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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/neucom
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The paper presents two new adaptive systems, for the attitude's control of the micro-aerial vehicles
Received 1 September 2015 (MAV's) insect type. The dynamic model describing the motion of MAV's with respect to the Earth tied
Received in revised form frame is nonlinear and the design of the new adaptive control system is based on the dynamic inversion
1 November 2015
technique. The inversion error is calculated with respect to the control law and two matrices (inertia and
Accepted 23 December 2015
Available online 16 March 2016
dynamic damping matrices) which express the deviation of the estimated matrices relative to the cal-
culated ones (the matrices from the nonlinear dynamics of MAV's) in conditions of absolute stability in
Keywords: closed loop system by using the Lyapunov theory. To completely compensate this error, an adaptive
MAV component (output of a neural network) is added in the control law. The system also includes a second
Dynamic inversion
order reference model which provides the desired attitude vector and its derivative. The two variants of
Neural network
the new adaptive control system are validated by complex numerical simulations.
& 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction sensors and transducers which merge the signals provided by the
accelerometers, gyros, optical or magnetic sensors; 3) the design
The results of the studies and research regarding the aero- and software implementation of the linear or nonlinear observers
dynamics, the ight dynamics and the automatic control of the which serve the navigation and ight control systems [3,6,1416].
MAV's (micro-aerial vehicles) are numerous. Very important Because the atmospheric conditions and the dynamics of MAV's
works for this research area have been obtained in [1] and [2]. are changing during the ight, it is difcult to use conventional
Important results have been reported in the aerospace domain or controllers. To design perfect conventional controllers, one has to
in other related areas: mechatronics, automation, or electronics know the precise mathematical model of the system to be con-
relative to the MAV's modeling, stabilization of the attitude, and trolled. Furthermore, the MAV's dynamics may vary with respect
the ight control [212]. The micro-aerial vehicles can be regarded to the altitude and the ight conditions; therefore, the adaptive
sometimes as the physical models of the insects. Such mechanisms controllers are better choices. The adaptive control algorithms for
generally consist of three subsystems: a command subsystem a large class of aerospace vehicles can be modied and adapted to
(electrical engine or piezoelectric actuator), a wing actuation the stabilization and the ight control of the micro-aerial vehicles;
equipment (the cinematic mechanism), and a controller. Consist- some of them are based on the usage of the dynamic inversion and
ing of such advantages as limited volume, low mass, reasonable neural networks techniques [12,1719]. Generally, the dynamic
cost and rapid transportation, MAV's have demonstrated success- inversion relies on the philosophy of feedback linearization; the
ful application in the military and civilian elds [13]. plant nonlinearities are canceled and the closed loop plant
Progress has been also made towards: 1) the modeling and the behaves like a stable linear system. The method is characterized by
manufacturing of the miniaturized highly performing servo- simplicity in the control structure, ease of implementation, global
actuators (thorax of the MAV's insect type) to achieve the exponential stability of the tracking error and so on. On the other
wing's beat motion in the case of ying mini-robots and to com- hand, the strong point of the neural networks (NNs) is their
mand the MAV's motion through the modication of the wing's approximation ability, these being capable of approximating the
beat and attack angles; 2) the manufacturing of miniaturized dynamics of unknown systems through learning.
The aim of the ight control system is to attain the commands
n generated by the guidance system and to maintain steady condi-
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: romulus_lungu@yahoo.com (R. Lungu), tions during ight [20]. A MAV insect type is highly susceptible
Lma1312@yahoo.com (M. Lungu). to atmospherics disturbances; in addition, the dynamics is highly
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2015.12.118
0925-2312/& 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
R. Lungu, M. Lungu / Neurocomputing 199 (2016) 4049 41
nonlinear and time varying. Hence, neural networks based adap- The structure of the paper is the following one: the MAV's
tive ight controllers with the ability to achieve desired perfor- nonlinear dynamics is presented in the paper's Section 2; the
mance are essential for automating the MAV insect type. In order design of the new adaptive control system is achieved in Section 3;
to achieve this autonomous ight, adaptive ight controllers with in Section 4, complex simulations to validate the new designed
the ability to adapt to nonlinear dynamics of the MAV insect type adaptive control system have been performed and the obtained
are necessary. Thus the main objective of the paper is the design results are analyzed; nally, some conclusions are shared in Sec-
and software implementation of such adaptive controller using tion 5 of the paper.
either the quaternion vector or the vector of MAV's attitude; the
design of the control law is based on the dynamic inversion tech-
nique and Lyapunov theory, this process involving the calculation of 2. The dynamics of the micro-aerial vehicles
the controller's coefcients in conditions of stability.
Feedback linearization, in its various forms, is perhaps the most 2.1. The general dynamics of the micro-aerial vehicles
commonly employed nonlinear control method; to use it, all para-
metric plant uncertainties must appear in the same equation of the The dynamics of MAV's is generally nonlinear; in the case of the
state-space representation as the control (the main disadvantage of gliding ight, the dynamics is linear. The uncertainties cased by
the feedback linearization method). Feed-forward neural networks the MAV dynamic's incomplete knowing lead to the necessity of a
based on the back propagation learning algorithm have been used in robust controller. In these circumstances, the Lyapunov direct
[21]; the main disadvantage is that the neural networks require a method is used.
h iT
priori training on normal and faulty operating data. Other approa- Let us denote with the attitude vector of
ches involves the usage of the time delay neural networks; a con- the MAV, where is the roll angle, the pitch angle, and
troller based on this type of neural networks has been designed in the ight direction angle. These angles express the angular posi-
[22], but its main drawback is related to the ight path track accuracy tion of the MAV (of the MAV's body tied frame oxyz ; ox the
and to the fact that it is enable only under limited conditions. Several longitudinal axis (pointing the ight direction), oy the axis
neural network control approaches have been proposed based on oriented towards the right wing, and oz the axis perpendicular
Lyapunov stability theory [22,23]. The main advantage of these to the plane oxy and downward oriented with respect to the Earth
control schemes is that the adaptive laws were obtained from the tied frame (Darboux frame OXYZ) having the axis OX tangent to
Lyapunov synthesis and, therefore, guarantees the system's stability; the parallel and East oriented, OY tangent to the meridian and
the disadvantage is that some conditions should be assumed; these North oriented, and OZ the locus vertical line (Zenith oriented).
h iT
requirements are not easy to satisfy in practical control application Let us also consider _ _ _ _ the angular
p
[24]. Juang designed a new learning technique using a time delay
rate's vector of the MAV relative to the Earth tied frame. We
network or networks with back-propagation through time algo- h iT
rithms to control the landing [25]; the main drawbacks are: 1) the denote with b x y z the vector of MAV's angular
number of hidden units was determined by trial; 2) the convergence rates with respect to the axes of the oxyz frame. The connection
between the above presented vectors is: p _ W 1 ;
time is high. Gain scheduling for PID controllers is the common b b
adaptive control technique used in [26]. An advantage of the gain _
W p W ; where the matrix W has the form:
scheduling technique is that it allows the parameters to be changed 2 3
1 0 sin
quickly with change in the plant dynamics. However, the application 6
W 40 cos sin cos 7
5: 1
of the technique is limited due to the absence of a learning process.
0 sin cos cos
The number of neural network based adaptive controllers
designed for MAV's ight control is extremely small; one of the The vector of the resultant moments acting upon the micro-
few such neural network based controller is presented in [20], but aerial vehicle is [14]:
the real-time implementation of this controller architecture is not
! !a !g !v !a
practical due to the following reasons: 1) the feedback from the M b M b M b M b M b; 2
identier model for the iterative change in the controller outputs !a !g !v
requires at least one sample time and 2) the computation time to where M b ; M b ; M b are the aerodynamic, the weight, and the
!g !v
obtain the new set of plant inputs is considerably high for multiple dynamic damping components, respectively; because M b and M b
! !a
iterations of training. In the time being, none of the neural net- have very small values, we can make the approximation M b M b :
work based adaptive controllers for MAV's ight control was !al !ar
We denote with F b and F b the vectors of the aerodynamic
designed for the attitude's control of the MAV's insect type; this !
forces produced by the left and the right wings and with r l and
motivates our work. The recent studies and research have culmi- !
r r the position vectors of the left and right wing's pressure
nated in the development of efcient ying robots, but, from our
centers with respect to the MAV's mass center (point o); the
information, none of them has adaptive controllers based on the
following equation connects these variables:
attitude or the quaternion vectors, Lyapunov theory, dynamic
compensators, reference models, and neural networks; this is !a !al !ar !a ! !al ! !ar
F b F b F b ; Mb r l F b r r F b : 3
achieved in this paper, being interesting to see if such adaptive
controllers can guarantee the control of MAV's attitude. Thus, our The vectors of the aerodynamic forces and moments produced
goal is to design new adaptive systems for the control of the by the two wings have the expressions [1]:
micro-aerial vehicles insect type by using the attitude vector or 2 l 3 2 3
F d cos L F rd cos R F ld cos L F rd cos R
the quaternion one. Taking into account the advantages of these 6 l 7 a 6 7
elements (NNs, dynamic inversion, reference models etc.) and the F aa 6 7 6
4 F d cos L F d cos R 5; M a r a 4 F d sin L F d cos R 5;
r l l 7
l r l r
fact that, till now, no paper deals with the control of MAV's by Fl Fl Fd Fd
means of neural networks, dynamic inversion concept, linear 4
dynamic compensators, reference models, and Lyapunov theory,
the present paper represents an absolute novelty in the search with r a the position vector of the two wing's resultant aero-
!a !l !r !l !r
area of controller's design for the MAV's ight. dynamic force F a ; F l ; F l the lift forces, F d ; F d the wing's
42 R. Lungu, M. Lungu / Neurocomputing 199 (2016) 4049
with e yd y ; while the variables having the index d are the To calculate the error ; buy using the Eqs. (23) and (30), we
imposed (desired) ones; the component v^ r y d leads to the con- get:
y d ; issue that will be justied later; kp and kd are
vergence y-
C yy C yv C y v^ u^ Dy; y_ : 31
diagonal matrices having on their principal diagonal the positive
elements kp i ; kd i ; i 1; 3 : Replacing C y and Dy ; y_ forms (28) into Eq. (31), we
The system (20) may be described by the nonlinear input-state obtain:
and state-output equations [12]: h i
C 1 y C~ yv^ D~ y; y_ : 32
x_ f x; u; y hx; 25
With these, we obtain the system in Fig. 2 equivalent to the
where x is the system's state vector satisfying the conditions of the
one in Fig. 1. To calculate the matrices C~ and D ~ ; the method of
Hypothesis 1 in [17], i.e.: yr hr y ; y_ ; u; hr ddthr and h
r
u 0 ;
i
Fig. 1. The automatic system for the control of the vector y by using the dynamic inversion technique.
44 R. Lungu, M. Lungu / Neurocomputing 199 (2016) 4049
Fig. 3. The block diagram of the subsytem for the calculation of the error .
with of form (32), the Eq. (36) becomes: therefore, it is not sure that h^ r -hr : The block diagram of the
subsystem for the calculation of the error is presented in Fig. 3.
1
V_ a ET Q E Y a~ a_~ a:
T 1
~ 38 To compensate this error, in the control law an adaptive compo-
2
nent va provided by a neural network (feed-forward type in this
We impose the fulllment of the condition:
paper) must be added; adding also a robustness component v ; we
Y a_~
T 1
; 39 obtain: v^ a v va : The expression of the component provided by
the neural network (NN ) has been borrowed from [16]:
which, by right multiplying with ; gets the form: c
a_~ Y T ; 40
va W T V T ; 41
because : With (39), the Eq. (38) becomes V_ a 12ET Q E r
T
Fig. 4. The block diagram of the adaptive system for the control of the vector y ; based on the dynamic inversion technique, with linear dynamic compensator, neural
network, and reference model.
46 R. Lungu, M. Lungu / Neurocomputing 199 (2016) 4049
Fig. 5. The subsystems for the calculation of the matrices C y and Dy; y_ for: a) y ; b) y q :
4. Numerical simulation results We also considered the values yc 031 and a~ 0 0:0200 0:057
50:107100:15800:0854 0:12000:0384 0:086400:21060:1188 :
To study the functionality of the new designed adaptive control We software implemented in Matlab/Simulink the architecture
systems, we consider a MAV insect type [2] having the mass m0 in Fig. 4 (two variants: a) y and b) y q) and we obtained
10 1 kg ; the following numerical values also characterizes the the time histories in Figs. 6 and 7.
MAV: From Fig. 6a we remark the cancel ofthe following variables:
J xx 2 U10 7 kg m2 ; J xz 6 U10 7 kg m2 ; the variations of the three Euler angles ; ; and of
Fig. 6. The time histories of the variables in Fig. 4 for the control of the MAV's attitude .
48 R. Lungu, M. Lungu / Neurocomputing 199 (2016) 4049
Fig. 7. The time histories of the variables in Fig. 4 for the control of the MAV's attitude by using the quaternion vector q.
Dy ; y_ or by using C~ y and D ~ y ; y_ (the components of the that the disturbances affecting the MAV's dynamics are taken into
matrix a) ~ from Eq. (20) of the MAV's dynamics; a~ is the solution of account as well as the uncertainties which can be found in hr
the Eq. (40), with Y the parameterization matrix ensuring that h^ r (with hr known or partially known nonlinear function).
the Lyapunov function (34) is negatively dened (asymptotically Because the adaptive control law is designed such that the closed
stable system). The adaptive command in [7] is modeled by a loop system is stable both in the absence and in the presence of
different neural network (with only one neuron's input layer and the disturbances, the robustness of the system is guaranteed.
one output layer); the output vector consists of the Euler angles.
The NN weight's matrices in [7] are not calculated as in this paper
T
with respect to the vector E ; i.e. with respect to E e e_ ; but 5. Conclusions
with respect to the component vpd (the output of a linear dynamic
compensator); this leads to higher and faster jumps of the Euler's In this paper we presented two neural network based systems
angles. In our work, the dynamics of the states and command for the adaptive control of the MAV's attitude: by using the atti-
variables are much slower, this being an advantage. tude vector or the quaternion vector. The dynamic model
At rst sight, we considered in the simulation studies only the describing the motion of MAV's with respect to the Earth tied
initial state errors e0 and e_ 0 : Actually, the disturbances are frame is nonlinear and the design of the new adaptive control
within e and e_ ; thus in E and E ; i.e. in the weights matrices W and system (having two variants) is based on the dynamic inversion
V the components of the command (41) and solutions of the Eq. technique. The inversion error is calculated with respect to the
(44). Also, the disturbances (through e and e_ ) intervene in the pseudo-control vector v^ and the matrices C~ y and D
~ y ; y_ which
obtaining of the signal (see Fig. 3). Therefore, we can conclude ^
express the deviation of the estimated matrices C y and D ^ y ; y_
R. Lungu, M. Lungu / Neurocomputing 199 (2016) 4049 49
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29.11.2013, of the Romanian National Authority for Scientic [25] J.G. Juang, K.C. Cheng, Application of neural networks to disturbances
encountered landing control, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 7 (4) (2006)
Research and Program for Research Space Technology and 582588.
Advanced Research STAR. It is also supported by the Grant no. [26] S. Bouabdallah, A. Noth, R. Siegwart, PID vs. LQ control techniques applied to
89/1.10.2015 of the Romanian National Authority for Scientic an indoor MicroQuadrotor, in: Proceedings of the IEEE International Con-
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Research and Innovation and CNCS UEFISCDI, Project code PN-II- [27] E.N. Johnson, A.J. Calise, Pseudo-control hedging: a new method for adaptive
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[1] X. Deng, L. Schenato, W.C. Chung, S. Sastry, Flapping ight for biomimetic
robotic insects: Part. I system modeling, IEEE Trans. Robot. 22 (2006) Romulus Lungu was born in Bistrita Nasaud, Romania,
776786. in 1952. In 1976 he graduated the University of Craiova,
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