise is that 9 out of 10 people who apply to medical school are very qualified. Don't under any circumstances
insert handwritten work or an unfinished piece of writing. Do a professional job. I would consider it a mistake to
attempt to cram in too much information, too many words. Use the space as judiciously as possible. Don't submit
additional pages or use only 1/20th of the space provided.
(Stelzer, p.81)
John Herweg
Chairman, Committee on Admissions
Washington University School of Medicine
We are looking for a clear statement that indicates that the applicant can use the English language in a
meaningful and effective fashion. We frankly look at spelling as well as typing (for errors both in grammar and
composition). Most applicants use the statement to indicate their motivation for medicine, the duration of that
motivation, extracurricular activities, and work experience. So those are some of the general things we are looking
for in the Personal Comments section.
We also want applicants to personalize the statement, to tell us something about themselves that they think is
worthy of sharing with us, something that makes them unique, different, and the type of medical student and
future physician that we're all looking for. What they have done in working with individuals--whether it's serving as
a checker or bagger at a grocery store or working with handicapped individuals or tutoring inner city kids--that
shows they can relate to people and have they done it in an effective fashion? What the applicant should do in all
respects is to depict why he or she is a unique individual and should be sought after. Of course, if they start every
sentence on a whole page with "I," it gets to be a little bit too much.
(Stelzer, p. 82)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_perstate.html

Adding Emphasis
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http:owl.english.purdue.edu
Visual Devices for Achieving Emphasis

In the days before computerized word processing and desktop publishing, the publishing process began with a manuscript
and/or a typescript that was sent to a print shop where it would be prepared for publication and printed. In order to show
emphasis, to highlight the title of a book, to refer to a word itself as a word, or to indicate a foreign word or phrase, the writer
would use underlining in the typescript, which would signal the typesetter at the print shop to use italic font for those words. Even
today, perhaps the simplest way to call attention to an otherwise unemphatic word or phrase is to underline or italicize it.
Flaherty is the new committee chair, not Buckley.

This mission is extremely important for our future: we must not fail !
Because writers using computers today have access to a wide variety of fonts and textual effects, they are no longer limited to
underlining to show emphasis. Still, especially for academic writing, italics or underlining is the preferred way to emphasize words
or phrases when necessary. Writers usually choose one or the other method and use it consistently throughout an individual
essay. In the final, published version of an article or book, italics are usually used. Writers in academic discourses and students
learning to write academic papers are expected to express emphasis primarily through words themselves; overuse of various
emphatic devices like changes of font face and size, boldface, all-capitals, and so on in the text of an essay creates the
impression of a writer relying on flashy effects instead of clear and precise writing to make a point.
Boldface is also used, especially outside of academia, to show emphasis as well as to highlight items in a list, as in the following
examples.
The picture that television commercials portray of the American home is far from realistic.
The following three topics will be covered:

Some writers use ALL-CAPITAL letters for emphasis, but they are usually unnecessary and can cause writing to appear cluttered
and loud. In email correspondence, the use of all-caps throughout a message can create the unintended impression of shouting
and is therefore discouraged.
Punctuation Marks for Achieving Emphasis

Some punctuation marks prompt the reader to give a word or sentence more than usual emphasis. For example, a command
with a period does not evoke the same emphatic response as the same command with an exclamation mark.
Watch out!
A dash or colon has more emphatic force than a comma.
The employees were surprised by the decision, which was not to change company policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision--no change in company policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision: no change in company policy.
Choice and Arrangement of Words for Achieving Emphasis

The simplest way to emphasize something is to tell readers directly that what follows is important by using such words and
phrases as especially , particularly , crucially , most importantly , and above all .
Emphasis by repetition of key words can be especially effective in a series, as in the following example.
See your good times come to color in minutes: pictures protected by an elegant finish, pictures you can take with
an instant flash, pictures that can be made into beautiful enlargements.
When a pattern is established through repetition and then broken, the varied part will be emphasized, as in the following
example.
Murtz Rent-a-car is first in reliability, first in service, and last in customer complaints.
Besides disrupting an expectation set up by the context, you can also emphasize part of a sentence by departing from the basic
structural patterns of the language. The inversion of the standard subject-verb-object pattern in the first sentence below into an
object-subject-verb pattern in the second places emphasis on the out-of-sequence term, fifty dollars .
I'd make fifty dollars in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.
Fifty dollars I'd make in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.
The initial and terminal positions of sentences are inherently more emphatic than the middle segment. Likewise, the main
clause of a complex sentence receives more emphasis than subordinate clauses. Therefore, you should put words that you wish
to emphasize near the beginnings and endings of sentences and should never bury important elements in subordinate clauses.
Consider the following example.
No one can deny that the computer has had a great effect upon the business world.
Undeniably, the effect of the computer upon the business world has been great.
In the first version of this sentence, "No one can deny" and "on the business world" are in the most emphasized positions. In
addition, the writer has embedded the most important ideas in a subordinate clause: "that the computer has had a great effect."
The edited version places the most important ideas in the main clause and in the initial and terminal slots of the sentence,
creating a more engaging prose style.
Arrangement of Clauses for Achieving Emphasis

Since the terminal position in the sentence carries the most weight and since the main clause is more emphatic than a
subordinate clause in a complex sentence, writers often place the subordinate clause before the main clause to give maximal
emphasis to the main clause. For example:
I believe both of these applicants are superb even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays.
Even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays, I believe both of these applicants are superb.
Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving Emphasis

An abrupt short sentence following a long sentence or a sequence of long sentences is often emphatic. For example, compare
the following paragraphs. The second version emphasizes an important idea by placing it in an independent clause and placing it
at the end of the paragraph:
For a long time, but not any more, Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw
materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for
junior executives who needed minor league experience.
For a long time Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw materials, as a place
to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for junior executives who
needed minor league experience. But those days have ended.
Varying a sentence by using a question after a series of statements is another way of achieving emphasis.
The increased number of joggers, the booming sales of exercise bicycles and other physical training devices, the
record number of entrants in marathon races--all clearly indicate the growing belief among Americans that
strenuous, prolonged exercise is good for their health. But is it?
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_emphasis.html
available at


Date
Senders Address
Inside Address
Salutation
salutation.
Body
Closing
after the closing.
Enclosures
Typist initials
initials.


readers time.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road

Email Etiquette
What is email etiquette?
Email etiquette refers to a set of dos and donts that are recommended by business and communication experts in
response to the growing concern that people are not using their email effectively or appropriately.
Since email is part of the virtual world of communication, many people communicate in their email messages the
same way they do in virtual chat rooms: with much less formality and sometimes too aggressively. Email etiquette
offers some guidelines that all writers can use to facilitate better communication between themselves and their
readers.
One overall point to remember is that an email message does not have non-verbal expression to supplement
what we are "saying." Most of the time we make judgments about a persons motives and intentions based on
their tone of voice, gestures, and their proximity to us. When those are absent it becomes more difficult to figure
out what the message sender means. It is much easier to offend or hurt someone in email and that is why it is
important to be as clear and concise as possible.
How do I know if I am using the correct etiquette?

There are a number of things to consider before clicking the "send" button on your email.
How should I format my email?

To whom am I sending my email?
Can I send attachments?
How long should my email be?
Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)
When should I not send an email?
How should I format my email?

You are most likely familiar with the general rules about formatting email but here are some tips to keep in mind.
Be sure that your email is formatted to wrap your text after about 70 characters. This keeps the email from looking
disjointed. When you do not have a wrap around option for 70-80 characters then your email will mostly likely look
like this:
Dear John,
I am really interested in leasing

your apartment but I need just a little bit more information. Do
you
have
time to meet with me tomorrow afternoon
around three or so?
Usually, settings for character length will be found in the "preferences" option on the tool bar of your email client.
Consult your help menu for more information.
Here are some additional formatting tips to consider.
Try to keep the email brief (preferably to one page) so that readers do not have to scroll. ***
Return emails in the same day that you would a phone call.
Use capitalization and punctuation in the same way that you would in any other document.
Format your email to be sent in plain text rather than HTML because some email clients may not read
HTML.
Write a salutation or greeting for each new subject email. *** However, if you exchange several emails over
the same topic (for example, a meeting day and time) it is not necessary to include a greeting because it is
as though you are carrying on a conversation. When we carry on conversations, we do not say hello each
time we speak.
Be sure to write an appropriate and specific subject in the subject line so that the recipient knows what to
expect. For example: "April 22 production team meeting agenda" instead of "meeting."
To whom am I sending my email?

It is always important to know who will receive your email, including the number of people you have on the mailing
list. This helps you in two ways. First, it helps you think about the tone of your writing (see our handout on Tone in
Business Writing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_tone.html for more information).
For example, while you still want to follow the traditional rules of writing, emails that you send to your employer or
professor may be more formal and brief than to a colleague or classmate. You will need to decide whether you
need to use a persons title or if writing the first name is appropriate.
Second, if you send an email to more than four people regularly you should create mailing groups so that the
recipients do not need to scroll through names before they can get to the content of the email. It also helps to
keep some email addresses anonymous, as some perceive it as rude for their names and email addresses to be
posted for strangers to see.
You will need to talk with the technical support in your office or use the "help" option on your computer if you do
not know how to create a mailing group. A mailing group is a list of email addresses assigned to one name (like,
newfaculty@sla.purdue.edu). You want to use names that make sense to you so that you can remember them.
This is especially helpful when you are managing several mailing group lists.
Emails are public documents, despite the fact that you may send an email to someone privately. Therefore, only
include those statements in email that you can openly defend should your message be circulated or shown to other
parties. Using emoticons (smiley facesJ, winks, etc.), and other virtual gestures may be appropriate in some cases,
but not in all cases! It is always essential to consider the type of relationship you have with the receiver of your
message before including virtual non-verbals. If your relationship is more casual, then using the symbols is fine. If
your relationship is more formal, then it is best to refrain from using them.
Can I send attachments?

Yes, as long as you are sure that your recipient can receive them. Sending attachments is a normal practice when
you are submitting documents for review or exchanging information in the workplace. Here are some tips to
consider before attaching a document.
Title the document that you are attaching in a way that is easy for the recipient to find once he or she
downloads it to his or her files.
For example, if you are sending a document that is a goal statement then title it "goalstatement.doc."
In the content of your email, tell your recipient what type of software was used to create the document, the
year/version, and the title of the attachment.
For example: "The file attached is called goalstatement.doc and it is in MSWord 2000."
Make sure that you do not send overly large attachments unless you are sure that your recipient's Internet
connection and email client can handle them. For example, a user on a 56K dialup would have to spend a
long time downloading a 5M PowerPoint file, whereas a co-worker on a fast work connection would have no
problem.
Don't send unnecessary attachments -- if you've already presented all of the relevant information in an
email message, don't attach a Word document repeating the same information.
How long should my email be?

In general, the email should be approximately one page printed or the length of your computer screen before
scrolling. However, there are times when email messages need to be longer to convey important information.
Oftentimes organizations seeking to reduce their paper costs will use email as their primary source of
communication. Longer emails generally consist of: Orientation schedules and information, memos, convention
information, newsletters, and policy changes.
When you need to write a long email try to include three essential elements at the top of the email: (a) an
executive summary at the top of the document, (b) how soon a response is required from the recipient(s), and (c)
a table of contents.
An executive summary
This is a short summary of everything in the email document including the main goal of the email or the "bottom
line." *
For example: "Welcome to ZDF Company. This email contains important information about your orientation week.
You will find the five day schedule, names of the speakers, the menu, hotel arrangements, and testimonials from
employees who previously participated."
Required response
Because your reader is most likely going to read the first few lines of your document thoroughly and browse
through the rest, if you need to have him or her respond by a certain time with certain information, that should be
stated within the executive summary.
For example: "Please let me know by Wednesday whether you are attending the meeting."
Table of contents
A table of contents allows the reader to pick and choose what sections of the email are most relevant to him or
her.* A person is most likely to comply with your requests when you make it easy for him or her to navigate your
materials.
For example:
Table of Contents
- Five Day Schedule
- Speaker List
- Menu
- Registration Form
- Hotel Arrangements
- Travel Reimbursement Policy
Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)

Flaming is a virtual term for venting emotion online or sending inflammatory emails. * It is best to avoid flaming
because it tends to create more conflict and tension. Flames are virtual food fights (Angell and Heslop) and are
unproductive and injurious to the parties involved.
What you say cannot be taken back. Misinterpretations happen very easily in neutral emails because there is a
lack of nonverbal expression to cue the recipient about your motives and intentions. You can imagine how much
misinterpretation can occur when you are expressing frustration and/or anger.
Things to consider before venting in email:
Would I say this to this persons face?

Am I putting the receiver in awkward position?
How would I feel if I got this email message?
Usually, by the time you consider the above questions you will be calm enough to write your message with a
different approach. Catching someone by surprise in a flaming message is a quick way to alienate your reader
mainly because they will react with anger or embarrassment.
Below are some examples of flaming messages and then some suggestions on ways to re-word them in more
sensitive and thoughtful ways.
Flame/inappropriate message Not a flame/appropriate message
"This project really sucks and I cannot believe that he is "This assignment came at a tough time. I wasnt
making us do this. Im sick and tired of all these dumb expecting so much work. I cant wait till the end of
assignments. He needs to get a life!" the semester."
"If you dont fix this problem then I am going to quit "Im growing increasingly frustrated by the current
TOMORROW!!!!!!!! I am sick and tired of Marthas situation. Can we set up a time to talk about this
incompetence!!!" more?"
When should I not send an email?

There are many subjects that are too sensitive to discuss over email mainly because misinterpretation could have
serious consequences. Some topics that should generally be resolved outside of email are:
Disciplinary action
Conflicts about grades or personal information
Concerns about fellow classmates/workmates
Complaints
When it appears that a dialogue has turned into a conflict, it is best to suggest an end to the swapping of email
and for you to talk or meet in person. If you receive a flaming email try to respond in a short and simple
response. If that does not appease the flamer than make contact with him or her outside the virtual realm.
Sources
The following sources were used for development of this document.
*Angell, David, and Heslop, Brent. The Elements of Email Style: Communicate Effectively via Electronic Email . Reading,
Mass: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1994.
**Bailey, Jr., Edward P. The Plain English Approach to Business Writing. New York: University Press, 1990.
***Caudron, Shari. "Virtual Manners." Workforce 79.2 (2000): 31-34.
This handout was created by Stephanie Williams Hughes, 2002

HTML markup by Erin Karper
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_emailett.html

Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Later Order Concerns (LOCs) for Business
Writing
When you are revising your resume and business messages, there are priorities of concerns in choosing what to look for and
work on. Begin with the Higher Order Concerns, the HOCs, which are aspects of the writing most responsible for the quality of the
document. Save the Later Order Concerns, the LOCs, for the last draft, when you are ready to look closely at specific points of
grammar and mechanics.
Some Higher Order Concerns (HOCs):

Focus and Purpose:
What is your document intended to do or accomplish?

Will the purpose be clear to the reader?
Can you offer a one-sentence summary of the documents purpose?
Is your main point stated early in the document?
Audience:
Do you have a specific and appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?
What is their position? What is your relationship with them?
How much do they already know about this topic?
Can you determine what their feelings toward your document will be?
Have you used language that they will be able to understand?
Is your tone appropriate for your audience?
Organization:
Does your document proceed in a logical and organized way?

Is each paragraph organized around one main idea?
Can you identify the most important information in the message quickly?
Is like information kept together?
For resumes, have you placed your most important or relevant qualifications where they stand out, or have you
highlighted them in some way?
Ask others to read your document and tell you what they think are your most important ideas.
Development:
Is the order of presentation of the points effective?

Did you include enough details and examples to support your main point?
Is it clear by the end of the message what you want the reader to do or know?
Do you provide enough context for the message or is more background information required?
Do any paragraphs seem shorter and in need of more material than others?
Is all the information included necessary?
Ask someone to read the document and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or
support.
Some Later Order Concerns (LOCs):

Formatting:
Are all of the parts of the message included and in the correct position?
What will be the readers first impression when looking at the document (before reading)?
Does the document look attractive on the page?
Does your document conform to standard business writing convention? Have you placed information in your message
where your reader will expect to see it?
Have you addressed and signed your document appropriately?
Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling:
Are there problems that frequently occur in your writing? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those
specifically.
Read the document aloud to see and hear if there are any missing or wrong words or other errors that you can spot.
For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_hocloc.html
available at

Parallel Structure in Professional Writing
It is important to be consistent in your wording in professional writing, particularly in employment documents; this is called
parallelism. When you are expressing ideas of equal weight in your writing, parallel sentence structures can echo that fact and
offer you a writing style that uses balance and rhythm to help deliver your meaning. You can use parallel structure in any kind of
writing that you do, whether that writing is on or off the job. We also have another handout that has more general information
about parallel structure at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_parallel.html.
Here are some examples that demonstrate how to implement parallelism in preparing employment documents. When you're
done reviewing them, try the practice exercise at the bottom.
Incorrect:
My degree, my work experience, and ability to complete complicated projects qualify me for the job.
Correct:
My degree, my work experience, and my ability to complete complicated projects qualify me for the job.
Incorrect:
Prepared weekly field payroll

Material purchasing, expediting, and returning
Recording OSHA regulated documentation
Change orders
Maintained hard copies of field documentation
Correct:
Prepared weekly field payroll

Handled material purchasing, expediting, and returning
Recorded OSHA regulated documentation
Processed change orders
Maintained hard copies of field documentation
Practice
Correct the following bulleted list from a final report.
On the web page there is much wasted space which is unappealing to the viewer. Following are suggestions for eliminating the
unwanted blank space:
Move some of the text into the blank space

Centering the picture
Centering the picture and add text to each side
On the right of the picture, tell a little bit about the picture (who owns the balloon, what year and where this picture was
taken, etc.)
Have pictures that stretch the length of the screen, like with a panoramic camera
Or as a last resort even take the picture out .
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_parallel.html
available at

Revision in Business Writing
Few writers are so talented that they can express themselves clearly and effectively in a rough draft. For short, routine business
communications, you may be able to write quite easily with little or no revision. However, for most business writing--especially
longer, more complex letters and reports--you should expect to revise, sometimes substantially, to insure that you've said
exactly what you meant to say in a manner that the reader will understand.
Remember: An ineffective message is a waste of everyone's time.
Revision Provides a Service for Your Reader

If you are always satisfied to send out the first draft of your letter or report, you are not serving your reader well. Not only are
you asking a high payment in terms of your reader's time and attention and running the risk that the reader may misinterpret or
be confused by what you have to say, but you are also risking your reader's low opinion: careless, hasty, unrevised writing is
always apparent.
Revision Requires a Shift in Your Perspective

To revise effectively, you must first distance yourself from your writing so that you can respond objectively. In other words, you
need to shift your perspective by assuming the role of the reader. To accomplish this, you should get away from the paper for a
while, usually leaving it until the following morning. You may not be able to budget your time this ideally; but you can put the
paper aside while you visit a friend, grab a bite to eat, or work on something else. Unless you divorce yourself from the paper,
you will probably remain under its spell: that is, you will see only what you think is on the page instead of what is actually there.
And you will be unable to transport yourself from your role of writer to that of reader.
Such objective distance may at first seem difficult to achieve; however, the following questions should help you to systematize
the revision stage of your letter and report writing and enable you to keep your reader in mind as you determine appropriate
detail, language, tone, organization, and mechanical correctness.
Detail: Deciding What to Include

1. What does my reader want or need to know to enable him or her to understand my message?
2. Does my letter/report answer all the questions my reader has asked or questions he or she may have in mind?
3. What is my purpose in writing this letter/report?
4. Does my letter/report give all the information needed to accomplish this purpose?
5. What purpose does this communication serve for my reader?
6. Have I included ONLY the material essential to my reader's purpose and understanding? Or am I boring or distracting my
reader with unessential and/or obvious information?
7. What do I want my reader to do when he or she finishes reading my letter or report?
8. Have I included all the information he or she will need to enable my reader to easily take this action or make this decision?
Language: Aiming for Conciseness and Clarity

1. Have I used ONLY the essential words to get my message across to my reader?
WORDY CONCISE
Sale of surplus tappers is one of our primary We must sell our surplus tappers. (6)
needs. (10)
This manual of instructions was prepared to We prepared this instruction manual to help
aid our dealers in being helpful to their our dealers serve their customers. (12)
customers. (16)
It is the responsibility of our Production Our Production Department must meet our
Department to see that it meets the Sales Division's requirements. (9)
requirements of our Sales Division. (19)
2. Have I used too many words to express simple, unimportant, or obvious ideas?
WORDY CONCISE
The collision had the effect of a destructive The collision destroyed the duplicator. (5)
force on the duplicator. (12)
We have enclosed a pamphlet which shows Page four of the enclosed pamphlet shows
further details of construction on page four. further construction details. (10)
(14)
Three days ago you asked us to investigate Too low humidity is apparently the cause of
the problem of discomfort among your office your workers' discomfort. Since your building
workers. . . We have made our study. Too is steam-heated, your solution is to . . .
low humidity is apparently the main cause of (21)
your problem. Your building is
steam-heated; therefore, your solution is
to. . . (41)
3. Have I poured out ideas and facts too rapidly for the reader's comprehension?
Negative Example
Our deluxe models have chromium, rubber-insulated fixtures for durability, economy, and easy maintenance, and convenient
controls to cut down on installation costs and necessary adjustments. They operate on AC or DC current and incorporate the
latest principles of electronic controls which means flexibility in their use, better adjustment of the thermal units, less chance of
error, and reduced labor costs per unit of production.
4. Have I used vague words instead of more vivid and convincing specific words?
VAGUE SPECIFIC
contact call, write, visit
slowly about as fast as you normally walk
soon by March 15
This television set is high quality. All components in this television set meet or
exceed government specifications for use in
manned satellites
5. Have I keyed the language to my reader's understanding?
EXCESSIVE, OVERWRITTEN ACCESSIBLE, DIRECT

The defendant is renowned as a person of The defendant drinks, chases other women,
intemperate habits. He is known to partake and refuses to work.
heavily of intoxicating beverages. Further,
he cultivates the company of others of the
distaff side, and wholly, regularly, and
consistently refuses and abstains from
earnest endeavors to gain remuneration.
The choice of exogenous variables in Supply determines demand.
relation to multi-collinearity is contingent
upon the derivations of certain multiple
correlation coefficients.
Tone: Tailoring Language to Your Audience

1. Have I expressed my ideas so that the reader will feel that I am helpful, courteous, and human?
TACTLESS TACTFUL
You neglected to take care of the To enjoy the full benefits. of your new ABC,
requirements of form 123. simply follow the procedures outlined on
form 123.
We want our check. To keep your account in the preferrer Ed
customer class, send our check for $142.33
today.
2. Have I tailored my message to my reader's desires, problems, circumstances, and probable reactions to the purpose of my
message?
FLAT DETAIL DETAIL ADAPTED TO READER NEED

This cookware is guaranteed to with stand Because Creston cookware can withstand
temperature changes. extreme changes in heat and cold, you can
safely move any piece from your freezer to
your microwave.
3. Have I emphasized "you", the reader, instead of "I" or "we"?

"WE" ATTITUDE "YOU" ATTITUDE
We are happy to have your order. We You will receive your solid walnut desk by
shipped it this morning. Tuesday, October 23.
You were right to ask me about the troubles
We regret that you've had so much trouble
you've been having with your new car. Thank
with our product, and we apologize for not
you for this opportunity to answer your
solving your problem sooner.
questions.
4. Have I expressed my ideas so they reflect good public relations for the company (letters) or good human relations with my
colleagues (reports)?
POOR ATTITUDE GOOD ATTITUDE

You must remember that we've more I've asked Mr. Sanders, a safety consultant
responsibility here at CEC than worrying from Health Enterprises, to investigate and
about some one's fingers getting caught in suggest possible procedure and machine
some machine. modifications.
It's hardly possible that our trigger could To prevent your gun from misfiring again,
have misfired without some contributing we will gladly replace the trigger you have.
cause; nevertheless, to help out hose who
lack technical know-how, a company as
responsible as Creative Guns can gladly
replace the trigger you have.
5. Have I tactfully avoided words and phrases which imply that my reader is dishonest, careless, or mentally deficient?
TACTLESS TACTFUL
Obviously, if you'd read your policy carefully, I'm glad to clear up these questions for you.
you'd be able to answer these questions
yourself.
In order to complete the claim you made, To complete your transaction, . . .
simply. . .
6. Have I stressed the positive and avoided emphasizing ideas my reader may view unfavorably?
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
I regret to inform you that your admission Before you are admitted to candidate
to candidate status has been delayed until status, you will need to complete the
you complete the following requirements. following requirements.
On March 3, we sent you the accidental To receive your check from Student
injury forms and requested that you return Insurance, please file the accidental injury
them to the Health Center. It is now March form we sent you on March 3.
27, and we have not yet received your reply.
Organization: Fitting the Form to Message and Audience

1. Have I structured my letter or report according to what my reader's reaction to my message is likely to be?
Have I used the direct approach (which begins with good news or the main idea and fills in necessary explanation later)
when my reader is likely to consider my message favorable or neutral?
Have I used the indirect approach (which begins with a buffer and requires necessary explanation and detail before the
decision is stated) when my reader is likely to consider my message unfavorably or when he or she will need to be
persuaded?
2. Have I included transitions which will show my reader the relationships between my sentences and paragraphs?
3. Does one paragraph logically follow the preceding paragraph and lead into the one which follows?
Correctness: Using Conventional Grammar, Spelling, and Punctuation

Since most writers have problems with only particular types of spelling, grammar, and/or punctuation errors, you should read
through your final drafts carefully--looking for those errors which you frequently commit. Slowly reading through your letter or
report once for EACH of these errors will, in most cases, insure that your reader's attention will be focused on your message, not
on your mechanical errors.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_revisebus.html
available at

Tailoring Employment Documents For a Specific Audience
What does it mean to tailor employment documents?
Employment documents include resumes, cover letters, and any business message that concerns employment. Your message
will be directed to your contact(s) in the organization and will vary depending on what your intent is upon writing. Regardless of
the type of message, it is very important to make sure that you use a writing strategy that will effectively reach your reader.
In any piece of writing it is important to keep your audience in mind. Ask yourself, who will read my document? When you tailor a
document to a particular audience, you are adapting your writing for a reader. It is important to consider what you want your
message to convey to the audience.
Why is it important for me to tailor my employment documents?

It is important to tailor your employment documents for a specific audience in order to convey your message clearly and
convincingly. Considering your audience will help you to personalize the document and make it relevant to the reader. If you
write without a specific audience in mind, the document might be far too general and vague, or it might include too much
information. When you tailor a document to a specific audience, the document will have better "unity of purpose and style," and
it will make the reader feel more involved (Hale).
Audience is important for all pieces of writing, and even more so for any employment document because employment
documents must be able to persuade the reader that what you are saying is true in order to be effective. You are directly
communicating with the organization, and you want the reader to understand your message and its relevance.
For what types of readers should I tailor my employment documents?

There are two kinds of readers that an employment document should be tailored for: Skimmers and Skeptics.
Skimmers are readers that are typically very busy. Pressed for time, they often skim employment documents in a rather short
period of time. Consequently, the documents you prepare for this particular reader should:
State the main point clearly and up front

Place the most important information at the beginning or ending of paragraphs
Highlight key dates or figures
Both of the following examples represent the same experiences. A skimmer would be able to understand Example 2 much more
quickly, though.
Example 1 Example 2
Managed $10,000 in project accounts, compiled and published Managed $10,000 in project accounts.
engineering reports as assistant to Vice President, Compiled and published engineering reports as
coordinated registrations, payments, and literature for Assistant to Vice President
software training seminars. Coordinated registrations, payments, and literature for
software training seminars.
The second type of reader is a Skeptic. A Skeptic is a reader that is cautious and doubtful. Skeptical readers will tend to read a
document carefully, questioning its validity. Ultimately, they will question the writers claims. In order to meet the needs of the
Skeptic, it is necessary to support your statements with sufficient details and evidence. Provide specific examples, numbers,
dates, names, and percentages to meet the needs of the skeptical reader.
For example:
NOT: I performed very well in my classes.
BUT: I received the Deans List Honors 7/8 semesters and received a Women in Communications Scholarship in May 2001.
How do I tailor an employment document to an audience?

In addition to following general guidelines for writing to both busy and skeptical readers, it is a good idea to determine who your
particular reader is likely to be and to write specifically for that person.
Determine your specific audience.
Ask, "Who am I writing to and what is her or his position(s) in the organization?" You can gain a surprising amount of
information about your reader simply from carefully reading job ads.
Example:
John Doe is an Advertising Director at a city newspaper. This may clue you in to the fact that he is a sales-oriented individual,
highly motivated, and creative.
Jane Smith is a Pharmacist. You might assume simply from the position she holds that she is very customer oriented and skilled
in the area of pharmaceutical sciences.
In some cases, you may not know who to write to if a name or title is not listed in an ad. Take the time to contact the
organization and ask for this specific information. However, you may at times run across a blind ad, which means that there is no
contact information other than an address available. When this happens, specifically mention in your cover letter where you saw
the job advertisement and tailor your document to meet the needs of the position. You may address these documents to the
Human Resource Manager.
In any case, it is necessary to consider your reader, their background, and what they may expect from the employees they
decide to hire.
Research and analyze the reader and the organization.
What are their objectives, values, needs, time restraints? This can be done by reading and evaluating company literature and
profiles. This research will give you some background information about the organization and any current issues they are facing.
When you find out what is relevant to the company, you can tailor your document accordingly.
Consider these points as guides:
Determine what qualifications the employer is likely to look for in a job applicant by asking yourself what qualifications you would look for if
you were the employer.
Visit the company's website, if they have one, to become aware of current events and news releases that pertain to the company's mission,
goals, and objectives.
Read the companys mission statement; it will illustrate the goals and objectives of the organization.
Fully research the company so you can adequately address your reader and assume a more knowledgeable base for your
statements. Ultimately, if you know the company well you can make sure that you illustrate how you can meet and surpass their
expectations.
Example:
You are writing a resume to apply for a customer service position at Joes Grocery Store. On their website, the job description
stated:
"Looking for a highly motivated, customer-oriented individual to work full-time at the customer service desk."
You could then tailor your objective statement to use key words that the company included in its own profile and utilize them in a
way that accurately reflects their qualifications.
Objective: To obtain a customer service position at Joes Grocery Store, where I may apply interpersonal and customer service
skills, to create friendly and productive interaction between the store and its customers.
In this case, the writer used key words that the company included in its own profile and utilized them in a way that accurately
reflects their qualifications.
Recognize and utilize key words
Key words are words that stand out as especially significant within the text. When you are reading job ads, key words are those
words that signal what an employer considers important or essential in hiring for a position.
Consider the previous example again. On their website, the job description stated:
"Looking for a highly motivated, customer oriented individual to work full-time at the customer service desk."
The key words have been underlined. It is necessary to read for keywords, and you should keep these in mind as you research
and prepare your business or employment documents.
Where should I address my audience?

Ideally, all writing in an employment document should be written with the audience in mind. From how you structure your resume
to how you decide to write a job acceptance letter, you need to write for a specific audience.
There are times in your document when you may specifically mention your reader. This establishes greater rapport with your
audience. For example, in a resume you may mention the position you are applying for and the organization you are applying
with in the Objective Statement. In a Cover Letter, you may mention a previous meeting or interview with the reader in the
introductory paragraph. You should always address your Cover Letter to a specific person as well, unless you are writing in
response to a blind ad.
Example:
Objective: Seeking a position in pharmaceutical sales at FEELBETTER Industries where I may utilize my health care expertise and
interpersonal capabilities.
Cover Letter: I appreciate that you took the time to meet with me last week for an informational interview. It was very exciting to
learn more about FEELBETTER Industries.
Did I effectively reach my audience?

Evaluate your writing and consider whether or not you effectively addressed your reader. This is part of the revision process, and
ultimately part of the writing process. It may be necessary to rewrite or reorganize the document to make your message clear.
To proofread for skimmers: Perform a 20-second test on your document to see if your message effectively reaches skimmers.
Simply skim your document for twenty seconds, as an employer may do, and see what stands out most to you in that amount of
time and if what stands out is able to convey your message clearly. Even better, have someone else skim your document before
sending it, and see if your message is clear to them as well.
To proofread for skeptics: In order to proofread for skeptical readers, you should question each of your assertions and be sure
that you provide specific and sufficient evidence to support each assertion in your employment document.
You should also ask yourself:
Is my main point stated clearly in the first paragraph?

Did I include enough details and examples to support my main point?
Is it clear by the end of the message what I want the reader to do or know?
Do I provide enough context for the message or is more background information required?
Have I included keywords in my document?
Did I specifically mention my readers name (or the companys name)?
Did I use language that the reader will understand?
Does my message have a sincere and appropriate tone?
For more information about tailorng writing for an audience, see: Hale, Dr. Steven. "Choosing and Writing for an Audience" at
http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/%7Eshale/humanities/composition/handouts/audience.html
This handout written by Victoria Kellough.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_audiencetailor.html
available at

Terms & Tips for the International Students Job Search
If you are an international student looking for a job in the United States, it is important to understand what specific
job search terms mean in the United States as opposed to in your home country in order to be able to meet a
prospective employers expectations. Listed below are some key terms that you will frequently hear while
conducting a job search as well as important tips for creating a resume in the United States.
Key Terms
You may encounter other terms as well, but, in general, these are the basic terms you will hear employers using in
the United States. By understanding these key terms and what American companies expect on a resume, you can
insure that you and your potential employer understand each other.
Resume
A resume is a personal summary of your professional history and qualifications. It includes information about your
career goals, education, work experience, activities, honors, and any special skills you might have. A resume
written for an entry-level position should not be over one page long.
For more information on writing a resume, see our hypertext workshop on resumes at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshps/hypertext/ResumeW/index.html, our PowerPoint presentations on
resumes at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/pp/index.html#bw, and our handouts on writing resumes at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/index.html#sub2.
Curriculum Vitae (CV, Vitae, or Vita)
Also known as a CV, Vitae, or Vita, in the United States a Curriculum Vitae is a detailed listing of your educational
achievements, publications, presentations, professional activities and honors. Usually the vita does not include an
objective statement, and formatting for the vitae varies by career. The curriculum vitae is longer than the resume;
it is generally two pages or longer. They are most often necessary only if you are seeking a faculty, research,
clinical or scientific position.
Scannable Resume
A scannable resume is a resume that can be scanned into a database. More and more companies are using this
type of resume since it eliminates paperwork and cuts operating costs. The format of a scannable resume is
different from a traditional resume in order to insure proper scanning. The content, however, is generally the
same, although there is a greater focus on using nouns rather than verbs to describe your accomplishments.
For more information on creating a scannable resume, you can read our handout on the subject at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_scanres.html, or download and view a PowerPoint presentation about
scannable resumes available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/pp/scannable.ppt.
Cover Letter (Job Application Letter)
Also known as a Job Application Letter, a cover letter is a business letter written to a prospective employer to
express your interest in and qualifications for a position. It accompanies your resume and serves as an
introduction to your resume. The cover letter also allows you to expand on certain points that could only be
mentioned in the resume.
For more information about cover letters, visit our handout on general cover letters at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_applettr.html, our handout on academic cover letters at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_covseek.html, our cover letter hypertext workshop at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/Coverletter/index.html, or our handouts on employment letters
and documents at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/index.html#sub3.
Resume Tips for International Students

Below are some tips about creating resumes and searching for jobs in the United States.
A Note on Your Job Search
Consider the location of the job and the type of field. Large international companies will be more willing to
work with international students as will companies on the east and west coasts. Smaller, more Midwestern
companies will sometimes not consider international students although providing information on
employment status might appeal to these companies.
The Education Section of Your Resume
List the home school certificate you earned or the degree you were awarded along with the location of the
school and the date the program was completed.
Do not include Test Of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) scores. Instead, list:
how many years you have studied in English
how many years you have studied English, or
how many years you have spoken English
Do not try to "translate" your educational experiences for employers. Simply list those experiences and
include your most recent experience; for example, acceptance at Purdue. Being accepted by an American
university such as Purdue will signal to employers that you have qualifying educational experience.
Your Employment Status
Do not include information about your employment status on the resume. Rather, include this information
in the cover letter. You should be up front about your status as an international student and the types of
jobs you are eligible to be hired for as a result.
Check with the Office of International Students and Scholars for information on your status and the types of
jobs for which you may be hired (Schleman Hall, Room 136).
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_international.html

Tone in Business Writing
What is Tone?
"Tone in writing refers to the writers attitude toward the reader and the subject of the message. The overall tone of a written
message affects the reader just as ones tone of voice affects the listener in everyday exchanges" (Ober 88).
A business writer should consider the tone of their message, whether they are writing a memo, letter, report, or any type of
business document. Tone is present in all communication activities. Ultimately, the tone of a message is a reflection of the writer
and it does affect how the reader will perceive the message.
How can I make sure my messages have the appropriate tone?

The writer should consider several things when preparing to write. The following questions will help you to determine the
appropriate tone for your message.
Why am I writing this document?

Who am I writing to and what do I want them to understand?
What kind of tone should I use?
Why am I writing this document?

You should take time to consider the purpose of your document in order to determine how you should express the message you
wish to convey. Obviously, you want the message to reach your audience, and you will probably want the reader to take some
action in response to your message.
When you consider the message and how you wish to express it, the tone of your message will become apparent.
For example:
Suzy is writing a job acceptance letter to an employer but is unsure of the tone she should take in the message. She has
decided to accept the position. When she asks herself, "What is my intent upon writing?" she answers, "I want to accept the
position, thank the company for the offer, and establish goodwill with my new co-workers." As she writes the letter she quickly
assumes a tone that is appreciative for the offer and enthusiastic about beginning a new job.
Who am I writing to and what do I want them to understand?

Who is your audience? Whether it is an employer or a fellow worker, it is essential that you consider your reader before writing
any document. Your message will be much more effective if you tailor the document to reach your specific audience. The
message you wish to express must be written in a way that will effectively reach the reader.
The tone that you use to write the document directly affects how the reader will interpret what is said.
For example:
Bob is writing a cover letter for a position as a Sales Representative for a newspaper. He is unsure that he will be able to succeed
at such a position, and uses phrases such as: "I hope that you will contact me" "I know that my qualifications are not very
impressive, but"
The reader is likely to interpret these phrases to mean that Bob isnt really qualified for the position or that he doesnt really
want the position.
Clearly, Bob is not assuming an appropriate tone. He must consider that:
He is applying for a position as a Sales Representative.

He wants the employer to ask him to come in for an interview.
The employer will look for highly motivated and confident individuals.
If Bob were to consider these things he may rewrite his cover letter to include such phrases as: "You can reach me at 555-2233;
I look forward to hearing from you." "My qualifications make me an excellent applicant for this position"
The tone of the message has changed drastically to sound more confident and self-assured.
What kind of tone should I use?

Fortunately, you can use the same kind of tone for most business messages. "The business writer should strive for an overall
tone that is confident, courteous, and sincere; that uses emphasis and subordination appropriately; that contains
nondiscriminatory language; that stresses the "you" attitude; and that is written at an appropriate level of difficulty" (Ober 88).
The only major exceptions to these guidelines are when you need to write a negative business message, such as when you deny
a job offer or a customer request.
Here are some general guidelines to keep in mind when considering what kind of tone to use in your letters and how to present
information in that tone:
Be confident.
Be courteous and sincere.
Use appropriate emphasis and subordination.
Use non-discriminatory language.
Stress the benefits for the reader.
Write at an appropriate level of difficulty.
Be Confident
You can feel confident if you have carefully prepared and are knowledgeable about the material you wish to express. The
manner in which you write should assume a confident tone as well. As you prepare business documents, you want the reader to
do as you ask or to accept your decision. In order to make the document effective, you must write confidently.
Consequently, a confident tone will have a persuasive effect on your audience. The reader will become more inclined to accept
your position, and will notice the confidence that you have. Employers are inclined to hire individuals that appear confident and
sure of their abilities.
This does not mean however; that you should appear overconfident. This can easily be interpreted as arrogant or presumptuous.
For example:
Not: You must agree that I am qualified for the position.
But: My qualifications in the areas of accounting and customer service meet your job requirements.
Be Courteous and Sincere
A writer builds goodwill for him or herself by using a tone that is polite and sincere. It is important to strive for sincerity in tone
because without sincerity, politeness can sound condescending
Consider the words and phrases you use in your document and how your reader will likely receive them. If you are respectful and
honest, readers will be more willing to accept your message, even if it is negative.
For example:
Not: You didnt read the instructions carefully, thus your system has shut down.
But: The system may automatically shut down if any installation errors occur.
Use Appropriate Emphasis and Subordination
You can help your readers to understand which of your ideas you consider most important by using emphasis and subordination.
You can choose from a variety of strategies to emphasize an idea or to subordinate it.
To emphasize an idea, place it in a short sentence. A short and simple sentence will most effectively convey an important idea.
You can provide further explanation, sufficient examples, or evidence in following sentences. To subordinate an idea, place it in
a compound sentence.
Emphasis Subordination
Smoking will no longer be permitted in the building. The The committee on employee health and safety has finishe
committee on employee health and safety reached this considering evidence, and they have reached the decision t
decision after considering evidence from researchers and smoking will no longer be permitted in the building.
physicians on the dangers of second-hand smoke.
Ideas placed in the first paragraph of a document or message receive the most emphasis, followed by information placed in the
last paragraph. You can subordinate an idea by placing it in middle paragraphs of your message because these paragraphs
receive the least emphasis.
Use active voice to emphasize the person or thing performing an action and passive voice to emphasize the action that is being
performed.
Active Passive
Scientists have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis. Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesi
Note: In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in
interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those
in passive voice. You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as
am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive
voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent
You can also emphasize and subordinate information by letting readers know how you feel about the information.
The amount of space that you devote to an idea will help convey the ideas importance to the reader. Discuss ideas that you
want to emphasize in more detail than you do ideas that you want to subordinate.
The language you use to describe your ideas can also suggest how important that idea is. Use phrases such as "most
important," "major," or "primary" when discussing ideas you want to emphasize and phrases such as "a minor point to consider"
or "least important" to discuss ideas you want to subordinate.
Emphasis Subordination
Our primary consideration must be cost. A minor point to consider is appearance
Repeating important ideas is good way to emphasize them as well. Be careful not to overuse this strategy; you will lose your
readers interest if they believe you are needlessly repeating information.
Our primary consideration must be cost cost to purchase, cost to operate, and cost to maintain.
Any information that stands out from the rest of the text will be emphasized. Bolding, underlining, CAPITALIZING, indenting, and
highlighting will convey emphasis to your reader. Do not use this strategy frequently or the design effect will be lost.
Use Nondiscriminatory Language
Nondiscriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It does not use any discriminatory words, remarks, or
ideas. It is very important that the business writer communicate in a way that expresses equality and respect for all individuals.
Discriminatory language can come between your message and your reader. Make sure your writing is free of sexist language and
free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, and disability.
Suggestion Not: But:
Use neutral job titles. Chairman Chairperson
Avoid demeaning or stereotypical After the girls in the office receive an When orders are received from the office,
terms. order, our office fills it within 24 they are filled within 24 hours.
hours.
Avoid words and phrases that Executives and their wives Executives and their spouses
unnecessarily imply gender.
Omit information about group Connie Green performed the job well Connie Green performed the job well.
membership. for her age.
If you do not know a readers gender, Dear Gentlemen: To Whom it May Concern:
use a nonsexist salutation.
Do not use masculine pronouns. Each student must provide his own Students must provide their own lab
lab jacket. jackets. Or Each student must provide his
or her own lab jacket.
Stress the Benefits For the Reader
Write from the readers perspective. Instead of simply writing from the perspective of what the reader can do for you, write in a
way that shows what you can do for the reader. A reader will often read a document wondering "Whats in it for me?" It is your
job to tailor your document accordingly.
Not: I am processing your order tomorrow.

But: Your order will be available in two weeks.
Stressing reader benefits will help you to avoid sounding self-centered and uninterested.
Write at an Appropriate Level of Difficulty
It is essential that you write at an appropriate level of difficulty in order to clearly convey your message. Consider your audience
and prepare your writing so that the reader will clearly understand what it is that you are saying. In other words, prepare your
style of reading to match the reading abilities of your audience. Do not use complex passages or terms that the reader will not
understand. Accordingly, do not use simple terms or insufficient examples if the reader is capable of understanding your writing.
A competent writer will match the needs and abilities of their reader and find the most effective way to communicate with a
particular reader.
What kind of tone should I use with a negative message?
It is especially important to consider tone when you are writing a negative message. In a negative message, such as a
document that rejects a job offer or denies a request, be sure to assume a tone that is gracious and sincere. Thank the reader
for their input or involvement and carefully state that you cannot comply with their wishes. Follow this response with an
explanation as necessary.
It is best not to draw attention to the person performing the action that will likely displease the reader. Therefore, you may want
to avoid using active voice when delivering negative messages. You might also avoid stressing the reader benefits unless there
are clear benefits to the negative message. It can sound insincere to stress reader benefits in a negative message.
Thank you for offering me the position as General Manager at Simons Inc. Unfortunately, I am
unable to accept the position. I did not think that the position you offered me would utilize my
Not
communication and customer-service skills to the degree that I wanted. Therefore, I have
accepted a position as Assistant Director at a different company.
Thank you for offering me the position as General Manager at Simons Inc. I appreciate your
But prompt and generous offer. Unfortunately, I am unable to accept the position. I have accepted a
different position that will allow me to utilize my communication and customer-service skills.
In some negative messages, you may need to address faults or issues concerning an individual. When writing messages such
as this, maintain a professional tone that does not attack the individual but that makes your position on the issue clear.
For example:
Not: I do not understand why you made such discriminatory remarks.
But: Discriminatory remarks are not tolerated in this organization.
For more information about tone, see: Ober, Scott. Contemporary Business Communication. 2nd Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1995.
This handout written by Victoria Kellough and Angela Laflen.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_tone.html
available at

OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts: Writing for a North American Business Audience
Writing for a North American Business Audience
Every country has its own set of rules and expectations about the ways to communicate in
a business setting. In some countries, they may place less emphasis on written materials
and more emphasis on verbal communication. However, in the United States, memos,
letters, and emails are important and play a role in creating a person's business
reputation.
This handout is designed to provide you with a few basic tips about North American
business audiences along with some helpful hints on writing to this audience effectively.
Some of the information and examples on this handout are taken from other sources that
you may find helpful. The asterisks (*) mark sentences borrowed from other writers. You
can find the bibliographic information at the end of the page.
The topics discussed in this handout are:
Getting to the point

Keeping it simple
Using passive and active voice
Using nondiscriminatory language
Over-generalizing verbs
Getting to the point
The question "so what is your point" is very common with American audiences. In
general, North Americans prefer to get a preview of the main ideas so that they know
what to expect. Time is an important factor for U.S. business people because they do not
have much of it. So it is important to state your purpose or "the bottom line" for writing at
the beginning of your document.
Here is an example of a hidden main point where the writer is requesting employment
verification*:
file://///128.210.82.236/webserver/Documents/handouts/print/pw/p_ameraudience.html (1 of 6)2/3/2004 2:20:47 PM

Dear Personnel Director:
On March 27, I received a phone call from Mrs. Karen Krane from
New York, who was once a data entry clerk in your Ohio office. She
was under the direct supervision of.....
As you can see, the above statement goes on several sentences and the writer still has
not revealed his or her purpose. A busy personnel director might skip over this request
and make it a last priority.
This is an example with the main point clearly stated:
Dear Personnel Director:

Would you verify the employment of Mrs. Karen Krane? She was a
data entry clerk in your Ohio office (fill in the details)
Sincerely,
Often times writers will place their main point at the bottom of their document because
they are either delivering bad news or they are afraid their ideas will be rejected. But
business writing experts warn against this style of writing. Bad news should always be
delivered up front. Also remember that while you do not want to be too shy about
delivering bad news, you also do not want to be too aggressive when you submit an idea
or suggestion. For example, "We must hire a new secretary now" has an aggressive tone
that your reader may not appreciate. Instead write something like, "I know that you do
not think we should hire a new secretary now, but I really think we need to. Please let me
explain my reasons."
Keeping It Simple
You may have heard your English instructors tell you not to worry yourself over
complicated sentences and impressive words. Just use simple language to get your point
across and you will have more success. Well, the same proves true for business writing.
You might feel compelled to use bigger words or more complex sentences to build
credibility with your audience.
The two primary reasons to avoid such tactics are:a) you might be perceived as a con
artist or, b) your message might become confusing.
An example of using "impressive words":

"Subsequent to the passage of the subject legislation, it is incumbent upon you to advise
your organization to comply with it."*

An example using simple words:

"After the law passes, you must tell your people to comply with it."*
The second passage is much easier to understand and it gets straight to the point. There
is little room for misunderstanding with that statement.
Using Passive and Active Voice
Passive voice has three basic characteristics:
1. a form of the verb to be (is, am are, was, were, be, been, or being).
2. a past participle (a verb ending in -ed or -en except irregular verbs like kept).
3. a prepositional phrase beginning with by
Here is a sentence using all three characteristics:

"The meeting is being held by the human resources department."
Another sample of a passive sentence:

"It's a great honor to be applying to a prestigious company."
Passive statements convey a clear message and in some cases (those without the
prepositional phrase) are grammatically correct. But the problem is that passive phrases
are often over used by writers.
A writer uses passive voice to purposefully leave out the actor or subject of the sentence
in an effort to sound more diplomatic. Look at this example.
Active: "I decided that everyone must retake the exam."

Passive: "It has been decided that everyone must retake the exam."
The passive example takes the actor out of the sentence so that the audience cannot
directly blame someone.
Author Edward Bailey offers a few suggestions on when to use passive voice.
He says there are three instances to use it:
when you don't know the actor

when the actor is unimportant to the point you're making ("The
Congressman was re-elected.")
when the emphasis is clearly not on the actor but on the acted upon
("What happened to the little girl? The little girl was rescued.")
If your purpose does not fall into one of three categories above then use active direct
voice. But be careful not to be too direct. You would not want to tell an employer that he

or she should hire you because "I am the best."
For more about active and passive voice, see a whole OWL handout devoted to it at http://
owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html.
Using Nondiscriminatory Language
Nondiscriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It does not use any
discriminatory words, remarks, or ideas. It is very important that the business writer
communicate in a way that expresses equality and respect for all individuals. It is the kind
of language that can come between you and your reader. Make sure your writing is free of
sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity, religion, age,
sexual orientation, and disability.
Suggestion Not good: Better:
Use neutral job titles. Chairman Chairperson
Avoid demeaning or After the girls in the When orders are received
stereotypical terms. office receive an from the office, they are
order, our office fills filled within 24 hours.
it within 24 hours.
Avoid words and Executives and their Executives and their

phrases that wives spouses
unnecessarily imply
gender.
Omit information Connie Green Connie Green performed

about group performed the job the job well.
membership. well for her age.
If you do not know a Dear Gentlemen: To Whom it May Concern:

readers gender, use a
nonsexist salutation.
Do not use masculine Each student must Students must provide

pronouns. provide his own lab their own lab jackets. Or
jacket. Each student must
provide his or her own lab
jacket.
For more about nondiscriminatory language, please see our OWL handout on nonsexist
language use at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_nonsex.html

Over-generalizing Verbs
Conjugating verbs poses a challenge for all speakers and writers of languages other than
their native tongue. One feature that is found with ESL speakers is the tendency to over-
generalize verbs with pronouns.
For example, when using the verb to try:
I try We try
You try They try
He/She/It try*
Notice the asterisk (*) next to He/She/It try. It is there because try should be conjugated
to "He/She/It tries." Sometimes these small points are missed because when you read
your paper aloud it may sound fine to you.
But note that there is a distinct difference between the way we talk and the way we write.
When you are proofreading your document, try to be mindful of the verb variations.
Unfortunately, there is no magic trick for overcoming this except for memorizing verbs.
When you are in doubt, ask someone for help.
Notes and References
* Bailey, Edward P. The Plain English Approach to Business Writing. Oxford University
Press: NY, 1990.
** Mark Dollar. "Basic Tips for ESL Students: Writing for an American Audience." Purdue
OWL, 1999.
Written by Hughes and Laflen, 2001

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_ameraudience.html



Date
Senders Address
Inside Address
Salutation
salutation.
Body
Closing
after the closing.
Enclosures
Typist initials
initials.


readers time.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road

Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives
Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather than negative, simply because most people respond
more favorably to positive ideas than negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively are likely to produce the response
you desire in letter-writing situations. A positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In contrast, negative
words may generate resistance and other unfavorable reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with negative
connotations. These words either deny--for example, NO, DO NOT, REFUSE, and STOP--or convey unhappy or unpleasant
associations--for example, UNFORTUNATELY, UNABLE TO, CANNOT, MISTAKE, PROBLEM, ERROR, DAMAGE, LOSS, and FAILURE.
When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by superimposing a positive picture on a negative one.
1) stress what something IS rather than what it IS NOT.

2) emphasize what the firm or product CAN and WILL DO rather than what it CANNOT.
3) open with ACTION rather than APOLOGY or EXPLANATION.
4) avoid words which convey UNPLEASANT FACTS.
Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit positive reader response?
Negative Positive
In response to your question about how many coats of
In response to your question about how many coats of
Chem-Treat are needed to cover new surfaces: I regret to
Chem-Treat are needed to cover new surfaces: One gallon is
report that usually two are required. For such surfaces you
usually enough for one-coat coverage of 500 square feet of
should figure about 200 square feet per gallon for a good
previously painted surface. For the best results on new
heavy coating that will give you five years or more of beautiful
surfaces, you will want to apply two coats.
protection.
Penquot sheets are woven186 threads to the square inch for
Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, loosely woven sheets
durability and, even after 3-inch hems, measure a generous
ordinarily found in this price class.
72 by 108 inches.
To keep down packaging costs and to help customers save on
We cannot ship in lots of less than 12.
shipping costs, we ship in lots of 12 or more.
In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded position and effective use of space.
Embedded Position
Place GOOD NEWS in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and endings of paragraphs, letters, and even sentences.
Place BAD NEWS in secondary positions: in the center of paragraphs, letters, and, if possible, sentences.
Effective Use Of Space

Give more space to GOOD NEWS and less to BAD NEWS.
Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they present negative information favorably.
1. To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size, our designers put six claw feet instead of the usual four on
the base and thus eliminated the need for weighting. Claw feet, as you know, are characteristic of 18th-century design.
2. No special training programs are normally offered other than that of the College Graduate in Training rotational training
period. We do not expect our employees to continue their education, but we do have an excellent tuition refund program to
assist in this regard (see Working with General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced degree is essential, individuals are
recruited with those particular advanced degrees. Both Butler and IUPUI offer courses leading to an MBA degree.
3. With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas merchandise run less than .02 percent of our total line. Because of an
oversight in our stitching department, a damaged needle was inadvertently used and caused the threads to come loose in these
particular bags. Since we now have a check on all our machine needles before work each day, you can be assured that the
stitching on our Adidas carrying bags will last the lifetime of the bags. Thank you for calling our attention to the loose stitching.
4. We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.
5. I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery store.
6. ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_subnegmess.html
available at

Sales Letters:Four Point Action Closing
Securing Action
Having convinced your reader that your product or service is worth the price, you want to get action before the reader has a
change of mind , before forgetfulness defeats you, before the money goes for something else--before any of the things that
could happen do happen. Therefore, a good persuasive closing is essential.
A good action closing--or clincher--should include the following four points:
1) clearly state what action you wish the reader to take. 2) make that action easy through facilitating devices and careful
wording. 3) date the action--if possible and appropriate. 4) provide a reader benefit as stimulus for action.
1) Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To Take

Should the reader order your product or service? Call your office to set up an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local
dealership or store to see a demonstration? Invite the visit of a sales representative? On finishing your letter, your reader
should know just exactly what you want done and how it should be done.
At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the reader to take one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid doing so.
Some people faced with a choice resolve their dilemma by doing nothing.
2) Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating Devices And Careful Wording
Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage--remove
some of the work in taking action. Also, your phone number (with area code and extension) are useful if you want the reader to
call you. Finally, state your office hours and location if you want the reader to come to see you in person. References to these
facilitating devices--preferably directing the reader to use them--reassure the reader that what you are asking is simple and
requires little time and effort.
Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also emphasize that what you are asking the reader to do is simple. "Write
and let us know your choice" suggests more work than "Check your color choice on the enclosed card." "Jot down," "just check,"
"simply initial" are also examples of wording that suggest ease and rapidity in doing something. Such wording helps reduce
reader reluctance to take action.
3) Date The Action--If Possible And Appropriate

Name the date whenever you need the reader's response by a certain time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it
then--perhaps to meet the deadline for a sale.
4) Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action

Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by prompt action. Such a reminder of the desirability of your product or
service--sometimes called a clincher--comes appropriately at the ending of your letter. It not only provides motivation for the
reader, but it also has decided psychological value as well because it emphasizes service attitude--rather than the greed
stressed if you end with dollars and cents talk or the mechanics of ordering.
You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four point action closing when you are writing a letter relating to sales.
You should use dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is appropriate for your writing situation.
Some examples of closing paragraphs follow. Determine whether or not they include all elements of the four point action closing
needed for a tactful, yet persuasive letter ending.
1. Mr. J. B. Nickle, our Memphis representative, will be glad to call at a time convenient for you. Fill out and mail the enclosed
postcard, and he will come to your home and explain how your Stair Traveler can make your daily living more pleasurable.
2. You can begin to enjoy the unusual reception of a famous Foremost set by placing your order now.
3. Call our toll-free number, or mail the enclosed postcard indicating a day and time convenient for our representative to visit
you. He'll give you a list of SIB users in the Lafayette area and explain additional advantages of using Superior's Ice Breaker.
You can then order your winter's supply and join more than 150,000 apartment and industrial firms who have used SIB for
ice-free parking lots.
4. If you have any technical questions concerning our products, please call us toll free at (800) 555-9525 and ask for Technical
Service. Our staff will be pleased to lend whatever assistance they can.
5. We are enclosing an order blank and postage paid envelope for your convenience.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_4ptclos.html
available at

Memo Writing
Memos have one purpose in life: as the authors of Business Writing Strategies and Samples put it, "Memos solve problems."
Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new information, like policy changes, price increases, etc., or by
persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, use less paper, or change a current production procedure.
Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and
needs of the reader. This handout will help you solve you memo-writing problems by discussing what a memo is, presenting
some options for organizing memos, describing a the parts of memos, and suggesting some hints that will make your memos
more effective.
What Is a Memo?
When you think of a memo, what do you think of? Is it a little piece of paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:
"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..."
The message itself may be very simple--something like:
"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're out of fudge pops."
While these memos are informative or persuasive, and may serve their simple purposes, more complex memos are often
needed in an office setting. But don't let that worry you. Even though business memos may be more formal and complicated,
the intention in writing one is still the same. You want to achieve your purpose with your reader effectively. This handout will show
you how.
Basic Memo Plans

Standard office memos can be approached in different ways to fit your purpose. Here are three basic plans:
1 . The direct plan, which is the most common, starts out by stating the most important points first and then moves to
supporting details. This plan is useful for routine information and for relaying news.
2 . The indirect plan makes an appeal or spews out evidence first and arrives at a conclusion based on these facts. This plan
is best used when you need to arouse your reader's interest before describing some action that you want taken.
3 . A combination approach can be used for the balanced plan. This plan is particularly useful when relaying bad news, as it
combines information and persuasion.
Parts of a Memo
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help achieve the writer's purpose.
Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:
TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
Troubleshooting hints:
Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call the company president "Maxi"
on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo.
Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats" as a subject line could mean anything from a production
problem to a personal frustration. Instead use something like, "Curtailing Rat Extremity Parts in our Product."
Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is presented in three parts: the context and problem,
the specific assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo.
1 . The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph to
establish the background and state the problem or simply the opening of a sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat
parts in our product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.
2 . In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested,
your task may be indicated by a sentence opening like, "You asked that I look at...." If you want to explain your
intentions, you might say, "To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of rat extremities, I will...."
3 . Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for writing it and forecasts what is in the rest of the memo.
This is not the time to be shy. You want to come right out and tell your reader the kind of information that's in store. For
example, you might say: "This memo presents a description of the current situation, some proposed alternatives, and
my recommendations." If you plan to use headings for your memo segments, you can refer to your major headings in
this forecast statement to provide a better guide for your reader.
Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but be convincing that a real
problem exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details.
If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to
do more planning before you're ready to write your memo.
Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most important topics that the decision-maker
needs.
Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment. This segment provides a brief
statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo
immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have used in your research, but remember
to keep it brief.
You can help your reader understand your memo better by using headings for the summary and the discussion segments that
follow it. Try to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the segment. For example, instead of using
"Summary" for your heading, try "New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more specific. The major headings you
choose here are the ones that will appear in your purpose-statement forecast.
Troubleshooting hint:
You may want to wait until after the report is drafted and all conclusions and recommendations have been decided
before writing the summary.
Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep these two
things in mind:
1 . Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or
recommendations.
2 . Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or
supporting facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest--->weakest.)
For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible.
Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.
Closing Segment
Now you're almost done. After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous ending that
states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and
how you can make those actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you
during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow through on any decisions you make."
Necessary Attachments
Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists,
graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what
is attached below your closing, like this:
Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January - June 1997
Good luck on your memo. If you look at this handout closely, you will see that, except for the heading segment, it follows the
guidelines and hints presented here. These hints will also help you make your memo more successful.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_memo.html
available at

Writing Report Abstracts
Types Of Abstracts
There are two types of abstracts: informational and descriptive.
Informational Abstracts
communicate contents of reports
include purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations
highlight essential points
are short--from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the report (10% or less of the report)
allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report
Descriptive Abstracts
tell what the report contains
include purpose, methods, scope, but NOT results, conclusions, and recommendations
are always very short-- usually under 100 words
introduce subject to readers, who must then read the report to learn study results
Qualities Of A Good Abstract

An effective abstract
uses one or more well-developed paragraphs, which are unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone
uses an introduction-body-conclusion structure in which the parts of the report are discussed in order: purpose, findings,
conclusions, recommendations
follows strictly the chronology of the report
provides logical connections between material included
adds no new information but simply summarizes the report
is intelligible to a wide audience
Steps For Writing Effective Report Abstracts

To write an effective report abstract, follow these four steps:
1. Reread your report with the purpose of abstracting in mind. Look specifically for these main parts: purpose, methods, scope,
results, conclusions, and recommendations.
2. After you have finished rereading your report, write a rough draft WITHOUT LOOKING BACK AT YOUR REPORT. Consider the
main parts of the abstract listed in step #1. Do not merely copy key sentences from your report. You will put in too much or too
little information. Do not summarize information in a new way.
3. Revise your rough draft to
correct weaknesses in organization and coherence,

drop superfluous information,
add important information originally left out,
eliminate wordiness, and
correct errors in grammar and mechanics.
4. Carefully proofread your final copy.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_abstract.html
available at

Model for An Acceptance Letter
May 10, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345
The acceptance letter is a simple and pleasant letter to write. In the first paragraph, thank the company for the offer and
directly accept the position.
Next, restate the contract provisions as you understand them. These are points that you and your contact at the company
have discussed in relation to your employment. They may include salary, location, benefits, or any other items. Restate any
instructions you were given in their acceptance letter to you. These might include the date that you will begin working, the
salary discussed, or the hours you would be working. It is extremely important to restate these details because they provide
documentation of an understanding between you and the company before an actual contract is signed.
Finally, end with a statement of your happiness at the opportunity to join the company. Be thankful and courteous, watching
your tone so as not to sound too overconfident.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_acceptancemodel.html
available at

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Follow-up to an Interview Letter Model
April 2, 2001
Ernie English
Dear Mr. English:
The purpose of the follow-up to an interview is to convey your thankfulness at being given an interview. In the opening
paragraph, thank the interviewer for their time. Thank them for allowing you to learn about the position and the company.
In the body of your letter, present a personal analysis of your interview and visit. It is important to avoid clichs and
generalizations such as, "My visit to your company was very informational and interesting." Write about your impressions of
the company and your review of the interview proceedings. You may also want to point out any new information that you
learned about the company during your visit. If there is any new information about your education or work experience that
you believe would be increase your chance of getting the position, present those as well.
In your conclusion it is important to be positive and reflect goodwill. The letters intent is to show the interviewer that you are
thorough, courteous, efficient and, most importantly, that you are sincerely interested in the job. It is likely that sending this
letter will set you apart from the crowd.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road
This handout revised July 2001 by Lindsay Trawick.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_followupmodel.html
available at

Model for Writing an Inquiry about a Cover Letter and Resume
March 16, 2001
Ernie English
Dear Mr. English:
This document should loosely reflect your cover letter. In this opening paragraph, restate the position for which you applied,
and state that you are still interested. You may also wish to include a forecasting statement. This is a brief sentence
explaining why you feel qualified to fill the position at hand.
In the second paragraph, briefly restate the qualifications listed in your cover letter. Since brevity is always important in
employment related letters, remember to include only your most recent and relevant qualifications. In order to avoid
restating your resume, give situational examples of your qualifications. If there have been any new additions to your resume,
add those as well. Here too, avoid simply restating your resume since it will be included with your letter.
Finally, in the closing paragraph, restate your contact information and when you are available. Close the letter so that the
employer knows that you are still sincerely interested in the job.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_inquirylettermodel.html
available at

Model for Writing a Reference Request Letter
February 10, 2001
Louie Lab
1234 University St.
University City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. Lab:
You will need to write a reference request letter before you create a reference sheet to distribute to potential employers. It is
meant to give the reference some warning that an employer may be contacting them. It also insures that they have the most
up-to-date information about your qualifications and education. In the first paragraph, your primary goal is to reintroduce
yourself to your potential reference. Simply give a quick review of the relationship and situations the two of you shared. This
opening should be courteous and polite. Provide a little information about yourself. This is especially important if you have
not spoken with your potential reference in some time. State your field of study, year in school, and/or career aspirations.
Next, you should formally ask to use this person as a reference. Briefly discuss the position for which you are applying and
how the reference will be used. Will it be utilized as an addition to your resume or presented at the interview? This
information will give your reference a better understanding of the information that would be expected from them if an
employer contacted them.
Finally, close the letter with a sentence that assumes you have permission to use the reference unless you hear otherwise.
You may wish to include a self-addressed stamped card so that the person may send you an answer. Also, include a copy of
your resume with the letter. This will provide helpful information about your qualifications and allow the reference to speak
intelligently to potential employers. Thank the reference for allowing you to use them in your job search and end with a
friendly closing.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner's Road


This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_requrefmodel.html
available at

OWL at Purdue University: Further Negotiations Letter Page 1 of 2
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Reply to When You Receive a Rejection Model Letter
May 7, 2001
Ernie English
Dear Mr. English:
Writing this letter is optional, but doing so is a good idea. It leaves the door open for you to apply to the firm sometime in
the future when your qualifications have changed and is a way of maintaining a good relationship with the company. In the
opening, thank the company for their time and consideration of your application and qualifications.
Use the body of your letter to discuss your positive impressions of the company. You might mention interviews that you had
with company representatives, information you learned about the company during your application process, and any specific
people who were particularly helpful or kind to you during the process.
Close the letter by mentioning the possibility of future contact with the company. Remain optimistic and thankful that the
company considered your application.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winners Road

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/pw/p_recrejectmodel.html
available at

Chris Q. Surname

1234 Waldron Avenue 1234 Oriole Trail
West Lafayette, IN 47906 Long Beach, IN 46360
(317)-123-4567 (219)-123-4567
chrisq@email.address.com http://web.address/~chrisq
Objective
A sales and marketing internship allowing me to utilize my leadership and communication skills and apply my knowledge of the
health care industry
Education
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN May 1999

Krannert School of Management Major GPA: 3.1/4.0
B.S. in Management GPA 2.9/4.0
Marketing Minor
Human Resources Minor
Familiar Computer Applications

Microsoft Office Netscape Communicator
Microsoft Access Internet Explorer
Special Course Project
Acted as client liaison for Memorial Hospital as part of Business Writing team project
Conducted research and prepared report on more efficient communication systems
Volunteer Service
Volunteer, Memorial Hospital Pharmacy, Michigan City, IN December 1993 to May 1994
Prepared prescriptions to meet diverse needs of patients and customers

Ordered various pharmaceutical products from different suppliers, handled billing
Offered over 100 hours of volunteer service in health care facility
Work Experience
Cashier, Alvin's Supermarket, Michigan City, IN May 1995-August 1997
Trained new employees in customer relations and efficient money handling

Balanced cash register drawers and maintained high level of accuracy
Assisted manager with inventory and ordering procedures
Sales Associate, Nana's Cottage, Michigan City, IN July 1992-November 1994

Balanced registers and opened/closed store in a responsible manner
Leadership Activities
Old Masters Delta Sigma Pi Professional Fraternity

Krannert Employers Forum Hostess
Central Committee Co-Chair Management Ambassadors
Hostess Purdue Water Ski Club
Publicity March of Dimes Walk-America
Delta Gamma Sorority

OWL at Purdue University: Printable Handouts : Apostrophe Exercise Page 1 of 3
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Apostrophes: Answers to the Exercise
This exercise brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab.
The following sentences are punctuated with apostrophes according to the rules for using the apostrophe.
1. Who's the party's candidate for vice president this year?
2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the trap's jaws.
3. Our neighbor's car is an old Chrysler, and it's just about to fall apart.
4. In three weeks' time we'll have to begin school again.
5. Didn't you hear that they're leaving tomorrow?
6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I remember Cinderella's glass slipper and Snow White's wicked stepmother.
7. We claimed the picnic table was ours, but the Smiths' children looked so disappointed that we found another spot.
8. It's important that the kitten learns to find its way home.
9. She did not hear her children's cries.
10. My address has three 7's, and Tim's phone number has four 2's.
11. Didn't he say when he would arrive at Arnie's house?
12. It's such a beautiful day that I've decided to take a sun bath.
13. She said the watch Jack found was hers, but she couldn't identify the manufacturer's name on it.
14. Little girls' clothing is on the first floor, and the men's department is on the second.
15. The dog's bark was far worse than its bite.
16. The moon's rays shone feebly on the path, and I heard the insects' chirpings and whistlings.
17. They're not afraid to go ahead with the plans, though the choice is not theirs.
18. The man whose face was tan said that he had spent his two weeks' vacation in the mountains.
19. My professor's advice was to try to get at least two A's.
20. John's '69 Ford is his proudest possession.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_apostA1.html
available at

Commas After Introductions Exercises
Answers to exercise A and B are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaintA1.html.
A. If the following sentences are correctly punctuated with introductory commas, mark a C on the line to the left of
the sentence. If there is an error, put an X on the line and circle the error. Do you know why each sentence is
correct or incorrect?
____ 1. As the boat turned about a dozen dolphins began to follow it.
____ 2. Since we moved into town, our fuel bill has tripled.
____ 3. Having chosen nursing as a career Susan enrolled in many science courses.
____ 4. Usually, I have time to eat breakfast.
____ 5. From outside the twelve-mile fishing limits off the coast of Maine, a strange phenomenon has been
reported.
____ 6. When he was in high school he was known only as an athlete.
____ 7. Before you decide what courses to take, you should consider the amount of work you are willing to do.
____ 8. Nevertheless I do not want to meet him.
B. Add introductory commas where they are needed in the following sentences. Can you identify whether the
introductory element, if any, is a clause, phrase, or word? If it is a phrase, what kind of phrase is it?
____ 1. To give Jane a good look at the university Mr. Benson drove up for the Day on Campus.
____ 2. Since the dog had started to run a way to catch him had to be found.
____ 3. Of course the movie that I had rushed to see didn't start on time.
____ 4. Her secondhand car was in excellent condition when she bought it.
____ 5. As I mentioned the rules can be broken occasionally.
____ 6. Having decided to eat only natural foods he had to give up all of his favorite junk food snacks.
____ 7. To estimate the costs he consulted a repairman by phone.
____ 8. To succeed in politics is not necessarily desirable.
____ 9. Making up his mind quickly Jared ordered lasagna while we were still reading the menu.
____ 10. However he tried to use the bottle opener it wouldn't work.
C. Write your own sentences with introductory elements, and punctuate them correctly.
1. After ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. To save ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. If ____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. Often __________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Hearing ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
8. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
9. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Answers to exercise A and B are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaintA1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaintEX1.html

Answers to Exercises: Commas after Introductions
A. If the following sentences are correctly punctuated with introductory commas, mark a C on the line to the left of the sentence.
If there is an error, put an X on the line and circle the error. Do you know why each sentence is correct or incorrect?
missing comma after introductory clause

__X_ 1. As the boat turned about a dozen dolphins began to follow it.
ending with turned
correct use of comma after introductory

__C_ 2. Since we moved into town, our fuel bill has tripled.
clause
__X_ 3. Having chosen nursing as a career Susan enrolled in many science missing comma after introductory
courses. participial phrase ending with career
correct use of comma after introductory

__C_ 4. Usually, I have time to eat breakfast.
adverb
__C_ 5. From outside the twelve-mile fishing limits off the coast of Maine, a correct use of comma after combination of
strange phenomenon has been reported. prepositional phrases
missing comma after introductory clause

__X_ 6. When he was in high school he was known only as an athlete.
ending with school
__C_ 7. Before you decide what courses to take, you should consider the correct use of comma after introductory
amount of work you are willing to do. clause
missing comma after introductory

__X_ 8. Nevertheless I do not want to meet him.
transitional word Nevertheless
B. Add introductory commas where they are needed in the following sentences. Can you identify whether the introductory
element, if any, is a clause, phrase, or word? If it is a phrase, what kind of phrase is it?
__P_ 1. To give Jane a good look at the university, Mr. Benson drove up for the
introductory infinitive phrase
Day on Campus.
__C_ 2. Since the dog had started to run, a way to catch him had to be found. introductory clause
__P_ 3. Of course, the movie that I had rushed to see didn't start on time. introductory prepositional phrase
__N_ 4. Her secondhand car was in excellent condition when she bought it. no introductory element
__C_ 5. As I mentioned, the rules can be broken occasionally. introductory clause
__P_ 6. Having decided to eat only natural foods, he had to give up all of his
introductory participial phrase
favorite junk food snacks.
__P_ 7. To estimate the costs, he consulted a repairman by phone. introductory infinitive phrase
no introductory element (The infinitive

__N_ 8. To succeed in politics is not necessarily desirable.
phrase is the subject of the sentence.)
__P_ 9. Making up his mind quickly, Jared ordered lasagna while we were still
introductory participial phrase
reading the menu.
introductory clause (However is not a

__C_ 10. However he tried to use the bottle opener, it wouldn't work. transitional word here but the first word of
an introductory clause.)
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaintA1.html
available at

Using Commas: Exercise #1
Add commas as needed in the sentences below. On the line to the left of each sentence, write the number of the appropriate
comma rule. If the sentence is correct as it is, write C on the line and refer to the appropriate rule in parentheses after the
sentence. You may wish to review our handout on Using Commas at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html before trying this exercise.
_____ He left the scene of the accident and tried to forget that it had happened.
_____ Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface.
_____ Madame de Stael was an attractive gracious lady.
_____ Nice is a word with many meanings and some of them are contradictory.
_____ The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done properly.
_____ Some people refuse to go to the zoo because of pity for creatures that must live in small cages.
_____ Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities.
_____ The closet contained worn clothes old shoes and dirty hats.
_____ The uninvited guest wore a dark blue tweed suit.
_____ After surviving this ordeal the trapper felt relieved.
_____ Mark Twain's early novels I believe stand the test of time.
_____ December 7 1941 will never be forgotten.
_____ The field was safe enough wasn't it?
_____ Write the editor of the Atlantic 8 Arlington Street Boston Massachusetts 02116.
_____ He replied "I have no idea what you mean."
_____ After a good washing and grooming the pup looked like a new dog.
_____ Because of their opposition to institutions that force creatures to live in captivity some people refuse to go to the zoo.
_____ Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most authoritative on the subject of baldness.
_____ Vests which were once popular have been out of vogue for several years.
_____ As a celestial goddess she regulated the course of the heavenly bodies and controlled the alternating seasons.
_____ I hope that some day he will learn how to be polite.
Answers for this exercise are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaA1.html. You can also go
on to the next exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX2.html or return to the handout on
Using Commas (#3) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX1.html
available at

Using Commas: Exercise #1 Answers
__C__ He left the scene of the accident and tried to forget that it had happened. (rules 13 and 4)
__3__ Oil, which is lighter than water, rises to the surface.
__6__ Madame de Stael was an attractive, gracious lady.
__1__ Nice is a word with many meanings, and some of them are contradictory.
__C__ The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done properly. (rules 14 and 4)
__C__ Some people refuse to go to the zoo because of pity for creatures that must live in small cages. (rules 2 and 4)
__C__ Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities. (rule 4)
__5__ The closet contained worn clothes, old shoes, and dirty hats.
__C__ The uninvited guest wore a dark blue tweed suit. (rule 6)
__2__ After surviving this ordeal, the trapper felt relieved.
__3__ Mark Twain's early novels, I believe, stand the test of time.
__9__ December 7, 1941, will never be forgotten.
__7__ The field was safe enough, wasn't it?
__9__ Write the editor of the Atlantic , 8 Arlington Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 02116.
__10_ He replied, "I have no idea what you mean."
__2__ After a good washing and grooming, the pup looked like a new dog.
__2__ Because of their opposition to institutions that force creatures to live in captivity, some people refuse to go to the zoo.
__C__ Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most authoritative on the subject of baldness. (rule 4)
__3__ Vests, which were once popular, have been out of vogue for several years.
__2__ As a celestial goddess, she regulated the course of the heavenly bodies and controlled the alternating seasons. (also, rule
13)
__C__ I hope that someday he will learn how to be polite. (rule 4)
You can return to the Comma Usage handout or go on to the next exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaA1.html.
available at

Commas: Exercise #2
You may want to review the rules in the handout on Using Commas at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html before trying this exercise. When you are ready to try this
exercise, put in commas wherever they are needed in the following sentences.
1. There was no question that John's painting a huge colorful and ugly mural was the worst entry in the art exhibit.
2. Werner von Braun Willy Ley and Edward Teller noted authorities in the field of rocket development have done much to guide
the missile program of the United States.
3. Mr. Cready's ability to say the wrong thing at the wrong time is I believe amazing.
4. Running around the house the dog was abruptly stopped by a fence.
5. If the opposition should win our candidate would never have any political future.
6. Gracefully lightly and daintily the ballerina moved across the stage.
7. Glamour the woman's fashion magazine recently incorporated with Charm another fashion journal.
8. Joe was born on May 7 1955 and his best friend was born exactly two months later on July 7 1955.
9. Mr. and Mrs. Kwon my parents' best friends sat in front of us at the football game.
10. November 11 1918 the armistice ending World War I was signed.
You can check your answers to this exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaA2.html, go on to the

next exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX3.html, or return to the handout on Using
Commas at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
available at

Commas: Answers to Exercise #2
1. There was no question that John's painting, a huge, colorful, and ugly mural, was the worst entry in the art exhibit.
2. Werner von Braun, Willy Ley, and Edward Teller, noted authorities in the field of rocket development, have done much to
guide the missile program of the United States.
3. Mr. Cready's ability to say the wrong thing at the wrong time is, I believe, amazing.
4. Running around the house, the dog was abruptly stopped by a fence.
5. If the opposition should win, our candidate would never have any political future.
6. Gracefully, lightly, and daintily, the ballerina moved across the stage.
7. Glamour , the woman's fashion magazine, recently incorporated with Charm , another fashion journal.
8. Joe was born on May 7, 1955, and his best friend was born exactly two months later on July 7, 1955.
9. Mr. and Mrs. Kwon, my parents' best friends, sat in front of us at the football game.
10. November 11, 1918, the armistice ending World War I was signed.
You can return the handout on Using Commas or go on to the next exercise at
available at

Commas: Exercise #3
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab http://owl.english.purdue.edu/.
1. The problems involved in this operation are I think numerous.
2. Celene who does not usually tell anyone what she feels said she didn't want to go to the dance.
3. To get tickets for some Broadway musicals one has to order three months in advance.
4. Listening to the radio Jun heard an announcement that Spangler his own dog was lost.
5. I used to live at 16689 Sutton Avenue Milpitas California but we have since moved to 1895 Holland Way Dubuque Iowa.
6. The Valley of the Moon the name of a section in Napa County California is the heart of the state's wine producing area.
7. Chris did not see how he could organize write and proofread this paper in only two hours.
8. By the pilings of the old pier I found four starfish a clam and a sea anemone.
9. Yes Helen did mention that all three of you were coming for lunch.
10. I believe therefore that fraternities are good influences on a college campus.
You can check your answers to this exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaA3.html, try the next
exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX4.html, or return to the handout on Using Commas at
available at

1. The problems involved in this operation are, I think, numerous.
2. Celene, who does not usually tell anyone what she feels, said she didn't want to go to the dance.
3. To get tickets for some Broadway musicals, one has to order three months in advance.
4. Listening to the radio, Jun heard an announcement that Spangler, his own dog, was lost.
5. I used to live at 16689 Sutton Avenue, Milpitas, California, but we have since moved to 1895 Holland Way, Dubuque, Iowa.
6. The Valley of the Moon, the name of a section in Napa County, California, is the heart of the state's wine producing area.
7. Chris did not see how he could organize, write, and proofread this paper in only two hours.
8. By the pilings of the old pier, I found four starfish, a clam, and a sea anemone.
9. Yes, Helen did mention that all three of you were coming for lunch.
10. I believe, therefore, that fraternities are good influences on a college campus.
You can return to the handout on Using Commas or try the next exercise at
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comaA3.html.
available at

Commas: Exercise #4
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_comma.html before trying this exercise. When you are ready to try
this exercise, put in commas wherever they are needed in the following sentences.
1. The girl with the bright friendly smile wore a bright green scarf to celebrate St. Patrick's Day.
2. As he read the Chekhov story he became aware of the Russian's genius.
3. Dauphin Island located off the coast of Alabama is a favorite spot for fishing.
4. She was as a matter of fact mainly interested in showing off her vocabulary.
5. I often go to the seashore and collect rocks there.
6. Before reaching the summit the climbers were forced by a storm to turn back.
7. Did you know that James Agee the novelist and poet was also a film critic?
8. Lady Jane Grey was the queen of England from July 10 1553 to July 19 1553.
9. Joseph registered for English 101 History 204 and Biology 106.
10. After discussing "Rain" we agreed that Somerset Maugham could really tell a good story.
11. Squaw Valley California the scene of the winter Olympics in 1960 is a ski resort.
12. Tomorrow I believe is the last day to register to vote in the November general election.
13. To perform well on Saturday afternoon the athlete must train every day of the week.
14. Understanding history increases your understanding of today's world.
15 Meg Fischer my cousin hopes to graduate from law school in two years.
16. He reads everything: road maps want ads and cereal boxes.
17. Having cut the roses she decided to bring them to her friend in the hospital.
18. "When" Jaime asked "will you return my book?"
You can check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaA4.html, try the next exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaEX5.html, or return to the handout on Using Commas at
available at

1. The girl with the bright, friendly smile wore a bright green scarf to celebrate St. Patrick's Day.
2. As he read the Chekhov story, he became aware of the Russian's genius.
3. Dauphin Island, located off the coast of Alabama, is a favorite spot for fishing.
4. She was, as a matter of fact, mainly interested in showing off her vocabulary.
5. I often go to the seashore and collect rocks there.
6. Before reaching the summit, the climbers were forced by a storm to turn back.
7. Did you know that James Agee, the novelist and poet, was also a film critic?
8. Lady Jane Grey was the queen of England from July 10, 1553 to July 19, 1553.
9. Joseph registered for the English 101, History 204, and Biology 106.
10. After discussing "Rain," we agreed that Somerset Maugham could really tell a good story.
11. Squaw Valley, California, the scene of the winter Olympics in 1960, is a ski resort.
12. Tomorrow, I believe, is the last day to register to vote in the November general election.
13. To perform well on Saturday afternoon, the athlete must train every day of the week.
14. Understanding history increases your understanding of today's world.
15 Meg Fischer, my cousin, hopes to graduate from law school in two years.
16. He reads everything: road maps, want ads, and cereal boxes.
17. Having cut the roses, she decided to bring them to her friend in the hospital.
18. "When" Jaime asked, "will you return my book?"
You can return to our handout on Using Commas, or try the next exercise at
available at

Commas: Exercise #5
Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/index.htm/.
1. We went to Bar Harbor but did not take the ferry to Nova Scotia.
2. The ginkgo tree whose leaves turn bright yellow in the fall came to this country from Asia.
3. The address for the governor's mansion is 391 West Ferry Road Atlanta Georgia.
4. The villagers enjoyed fairs festivals and good conversation.
5. When the intermission was over the members of the audience moved back to their seats.
6. Andy took the elevator to the third floor rushed into the office and asked to see his father.
7. When he stumbled over your feet William was clumsy not rude.
8. She listened to her favorite record with close careful attention.
9. Jillian who had worked in the dress shop all summer hoped to work there again during the Christmas holidays.
10. Go the first traffic light turn left and then look for a yellow brick building on the north side of the street.
11. Once she has graduated I do not know where she is going or what she is planning to do.
12. "Oh no" Max exclaimed "I think that Dr. Holmes was referring to Eliot the novelist not Eliot the poet."
13. Below the fields stretched out in a hundred shades of green.
14. To understand the purpose of the course the student needs to read the syllabus.
15. All students are eligible to receive tickets but must go to the athletic office to pick them up.
16. Thomas Paine's pamphlet appeared in Philadelphia Pennsylvania on January 9 1776.
17. You don't want any more hamburgers do you?
You can check your answers to this exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaA5.html or return to

the handout on Using Commas at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
available at

1. We went to Bar Harbor but did not take the ferry to Nova Scotia.
2. The ginkgo tree, whose leaves turn bright yellow in the fall, came to this country from Asia.
3. The address for the governor's mansion is 391 West Ferry Road, Atlanta, Georgia.
4. The villagers enjoyed fairs, festivals, and good conversation.
5. When the intermission was over, the members of the audience moved back to their seats.
6. Andy took the elevator to the third floor, rushed into the office, and asked to see his father.
7. When he stumbled over your feet, William was clumsy, not rude.
8. She listened to her favorite record with close, careful attention.
9. Jillian, who had worked in the dress shop all summer, hoped to work there again during the Christmas holidays.
10. Go the first traffic light, turn left, and then look for a yellow brick building on the north side of the street.
11. Once she has graduated, I do not know where she is going or what she is planning to do.
12. "Oh no" Max exclaimed, "I think that Dr. Holmes was referring to Eliot, the novelist, not Eliot, the poet."
13. Below, the fields stretched out in a hundred shades of green.
14. To understand the purpose of the course, the student needs to read the syllabus.
15. All students are eligible to receive tickets but must go to the athletic office to pick them up.
16. Thomas Paine's pamphlet appeared in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on January 9, 1776.
17. You don't want any more hamburgers, do you?
You can return to the handout on Using Commas at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html.
available at

Commas Set off Nonessential Elements: Exercise #1
This exercise brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/.
Are there any nonessential words, phrases, or clauses in the following sentences? If so, underline them and change the
punctuation as appropriate.
1. Patterson Tower the recently completed office building is a monument to concrete ugliness.
2. The movie that I wanted to see is no longer playing.
3. Each person who enters the contest must send in two box tops.
4. John decided nonetheless not to buy the car.
5. The Mississippi River which once flowed north into Hudson Bay flows south into the Gulf of Mexico.
6. Your cat watching the dog intently walked carefully away.
7. The cat that was watching the dog most intently walked carefully away.
8. TV commercials sometimes the most entertaining parts of a program are essentially flashy corporate propaganda.
9. The dam project which many in the government consider to be a sign of national strength will destroy hundreds of villages and
vast areas of wildlife habitat along the river banks.
10. The free-jazz musician Sun Ra claimed to be from Saturn.
Answers for this exercise are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX1.html. You can

return to the handout on Commas with Essential and Non-Essentials or go on to Exercise 2 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX2.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX1.html
available at

Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise Answers
A. Are there any nonessential words, phrases, or clauses in the following sentences? If so, underline them and change the
punctuation as appropriate.
1. Patterson Tower, the recently completed office building, is a monument to concrete ugliness.
2. The movie that I wanted to see is no longer playing.
3. Each person who enters the contest must send in two box tops.
4. John decided, nonetheless, not to buy the car.
5. The Mississippi River, which once flowed north into Hudson Bay, flows south into the Gulf of Mexico.
6. Your cat, watching the dog intently, walked carefully away.
7. The cat that was watching the dog most intently walked carefully away.
8. TV commercials, sometimes the most entertaining parts of a program, are essentially flashy corporate
propaganda.
9. The dam project, which many in the government consider to be a sign of national strength, will destroy
hundreds of villages and vast areas of wildlife habitat along the river banks.
10. The free-jazz musician Sun Ra claimed to be from Saturn.
B. Are the essential and nonessential elements in the following sentences punctuated correctly? If they are correct, write a C on
the line to the left. If they are incorrect, put an X on the line. Do you know why the punctuation is correct or incorrect?
__C__ 1. The one woman who did not attend the meeting said that she had to study for her chemistry exam. [w h o
did not attend the meeting is an essential clause, defining the specific woman in question.]
__X__ 2. He did not however intend to return the money he borrowed. [however is a nonessential word.]
__X__ 3. West Point cadets, who break the honor code, are expelled. [who break the honor code is an essential
clause, defining a subset of cadets.]
__X__ 4. She was as a matter of fact chiefly interested in becoming a Hollywood celebrity. [as a matter of fact is a
nonessential phrase.]
__C__ 5. Raul's wife, Conchita, is president of the local Red Cross. [Conchita is a nonessential word since Raul's
wife already defines the specific person in question.]
__X__ 6. The German writer, Hermann Hesse, is a favorite with American college students. [Hermann Hesse is an
essential term, defining the specific German writer in question.]
__X__ 7. The courthouse which was renovated recently was built in 1878. [which was renovated recently is a
nonessential clause since the courthouse already defines the specific building in question.]
__X__ 8. Saul having forgotten to save his work lost all of his revisions when his computer crashed. [having
forgotten to save his work is a nonessential phrase, merely modifying the word Saul .]
__C__ 9. St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, wrote his handbook of spiritual exercises in the
sixteenth century. [founder of the Society of Jesus is a nonessential phrase, merely providing additional information
about the subject.]
__X__ 10. The book, that your sister gave you for your birthday, won a National Book Award. [that your sister gave
you for your birthday is an essential clause, defining the specific book in question.]
C. The following sentences have essential and nonessential words, phrases, and clauses in them. Put in the necessary
punctuation.
1. The girl who teaches swimming at the neighborhood pool has a great deal of patience.
2. The girl, who enjoyed teaching swimming, decided to major in physical education at college.
3. The high school course that was most valuable to me was typing.
4. Maria, wearing an original dress of her own design, was the center of attention.
5. Dogsled mushing, which has been his favorite sport for years, requires a lot of effort.
6. Dauphin Island, located off the coast of Alabama, is a favorite spot for fishermen.
7. He saw his favorite movie, Star Wars , eight times.
8. Two of her friends, Kate and Beth, are planning to share an apartment with her next summer.
9. Citizen Kane , considered by many critics to be the greatest American film ever made, won only one Academy
Award.
10. The officer who made the arrest had been investigated previously for excessive use of force.
D. Write your own sentences using essential and nonessential clauses.
1. Try using this pattern: (subject) who ____________________ (predicate).
possible answer: The doctor who examined you is nationally known for her
cardiology research.
2. Try using this pattern: (subject), who ___________________, (predicate).
possible answer: The mayor, who won the election by a landslide, continues to promote
community-based volunteer programs.
3. Try using this pattern: (subject), which __________________, (predicate).
possible answer: James Joyce's Ulysses , which was banned in the US for obscenity when it was
published, is now widely considered to be one of the great works of twentieth-century literature.
4. Try using this pattern: (subject) that _____________________ (predicate).
possible answer: The film that best exemplifies the French New Wave movement of the early
1960s is Jean-Luc Godard's A Bout de Souffle [Breathless ].
5.-8.: many possible answers....
You can go on to do Exercise #2 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX2.html or

return to the handout on Commas with Essential and Non-Essentials at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html to review any rules you want to reread.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessA1.html.
available at

Comma vs. Semicolon in Compound Sentences: Exercise
Brought to you by The Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu.
Each of the following sentences needs either a comma or a semicolon. Put in the necessary punctuation.
1. Many companies make sugar-free soft drinks, which are flavored by synthetic chemicals the drinks usually contain only one or
two calories per serving.
2. Mr. Leyland played the viola professionally for many years and he now conducts a community orchestra.
3. The crab grass was flourishing but the rest of the lawn, unfortunately, was dying.
4. The hill was covered with wildflowers it was a beautiful sight.
5. As I turned around, I heard a loud thump for the cat had upset the goldfish bowl.
6. The artist preferred to paint in oils he did not like watercolors.
7. The house was clean, the table set, and the porch light on everything was ready for the guests' arrival.
8. He looked carefully in the underbrush but he failed to notice the pair of green eyes staring at him.
9. The foundations of the house had been poured but, to his disappointment, nothing else had been done because of the
carpenters' strike.
10. The computer could perform millions of operations in a split second however, it could not think spontaneously.
11. I thought registration day would be tiring but I didn't know I'd have to stand in so many lines.
12. The dog, growling and snarling, snapped at me I was so frightened that I ran.
13. The snowstorm dumped twelve inches of snow on the interstate subsequently, the state police closed the road.
14. Professors are supposed to be absent-minded and I've seen plenty of evidence to support that claim since I've been in
college.
15. The suspect said that he had never met the victim however, the detective knew that he was lying.
16. In the first place, it was snowing too hard to see the road in the second place, we had no chains.
17. I have read Soul on Ice but I have not read The Invisible Man.
18. San Francisco is my favorite city in fact, I plan to spend two weeks there this summer.
19. The quarterback made a brilliant pass and the end crossed the goal line for the winning touchdown.
20. Large supermarkets fascinate me I can find everything from frozen chow mein to soybean flour in one place.
21. Ron and Mike were both in English class this morning they gave an interesting presentation on their research.
22. The obstacles are not insurmountable but they are real and formidable.
23. Riding a bicycle is excellent exercise I ride mine every day.
24. I am not interested in a trip to Asia this year however, I would like to go to Europe.
25. Not all highly educated people enjoy traveling, but many world travelers are particularly well educated.
26. Jack worked overtime to pay off his education debts at least, that was his explanation for his long hours.
27. Katherine has given up smoking about five times but she cannot seem to break the habit.
28. His work may be almost totally forgotten but he would certainly be surprised to see how much current scholarship simply
echoes his ideas.
29. Our dog seems to have a built-in alarm clock he wakes us up at exactly the same time every morning.
30. The passengers on the plane were initially alarmed by the loss of altitude but the pilot and the crew kept them calm.
31. I realized at once that something was wrong I was not, however, the only person who was concerned.
32. I had to complete the assignment by Friday otherwise, I would have failed the course.
33. Ralph decided to be a chemist but he changed his mind after taking Chem. 121.
34. I finished reading The Nation and then I went to bed.
35. We always go to the mountains in the fall they are at their prettiest at that time of year.
36. Tim went to the candy store quite often the clerk even knew his name.
37. Criticism of capitalist expansionism does not surface in most discussions of the worldwide ecological crisis indeed, proposed
solutions rarely deviate from a basic message of further technological "progress."
38. The president has pledged to cut taxes repeatedly and the public has responded enthusiastically.
39. The office was closed consequently, I could not pay my bill.
40. The air was beautifully clear it was a lovely day.
Answers for this exercise are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacompA1.html. You can also
return to the handout on the Comma vs. the Semicolon in Compound Sentences at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacomp.html
For more information about compound sentence patterns, see the Purdue OWL handout, Sentence Punctuation Patterns at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentp.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commacompEX1.html
available at

Comma vs. Semicolon: Exercise Answers
1. Many companies make sugar-free soft drinks, which are flavored by synthetic chemicals; the drinks usually contain only one
or two calories per serving.
2. Mr. Leyland played the viola professionally for many years, and he now conducts a community orchestra.
3. The crab grass was flourishing, but the rest of the lawn, unfortunately, was dying.
4. The hill was covered with wildflowers; it was a beautiful sight.
5. As I turned around, I heard a loud thump, for the cat had upset the goldfish bowl.
6. The artist preferred to paint in oils; he did not like watercolors.
7. The house was clean, the table set, and the porch light on; everything was ready for the guests' arrival.
8. He looked carefully in the underbrush, but he failed to notice the pair of green eyes staring at him.
9. The foundations of the house had been poured, but, to his disappointment, nothing else had been done because of the
carpenters' strike.
10. The computer could perform millions of operations in a split second; however, it could not think spontaneously.
11. I thought registration day would be tiring, but I didn't know I'd have to stand in so many lines.
12. The dog, growling and snarling, snapped at me; I was so frightened that I ran.
13. The snowstorm dumped twelve inches of snow on the interstate; subsequently, the state police closed the road.
14. Professors are supposed to be absent-minded, and I've seen plenty of evidence to support that claim since I've been in
college.
15. The suspect said that he had never met the victim; however, the detective knew that he was lying.
16. In the first place, it was snowing too hard to see the road; in the second place, we had no chains.
17. I have read Soul on Ice , but I have not read The Invisible Man.
18. San Francisco is my favorite city; in fact, I plan to spend two weeks there this summer.
19. The quarterback made a brilliant pass, and the end crossed the goal line for the winning touchdown.
20. Large supermarkets fascinate me; I can find everything from frozen chow mein to soybean flour in one place.
21. Ron and Mike were both in English class this morning; they gave an interesting presentation on their research.
22. The obstacles are not insurmountable, but they are real and formidable.
23. Riding a bicycle is excellent exercise; I ride mine every day.
24. I am not interested in a trip to Asia this year; however, I would like to go to Europe.
25. Not all highly educated people enjoy traveling, but many world travelers are particularly well educated.
26. Jack worked overtime to pay off his education debts; at least, that was his explanation for his long hours.
27. Katherine has given up smoking about five times, but she cannot seem to break the habit.
28. His work may be almost totally forgotten, but he would certainly be surprised to see how much current scholarship simply
echoes his ideas.
29. Our dog seems to have a built-in alarm clock; he wakes us up at exactly the same time every morning.
30. The passengers on the plane were initially alarmed by the loss of altitude, but the pilot and the crew kept them calm.
31. I realized at once that something was wrong; I was not, however, the only person who was concerned.
32. I had to complete the assignment by Friday; otherwise, I would have failed the course.
33. Ralph decided to be a chemist, but he changed his mind after taking Chem. 121.
34. I finished reading The Nation , and then I went to bed.
35. We always go to the mountains in the fall; they are at their prettiest at that time of year.
36. Tim went to the candy store quite often; the clerk even knew his name.
37. Criticism of capitalist expansionism does not surface in most discussions of the worldwide ecological crisis; indeed, proposed
solutions rarely deviate from a basic message of further technological "progress."
38. The president has pledged to cut taxes repeatedly, and the public has responded enthusiastically.
39. The office was closed; consequently, I could not pay my bill.
40. The air was beautifully clear; it was a lovely day.
You can return to the exercise (at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacompEX1.html) for this or the
handout on Commas and Semicolons with Compound Sentences at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commacomp.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commacompA1.html
available at

Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise #2
Are the essential and nonessential elements in the following sentences punctuated correctly? If they are correct, write a C on the
line to the left. If they are incorrect, put an X on the line. Do you know why the punctuation is correct or incorrect?
_____ 1. The woman who did not attend the meeting said that she had to study for her chemistry exam.
_____ 2. He did not however intend to return the money he borrowed.
_____ 3. West Point cadets, who break the honor code, are expelled.
_____ 4. She was as a matter of fact chiefly interested in becoming a Hollywood celebrity.
_____ 5. Raul's wife, Conchita, is president of the local Red Cross.
_____ 6. The German writer, Hermann Hesse, is a favorite with American college students.
_____ 7. The courthouse which was renovated recently was built in 1878.
_____ 8. Saul having forgotten to save his work lost all of his revisions when his computer crashed.
_____ 9. St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, wrote his handbook of spiritual
exercises in the sixteenth century.
_____ 10. The book, that your sister gave you for your birthday, won a National Book Award.
Answers for this exercise are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessA2.html. You can return
to the handout on Commas with Essentials and Nonessentials or go on to Exercise 3 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX3.html.
available at

Commas with Essential and Nonessentials: Answers to Exercise #2
In this answer key for Exercise #2, the following answers are included:
C= sentence correctly punctuated for essential and nonessential elements.
X= sentence incorrectly punctuated for essential and nonessential elements
__C__ 1. The one woman who did not attend the meeting said that she had to study for her chemistry exam. [who did not attend
the meeting is an essential clause, defining the specific woman in question.]
__X__ 2. He did not however intend to return the money he borrowed. [however is a Non-Essentials word.]
__X__ 3. West Point cadets, who break the honor code, are expelled. [who break the honor code is an essential clause, defining a
subset of cadets.]
__X__ 4. She was as a matter of fact chiefly interested in becoming a Hollywood celebrity. [as a matter of fact is a Non-Essentials
phrase.]
__C__ 5. Raul's wife, Conchita, is president of the local Red Cross. [Conchita is a Non-Essentials word since Raul's wife already
defines the specific person in question.]
__X__ 6. The German writer, Hermann Hesse, is a favorite with American college students. [Hermann Hesse is an essential term,
defining the specific German writer in question.]
__X__ 7. The courthouse which was renovated recently was built in 1878. [which was renovated recently is a Non-Essentials clause
since the courthouse already defines the specific building in question.]
__X__ 8. Saul having forgotten to save his work lost all of his revisions when his computer crashed. [having forgotten to save his
work is a Non-Essentials phrase, merely modifying the word Saul .]
__C__ 9. St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, wrote his handbook of spiritual exercises in the sixteenth
century. [founder of the Society of Jesus is a Non-Essentials phrase, merely providing additional information about the subject.]
__X__ 10. The book, that your sister gave you for your birthday, won a National Book Award. [that your sister gave you for your
birthday is an essential clause, defining the specific book in question.]
You can go on to do Exercise #3 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessEX3.html or return to the

handout on Commas with Essential and Non-Essentials to review any rules you want to reread.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaessA2.html
available at

Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise #3
The following sentences have essential and nonessential words, phrases, and clauses in them. Put in the necessary punctuation.
2. The girl who enjoyed teaching swimming decided to major in physical education at college.
4. Maria wearing an original dress of her own design was the center of attention.
5. Dogsled mushing which has been his favorite sport for years requires a lot of effort.
6. Dauphin Island located off the coast of Alabama is a favorite spot for fishermen.
7. He saw his favorite movie Star Wars eight times.
8. Two of her friends Kate and Beth are planning to share an apartment with her next summer.
9. Citizen Kane considered by many critics to be the greatest American film ever made won only one Academy Award.
Answers for Exercise #3 are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/grammar/g_commaessA3.html. You can also return to the
handout on Commas with Essential and Nonessential Elements.
available at

Commas with Essential and Nonessentials: Answers to Exercise #3
The following sentences have essential and nonessential words, phrases, and clauses in them with the necessary punctuation
added. (You may have different punctuation for some of these if your meaning for the sentence differs from the way the
sentence is punctuated.)
2. The girl, who enjoyed teaching swimming, decided to major in physical education at college.
4. Maria, wearing an original dress of her own design, was the center of attention.
5. Dogsled mushing, which has been his favorite sport for years, requires a lot of effort.
6. Dauphin Island, located off the coast of Alabama, is a favorite spot for fishermen.
7. He saw his favorite movie, Star Wars , eight times.
8. Two of her friends, Kate and Beth, are planning to share an apartment with her next summer.
9. Citizen Kane , considered by many critics to be the greatest American film ever made, won only one Academy Award.
You can return to the handout on Commas with Essential and nonessentials to review any rules you want to reread.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/g_commaessA3.html
available at

Exercises for Eliminating Wordiness
For strategies to improve conciseness in your writing, see Methods of Eliminating Wordiness at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_concise.html
Directions: Revise these sentences to state their meaning in fewer words. Avoid passive voice, needless repetition,
and wordy phrases and clauses. The first sentence has been done as an example.
1. There are many farmers in the area who are planning to attend the meeting which is scheduled for next Friday.
1. Many area farmers plan to attend next Friday's meeting.
2. Although Bradley Hall is regularly populated by students, close study of the building as a structure is seldom
undertaken by them.
3. He dropped out of school on account of the fact that it was necessary for him to help support his family.
4. It is expected that the new schedule will be announced by the bus company within the next few days.
5. There are many ways in which a student who is interested in meeting foreign students may come to know one.
6. It is very unusual to find someone who has never told a deliberate lie on purpose.
7. Trouble is caused when people disobey rules that have been established for the safety of all.
8. A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students were arrested by campus police
for disorderly conduct, while several others are charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting
without being issued a permit to do so.
9. The subjects that are considered most important by students are those that have been shown to be useful to
them after graduation.
10. In the not too distant future, college freshmen must all become aware of the fact that there is a need for them
to make contact with an academic adviser concerning the matter of a major.
11. In our company there are wide-open opportunities for professional growth with a company that enjoys an
enviable record for stability in the dynamic atmosphere of aerospace technology.
12. Some people believe in capital punishment, while other people are against it; there are many opinions on this
subject.
Directions: Combine each sentence group into one concise sentence.
1. The cliff dropped to reefs seventy-five feet below. The reefs below the steep cliff were barely visible through the
fog.
2. Their car is gassed up. It is ready for the long drive. The drive will take all night.
3. Sometimes Stan went running with Blanche. She was a good athlete. She was on the track team at school.
4. Taylor brought some candy back from Europe. It wasn't shaped like American candy. The candy tasted kind of
strange to him.
5. Government leaders like to mention the creation of new jobs. They claim that these new jobs indicate a strong
economy. They don't mention that low-wage jobs without benefits and security have replaced many good jobs.
Directions: Revise the following passage, avoiding wordiness and undesirable repetition.
A large number of people enjoy reading murder mysteries regularly. As a rule, these people are not themselves
murderers, nor would these people really ever enjoy seeing someone commit an actual murder, nor would most of
them actually enjoy trying to solve an actual murder. They probably enjoy reading murder mysteries because of
this reason: they have found a way to escape from the monotonous, boring routine of dull everyday existence.
To such people the murder mystery is realistic fantasy. It is realistic because the people in the murder mystery are
as a general rule believable as people. They are not just made up pasteboard figures. It is also realistic because
the character who is the hero, the character who solves the murder mystery, solves it not usually by trial and error
and haphazard methods but by exercising a high degree of logic and reason. It is absolutely and totally essential
that people who enjoy murder mysteries have an admiration for the human faculty of logic.
But murder mysteries are also fantasies. The people who read such books of fiction play a game. It is a game in
which they suspend certain human emotions. One of these human emotions that they suspend is pity. If the
reader stops to feel pity and sympathy for each and every victim that is killed or if the reader stops to feel terrible
horror that such a thing could happen in our world of today, that person will never enjoy reading murder mysteries.
The devoted reader of murder mysteries keeps uppermost in mind at all times the goal of arriving through logic
and observation at the final solution to the mystery offered in the book. It is a game with life and death.
Whodunits hopefully help the reader to hide from the hideous horrors of actual life and death in the real world.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_conciseEX1.html

Answers to Conciseness Exercise
Please note that these are a sampling of possible answers. These should be used as a guide to show what is
possible, not as a source ofthe only "correct" answers for the exercise. Here are our suggestions:
Part One:
2. Bradley Hall is usually filled with students who do not study the building as a structure.
3. He dropped out of school to support his family.
4. The bus company will probably announce its schedule during the next few days.
5. Any student who wants to meet foreign students can do so in many ways.
6. Rarely will you find someone who has never told a deliberate lie.
7. Disobeying safety regulations causes trouble.
8. Five out of more than a thousand students at a campus rally were arrested for disorderly conduct, and several
others were charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without a permit.
9. Students think that the most important subjects are those that will be useful after graduation.
10. Soon college freshmen must realize that they need to contact their advisors about their choices of majors.
11. Our company provides opportunities for professional growth and stability in the dynamic field of aerospace
technology.
12. There are people who are for and people who are against capital punishment.
Part Two:
1. The cliffs dropped to the reefs seventy-five feet below, which were barely visible through the fog.
2. Their car is gassed up and ready for an all-night drive.
3. Sometimes Stan went running with Blanche, a good athlete on the track team at school.
4. Government leaders like to mention the creation of new jobs, claiming that these jobs indicate a strong
economy, but ignoring the fact that low wage jobs without benefits and security have replaced many good jobs.
Part Three (first paragraph):
Many people who have not committed, seen, or solved a murder, or felt any desire to do any of the above, still
like to read murder mysteries in order to escape the monotony of everday life.
Now it's your turn to be the expert! Using these models, how would you continue condensing the essay in Part
Three?

Spelling: Exercise #1: for accept/except
Brought to you by The Purdue University Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/index.htm.
Fill in the blank with either accept or except .
1. The whole army is out of step _______________ Fred.
2. I'll _______________ no money from that cheapskate.
3. Please _______________ this pot of Mama's chicken soup.
4. It will cure anything _______________ flat feet.
5. Rip could do anything _______________ make money.
6. I had to _______________ their negative evaluation.
7. All the girls went to the game _______________ Mary.
8. Howard could not _______________ the job.
9. __________ when there's a classic movie playing, Pete seldom watches TV.
10. I will _______________ your gift if you let me pay for my lunch.
Answers for these exercises are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprobA1.html. You can also return to the handout on
spelling rules for accept/except and affect/effect at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprob.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelprobEX1.html.

Spelling: Exercise #1: Answer Key for Accept/Except
Accept and Except

1. The whole army is out of step except Fred.
2. I'll accept no money from that cheapskate.
3. Please accept this pot of Mama's chicken soup.
4. It will cure anything except flat feet.
5. Rip could do anything except make money.
6. I had to accept their negative evaluation.
7. All the girls went to the game except Mary.
8. Howard could not accept the job.
9. Except when there's a classic movie playing, Pete seldom watches TV.
10. I will accept your gift if you let me pay for my lunch.
You can go on to Exercise #2 at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprobEX2.html (using

affect and effect correctly) or return to the handout on using affect/effect and accept/except at
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelprobA1.html.

Spelling: Exercise #2: for affect/effect
Fill in the blank with either affect or effect .
1. Wars _______________ everybody, and their destructive _______________ last for generations.
2. Television has a strong _______________ on public opinion.
3. My mood can _______________ my thinking, too.
4. I see that you're trying to _______________ apathy, but I know that you really do care.
5. Falling on my head had a bad _______________ on my memory.
6. His years of smoking have negatively ____________ed his health.
7. This plan will surely ______________ significant improvements in our productivity.
8. The patient shows normal ______________ and appears to be psychologically stable.
9. Slim tried to _______________ an escape through the air ducts.
10. Supply and demand have a direct ________________ on the prices of commodities.
11. The _______________ of the speech was visible on the faces of the sleeping audience.
12. He's just trying to seem cool; his indifference is completely _______________ed.
13. We may never know the full _______________ of the radiation leak.
14. The early frost will _______________ the crops.
15. What kind of _______________ can this quiz have on your dinner tonight?
Answers for these exercises are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprobA2.html.

Or you can return to the handout on spelling rules for affect /effect and accept/except at

Spelling: Exercise #2: Answer Key for Affect/Effect
Affect and Effect

1. Wars affect everybody, and their destructive effects last for generations.
2. Television has a strong effect on public opinion.
3. My mood can affect my thinking, too.
4. I see that you're trying to affect apathy, but I know that you really do care.
5. Falling on my head had a bad effect on my memory.
6. His years of smoking have negatively affected his health.
7. This plan will surely effect significant improvements in our productivity.
8. The patient shows normal affect and appears to be psychologically stable.
9. Slim tried to effect an escape through the air ducts.
10. Supply and demand have a direct effect on the prices of commodities.
11. The effect of the speech was visible on the faces of the sleeping audience.
12. He's just trying to seem cool; his indifference is completely affected.
13. We may never know the full effect of the radiation leak.
14. The early frost will affect the crops.
15. What kind of effect can this quiz have on your dinner tonight?
You can return to the handout on using affect/effect and accept/except at

available at

Spelling: Exercise #2: for affect/effect
Fill in the blank with either affect or effect .
1. Wars _______________ everybody, and their destructive _______________ last for generations.
2. Television has a strong _______________ on public opinion.
3. My mood can _______________ my thinking, too.
4. I see that you're trying to _______________ apathy, but I know that you really do care.
5. Falling on my head had a bad _______________ on my memory.
6. His years of smoking have negatively ____________ed his health.
7. This plan will surely ______________ significant improvements in our productivity.
8. The patient shows normal ______________ and appears to be psychologically stable.
9. Slim tried to _______________ an escape through the air ducts.
10. Supply and demand have a direct ________________ on the prices of commodities.
11. The _______________ of the speech was visible on the faces of the sleeping audience.
12. He's just trying to seem cool; his indifference is completely _______________ed.
13. We may never know the full _______________ of the radiation leak.
14. The early frost will _______________ the crops.
15. What kind of _______________ can this quiz have on your dinner tonight?
Answers for these exercises are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelprobA2.html.

Or you can return to the handout on spelling rules for affect /effect and accept/except at

Spelling: Exercise #2: Answer Key for Affect/Effect
Affect and Effect

1. Wars affect everybody, and their destructive effects last for generations.
2. Television has a strong effect on public opinion.
3. My mood can affect my thinking, too.
4. I see that you're trying to affect apathy, but I know that you really do care.
5. Falling on my head had a bad effect on my memory.
6. His years of smoking have negatively affected his health.
7. This plan will surely effect significant improvements in our productivity.
8. The patient shows normal affect and appears to be psychologically stable.
9. Slim tried to effect an escape through the air ducts.
10. Supply and demand have a direct effect on the prices of commodities.
11. The effect of the speech was visible on the faces of the sleeping audience.
12. He's just trying to seem cool; his indifference is completely affected.
13. We may never know the full effect of the radiation leak.
14. The early frost will affect the crops.
15. What kind of effect can this quiz have on your dinner tonight?
You can return to the handout on using affect/effect and accept/except at

available at

Spelling Exercises for -ible and -able
In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which are misspelled. Read the paragraph, locate
the misspelled words and write the correct spellings in the space provided below the paragraph.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie, however, found
him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible restaurant for a remarkible
dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald's. Most of the food there was either
inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she told her roommates about her terrible
date. "Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael," Mattie said, "is certainly not going to be in an enviable
position."
Write the correct spellings below:
In the following sentences, the final four letters are omitted from each -ible or -able word. Complete each word with the appropriate
ending.
1. Last night's movie about the invis____ man was so incred____ that it was laugh____.
2. My irrespons____ little brother is usually kept away from anything break____.
3. Are these new clothes really comfort____, or do people only wear them because they are fashion____?
4. I think I would be less irrit____ if my professors were more flex____.
5. I don't think voting twice in national elections is permiss____.
6. It's always valu____ to have a friend who is depend____.
7. My employer said that it isn't suit____ to have a secretary whose handwriting is illeg____.
You can check your answers with the Answer Key at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelibleA1.html or return
to the handout on spelling -ible and -able at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelible.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelibleEX1.html.
available at

Spelling Exercises for -ible and -able : Answer Key
In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which are misspelled. The misspelled words are
listed below the paragraph.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie, however, found
him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible restaurant for a remarkible
dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald's. Most of the food there was either
inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she told her roommates about her terrible
date. "Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael," Mattie said, "is certainly not going to be in an enviable
position."
The correct spellings are listed below.
eligible
personable
fashionable
remarkable
horrible
inedible
undigestible
possible
contemptible
In the following sentences, the appropriate endings are included here:
1. Last night's movie about the invisIBLE man was so incredIBLE that it was laughABLE.
2. My irresponsIBLE little brother is usually kept away from anything breakABLE.
3. Are these new clothes really comfortABLE, or do people only wear them because they are fashionABLE?
4. I think I would be less irritABLE if my professors were more flexIBLE.
5. I don't think voting twice in national elections is permissIBLE.
6. It's always valuABLE to have a friend who is dependABLE.
7. My employer said that it isn't suitABLE to have a secretary whose handwriting is illegIBLE.
You can return to the handout on spelling -ible and -able at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_spelible.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/spelibleA1.html.
available at

Practice Exercises in Paraphrasing
For information on paraphrasing sources, see the Purdue OWL handout Paraphrasing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html. For information on other ways to cite sources,
see the Purdue OWL handout Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html.
Directions: On a separate piece of paper, write a paraphrase of each of the following passages. Try not to look
back at the original passage.
1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our heat, and it exerts
tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica
flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our
atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain
Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.
2. The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad joke because everyone
knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when organized crime ruled the cities, and the
police seemed powerless to do anything against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the
land, and men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The
flapper was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than
anyone or anything else, America's break with the past. From Kathleen Yancey, English 102 Supplemental Guide
(1989): 25.
3. Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head injuries. Half of those
killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury
by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head. From "Bike Helmets:
Unused Lifesavers," Consumer Reports (May 1990): 348.
4. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most realistic of all modern artists, if
you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a still life.
"The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near
the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced by the liveliest gray outline
in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the
sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate. From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26
March 1990): 50.
5. While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so far, it's unlikely that
architects and engineers have abandoned the quest for the world's tallest building. The question is: Just how high
can a building go? Structural engineer William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high,
twice as tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could produce a
500-story building. From Ron Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990): 15.
When you've completed the exercises, compare them with our sample answers at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_paraphrA1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_paraphrEX1.html

Practice In Paraphrasing: Possible Exercise Answers
For information on paraphrasing sources, see the Purdue OWL handout Paraphrasing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html. For information on other ways to cite sources,
see the Purdue OWL handout Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html.
1. According to Jacques Cousteau, the activity of people in Antarctica is jeopardizing a delicate natural mechanism
that controls the earth's climate. He fears that human activity could interfere with the balance between the sun, the
source of the earth's heat, and the important source of cold from Antarctic waters that flow north and cool the
oceans and atmosphere ("Captain Cousteau" 17).
2. During the twenties lawlessness and social nonconformity prevailed. In cities organized crime flourished without
police interference, and in spite of nationwide prohibition of liquor sales, anyone who wished to buy a drink knew
where to get one. Musicians like Louis Armstrong become favorites, particularly among young people, as many
turned away from highly respectable classical music to jazz. One of the best examples of the anti-traditional trend
was the proliferation of young "flappers," women who rebelled against custom by cutting off their hair and
shortening their skirts (Yancey 25).
3. The use of a helmet is the key to reducing bicycling fatalities, which are due to head injuries 75% of the time.
By cushioning the head upon impact, a helmet can reduce accidental injury by as much as 85%, saving the lives of
hundreds of victims annually, half of whom are school children ("Bike Helmets" 348).
4. Matisse paintings are remarkable in giving the viewer the distinct sensory impressions of one experiencing the
scene first hand. For instance, "The Casbah Gate" takes one to the walled city of Tangier and the Bab el Aassa
gateway near the Sultan's palace, where one can imagine standing on an afternoon, absorbing the splash of colors
and the fine outlines. Even the sentry, the bowaab vaguely eyeing those who come and go through the gate,
blends into the scene as though real (Plagens 50).
5. How much higher skyscrapers of the future will rise than the present world marvel, the Sears Tower, is unknown.
However, the design of one twice as tall is already on the boards, and an architect, Robert Sobel, thinks we
currently have sufficient know-how to build a skyscraper with over 500 stories (Bachman 15).
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_paraphrA1.html

Before trying this exercise, you can review the Purdue online Writing Lab's handout, Semicolons, Colons, Dashes, Quotation
Marks and Italics at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html.
Put in semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, Italics (use an underline), and parentheses where ever they are needed in
the following sentences.
1. The men in question Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene deserve awards.
2. Several countries participated in the airlift Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.
3. Only one course was open to us surrender, said the ex-major, and we did.
4. Judge Carswell later to be nominated for the Supreme Court had ruled against civil rights.
5. In last week's New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland's article How Not to Go Camping.
6. Yes, Jim said, I'll be home by ten.
7. There was only one thing to do study till dawn.
8. Montaigne wrote the following A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.
9. The following are the primary colors red, blue, and yellow.
10. Arriving on the 8 10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate her husband and Tim, their son.
11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied All the members of my family are poor spellers. Why
not me?
12. He used the phrase you know so often that I finally said No, I don't know.
13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.
14. Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9 19 flight, he came instead on the 10 36 flight.
15. Whoever thought said Helen that Jack would be elected class president?
16. In baseball a show boat is a man who shows off.
17. The minister quoted Isaiah 5 21 in last Sunday's sermon.
18. There was a very interesting article entitled The New Rage for Folk Singing in last Sunday's New York Times newspaper.
19. Whoever is elected secretary of the club Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha must be prepared to do a great deal of work, said
20. Darwin's On the Origin of Species 1859 caused a great controversy when it appeared.
You can check your answers to this exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvwA1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_overvwEX1.html
available at

Punctuation Exercise: Answer Key
After you review your answers, you can can return to the Purdue online Writing Lab's handout, Semicolons, Colons, Dashes,
Quotation Marks and Italics at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html.
Answers to Punctuation Exercise

Semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, Italics (use an underline), and parentheses are added in the following sentences.
1. The men in question (Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene) deserve awards.
2. Several countries participated in the airlift: Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.
3. "Only one course was open to us: surrender," said the ex-major, and we did.
4. Judge Carswell--later to be nominated for the Supreme Court--had ruled against civil rights.
5. In last week's New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland's article "How Not to Go Camping."
6. "Yes,"Jim said, "I'll be home by ten."
7. There was only one thing to do--study till dawn.
8. Montaigne wrote the following: "A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself."
9. The following are the primary colors: red, blue, and yellow.
10. Arriving on the 8:10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate; her husband; and Tim, their son.
11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied, "All the members of my family are poor spellers.
Why not me?"
12. He used the phrase "you know" so often that I finally said, "No, I don't know."
13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars: Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.
14. Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9:19 flight, he came instead on the 10:36 flight.
15. "Whoever thought," said Helen, "that Jack would be elected class president?"
16. In baseball a "show boat" is a man who shows off.
17. The minister quoted Isaiah 5:21 in last Sunday's sermon.
18. There was a very interesting article entitled "The New Rage for Folk Singing" in last Sunday's New York Times newspaper.
19. "Whoever is elected secretary of the club--Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha--must be prepared to do a great deal of work," said
20. Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) caused a great controversy when it appeared.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_overvwA1.html
available at

Quantity Terms with Count and Noncount Nouns: Exercises
In the following sentences, substitute one of these expressions for the underlined words:
little
quite a little or quite a bit of
few
quite a few
To clarify, little means "not much," but quite a little (or quite a bit of ) means "a rather large amount." F e w means
"not many," but quite a few means "a rather large number."
1. A rather large number of students have trouble with economics
2. It requires a rather large amount of reading.
3. Not many advisors spend as much time with their students.
4. He hasn't much hope of passing his exams.
5. George's advisor spends a rather large amount of time with him.
6. He doesn't know many people in the class.
7. Bill doesn't spend much money on clothes.
8. She spends a rather large amount of money on CDs.
9. He doesn't have many suits.
10. He doesn't understand much of the reading.
Check your answers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2A1.html, return to the

corresponding handout at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2.html, or review our first
handout on count and noncount nouns at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2A1.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2EX1.html

Quantity Terms with Count and Noncount Nouns: Answers
1. Quite a few students have trouble with economics.
2. It requires quite a little or quite a bit of* reading.
3. Few advisors spend as much time with their students.
4. He has little hope of passing his exams.
5. George's advisor spends quite a little or quite a bit of time with him.
6. He knows few people in the class.
7. Bill spends little money on clothes.
8. She spends quite a little or quite a bit of money on CDs.
9. He has few suits.
10. He understands little of the reading.
* Notice that in quite a little the of is deleted, but in quite a bit of the of remains in the phrase.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2A1.html
available at

Quotation Marks: Exercise
In addition to this exercise, check out the Purdue OWL information on quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html. For more information on writing research papers and
paraphrasing sources, see our extensive research paper workshop at
In the following sentences put in quotation marks wherever they are needed, and underline words where italics are needed.
1. Mary is trying hard in school this semester, her father said.
2. No, the taxi driver said curtly, I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes.
3. I believe, Jack remarked, that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book
entitled Guide to Europe.
4. My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.
5. She asked, Is Time a magazine you read regularly?
6. Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, A Good Man Is Hard to
Find.
7. When did Roosevelt say, We have nothing to fear but fear itself?
8. It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
9. Yesterday, John said, This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East; however, he did not return it.
10. Can you believe, Dot asked me, that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?
11. A Perfect Day for Bananafish is, I believe, J. D. Salinger's best short story.
12. Certainly, Mr. Martin said, I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand.
Answers for this exercise are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quoteA1.html, or you may wish to
return to our handout on quotation marks at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quote.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_quoteEX1.html
available at

Quotation Marks: Exercise Answers
You may wish to go back to the quotation marks exercise at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quoteEX1.html

or to the quotation marks handout at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quote.html.
1. "Mary is trying hard in school this semester," her father said.
2. "No," the taxi driver said curtly, "I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes."
3. "I believe," Jack remarked, "that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book
entitled Guide to Europe."
4. My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.
5. She asked, "Is Time a magazine you read regularly?"
6. Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, "A Good Man Is Hard to
Find."
7. When did Roosevelt say, "We have nothing to fear but fear itself"?
8. It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
9. Yesterday, John said, "This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East"; however, he did not return it.
10. "Can you believe," Dot asked me, "that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?"
11. "A Perfect Day for Bananafish" is, I believe, J. D. Salinger's best short story.
12. "Certainly," Mr. Martin said, "I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand."
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_quoteA1.html
available at

Tense Consistency Exercises
A. Recognizing Shifts in Sentences

Check the following sentences for confusing shifts in tense. If the tense of each underlined verb expresses the time relationship
accurately, write S (satisfactory). If a shift in tense is not appropriate, write U (unsatisfactory) and make necessary changes. In
most cases with an inappropriate shift, there is more than one way to correct the inconsistency. Reading the sentences aloud will
help you recognize differences in time.
___ 1. If the club limited its membership, it will have to raise its dues.
___ 2. While Barbara puts in her contact lenses, the telephone rang.
___ 3. Thousands of people will see the art exhibit by the time it closes.
___ 4. By the time negotiations began, many pessimists have expressed doubt about them.
___ 5. After Capt. James Cook visited Alaska on his third voyage, he is killed by Hawaiian islanders in 1779.
___ 6. I was terribly disappointed with my grade because I studied very hard.
___ 7. The moderator asks for questions as soon as the speaker has finished.
___ 8. Everyone hopes the plan would work.
___ 9. Harry wants to show his friends the photos he took last summer.
___ 10. Scientists predict that the sun will die in the distant future.
___ 11. The boy insisted that he has paid for the candy bars.
___ 12. The doctor suggested bed rest for the patient, who suffers from a bad cold.
B. Completing Sentences
Complete these sentences, using the tense suggested.
1. We stand patiently, hoping that ____________________. (use future tense)
2. Advertisers seem to believe that ______________________. (use present tense)
3. By the time the fog lifted, ___________________________. (use past perfect tense)
4. We will leave for Florida as soon as __________________. (use present tense)
5. One student keeps repeating what __________________. (use present perfect tense)
6. Yesterday our track team competed in a meet that ___________________. (use past tense)
7. Before the crew paves a driveway, they always ____________________. (use present tense [habitual action])
8. Before the crew paves the driveway, they ______________________. (use future tense [one-time action])
9. By the time the letter arrives, _____________________. (use future perfect tense)
10. When the final report is published, _____________________. (use future tense)
C. Completing Paragraphs
In the following passage from Alex Haley's Roots , some of the verbs have been deliberately omitted. Supply the appropriate
tense for each missing verb, the plain form of which is given in parentheses.
In Banjuh, the capital of Gambia, I met with a group of Gambians. They __(tell)___ me how for centuries the history of Africa has
been preserved. In the older villages of the back country, there are old men called griots, who __(be)__ in effect living archives.
Such men ___(memorize)_____ and, on special occasions, _(recite)____ the cumulative histories of clans or families or villages as
those histories __(have)____ long been told. Since my forefather _(have)___ said his name was Kin-tay (properly spelled Kinte),
and since the Kinte clan __(be)___ known in Gambia, the group of Gambians would see what they could do to help me. I was
back in New York when a registered letter __(arrive)___ from Gambia.
Word ____(have)___ been passed in the back country, and a griot of the Kinte clan _(have)____ , indeed, been found. His name,
the letter said, __(be)__ Kebba Kanga Fofana. I __(return)___ to Gambia and __(organize)_____ a safari to locate him.
D. Controlling Shifts in Paragraphs
Although the main tense in the following paragraph is past, the writer correctly shifts to present tense twice. Find these two verbs
in present tense. If you encounter difficulty, try reading the paragraph aloud.
The Iroquois Indians of the Northeast regularly burned land to increase open space for agriculture. In fact, the
early settlers of Boston found so few trees that they had to row out to the islands in the harbor to obtain fuel. Just
how far north this practice extended is uncertain, but the Saco River in southern Maine appears to have been the
original northern boundary of the agricultural clearings. Then, pressured by European settlement, the Iroquois
extended their systematic burning far northward, even into the Maritime Provinces of Canada. (abridged from Hay
and Farb, The Atlantic Shore)
Read the following paragraph through, and determine the main tense. Then reread it and circle the three verbs that shift
incorrectly from the main tense.
For the past seven years, I have called myself a swimmer. Swimming, my one sport, provides a necessary outlet
for my abundant energy. I have always drawn satisfaction from exertion, straining my muscles to their limits. I
don't know why pushing forward in the water, as my muscles cried out in pain, sets off a booming cheer in my
head. Many times when I rounded the turn for the last lap of a race, my complaining muscles want to downshift
and idle to the finish. My mind, however, presses the pedal to the floor and yells, "FASTER!" The moment that I
touched the wall my muscles relax; the pain subsides. I am pleased to have passed the point of conflict. (adapted
from Brendon MacLean, "Harder!")
You will notice several shifts in tense in the following paragraph describing action in a fictional narrative. Find the six faulty shifts
in tense.
In "The Use of Force" William Carlos Williams describes a struggle involving a doctor, two parents, and their young
daughter. The doctor must obtain a throat culture from the girl, who was suspected of having diphtheria. This
ordinarily simple task is hindered by the frightened and uncooperative patient, Mathilda Olson. Adding to the
doctor's difficulties were the parents, who had to struggle with their own conflicting emotions. They want their
daughter helped, but they did not trust the doctor to do the right thing. Sensitive to the parents' uncertainty, the
doctor became more and more frustrated by Mathilda's resistance. Williams gives considerable attention to how
each of the Olsons react, but it is clear that his main interest was in the doctor and his responses. (adapted from
a student essay)
Answers to these exercises are available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tensecA1.html.
You can also return to our handout on Tense Consistency at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tensec.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_tensecEX1.html.
available at

Tense Consistency Exercises: Answers
A. Recognizing Shifts in Sentences

In most cases with an inappropriate shift below, there is more than one way to correct the inconsistency. Each suggested change
is probably not the only correct one for the sentence.
_U_ 1. If the club limited its membership, it will have to raise its dues. (change will to would )
_U_ 2. As Barbara puts in her contact lenses, the telephone rang. (change puts to put )
_S_ 3. Thousands of people will see the art exhibit by the time it closes.
_U_ 4. By the time negotiations began, many pessimists have expressed doubt about them. (change have to had )
_U_ 5. After Capt. James Cook visited Alaska on his third voyage, he is killed by Hawaiian islanders in 1779. (change is to was )
_U_ 6. I was terribly disappointed with my grade because I studied very hard. (change studied to had studied )
_S_ 7. The moderator asks for questions as soon as the speaker has finished. (asks as habitual action; will ask is also
possible)
_U_ 8. Everyone hopes the plan would work. (change hopes to hoped )
_S_ 9. Harry wants to show his friends the photos he took last summer.
_S_ 10. Scientists predict that the sun will die in the distant future.
_U_ 11. The boy insisted that he has paid for the candy bars. (change has to had )
_U_ 12. The doctor suggested bed rest for the patient, who suffers from a bad cold. (change suffers to was suffering )
B. Completing Sentences
Many answers are possible.
C. Completing Paragraphs
The underlined verbs in the following passage are each in the correct tense.
In Banjuh, the capital of Gambia, I met with a group of Gambians. They told me how for centuries the history of Africa has been
preserved. In the older villages of the back country, there are old men called griots, who are in effect living archives. Such men
memorize and, on special occasions, recite the cumulative histories of clans or families or villages as those histories have long
been told. Since my forefather had said his name was Kin-tay (properly spelled Kinte), and since the Kinte clan was known in
Gambia, the group of Gambians would see what they could do to help me. I was back in New York when a registered letter
arrived from Gambia.
Word had been passed in the back country, and a griot of the Kinte clan had, indeed, been found. His name, the letter said, w a s
Kebba Kanga Fofana. I returned to Gambia and organized a safari to locate him.
D. Controlling Shifts in Paragraphs

In this first paragraph, the two verbs in present tense--both appropriate for the situation--are indicated in bold.
The Iroquois Indians of the Northeast regularly burned land to increase open space for agriculture. In fact, the
early settlers of Boston found so few trees that they had to row out to the islands in the harbor to obtain fuel. Just
how far north this practice extended is uncertain, but the Saco River in southern Maine appears to have been the
original northern boundary of the agricultural clearings. Then, pressured by European settlement, the Iroquois
extended their systematic burning far northward, even into the Maritime Provinces of Canada. (abridged from Hay
and Farb, The Atlantic Shore )
The main tense in this next paragraph is present. Incorrect shifts to past tense are indicated in bold.
For the past seven years, I have called myself a swimmer. Swimming, my one sport, provides a necessary outlet
for my abundant energy. I have always drawn satisfaction from exertion, straining my muscles to their limits. I
don't know why pushing forward in the water, as my muscles cried out in pain, sets off a booming cheer in my
head. Many times when I rounded the turn for the last lap of a race, my complaining muscles want to downshift
and idle to the finish. My mind, however, presses the pedal to the floor and yells, "FASTER!" The moment that I
touched the wall my muscles relax; the pain subsides. I am pleased to have passed the point of conflict.
(adapted from Brendon MacLean, "Harder!")
Since the following paragraph describes action in a fictional narrative, the main tense should be present. The six incorrect shifts
to past tense are underlined.
In "The Use of Force" William Carlos Williams describes a struggle involving a doctor, two parents, and their young
daughter. The doctor must obtain a throat culture from the girl, who was suspected of having diphtheria. This
ordinarily simple task is hindered by the frightened and uncooperative patient, Mathilda Olson. Adding to the
doctor's difficulties were the parents, who had to struggle with their own conflicting emotions. They want their
daughter helped, but they did not trust the doctor to do the right thing. Sensitive to the parents' uncertainty, the
doctor became more and more frustrated by Mathilda's resistance. Williams gives considerable attention to how
each of the Olsons react, but it is clear that his main interest was in the doctor and his responses. (adapted from
a student essay)
You can return to our handout on Tense Consistency at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tensec.html.
This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_tensecA1.html.
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OWL at Purdue University: Planning (Invention) - Print Version 3/26/03 11:35 AM

When you sit down to write...

EXPLORE the problem -- not the topic

MAKE your goals operational

GENERATE some ideas

2. Talk to your reader

3. Ask yourself questions

B. Classical topics (patterns of argument)

- How does the dictionary define ____?

- What do I mean by ____?

- What is ____ similar to? In what ways?

- What causes ____?

- What have I heard people say about ____?

- Is ____ possible or impossible?

- How is ____ different from things similar to it?

- How much can ____ change and still be itself?

- Where and when does ____ take place?

D. Cubing (considering a subject from six points of view)

1. *Describe* it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)

playing cards writing essays

REST AND INCUBATE!

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan1.html

To contact OWL, please visit our contact information page at

You can try the textbook formula:

I. State your thesis.

. . . but that often doesn't work!

Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:

Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?

Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.

Start the ideas flowing

Take a rest and let it all percolate.

Diagram your major points somehow.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan2.html

To contact OWL, please visit our contact information page at

1. What does X mean? (Definition)

2. What are the various features of X? (Description)

3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)

4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)

5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)

6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)

7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis)

8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)

9. What are the types of X? (Classification)

10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)

11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)

12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)

13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)

14. How did X happen? (Narration)

15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)

16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)

17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)

18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)

19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)

20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)

(Adapted from Jacqueline Berke's Twenty Questions for the Writer )

Visual Devices for Achieving Emphasis

Flaherty is the new committee chair, not Buckley.

The following three topics will be covered:

topic 1: brief description of topic 1

Punctuation Marks for Achieving Emphasis

A dash or colon has more emphatic force than a comma.

Choice and Arrangement of Words for Achieving Emphasis

Arrangement of Clauses for Achieving Emphasis

Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving Emphasis

1. Describe it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)