Appendix 1

Countries of the world

Population figures are based on 2002 estimates.

Country Capital Area (sq. km) Population Currency unit

Afghanistan Kabul 648,000 27,755,775 afghani = 100 puls
Albania Tirana 28,700 3,544,841 lek = 100 qintars
Algeria Algiers 2,319,000 32,277,942 dinar = 100 centimes
Andorra Andorra la Vella 468 68,403 euro = 100 cents
Angola Luanda 1,246,000 10,593,171 kwanza = 100 lwei
Antigua and Barbuda St John’s 442 67,448 dollar = 100 cents
Argentina Buenos Aires 2,780,000 37,812,817 peso = 100 centavos
Armenia Yerevan 29,800 3,330,099 dram = 100 luma
Australia Canberra 7,692,000 19,564,792 dollar = 100 cents
Austria Vienna 83,900 8,169,929 euro = 100 cents
Azerbaijan Baku 86,600 7,798,497 manat = 100 gopik

Bahamas Nassau 13,900 300,529 dollar = 100 cents

Bahrain Manama 620 656,397 dinar = 1,000 fils
Bangladesh Dhaka 144,000 133,376,684 taka = 100 poisha
Barbados Bridgetown 431 276,607 dollar = 100 cents
Belarus Minsk 208,000 10,335,352 Belarusian rouble
Belgium Brussels 30,500 10,274,595 euro = 100 cents
Belize Belmopan 23,000 262,999 dollar = 100 cents
Benin Porto Novo 113,000 6,787,625 franc = 100 centimes
Bhutan Thimphu 46,600 2,094,176 ngultrum = 100 chetrum,
Indian rupee
Bolivia La Paz 1,099,000 8,445,134 boliviano = 100 centavos
Bosnia-Herzegovina Sarajevo 51,100 3,964,388 dinar = 100 paras
Botswana Gaborone 600,000 1,591,232 pula = 100 thebe
Brazil Brasilia 8,512,000 176,029,560 real = 100 centavos
Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan 5,770 350,898 dollar = 100 sen
Bulgaria Sofia 111,000 7,621,337 lev = 100 stotinki
Burkina Faso Ouagadougou 274,000 12,603,185 franc = 100 centimes
Burma (Myanmar) Rangoon 677,000 42,238,224 kyat = 100 pyas
Burundi Bujumbura 27,800 6,373,002 franc = 100 centimes

Cambodia Phnom Penh 181,000 12,775,324 riel = 100 sen

Cameroon Yaoundé 475,000 16,184,748 franc = 100 centimes
Canada Ottawa 9,976,000 31,902,268 dollar = 100 cents
Cape Verde Islands Praia 4,030 408,760 escudo = 100 centavos
Central African Republic Bangui 625,000 3,642,739 franc = 100 centimes
Chad N’Djamena 1,284,000 8,997,237 franc = 100 centimes
Chile Santiago 757,000 15,498,930 peso = 100 centavos
China Beijing 9,561,000 1,284,303,705 yuan = 10 jiao or 100 fen
Colombia Bogotá 1,140,000 41,008,227 peso = 100 centavos
Comoros Moroni 1,790 614,382 franc = 100 centimes
Congo Brazzaville 342,000 2,958,448 franc = 100 centimes
Congo, Democratic Kinshasa 2,344,000 55,225,478 franc = 100 centimes
Republic of (Zaire)
Costa Rica San José 51,000 3,834,934 colón = 100 centimos
Croatia Zagreb 56,500 4,390,751 kuna = 100 lipa
Cuba Havana 111,000 11,224,321 peso = 100 centavos
Cyprus Nicosia 9,250 767,314 pound = 100 cents
Czech Republic Prague 78,900 10,256,760 koruna = 100 halers

Denmark Copenhagen 43,100 5,368,854 krone = 100 øre

Djibouti Djibouti 23,300 820,600 franc = 100 centimes
Dominica Roseau 751 70,158 dollar = 100 cents
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo 48,400 8,721,594 peso = 100 centavos
 countries of the world

Country Capital Area (sq. km) Population Currency unit

Ecuador Quito 271,000 13,447,494 sucre = 100 centavos
Egypt Cairo 1,002,000 70,712,345 pound = 100 piastres or
1,000 milliemes
El Salvador San Salvador 21,400 6,353,681 colón = 100 centavos
Equatorial Guinea Malabo 28,100 498,144 franc = 100 centimes
Eritrea Asmara 118,000 4,465,651 nakfa; Ethiopian birr
Estonia Tallinn 45,100 1,415,681 kroon = 100 sents
Ethiopia Addis Ababa 1,224,000 67,673,031 birr = 100 cents

Fiji Suva 18,300 856,436 dollar = 100 cents

Finland Helsinki 338,000 5,183,545 euro = 100 cents
France Paris 547,000 59,765,983 euro = 100 cents

Gabon Libreville 268,000 1,233,353 franc = 100 centimes

Gambia Banjul 11,300 1,455,842 dalasi = 100 butut
Georgia Tbilisi 69,700 4,960,951 lari = 100 tetri
Germany Berlin 357,000 83,251,851 euro = 100 cents
Ghana Accra 239,000 20,244,154 cedi = 100 pesewas
Greece Athens 131,000 10,645,343 euro = 100 cents
Grenada St George’s 345 89,211 dollar = 100 cents
Guatemala Guatemala City 109,000 13,314,079 quetzal = 100 centavos
Guinea Conakry 246,000 7,775,065 franc = 100 centimes
Guinea-Bissau Bissau 36,000 1,345,479 peso = 100 centavos
Guyana Georgetown 215,000 698,209 dollar = 100 cents

Haiti Port-au-Prince 27,800 7,063,722 gourde = 100 centimes

Honduras Tegucigalpa 112,000 6,560,608 lempira = 100 centavos
Hungary Budapest 93,000 10,075,034 forint = 100 filler

Iceland Reykjavik 103,000 279,384 krona = 100 aurar

India New Delhi 3,185,000 1,045,845,226 rupee = 100 paisa
Indonesia Djakarta 1,905,000 231,328,092 rupiah = 100 sen
Iran Tehran 1,648,000 66,622,704 rial = 100 dinars
Iraq Baghdad 438,000 24,001,816 dinar = 1,000 fils
Ireland, Republic of Dublin 70,300 3,883,159 euro = 100 cents
Israel Jerusalem 20,800 6,029,529 shekel = 100 agora
Italy Rome 301,000 57,715,625 euro = 100 cents
Ivory Coast Yamoussoukro 322,000 16,804,784 franc = 100 centimes

Jamaica Kingston 11,000 2,680,029 dollar = 100 cents

Japan Tokyo 378,000 126,974,628 yen = 100 sen
Jordan Amman 97,700 5,307,470 dinar = 1,000 fils

Kazakhstan Astana 2,717,000 16,741,519 tenge = 100 teins

Kenya Nairobi 583,000 31,138,735 shilling = 100 cents
Kiribati Bairiki 717 96,335 Australian dollar
Kuwait Kuwait City 17,800 2,111,561 dinar = 1,000 fils
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek 199,000 4,822,166 som = 100 tiyin

Laos Vientiane 237,000 5,777,180 kip = 100 ats

Latvia Riga 64,600 2,366,515 lat = 100 santims
Lebanon Beirut 10,500 3,677,780 pound = 100 piastres
Lesotho Maseru 30,300 2,207,954 loti = 100 lisente
Liberia Monrovia 111,000 3,288,198 dollar = 100 cents
Libya Tripoli 1,776,000 5,368,585 dinar = 1,000 dirhams
Liechtenstein Vaduz 160 32,842 franc = 100 centimes
Lithuania Vilnius 65,200 3,601,138 litas = 100 centas
Luxembourg Luxembourg 2,590 448,569 euro = 100 cents

Macedonia Skopje 25,700 2,054,800 denar = 100 deni

Madagascar Antananarivo 587,000 16,473,477 franc = 100 centimes
Malawi Lilongwe 118,000 10,701,824 kwacha = 100 tambala
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 330,000 22,662,365 ringgit = 100 sen
Maldives Male 298 320,165 rufiyaa = 100 laris
Mali Bamako 1,240,000 11,340,480 franc = 100 centimes
Malta Valletta 316 397,499 lira = 100 cents
Marshall Islands Majuro 181 73,630 US dollar
Mauritania Nouakchott 1,031,000 2,828,858 ouguiya = 5 khoums
Mauritius Port Louis 2,040 1,200,206 rupee = 100 cents
Mexico Mexico City 1,958,000 103,400,165 peso = 100 centavos
Micronesia Kolonia 701 135,869 US dollar
Moldova Chisinau 33,700 4,434,547 leu = 100 bani
countries of the world

Country Capital Area (sq. km) Population Currency unit

Monaco – 1.5 31,987 euro = 100 cents
Mongolia Ulan Bator 1,565,000 2,694,432 tugrik = 100 mongos
Montenegro (see Union of Serbia and Montenegro)
Morocco Rabat 459,000 31,167,783 dirham = 100 centimes
Mozambique Maputo 799,000 19,607,519 metical = 100 centavos
Myanmar (see Burma)

Namibia Windhoek 824,000 1,820,916 rand = 100 cents

Nauru – 21 12,329 Australian dollar
Nepal Kathmandu 147,000 25,873,917 rupee = 100 paisa
Netherlands Amsterdam 37,000 16,067,754 euro = 100 cents
New Zealand Wellington 268,000 3,908,037 dollar = 100 cents
Nicaragua Managua 120,000 5,023,818 cordoba = 100 centavos
Niger Niamey 1,267,000 10,639,744 franc = 100 centimes
Nigeria Abuja 924,000 129,934,911 naira = 100 kobo
North Korea Pyongyang 121,000 22,224,195 won = 100 jun
Norway Oslo 324,000 4,525,116 krone = 100 øre

Oman Muscat 212,000 2,713,462 rial = 1,000 baiza

Pakistan Islamabad 804,000 147,663,429 rupee = 100 paisa

Panama Panama City 77,100 2,882,329 balboa = 100 centésimos
Papua New Guinea Port Moresby 463,000 5,172,033 kina = 100 toea
Paraguay Asunción 407,000 5,884,491 guarani = 100 centimos
Peru Lima 1,285,000 27,949,639 sol = 100 cents
Philippines Manila 300,000 84,525,639 peso = 100 centavos
Poland Warsaw 304,000 38,625,478 zloty = 100 groszy
Portugal Lisbon 92,000 10,084,245 euro = 100 cents

Qatar Doha 11,400 793,341 riyal = 100 dirhams

Romania Bucharest 229,000 22,317,730 leu = 100 bani

Russia Moscow 17,075,000 144,978,573 rouble = 100 copecks
Rwanda Kigali 26,300 7,398,074 franc = 100 centimes

St Kitts and Nevis Basseterre 261 38,736 dollar = 100 cents

St Lucia Castries 616 160,145 dollar = 100 cents
St Vincent and the Kingstown 389 116,394 dollar = 100 cents
Grenadines
Samoa Apia 2,840 178,631 tala = 100 sene
San Marino San Marino 61 27,730 euro = 100 cents
São Tomé and Principe São Tomé 964 170,372 dobra = 100 centavos
Saudi Arabia Riyadh 2,150,000 23,513,330 riyal = 20 qursh or 100
halalas
Senegal Dakar 197,000 10,589,571 franc = 100 centimes
Serbia (see Union of Serbia and Montenegro)
Seychelles Victoria 453 80,098 rupee = 100 cents
Sierra Leone Freetown 71,700 5,614,743 leone = 100 cents
Singapore Singapore City 618 4,452,732 dollar = 100 cents
Slovakia Bratislava 49,000 5,422,366 koruna = 100 haliers
Slovenia Ljubljana 20,300 1,932,917 tolar = 100 stotins
Solomon Islands Honiara 276,000 494,786 dollar = 100 cents
Somalia Mogadishu 638,000 7,753,310 shilling = 100 cents
South Africa Pretoria 1,221,000 43,647,658 rand = 100 cents
South Korea Seoul 99,300 48,324,000 won = 100 jeon
Spain Madrid 505,000 40,077,100 euro = 100 cents
Sri Lanka Colombo 64,000 19,576,783 rupee = 100 cents
Sudan Khartoum 2,506,000 37,090,298 dinar = 10 pounds
Suriname Paramaribo 163,000 436,494 guilder = 100 cents
Swaziland Mbabane 17,000 1,123,605 lilangeni = 100 cents
Sweden Stockholm 450,000 8,876,744 krona = 100 öre
Switzerland Berne 41,000 7,301,994 franc = 100 centimes
Syria Damascus 184,000 17,155,814 pound = 100 piastres

Taiwan Taipei 36,000 22,548,009 New Taiwan dollar

= 100 cents
Tajikistan Dushanbe 143,000 6,719,567 somoni = 100 dirams
Tanzania Dodoma 940,000 37,187,939 shilling = 100 cents
Thailand Bangkok 513,000 62,354,402 baht = 100 satangs
Togo Lomé 57,000 5,285,501 franc = 100 centimes
Tonga Nuku’alofa 668 106,137 pa’anga = 100 seniti
Trinidad and Tobago Port-of-Spain 5,130 1,163,724 dollar = 100 cents
 countries of the world

Country Capital Area (sq. km) Population Currency unit

Tunisia Tunis 164,000 9,815,644 dinar = 1,000 milliemes
Turkey Ankara 779,000 67,308,928 lira = 100 kurus
Turkmenistan Ashgabat 488,000 4,688,963 manat = 100 tenesi
Tuvalu Funafuti 26 11,146 dollar = 100 cents

Uganda Kampala 241,000 24,699,073 shilling = 100 cents

Ukraine Kiev 604,000 48,396,470 hryvna = 100 kopiykas
Union of Serbia and Belgrade 102,200 10,656,929 dinar = 100 paras
Montenegro
United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi 77,770 2,445,989 dirham = 100 fils
United Kingdom London 244,000 58,789,194 pound = 100 pence
United States Washington DC 9,373,000 280,562,489 dollar = 100 cents
Uruguay Montevideo 176,000 3,386,575 peso = 100 centésimos
Uzbekistan Tashkent 447,000 25,563,441 som = 100 tiyin

Vanuatu Vila 14,800 196,178 vatu = 100 centimes

Vatican City – 0.44 1,000 euro = 100 cents
Venezuela Caracas 912,000 24,287,670 bolivar = 100 centimos
Vietnam Hanoi 330,000 81,098,416 dong = 100 xu

Yemen Sana’a 540,000 18,701,257 riyal = 100 fils

Zambia Lusaka 753,000 9,959,037 kwacha = 100 ngwee

Zimbabwe Harare 391,000 11,376,676 dollar = 100 cents
Appendix 2
Prime Ministers
and Presidents

Prime Ministers of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom

[1721]–1742 Sir Robert Walpole Whig 1865–1866 Earl Russell Liberal
1742–1743 Earl of Wilmington „ 1866–1868 Earl of Derby Conservative
1743–1754 Henry Pelham „ 1868 Benjamin Disraeli „
1754–1756 Duke of Newcastle „ 1868–1874 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal
1756–1757 Duke of Devonshire „ 1874–1880 Benjamin Disraeli Conservative
1757–1762 Duke of Newcastle „ 1880–1885 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal
1762–1763 Earl of Bute Tory 1885–1886 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative
1763–1765 George Grenville Whig 1886 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal
1765–1766 Marquess of Rockingham „ 1886–1892 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative
1766–1768 William Pitt the Elder „ 1892–1894 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal
1768–1770 Duke of Grafton „ 1894–1895 Earl of Rosebery „
1770–1782 Lord North Tory 1895–1902 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative
1782 Marquess of Rockingham Whig 1902–1905 Arthur James Balfour „
1782–1783 Earl of Shelburne „ 1905–1908 Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
1783 Duke of Portland coalition Liberal
1783–1801 William Pitt the Younger Tory 1908–1916 Herbert Henry Asquith „
1801–1804 Henry Addington „ 1916–1922 David Lloyd George coalition
1804–1806 William Pitt the Younger „ 1922–1923 Andrew Bonar Law Conservative
1806–1807 Lord William Grenville Whig 1923–1924 Stanley Baldwin „
1807–1809 Duke of Portland Tory 1924 James Ramsay MacDonald Labour
1809–1812 Spencer Perceval „ 1924–1929 Stanley Baldwin Conservative
1812–1827 Earl of Liverpool „ 1929–1935 James Ramsay MacDonald coalition
1827 George Canning „ 1935–1937 Stanley Baldwin „
1827–1828 Viscount Goderich „ 1937–1940 Neville Chamberlain „
1828–1830 Duke of Wellington „ 1940–1945 Winston Churchill „
1830–1834 Earl Grey Whig 1945–1951 Clement Attlee Labour
1834 Viscount Melbourne „ 1951–1955 Sir Winston Churchill Conservative
1834 Duke of Wellington Tory 1955–1957 Sir Anthony Eden „
1834–1835 Sir Robert Peel Conservative 1957–1963 Harold Macmillan „
1835–1841 Viscount Melbourne Whig 1963–1964 Sir Alec Douglas-Home „
1841–1846 Sir Robert Peel Conservative 1964–1970 Harold Wilson Labour
1846–1852 Lord John Russell Whig 1970–1974 Edward Heath Conservative
1852 Earl of Derby Conservative 1974–1976 Harold Wilson Labour
1852–1855 Earl of Aberdeen coalition 1976–1979 James Callaghan „
1855–1858 Viscount Palmerston Whig 1979–1990 Margaret Thatcher Conservative
1858–1859 Earl of Derby Conservative 1990–1997 John Major „
1859–1865 Viscount Palmerston Liberal 1997– Tony Blair Labour

Prime Ministers of Canada

1867–1873 John A. Macdonald Conservative 1935–1948 W. L. Mackenzie King Liberal
1873–1878 Alexander Mackenzie 1948–1957 Louis Stephen St Laurent „
Liberal/Reform 1957–1963 John George Diefenbaker
1878–1891 John A. Macdonald Conservative Progressive Conservative
1891–1892 John J. C. Abbott 1963–1968 Lester B. Pearson Liberal
Liberal-Conservative 1968–1979 Pierre Trudeau „
1892–1894 John S. D. Thompson Conservative 1979–1980 Joseph Clark
1894–1896 Mackenzie Bowell „ Progressive Conservative
1896 Charles Tupper „ 1980–1984 Pierre Trudeau Liberal
1896–1911 Wilfrid Laurier Liberal 1984 John Turner „
1911–1920 Robert L. Borden Conservative 1984–1993 Brian Mulroney
1920–1921 Arthur Meighen Liberal Progressive Conservative
1921–1926 W. L. Mackenzie King „ 1993 Kim Campbell „
1926 Arthur Meighen Conservative 1993–2003 Jean Chrétien Liberal
1926–1930 W. L. Mackenzie King Liberal 2003– Paul Martin „
1930–1935 Richard B. Bennett Conservative
 prime ministers and presidents

Prime Ministers of Australia

1901–1903 Edmund Barton — 1939–1941 Robert Gordon Menzies Liberal

1903–1904 Alfred Deakin Liberal 1941 Arthur William Fadden
1904 John C. Watson Labor Country Party
1904–1905 George Houstoun Reid Free Trade 1941–1945 John Curtin Labor
1905–1908 Alfred Deakin Liberal 1945–1949 Joseph Benedict Chifley Labor
1908–1909 Andrew Fisher Labor 1949–1966 Robert Gordon Menzies Liberal
1909–1910 Alfred Deakin Liberal 1966–1967 Harold Edward Holt „
1910–1913 Andrew Fisher Labor 1967–1968 John McEwen „
1913–1914 Joseph Cook Liberal 1968–1971 John Grey Gorton „
1914–1915 Andrew Fisher Labor 1971–1972 William McMahon „
1915–1923 William M. Hughes Nationalist 1972–1975 Gough Whitlam Labor
1923–1929 Stanley M. Bruce „ 1975–1983 Malcolm Fraser Liberal
1929–1932 James H. Scullin Labor 1983–1991 Bob Hawke Labor
1932–1939 Joseph A. Lyons 1991–1996 Paul Keating „
United Australia Party 1996– John Howard Liberal

Prime Ministers of New Zealand (since the emergence of party government in 1891)
1891–1893 John Ballance Liberal 1957 Keith J. Holyoake National Party
1893–1906 Richard John Seddon „ 1957–1960 Walter Nash Labour
1906 William Hall-Jones „ 1960–1972 Keith J. Holyoake National Party
1906–1912 Joseph George Ward „ 1972 John R. Marshall „
1912 Thomas Mackenzie „ 1972–1974 Norman Kirk Labour
1912–1925 William Ferguson Massey Reform 1974–1975 Wallace Rowling „
1925 Francis Henry Dillon Bell „ 1975–1984 Robert D. Muldoon National Party
1925–1928 Joseph Gordon Coates „ 1984–1989 David Lange Labour
1928–1930 Joseph George Ward Liberal 1989–1990 Geoffrey Palmer „
1930–1935 George William Forbes „ 1990 Mike Moore „
1935–1940 Michael J. Savage Labour 1990–1997 James B. Bolger National Party
1940–1949 Peter Fraser „ 1997–1999 Jenny Shipley „
1949–1957 Sidney G. Holland National Party 1999– Helen Clark Labour

Presidents of the United States of America

1789–1797 1. George Washington Federalist 1885–1889 22. Grover Cleveland Democrat
1797–1801 2. John Adams „ 1889–1893 23. Benjamin Harrison Republican
1801–1809 3. Thomas Jefferson 1893–1897 24. Grover Cleveland Democrat
Democratic Republican 1897–1901 25. William McKinley Republican
1809–1817 4. James Madison „ 1901–1909 26. Theodore Roosevelt „
1817–1825 5. James Monroe „ 1909–1913 27. William H. Taft „
1825–1829 6. John Quincy Adams 1913–1921 28. Woodrow Wilson Democrat
Independent 1921–1923 29. Warren G. Harding Republican
1829–1837 7. Andrew Jackson Democrat 1923–1929 30. Calvin Coolidge „
1837–1841 8. Martin Van Buren „ 1929–1933 31. Herbert Hoover „
1841 9. William H. Harrison Whig 1933–1945 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt Democrat
1841–1845 10. John Tyler 1945–1953 33. Harry S. Truman „
Whig, then Democrat 1953–1961 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower
1845–1849 11. James K. Polk Democrat Republican
1849–1850 12. Zachary Taylor Whig 1961–1963 35. John F. Kennedy Democrat
1850–1853 13. Millard Fillmore „ 1963–1969 36. Lyndon B. Johnson „
1853–1857 14. Franklin Pierce Democrat 1969–1974 37. Richard Nixon Republican
1857–1861 15. James Buchanan „ 1974–1977 38. Gerald Ford „
1861–1865 16. Abraham Lincoln Republican 1977–1981 39. Jimmy Carter Democrat
1865–1869 17. Andrew Johnson Democrat 1981–1989 40. Ronald Reagan Republican
1869–1877 18. Ulysses S. Grant Republican 1989–1993 41. George Bush „
1877–1881 19. Rutherford B. Hayes „ 1993–2001 42. Bill Clinton Democrat
1881 20. James A. Garfield „ 2001– 43. George W. Bush Republican
1881–1885 21. Chester A. Arthur „
Appendix 3
Kings and Queens
of England and the
United Kingdom

Ruler Dates of Life Ruler Dates of Life

reign reign
Saxon Line House of Tudor
Edwy 955–957 died 959 Henry VII 1485–1509 1457–1509
Edgar 959–975 944–975 Henry VIII 1509–1547 1491–1547
Edward the Martyr 975–978 c.963–978 Edward VI 1547–1553 1537–1553
Ethelred the Unready 978–1016 c.969–1016 Mary I 1553–1558 1516–1558
Edmund Ironside 1016 c.980–1016 Elizabeth I 1558–1603 1533–1603

Danish Line House of Stuart

Canute (Cnut) 1017–1035 d.1035 James I 1603–1625 1566–1625
Harold I 1037–1040 d.1040 Charles I 1625–1649 1600–1649
Hardecanute 1040–1042 c.1019–1042
Commonwealth (declared 1649)
Saxon Line Oliver Cromwell, 1653–1658 1599–1658
Edward the Confessor 1042–1066 c.1003–1066 Lord Protector
Harold II 1066 c.1019–1066 Richard Cromwell 1658–1659 1626–1712

House of Normandy House of Stuart

William I (the 1066–1087 c.1027–1087 Charles II 1660–1685 1630–1685
Conqueror) James II 1685–1688 1633–1701
William II 1087–1100 c.1060–1100 William III and 1689–1702 William
Henry I 1100–1135 1068–1135 Mary II (Mary 1650–1702
Stephen 1135–1154 c.1097–1154 d.1694)
Anne 1702–1714 1665–1714
House of Plantagenet
Henry II 1154–1189 1133–1189 House of Hanover
Richard I 1189–1199 1157–1199 George I 1714–1727 1660–1727
John 1199–1216 1165–1216 George II 1727–1760 1683–1760
Henry III 1216–1272 1207–1272 George III 1760–1820 1738–1820
Edward I 1272–1307 1239–1307 George IV 1820–1830 1762–1830
Edward II 1307–1327 1284–1327 William IV 1830–1837 1765–1837
Edward III 1327–1377 1312–1377 Victoria 1837–1901 1819–1901
Richard II 1377–1399 1367–1400
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
House of Lancaster Edward VII 1901–1910 1841–1910
Henry IV 1399–1413 1367–1413
Henry V 1413–1422 1387–1422 House of Windsor
Henry VI 1422–1461, 1421–1471 George V 1910–1936 1865–1936
1470–1 Edward VIII 1936 1894–1972
George VI 1936–1952 1895–1952
House of York Elizabeth II 1952– b.1926
Edward IV 1461–1483 1442–1483
Edward V 1483 1470–c.1483
Richard III 1483–1485 1452–1485
Appendix 4
Weights, Measures,
and Notation
The conversion factors are not exact unless so marked. They are given
only to the accuracy likely to be needed in everyday calculations.

British and American, Metric, with British

with Metric Equivalents Equivalents
Linear measure Linear measure
1 inch = 25.4 millimetres exactly 1 millimetre = 0.039 inch
1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 metre exactly 1 centimetre = 10 mm = 0.394 inch
1 yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 metre exactly 1 decimetre = 10 cm = 3.94 inches
1 (statute) mile = 1,760 yards = 1.609 kilometres 1 metre = 100 cm = 1.094 yards
1 int. nautical mile = 1.852 kilometres exactly 1 kilometre = 1,000 m = 0.6214 mile
= 1.150779 miles
Square measure
Square measure 1 square centimetre = 0.155 sq. inch
1 square inch = 6.45 sq. centimetres 1 square metre = 10,000 sq. cm = 1.196 sq. yards
1 square foot = 144 sq. in. = 9.29 sq. decimetres 1 are = 100 square metres = 119.6 sq. yards
1 square yard = 9 sq. ft = 0.836 sq. metre 1 hectare = 100 ares = 2.471 acres
1 acre = 4,840 sq. yd = 0.405 hectare 1 square kilometre = 0.386 sq. mile
1 square mile = 640 acres = 259 hectares = 100 hectares

Cubic measure Cubic measure

1 cubic inch = 16.4 cu. centimetres 1 cubic centimetre = 0.061 cu. inch
1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in. = 0.0283 cu. metre 1 cubic metre = 1,000,000 cu. cm = 1.308 cu. yards
1 cubic yard = 27 cu. ft = 0.765 cu. metre
Capacity measure
Capacity measure 1 millilitre = 0.002 pint (British)
british 1 centilitre = 10 ml = 0.018 pint
1 fluid oz = 1.7339 cu. in. = 0.0284 litre 1 decilitre = 10 cl = 0.176 pint
1 gill = 5 fluid oz = 0.1421 litre 1 litre = 1,000 ml = 1.76 pints
1 pint = 20 fluid oz = 34.68 cu. in. = 0.568 litre 1 decalitre = 10 l = 2.20 gallons
1 quart = 2 pints = 1.136 litres 1 hectolitre = 100 l = 2.75 bushels
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 4.546 litres 1 kilolitre = 1,000 l = 3.44 quarters
1 peck = 2 gallons = 9.092 litres
1 bushel = 4 pecks = 36.4 litres Weight
american dry 1 milligram = 0.015 grain
1 pint = 33.60 cu. in. = 0.550 litre 1 centigram = 10 mg = 0.154 grain
1 quart = 2 pints = 1.101 litres 1 decigram = 100 mg = 1.543 grains
1 peck = 8 quarts = 8.81 litres 1 gram = 1,000 mg = 15.43 grains
1 bushel = 4 pecks = 35.3 litres 1 decagram = 10 g = 5.64 drams
1 hectogram = 100 g = 3.527 ounces
american liquid 1 kilogram = 1,000 g = 2.205 pounds
1 pint = 16 fluid oz = 28.88 cu. in. = 0.473 litre 1 tonne (metric ton) = 1,000 kg = 0.984 (long) ton
1 quart = 2 pints = 0.946 litre
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 litres

Avoirdupois weight
1 grain = 0.065 gram
1 dram = 1.772 grams
1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams
1 pound = 16 ounces = 0.4536 kilogram
= 7,000 grains (0.4535923 exactly)
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 hundredweight = 112 pounds = 50.80 kilograms
1 short ton = 2,000 pounds = 0.907 tonne
1 (long) ton = 20 hundredweight = 1.016 tonnes
weights, measures, and notation

Temperature Power notation

Fahrenheit water boils (under standard
conditions) at 212° and freezes at 32°.
Celsius or Centigrade water boils at 100° and
freezes at 0°.
Kelvin water boils at 373.15 K and freezes at
273.15 K.
To convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit:
multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32.
To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade:
subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9.
To convert Centigrade into Kelvin:
add 273.15.
This expresses concisely any power of 10 (any
number that is formed by multiplying or dividing
ten by itself), and is sometimes used in the
dictionary.
102 (ten squared) = 10 × 10 = 100
103 (ten cubed) = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000
104 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,000
1010 = 10,000,000,000 (1 followed by ten
noughts)
10–2 = 1/102 = 1/100 = 0.01
10–10 = 1/1010 = 1/10,000,000,000
6.2 × 103 = 6,200
4.7 × 10–2 = 0.047

°F °C °C °F SI units
–40 –40 –40 –40
1. Base units
–10 –23 –10 14
0 –18 0 32 Physical quantity Name Abbreviation
10 –12 10 50 or symbol
20 –7 20 68
length metre m
30 –1 30 86
mass kilogram kg
40 4 40 104
time second s
50 10 50 122
electric current ampere A
60 16 60 140
temperature kelvin K
70 21 70 158
amount of substance mole mol
80 27 80 176
luminous intensity candela cd
90 32 90 194
100 38 100 212
(approx.) (exact) 2. Supplementary units

Physical quantity Name Abbreviation

or symbol
The metric prefixes plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
Abbreviations Factors
deca- da 10
hecto- h 102 3. Derived units with special names
kilo- k 103
Physical quantity Name Abbreviation
mega- M 106
or symbol
giga- G 109
tera- T 1012 frequency hertz Hz
peta- P 1015 energy joule J
exa- E 1018 force newton N
deci- d 10–1 power watt W
centi- c 10–2 pressure pascal Pa
milli- m 10–3 electric charge coulomb C
micro- µ 10–6 electromotive force volt V
nano- n 10–9 electric resistance ohm Ω
pico- p 10–12 electric conductance siemens S
femto- f 10–15 electric capacitance farad F
atto- a 10–18 magnetic flux weber Wb
inductance henry H
Pronunciations and derivations of these are magnetic flux density tesla T
given at their alphabetical places in the luminous flux lumen lm
dictionary. They may be applied to any units
illumination lux lx
of the metric system: hectogram (abbr. hg)
= 100 grams; kilowatt (abbr. kW) = 1,000 watts;
megahertz (MHz) = 1 million hertz; centimetre
(cm) = 1 ⁄ 100 metre; microvolt (µV) = one
millionth of a volt; picofarad (pF) = 10–12 farad,
and are sometimes applied to other units
(megabit, microinch).
Appendix 5
Chemical Elements

Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol Atomic

no. no. no.
actinium Ac 89 hafnium Hf 72 promethium Pm 61
aluminium Al 13 hassium Hs 108 protactinium Pa 91
americium Am 95 helium He 2 radium Ra 88
antimony Sb 51 holmium Ho 67 radon Rn 86
argon Ar 18 hydrogen H 1 rhenium Re 75
arsenic As 33 indium In 49 rhodium Rh 45
astatine At 85 iodine I 53 rubidium Rb 37
barium Ba 56 iridium Ir 77 ruthenium Ru 44
berkelium Bk 97 iron Fe 26 rutherfordium Rf 104
beryllium Be 4 krypton Kr 36 samarium Sm 62
bismuth Bi 83 lanthanum La 57 scandium Sc 21
bohrium Bh 107 lawrencium Lr 103 seaborgium Sg 106
boron B 5 lead Pb 82 selenium Se 34
bromine Br 35 lithium Li 3 silicon Si 14
cadmium Cd 48 lutetium Lu 71 silver Ag 47
caesium Cs 55 magnesium Mg 12 sodium Na 11
calcium Ca 20 manganese Mn 25 strontium Sr 38
californium Cf 98 meitnerium Mt 109 sulphur S 16
carbon C 6 mendelevium Md 101 tantalum Ta 73
cerium Ce 58 mercury Hg 80 technetium Tc 43
chlorine Cl 17 molybdenum Mo 42 tellurium Te 52
chromium Cr 24 neodymium Nd 60 terbium Tb 65
cobalt Co 27 neon Ne 10 thallium Tl 81
copper Cu 29 neptunium Np 93 thorium Th 90
curium Cm 96 nickel Ni 28 thulium Tm 69
dubnium Db 105 niobium Nb 41 tin Sn 50
dysprosium Dy 66 nitrogen N 7 titanium Ti 22
einsteinium Es 99 nobelium No 102 tungsten W 74
erbium Er 68 osmium Os 76 uranium U 92
europium Eu 63 oxygen O 8 vanadium V 23
fermium Fm 100 palladium Pd 46 xenon Xe 54
fluorine F 9 phosphorus P 15 ytterbium Yb 70
francium Fr 87 platinum Pt 78 yttrium Y 39
gadolinium Gd 64 plutonium Pu 94 zinc Zn 30
gallium Ga 31 polonium Po 84 zirconium Zr 40
germanium Ge 32 potassium K 19
gold Au 79 praseodymium Pr 59

Appendix 6
Greek Alphabet
A a alpha a   eta ē   nu n ' ( tau t
  beta b   theta th   xi x ) * upsilon u
  gamma g   iota i   omicron o Φ + phi ph
 delta d   kappa k ! pi p , - chi kh

 epsilon e   lambda l " # rho r, rh . / psi ps

 zeta z   mu m $ %& sigma s 0 1 omega ō
Appendix 7
The Solar System

The Sun and Planets

Planet Mean distance Equatorial Mass Volume Orbital Rotation
from sun diameter (earth1) (earth1) period period
(106 km) (km) or ‘year’ or ‘day’
Sun – 1,400,000 330,000 1,300,000 – 25d*
Mercury 57.9 4,878 0.06 0.06 87.97d 58.65d
Venus 108.2 12,102 0.81 0.86 224.7d 243.0d(R)
Earth 149.6 12,756 1.00 1.00 365.3d 23.93h
Mars 227.9 6,786 0.11 0.15 687.0d 24.62h
Jupiter 778.3 142,980 318 1,323 11.86y 9.93h*
Saturn 1,427 120,540 95.2 752 29.46y 10.66h*
Uranus 2,871 51,120 14.5 64 84.01y 17.24h*(R)
Neptune 4,497 49,530 17.1 54 164.8y 16.11h*
Pluto 5,914 2,280 0.002 0.01 248.5y 6.39d(R)

*At equator. (R) retrograde.

Principal Planetary Satellites

Planet Satellite Year of Diameter Mean distance from Orbital
discovery (km) centre of planet (103 km) period (d)

Earth Moon – 3,476* 384.4 27.32

Mars Phobos 1877 27* 9.4 0.319

Deimos 1877 15* 23.5 1.262

Jupiter Amalthea 1892 262* 181 0.498

Io 1610 3,630* 422 1.769
Europa 1610 3,138* 671 3.551
Ganymede 1610 5,262* 1,070 7.155
Callisto 1610 4,800* 1,883 16.69

Saturn Mimas 1789 390* 199 0.942

Enceladus 1789 500* 238 1.370
Tethys 1684 1,050* 295 1.888
Dione 1684 1,120* 377 2.737
Rhea 1672 1,530* 527 4.518
Titan 1655 5,150* 1,222 15.95
Hyperion 1848 340* 1,481 21.28
Iapetus 1671 1,440* 3,561 79.33
Phoebe 1898 220* 12,952 550.5(R)

Uranus Miranda 1948 480* 130 1.414

Ariel 1851 1,160* 191 2.520
Umbriel 1851 1,190* 266 4.144
Titania 1787 1,600* 436 8.706
Oberon 1787 1,550* 583 13.46

Neptune Proteus 1989 400* 118 1.12

Triton 1846 2,700* 354 5.877(R)
Nereid 1949 340* 551 360.2

Pluto Charon 1978 1,190* 20 6.387

*Irregular: maximum dimension. (R) retrograde.

Many other small satellites are known for Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
Appendix 8
Collective nouns
Terms marked * belong to 15th-century lists of ‘proper terms’, notably that
in the Book of St Albans attributed to Dame Juliana Barnes (1486). Many
of these are fanciful or humorous terms which probably never had any real
currency, but have been taken up by Joseph Strutt in Sports and Pastimes
of England (1801) and by other antiquarian writers.

a *shrewdness of apes a *leap of leopards

a herd or *pace of asses a pride of lions
a *cete of badgers a *tiding of magpies
a *sloth or *sleuth of bears a *sord or *sute (= suit) of mallard
a hive of bees; a swarm, drift, or bike of bees a *richesse of martens
a flock, flight, (dial.) parcel, pod, *fleet, or
a *faith of merchants
*dissimulation of (small) birds; a volary of birds
in an aviary a *labour of moles
a sounder of wild boar a troop of monkeys
a *blush of boys a *barren of mules
a herd or gang of buffalo a *watch of nightingales
a *clowder or *glaring of cats; a *dowt (= ?do-out) a *superfluity of nuns
or *destruction of wild cats a covey of partridges
a herd, drove, (dial.) drift, or (US & Austral.) mob a *muster of peacocks
of cattle a *malapertness (= impertinence) of pedlars
a brood, (dial.) cletch or clutch, or *peep of
a rookery of penguins
chickens
a *chattering or *clattering of choughs a head or (dial.) nye of pheasants
a *drunkship of cobblers a kit of pigeons flying together
a *rag or *rake of colts a herd of pigs
a *hastiness of cooks a stand, wing, or *congregation of plovers
a *covert of coots a rush or flight of pochards
a herd of cranes a herd, pod, or school of porpoises
a litter of cubs a *pity of prisoners
a herd of curlew a covey of ptarmigan
a *cowardice of curs a litter of pups
a herd or mob of deer
a bevy or drift of quail
a pack or kennel of dogs
a trip of dotterel a string of racehorses
a flight, *dole, or *piteousness of doves an *unkindness of ravens
a raft, bunch, or *paddling of ducks on water; a bevy of roe deer
a team of wild ducks in flight a parliament or *building of rooks
a fling of dunlins a hill of ruffs
a herd of elephants a herd or rookery of seals; a pod of seals
a herd or (US) gang of elk a flock, herd, (dial.) drift or trip, or (Austral.) mob
a *business of ferrets of sheep
a charm or *chirm of finches a *dopping of sheldrake
a shoal of fish; a run of fish in motion
a wisp or *walk of snipe
a cloud of flies
a *host of sparrows
a *stalk of foresters
a *skulk of foxes a *murmuration of starlings
a gaggle or (in the air) a skein, team, or wedge of a flight of swallows
geese a game or herd of swans; a wedge of swans in the
a herd of giraffes air
a flock, herd, or (dial.) trip of goats a herd of swine; a *sounder of tame swine, a *drift
a pack or covey of grouse of wild swine
a *husk or *down of hares a *glozing (= fawning) of taverners
a cast of hawks let fly a *spring of teal
an *observance of hermits a bunch or knob of waterfowl
a *siege of herons a school, herd, or gam of whales; a pod of whales; a
a stud or *haras of (breeding) horses; (dial.) a team grind of bottle-nosed whales
of horses
a company or trip of wigeon
a kennel, pack, cry, or *mute of hounds
a flight or swarm of insects a bunch, trip, or plump of wildfowl; a knob (less
a mob or troop of kangaroos than 30) of wildfowl
a kindle of kittens a pack or *rout of wolves
a bevy of ladies a gaggle of women (derog.)
a *desert of lapwing a *fall of woodcock
an *exaltation or bevy of larks a herd of wrens
Appendix 9
Types of language
English, like all languages, is used at many differ-
ent levels of formality depending on the context
and purpose of the speech or writing. In the most
formal register, a machine might be said to be mal-
functioning; in a neutral or everyday register (stan-
dard English) it will be described as not working,
and in informal contexts it will be said to be bust or
kaput. Each situation or context calls for its own
different kind of language. No one style of vocabu-
lary and grammar is superior to another; it is their
appropriateness to the occasion that matters. In
general people naturally vary the way that they
speak or write in different situations, be they mak-
ing a speech, chatting to a friend, or writing to an
elderly relative.
The technical term for a particular level of use in
language is register. Register is not the same as
accent: a person with a strong regional accent may
speak standard English, and a speaker of Received
Pronunciation (the standard accent of English as
spoken in the south of England) may use the latest
street slang.
Unless otherwise stated, the words and senses
recorded in this dictionary are classed as standard
English. Standard English is generally appropriate
in most situations and contexts. It is typically the
language of official communications, broadcast-
ing, and printed matter. It is not the same as ‘cor-
rect English’; a particular form of dialect or slang
may have syntactical rules that are just as strict and
consistent as those of standard English.
Informal language
Informal language is used more in conversation
than in writing, especially among people who know
each other, or by particular social groups or occupa-
tions. It is sometimes called slang; slang also refers
specifically to the informal vocabulary of particu-
lar groups of people, for example teenagers or
members of the armed forces. Informal language is
also sometimes described as colloquial language.
Informal speech is marked by short sentences, a
preference for the active over the passive voice,
and unconventional syntax features such as omis-
sion of the subject—as in Just been shopping or
Wanna go for a drink?
Informal vocabulary typically includes exten-
sions or reversals of meanings of established words
(e.g. wicked = very good), shortenings of words
(e.g. brill from brilliant and cred from credibility),
compound formations (e.g. airhead and couch
potato), and blends (e.g. ginormous from gigantic
and enormous), contractions such as I’ll, he’s, and
gonna (for going to), as well as special processes
such as rhyming slang (e.g. butcher’s = butcher’s
hook = look) and back slang, in which words are
reversed (e.g. yob = boy).
Inclusion of informal terms in dictionaries is not
a new idea: Samuel Johnson included some in his
Dictionary of the English Language (1755),
although he used the disapproving term ‘low word’.
Much informal vocabulary is short-lived, and rela-
tively few words and uses pass into standard Eng-
lish. Exceptions include bogus, clever, flog, joke,
prim, rogue, and snob, which were all classed by
Johnson as ‘low words’. Conversely, some words
that were once standard have passed into vulgar
slang (e.g. arse, shit, and tit): this is taboo language,
typically relating to sex or bodily functions.
Formal and technical language
In more formal writing, as is found in reports,
official letters, etc., sentences tend to be longer
with more subordinate clauses, and the passive is
commoner than it is in standard or informal Eng-
lish. The indefinite personal pronoun one is more
likely to be used than the less formal you, and upon
may be used rather than on. Formal vocabulary
includes such words as ascertain, desirous, pur-
chase, and endeavour. More formal words are
sometimes also used for humorous effect, for
example purloin (meaning steal). Formal words are
usual in instructions and notices: alight (from a bus
or train), conveyance (for vehicle), enquire (rather
than ask), notify (rather than tell), and select
(rather than choose). The language of technical
writing has its own terminology: for example,
gravid, meaning pregnant, occurs only in medicine
and biology.
Old uses and literary language
Some expressions that were formerly common are
no longer in ordinary use but remain in the general
word stock, and are employed to give a deliberately
old-fashioned effect, for example in historical
fiction or in humorous contexts. This dictionary
distinguishes between archaic expressions, which
have generally not been everyday currency for a
century or more (e.g. fain or bedchamber), and
 types of language

Standard Informal Formal Old/literary use

attractive, bootylicious, dishy, beauteous, comely,

good-looking fit, foxy, lush fair, pulchritudinous

clothes, clothing clobber, duds, gear, apparel, attire habiliment, raiment,

glad rags, threads, vestments
togs

criminal, villain baddy, crim, crook, malefactor knave, rogue

gangsta, hood

criticize bad-mouth, put down, excoriate dispraise

slag off, slam, slate

die buy it, croak, kick the expire decease

bucket, pop your
clogs, snuff it

drunk, intoxicated lashed, legless, inebriated besotted

plastered, smashed,
tight, wrecked

house, home crib, gaff, pad abode, domicile, drum

dwelling, habitation

praise big up laud cry up, magnify,

panegyrize

small teeny, titchy, weeny exiguous minikin

walk mosey, toddle, pootle, ambulate, fare

trog perambulate

those that are dated: these may still be encoun-
tered occasionally, especially among older people,
or they may be words that were coined relatively
recently but then fell out of use again, such as
gasper (a cigarette) or wizard (excellent).
Some words are found chiefly in literature or
poetry written in an elevated style, such as corus-
cate, dolorous, enshroud, or eve. Many such expres-
sions are old words that have dropped out of
ordinary use.
The table above gives some standard English
words with their equivalents in different registers.
Dialect
A dialect is a non-standard form of language that is
used in a particular local region. Examples of Eng-
lish dialects are those of NE England (known as
Geordie) and of Liverpool (known as Scouse). A dis-
tinction can be made between traditional dialect,
which is generally to do with rural life and farming
practices which have mostly died out, and contem-
porary dialect, where speakers may not be aware
that a particular term is in fact a regional one. This
dictionary aims to include the more frequently
encountered contemporary dialect terms, such as
claggy, emmet, and scran, but in general does not
set out to record traditional dialect.
Scottish and Irish
Scottish and Irish English have a long history and a
number of distinctive features, which have in turn
influenced North American and other varieties of
English. This dictionary gives a wide coverage of
Scottish and Irish English expressions, such as
agley, dreich, howff, jaggy, and scoosh (Scottish)
and fáilte, gossoon, and make a hames of (Irish).
World English
English is spoken as a first language by more than
300 million people throughout the world, and used
as a second language by many millions more. One
in five of the world’s population speaks English
with a good level of competence, and within the
next few years the number of people speaking Eng-
lish as a second language will exceed the number of
native speakers. This could have a dramatic effect
on the evolution of the language: in the process of
being absorbed by new cultures, English develops
to take account of local language needs, giving rise
not just to new vocabulary but also to new forms of
grammar and pronunciation. At the same time,
however, a standardized ‘global’ English is spread
by the media and the Internet.
The main regional standards of English are
British, US and Canadian, Australian and New
Zealand, South African, Indian, and West Indian.
Within each of these regional varieties a number of
highly differentiated local dialects may be found.
This dictionary includes thousands of region-
alisms encountered in different English-speaking
areas of the world, although its scope must neces-
sarily be limited. In general it is the similarity
rather than the difference between the regional
varieties that is striking, particularly in terms of
grammar.
types of language
US English
US English is of course particularly influential, on
account of America’s dominance of cinema, televi-
sion, popular music, trade, and technology, includ-
ing the Internet. Many terms that enter the
dictionary from the US quickly become established
in British English: some examples from the last ten
years or so are geek, nerd, school student, and 24/7.
Many US equivalents for British terms are familiar:
sidewalk for pavement, checkers for draughts,
cookie for biscuit, and vest for waistcoat. Other dif-
ferences are more subtle. Some words have a
slightly different form, e.g. dollhouse (US)/doll’s
house (Brit.), math (US)/maths (Brit.), tidbit
(US)/titbit (Brit.), while American constructions
that are strange to British ears include I just ate,
teach school, and a quarter of ten (rather than a
quarter to ten).
Canadian English
Canadian English is subject to the conflicting
influences of British and American English. In
vocabulary there is a lot of US influence: Canadians
use billboard, gas, truck, and wrench rather than
hoarding, lorry, petrol, and spanner; but on the
other hand they agree with the British in saying
blinds, braces, porridge, and tap rather than shades,
suspenders, oatmeal, and faucet.
Australian and New Zealand English
The vocabularies of Australian and New Zealand
English are very similar. Both have been enriched
by words and concepts from the hundreds of
indigenous languages that pre-dated European
settlers, only about fifty of which continue as first
languages. The line between formal and informal
usage is perhaps less sharply drawn in
Australasian English than it is elsewhere: suffixes
such as -o and –ie, giving us expressions such as
arvo (afternoon), reffo (refugee), and barbie
(barbecue), are freely attached to words even in
more formal contexts.
South African English
Since 1994 South Africa has had eleven official
languages: English, Afrikaans (descended from
Dutch), Zulu, Xhosa, and other largely regional
African languages. English is the first language of
only about 10 per cent of the population, but the
second language of many others. The English of
native Afrikaners has inevitably influenced the
‘standard’ English of white South Africans, exam-
ples being such informal usages as the affirmative
no, as in ‘How are you?—No, I’m fine’ and the all-
purpose response is it?, as in She had a baby last
week—is it?’
Indian English
The role of English within the complex multilin-
gual society of India is far from straightforward:
together with Hindi it is used across the country,
but it can also be a speaker’s first, second, or third
language, and its features may depend heavily on
their ethnicity and caste. The grammar of Indian
English has many distinguishing features, of which
perhaps the best-known are the use of the present
continuous tense, as in ‘He is having very much of
property’, and the use of isn’t it as a ubiquitous
question tag: ‘We are meeting tomorrow, isn’t it?’
The first example reflects another characteristic of
the language, which is to include intrusive articles
such as in or of in idiomatic phrases. Verbs are also
used differently, with speakers often dropping a
preposition or object altogether: ‘I insisted immedi-
ate payment’, while double possessives—‘our these
prices’ (instead of the British English ‘these prices
of ours’)—are commonplace.
West Indian English
Standard British English has traditionally been
the linguistic model for the Commonwealth
Caribbean, although recently the import of US
television, radio, and tourism has made American
English an equally powerful influence. The many
varieties of Creole, influenced by West African
languages, are also productive. A characteristic
usage is that of the objective pronoun where
British English would use the subjective or pos-
sessive, as in me can come an go as me please or he
clear he throat. Jamaican Creole is the most wide-
ly known, and has spread beyond the region, espe-
cially to the UK, where it influences the speech of
black Britons.
Appendix 10
English in Electronic
Communication

Electronic text communication takes a number of time conversations. Plain text is favoured, since it
different forms, chiefly email, posting to online ensures that a message will be readable on almost
chat rooms and newsgroups, and SMS (Short Mes- any hardware or software configuration, but this
saging Service) messages between mobile phones. means that one cannot use italics, bold face, and
Although all electronic communication shares cer- other presentational effects to indicate tone, atti-
tain features, each form is developing its own tude, significance, etc. Instead, capital letters,
specific conventions. punctuation, and emoticons (arrangements of key-
The vocabulary, syntax, and style of electronic board characters to represent facial expressions)
text communication is much more fluid than that are used to ‘comment’ on one’s text.
found in formal writing, and may also be highly Sentences often follow patterns typical of
personalized. Electronic communication is typi- speech, with features including the omission of
cally very informal in nature and characterized by subjects (e.g. Going back to the missus every Sunday
many features more often found in conversational instead of He’s going back to the missus every Sun-
speech. day) and the use of ‘fillers’ such as like and innit.
Informality or light-heartedness is also signalled
by the user’s choice of spelling, correct forms often
SMS (text messages) being less favoured than phonetic or semi-
phonetic spellings (the shop seems to have bin closed
Text messages are necessarily the most abbrevi-
for a cuppla daze). Other features of spelling and
ated form of communication; most mobile-phone
punctuation include the writing of two or more
networks restrict users to around 160 characters
words as one (abit, alot), the disregard of commas
per message and the handset does not facilitate the
and full stops, and the omission of the apostrophe
composing of lengthy messages. Although many
(e.g. dont instead of don’t).
users develop their own codes, there are basic prin-
ciples that govern the formation of abbreviations: Some of the more established abbreviations used
in all types of electronic communication are listed
2 certain words or syllables can be represented by below:
letters or numbers that sound the same but
take up less space. For example, ‘U’ sounds the AFAIK as far as I know
same as ‘you’ and ‘C’ sounds the same as ‘see’ AFK away from the keyboard
(e.g. CU = see you), while the number ‘8’ can be
ASL age, sex, location
substituted wherever the sound /-ayt/ occurs in
ATB all the best
a word (e.g. GR8 = great, L8R = later)
B be
2 words are shortened by simply omitting certain BAK back at the keyboard
letters, especially vowels (e.g. MSG = message) BBL be back late(r)
2 abbreviations are formed from the initial let- BCNU be seeing you
ters of familiar fixed phrases, such as BFN ‘bye BFN bye for now
for now’ or TTYL ‘talk to you later’. B4 before
BRB be right back
These principles, and the abbreviations them- BTW by the way
selves, are also found to a lesser extent in conversa- C see
tions in chat rooms and in email. A fuller list of CUL8R see you later
SMS abbreviations is given below. F2F face to face
F2T free to talk
FWIW for what it’s worth
Chat rooms and email FYI for your information
The language used in email, chat rooms, and news- GAL get a life
groups is not as restricted by space considerations GR8 great
as text messaging , but short messages are favoured HAND have a nice day
because they save disk space, are more likely to be H8 hate
read by ‘browsing’ users, and because composition HSIK how should I know?
time is limited if users are participating in real- HTH hope this helps
english in electronic communication
IANAL I am not a lawyer, but… ROTF(L) rolling on the floor (laughing)
(as a disclaimer) SIT stay in touch
IMHO in my humble opinion SOM1 someone
IMO in my opinion SPK speak
IOW in other words TTYL talk to you later
JIC just in case TX thanks
JK just kidding U you
KIT keep in touch WAN2 want to
KWIM know what I mean? W/ with
L8R later WKND weekend
LOL lots of luck/laughing out loud WU what’s up?
MOB mobile X kiss
MSG message XLNT excellent
MYOB mind your own business XOXOX hugs and kisses
NE any YMMV your mileage may vary (i.e. your
NE1 anyone experience may differ)
NOYB none of your business YR your
NO1 no one 2 to, too
OTOH on the other hand 2DAY today
PCM please call me 2MORO tomorrow
PLS please 2NITE tonight
PPL people 3SUM threesome
R are 4 for

Emoticons
Emoticons typically represent a facial expression and are used chiefly to mark the tone of the
preceding sentence or to indicate the writer’s feelings. The following are some of the more
commonly seen:

:-) happy (a ‘smiley’) :’-( crying

:-( unhappy :-/ sceptical

:-c very unhappy :-| bored, indifferent

:-X my lips are sealed :-o surprised

:-Q I don’t understand :-* kiss

;-) winking O:-) angel

X= fingers crossed :-Y aside comment

:-P sticking one’s tongue out :-V shouting

:-D laughing
Appendix 11
Guide to Good
English
1. PARTS OF SPEECH
In this section the traditional names are used for
parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pro-
noun, conjunction, and preposition). Two other
terms are sometimes used in describing grammar.
One is modifier, which means any word that
modifies the meaning of another word (usually a
noun). It is broader in scope than ‘adjective’ and
includes, for example, table in table lamp as well as
bright in a bright lamp or the lamp was bright. The
other is determiner, which means any word such
as a, the, this, those, and every which you put
before a noun to show how you are using the noun
(as in a fire, the fire, this fire, those fires, and every
fire).
Nouns
A noun is a word that names something: a person
(woman, boy, Frances), a thing (building, tree), or
an idea (birth, happiness). A common noun names
things generally, whereas a proper noun names a
particular person, place, or thing. Collective
nouns, such as audience, family, generation, gov-
ernment, team, are nouns which refer to groups of
people or things. They can be treated as singular
or plural: see agreement below.
Proper nouns
Proper nouns are normally spelled with a capital
initial letter and refer to persons or things of
which there is only one example (Asia, Ark Royal,
Dickens). The term is sometimes understood more
broadly to include geographical and ethnic desig-
nations such as American and Ashanti, which
behave like common nouns, for example in allow-
ing the forms an American and the Ashanti. Some
genuinely proper names can also behave like com-
mon nouns in certain uses, for example a fine
Picasso (= a painting by Picasso), another Callas
(= a singer comparable to Callas). In these uses it
is usual to retain the capital initial letter.
Verbal nouns
A verbal noun (also called a gerund) is a form of a
verb ending with -ing that acts as a noun, for
example smoking in the phrase no smoking and in
the sentence Smoking annoys people. It should be
distinguished from smoking used as an adjective
(a smoking fire) and as the present participle of
the verb (The man was smoking).
Because a verbal noun is a part of a verb as well
as being a noun, it keeps some of the characteris-
tics of verbs in its grammatical behaviour; for
example the forms They objected to me swearing
(non-possessive) and They objected to my swear-
ing (possessive) are both established in ordinary
usage, although the second, in which swearing is
treated as a full noun, is often preferred in more
formal writing.
Verbs
A verb is a word that describes an action (go, sit,
put) or state (be, live) and is normally an essential
element in a clause or sentence. A verb is
classified as transitive when the action affects a
person or thing called the object (We lit a fire), and
as intransitive when there is no object (She
smiled).
Using the correct tense
Tense is the location in time of the state or action
expressed by a verb. English verbs properly have
only two tenses, the present (I am) and the past (I
was). The future is formed with shall or will,
other forms of the past are formed with auxiliary
verbs (I have been / I was being), and the past per-
fect is formed with the past tense of have (I had
been).
The tense used mostly corresponds to actual
time, apart from conventional uses such as the so-
called ‘historic present’, used for dramatic effect
in narratives (as in George gets up and walks over
to the window), and the future used in polite
requests (as in Will that be all for now?).
However, choice of tense (called ‘sequence of
tenses’) becomes more complex in reported
speech. If a simple statement such as I’m afraid I
haven’t finished is put into indirect speech by
means of a reporting verb such as said, thought,
etc., the tense of the reported action changes in
accordance with the time perspective of the
speaker: He said he was afraid he hadn’t finished.
The tense of the reported verb can stay the same
if the time relative to the speaker is the same as
that relative to the person reported: She likes
beans can be converted either to She said she liked
beans or to She said she likes beans, and I won’t be
here tomorrow can be converted either to I said I
wouldn’t be here tomorrow or to I said I won’t be
here tomorrow.
guide to good english
shall and will
With I and we, shall should be used to form the
simple future tense (expressing a prediction of a
future action), while will is used to express an
intention to do something:
t I shall be late for work.
t We will not tolerate this rudeness.
With you, he, she, it, and they, the situation is
reversed; simple future action is expressed with
will, while shall expresses an intention or com-
mand:
t He will be late for work.
t You shall join us or die!
In speech, these distinctions are often not
observed.
should and would
The situation is similar with should and would.
Strictly speaking, should is used with I and we,
while would is used with you, he, she, it, and they:
t I should be grateful if you would let me know.
t You didn’t say you would be late.
In practice, however, it is normal to use would
instead of should in reported speech and condi-
tional clauses, such as I said I would be late.
Active and passive
Verbs can be either active, in which the subject is
the person or thing performing the action (as in
France beat Brazil in the final), or passive, in which
the subject undergoes the action (Brazil were beat-
en by France). In the passive voice verbs are usual-
ly formed with be, and the subject is expressed as
an agent introduced by the preposition by.
The passive is also used for impersonal con-
structions with it:
It is believed that no action should be taken.
It is felt that your complaint arises from a
misunderstanding.
Other verbs besides be can be used to form so-
called ‘semi-passives’ (as in He got changed, They
seem bothered). Here changed and bothered are
behaving almost more like adjectives.
Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special form (or mood) of a
verb expressing a wish or possibility instead of
fact. It has a limited role in English:
It was suggested he wait till the next morning.
Fundamentalist Islam decrees that men and
women be strictly segregated.
In these sentences, the verbs wait (in the first)
and be (in the second) are in the subjunctive; the
ordinary forms (called the indicative) would be
waits and are.
There are other typical uses of the subjunctive:
2 after if (or as if, as though, unless) in hypotheti-
cal conditions:
Each was required to undertake that if it were
chosen it would place work here.
2 be or were at the beginning of a clause with the
subject following:
Were I to get drunk, it would help me in the
fight.
All books, be they fiction or non-fiction, should
provide entertainment in some form or other.
2 in certain fixed expressions and phrases, e.g. be
that as it may, come what may, perish the
thought, so be it, and others.
Participles
There are two kinds of participle in English: the
present participle ending with -ing as in We are
going, and the past participle ending with -d or -ed
for many verbs and with -t or -en or some other
form for others, as in Have you decided?, New
houses are being built, and It’s not broken.
Participles are often used to introduce subordi-
nate clauses that are attached to other words in a
sentence, e.g.
Her mother, opening the door quietly, came into
the room.
A stylistic error occurs with so-called ‘unattached’,
‘misrelated’, or ‘dangling’ participles, when the
participle does not refer to the noun to which it is
attached, normally the subject of the sentence:
p Recently converted into apartments, I passed
by the house where I grew up.
Certain participles, such as considering, assuming,
excepting, given, provided, seeing, speaking (of),
etc., have virtually become prepositions or con-
junctions in their own right, and their use in a
grammatically free role is now standard:
t Speaking of money, do you mind my asking
what you did with yours?
Adjectives and adverbs
An adjective is a word used to describe a noun,
such as sweet, red, or technical. An adverb is typi-
cally a word used to modify a verb, adjective, or
other adverb, such as gently, lazily, or very.
Position
Most adjectives can be used in two positions:
either before the noun they describe, where they
are called ‘attributive’, as in a black cat and a
gloomy outlook, or after a verb such as be, become,
grow, look, or seem, where they are called ‘predica-
tive’, as in the cat was black and the prospect looks
gloomy.
Some adjectives are nearly always used in the
predicative position and cannot stand before a
noun (e.g. afraid), while others are only found in
the attributive position (e.g. main).
Adjectives following a noun
In many fixed standard expressions, adjectives
denoting status are placed immediately after the

nouns they describe, e.g. in court martial, heir
apparent, poet laureate, president elect, situations
vacant, and the village proper. In other cases, an
adjective follows a noun as a matter of sentence
structure rather than peculiarity of expression:
The waiter picked up our dirty glasses in his
fingertips, his eyes impassive.
Position of adverbs
Adverbs normally come between the subject and
its verb, or between an auxiliary verb and a main
verb:
She dutifully observes all its quaint rules.
Roosevelt’s financial policy was roundly
criticized in 1933.
But for emphasis, or when the adverb belongs
closely to what follows the main verb, it comes
after the verb and before a following adverbial
phrase:
There is little chance that the student will
function effectively after he returns home.
Sentence adverbs
Some adverbs (such as clearly, happily, hopefully,
thankfully, unhappily) refer to a whole statement,
and form a comment associated more closely with
the speaker or writer than with what is said. In
this role they are called ‘sentence adverbs’.
Sentence adverbs often stand at the beginning of
the sentence:
Clearly, we will have to think again.
Sentence adverbs are well established in English,
although the use of thankfully and (in particular)
hopefully can arouse controversy:
s Hopefully the road should be finished.
Although objection to such use is artificial, be
aware that some people may take exception to
these words, especially in written or formal con-
texts.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word such as I, we, they, me, you,
them, etc., and other forms such as the possessive
hers and theirs and the reflexive myself and them-
selves. They are used to refer to (and take the
place of) a noun or noun phrase that has already
been mentioned or is known, especially in order to
avoid repetition, as in the sentence When she saw
her husband again, she wanted to hit him.
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are the type formed with -self,
e.g. myself, herself, and ourselves, used in sen-
tences in which the subject of the verb and the
object are the same person or thing, as in We
enjoyed ourselves and Make yourself at home.
guide to good english
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word such as and, because, but,
for, if, or, and when, used to connect words, phras-
es, clauses, and sentences. On the use of and and
but at the beginning of a sentence, see SENTENCES
below.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word such as after, in, to, and
with, which usually stands before a noun or pro-
noun and establishes the way it relates to what
has gone before (The man on the platform, They
came after dinner, and What did you do it for?).
It is sometimes stated that a preposition should
always precede the word it governs and should not
end a sentence. However, there are cases when it
is either impossible or not natural to organize the
sentence in a way that avoids a final preposition:
2 in relative clauses and questions featuring
verbs with linked adverbs or prepositions:
What did Marion think she was up to?
They must be convinced of the commitment
they are taking on.
2 in passive constructions:
The dress had not even been paid for.
2 in short sentences including an infinitive with
to or a verbal noun:
It was my dancing he objected to.
2. INFLECTION
Inflection is the process by which words (princi-
pally nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs)
change their form, especially their ending, in
accordance with their grammatical role in a sen-
tence.
Verbs
Verbs normally add -s or -es to form third-person
present-tense forms (changes, wants), -ed to form
past tenses and past participles (changed, wanted),
and -ing to form present participles (changing,
wanting). However, some verbs form tenses by
changing their stem (throw, threw, thrown), and
others are completely irregular (have, had, had;
go, went, gone).
Verbs drop a final silent -e when the suffix
begins with a vowel (as in shave, shaving). But a
final -e is usually retained to preserve the soft
sound of the g in twingeing and whingeing. It is
also retained where it is needed to avoid confu-
sion with similar words, for example in dyeing
(from dye) as distinct from dying (from die).
Nouns
English nouns normally form their plurals by
adding -s, or -es if the singular form ends in -s, -x, -
z, -sh, or soft -ch (as in church but not loch).
guide to good english
Nouns ending in -y form plurals with -ies (policy,
policies), unless the ending is -ey, in which case the
plural form is normally -eys (valley, valleys).
Nouns ending in -f and -fe
Nouns ending in -f and -fe form plurals sometimes
with -fs (handkerchief, handkerchiefs; oaf, oafs;
proof, proofs; roof, roofs), sometimes -ves (calf,
calves; half, halves; knife, knives; shelf, shelves) and
occasionally both -fes and -ves (dwarf, dwarfs or
dwarves; hoof, hoofs or hooves).
Nouns ending in -o
Plurals of nouns ending in -o cause difficulty in
English because there are few convenient rules
for choosing between -os (as in ratios) and -oes (as
in heroes).
As a guideline, the following typically form plu-
rals with -os:
2 words in which a vowel (usually i or e ) pre-
cedes the final -o (trios, videos).
2 words that are shortenings of other words
(demos, hippos).
2 words introduced from foreign languages
(boleros, placebos).
Names of animals and plants normally form plu-
rals with -oes (buffaloes, tomatoes).
Adjectives and adverbs:
comparatives and superlatives
Adjectives
An adjective has three forms: a positive (hot,
splendid), a comparative (hotter, more splendid),
and a superlative (hottest, most splendid).
Adjectives that form comparatives and superla-
tives using -er and -est in preference to (or as well
as) more and most are:
2 words of one syllable (e.g. fast, hard, rich, wise).
2 words of two syllables ending in -y and -ly (e.g.
angry, early, happy, holy, likely, lively) and corre-
sponding un- forms when these exist (e.g.
unhappy, unlikely). Words ending in -y change
the y to i (e.g. angrier, earliest).
2 words of two syllables ending in -le (e.g. able,
humble, noble, simple), -ow (e.g. mellow, narrow,
shallow), and some ending in -er (e.g. clever,
tender).
2 some words of two syllables pronounced with
the stress on the second syllable (e.g. polite,
profound, but not antique, bizarre, and others).
2 other words of two syllables that do not belong
to any classifiable group (e.g. common, cruel,
pleasant, quiet).
Words of one syllable ending in a single conso-
nant double the consonant when it is preceded by
a single vowel (glad, gladder, gladdest; hot, hotter,
hottest) but not when it is preceded by more than
one vowel (clean, cleaner, cleanest; loud, louder,
loudest). Words of two syllables ending in -l dou-
ble the l (e.g. cruel, crueller, cruellest).
Adjectives of three or more syllables use forms
with more and most (more beautiful, most interest-
ing, etc.).
Adverbs
Adverbs that take -er and -est in preference to (or
as well as) more and most are:
2 adverbs that are not formed with -ly but are
identical in form to corresponding adjectives
(e.g. runs faster, hits hardest, hold it tighter).
2 some independent adverbs (e.g. often and
soon).
Adverbs ending in -ly formed from adjectives (e.g.
richly, softly, wisely) generally do not have -er and
-est forms but appear as more softly, most wisely,
etc.
3. SENTENCES
A sentence is a group of words that makes com-
plete sense, contains a main verb, and begins with
a capital letter and ends with a full stop (or the
equivalent such as a question mark or an exclama-
tion mark).
There are three basic kinds of sentence:
2 a simple sentence normally contains one state-
ment: the train should be here soon.
2 a compound sentence contains more than one
statement, normally joined by a conjunction
such as and or but: I have looked at the evidence
and I have to say it is not sufficient.
2 a complex sentence contains a main clause and
one or more subordinate clauses, such as a con-
ditional clause beginning with if or a relative
clause introduced by which or who: The story
would make headlines if it ever became public.
Relative clauses: using words
like who and when
A relative clause is one connected to a main clause
by a relative pronoun or adjective such as who or
whom, which, whose, or that, or by a relative
adverb such as when and where. (These words,
apart from that, are collectively called wh- words,
and a wh- word means any of these.) Most prob-
lems with this kind of clause are to do with the
choice between that and a wh- word, principally
which, who, or whom. For much of the time that is
interchangeable with any of these words, and it is
the more usual choice in everyday writing and
conversation.
There are two types of relative clause, called
‘restrictive’ and ‘non-restrictive’. A restrictive
clause gives essential information about a noun or
noun phrase that comes before (She held out the
hand that was hurt). A non-restrictive clause gives
extra information that could be left out without

affecting the structure or meaning of the sentence
(She held out her hand, which I clasped in both of
mine). A restrictive clause can be introduced by
that, which, who, or whose and is not normally pre-
ceded by a comma, whereas a non-restrictive
clause is normally introduced by which, who, or
whose (and not usually that), and is preceded by a
comma.
Sometimes that is more idiomatic than which,
for example when the construction is based on an
impersonal it or an indefinite pronoun such as
anything:
There is something that I forgot to mention.
Is there anything that you want?
That is also more usual when which already occurs
earlier in the sentence in another role, for exam-
ple as an interrogative word:
Which is the one that you want?
Beginning sentences with and
and but
It is not wrong to begin a sentence with a con-
junction such as and or but. The practice is com-
mon in literature and can be effective. It is also
used for other rhetorical purposes, especially to
denote surprise (And are you really going?) and
sometimes just to introduce an improvised after-
thought (I’m going to swim. And don’t you dare
watch).
Negatives and double negatives
A repeated negative of the type He never did no
harm to no one is incorrect. However, a double
negative is acceptable when it is used with inten-
tional cancelling effect as a figure of speech, as in
It has not gone unnoticed.
Double negatives also occur, especially in
speech, in uses of the type You can’t not go (= you
cannot consider not going, i.e. you have to go), in
which not go is effectively a single idea expressed
in a verb phrase.
4. AGREEMENT
Agreement is the process of making words fit the
context of sentences, for example ensuring that
the singular form of a verb accompanies a singular
subject. For most of the time we apply the rules of
agreement instinctively, but problems can arise in
sentences involving certain phrases and combina-
tions.
Agreement within phrases
Awkward phrases
Some expressions can cause uncertainty because
they are grammatically ambiguous or combine
guide to good english
seemingly contradictory roles, for example phras-
es such as more than one and either or both:
More than one dealer has shown an interest in
the painting.
The meaning is clearly plural, but the grammar
remains singular because one is closer to the verb
as well as being the dominant word in its phrase
(we could not say More than one dealer have
shown an interest in the painting).
s The purchaser gets a licence to use either or
both products.
Here there is a problem of agreement with the fol-
lowing noun, because either calls for the singular
form product whereas both calls for the plural
form products; both wins out because it is closer to
the noun. Usually a better solution is to rephrase
the sentence to avoid the problem altogether:
t The purchaser gets a licence to use either or
both of the products.
Compound subjects
Two nouns joined by and are normally treated as
plural:
Speed and accuracy are top of the list.
But when the two nouns form a phrase that can be
regarded as a single unit, they are sometimes
treated as singular, even when one of them is plur-
al:
Fish and chips is my favourite meal
When a singular noun forming the subject of a
sentence is followed by an additional element
tagged on by means of a phrase such as as well as,
accompanied by, or together with, the following
verb should be singular and not plural, since the
singular noun is by itself the true subject:
The little girl, together with her friend Kerry, was
busy filling her bucket with sand.
Singular and plural nouns
Singular nouns treated as plural
Some nouns are singular in form but are used with
a verb that can be either singular or plural, or in
some cases only plural. The commonest of these
are the collective nouns which stand for a group or
collection of people or things, such as audience,
committee, crew, family, generation, government,
group, jury, team, and many others.
The general rule with words like these is to treat
them as singular when the emphasis is on the
group as a whole and as plural when the emphasis
is on the individuals that form the group:
A group of four young men in overalls was
standing close to him. (singular)
The jury retired at the end of the day to consider
their verdict. (plural)
Some collective nouns are fully plural:
By and large the police do a good job.
guide to good english
Plural nouns treated as singular
Other nouns are plural in form but are treated as
singular, either always or in some meanings. Chief
among these are the names of branches of knowl-
edge or science, such as acoustics and mathemat-
ics, activities such as billiards and gymnastics, and
diseases such as measles:
Acoustics is taught as part of the extended
course.
The figures show that measles is on the increase.
Other plural nouns, such as data, media, and agen-
da, are now commonly treated as singular.
Depending on their meaning, they are either
countable nouns, which can be used with a or an
and have plural forms, e.g. agendas, or mass
nouns, which do not have a plural form but are
used in the singular with words such as this and
much:
The media has lost interest in the subject.
This data is in a form that can be used by other
institutions.
Some plural words adopted unchanged from other
languages, such as spaghetti and graffiti, develop
singular meanings:
The furniture had been damaged and graffiti
was daubed on the walls.
Subjects and objects
When the subject of the verb be is singular but the
part that follows is plural, the verb should gener-
ally agree with its subject, regardless of what fol-
lows:
The only traffic is ox carts and bicycles.
When the subject is a singular collective noun, the
verb may be in the plural, following the usual pat-
tern with such nouns:
Its prey are other small animals.
Indefinite pronouns
Pronouns such as each, either, neither, and none
are called indefinite pronouns. When used on
their own like a noun, they can vary between sin-
gular and plural. They are treated as singular
when the emphasis is on the individuals:
Neither the chairman nor the chief executive is
planning any dramatic gestures.
None of them has had enough practical experi-
ence to run the company.
and as plural when the emphasis is on the collec-
tion or group as a whole:
Neither his mother nor his father earn much
money now.
None of the staff were aware of the ransom
demand.
Plural pronouns used in the singular
There is often uncertainty about what possessive
word (his, her, etc.) to use when referring to a
subject whose gender is not specified. The safest
option is to put his or her:
Every student should hand in his or her assign-
ment by Tuesday.
But this can be awkward, especially when the sen-
tence continues for some time with repeated ref-
erences back to the original subject. In cases like
this it is now acceptable to use a plural form of
pronoun:
Every student should hand in their assignment
by Tuesday.
Either … or … and neither … nor …
A problem arises when one of the alternatives in
an either ... or ... or neither ... nor ... construction is
singular and the other plural. Here, the normal
choice is to make the verb agree with the one clos-
er to it:
t Either the twins or their mother is responsible
for this.
But often a better solution is to recast the sen-
tence to avoid the problem:
t Either the twins are responsible for this or
their mother is.
Personal pronouns
I, we, he, she, and they are subjective pronouns,
which act as the subjects of verbs, while me, us,
him, her, and them are objective, acting as the
objects of verbs and prepositions:
It’s a tiny bit boring, between you and me.
The boys are coming with Gavin and me.
After the verb be it is more natural and usual to
use me, us, him, her, or they (the objective pro-
nouns), although what follows be is not an object
but a complement:
I said it was only me.
That’s us sitting on the bench.
The subjective forms (I, we, he, she, or they) are
not wrong but often sound stilted, especially the
first-person forms I and we:
s I said it was only I.
It is, however, usual to use the subjective forms
when a relative clause (introduced by who or that)
follows:
t It was I who did it.
5. PUNCTUATION
The purpose of punctuation is to make writing
clear, by clarifying the structure of continuous
writing and indicating how words relate to each
other.

Full stop
The principal use of the full stop is to mark the
end of a sentence that is a statement:
Bernard went over to the bookcase and took
down an atlas.
This applies to sentences when they are not com-
plete statements or contain ellipsis:
London. Implacable November weather.
If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at the
end of a sentence, another full stop is not added:
Bring your own pens, pencils, rulers, etc.
Comma
The role of the comma is to give detail to the
structure of sentences and to make their meaning
clear by marking off words that either do or do not
belong together. It usually represents the natural
breaks and pauses that you make in speech, and
operates at phrase level and word level:
At phrase level
You should use a comma to mark off parts of a sen-
tence that are separated by conjunctions (and, but,
yet, etc.). This is especially important when there
is a change or repetition of the subject, or when
the sentence is a long one:
Mokosh could foretell the future, and she could
change herself into any form she pleased.
Readings are taken at points on a grid marked
out on the ground, and the results are usually
plotted in the form of computer-drawn diagrams.
It is not normally correct to join the clauses of a
compound sentence without a conjunction:
p His was the last house, the road ended with
him.
Nor is it correct to separate a subject from its verb
with a single comma:
p Those with the lowest incomes and no other
means, should get the most support.
A comma also separates parts of a sentence that
balance or complement each other, and can intro-
duce direct speech, especially in continuation of
dialogue:
He was getting better, but not as fast as his
doctor wished.
Then Laura said, ‘Do you mean that?’
An important function of the comma is to prevent
ambiguity or momentary misunderstanding:
Mr Hogg said that he had shot, himself, as a small
boy.
Commas are used in pairs to separate elements in
a sentence that are asides or not part of the main
statement:
All history, of course, is the history of wars.
Commas are also used to separate a relative clause
that is non-restrictive (see relative clauses
above):
guide to good english
The money, which totals more than half a million,
comes from three anonymous donors.
A single comma sometimes follows adverbs,
phrases, and subordinate clauses that come at the
beginning of a sentence:
Moreover, they had lied about where they had
been.
When the sun began to sink, she could take the
riverside walk to the hotel.
A comma is always needed with however when it
means ‘by contrast’ or ‘on the other hand’:
However, a good deal of discretion is left in the
hands of area managers.
At word level
A comma is used to separate adjectives having the
same range of reference coming before a noun:
a cold, damp, badly heated room
The comma is omitted when the adjectives have a
different range of reference (for example, size and
colour) or when the last adjective has a closer rela-
tion to the noun:
his baggy green jacket
a distinguished foreign politician
Commas are used to separate items in a list or
sequence:
The visitors were given tea, scones, and cake.
(The final comma before and is regarded by many
people as unnecessary and left out; this dictionary
always includes one.)
Leave out the comma between nouns that occur
together in the same grammatical role in a sen-
tence (called apposition):
My friend Judge Peters was not at home.
But use one when the noun is a piece of extra
information that could be removed from the
sentence without any noticeable effect on the
meaning:
His father, Humphrey V. Roe, was not so
fortunate.
Semicolon
The main role of the semicolon is to mark a gram-
matical separation that is stronger in effect than a
comma but less strong than a full stop. Normally
the two parts of a sentence divided by a semicolon
balance each other, rather than leading from one
to the other:
The sky grew bright with sunset; the earth
glowed.
Honey looked up and glared; the man scurried
away.
You can also use a semicolon as a stronger division
in a sentence that already contains commas:
What has crippled me? Was it my grandmother,
frowning on my childish affection and turning it
to formality and cold courtesy; or my timid,
guide to good english
fearful mother, in awe of everyone including,
finally, me; or was it my wife’s infidelities, or my
own?
Colon
Whereas a semicolon links two balanced state-
ments, a colon leads from the first statement to
the second. Typically it links a general or intro-
ductory statement to an example, a cause to an
effect, or a premise to a conclusion.
He was being made to feel more part of the
family: the children kissed him goodnight, like a
third parent.
You also use a colon to introduce a list:
The price includes the following: travel to
London, flight to Venice, hotel accommodation,
and excursions.
Apostrophe
The principal role of the apostrophe is to indicate
a possessive, as in Tessa’s house and the town’s
mayor.
Singular nouns form the possessive by adding ’s
(the dog’s bark = one dog), and plural nouns end-
ing in -s add an apostrophe after the -s (the dogs’
barks = more than one dog). When a plural noun
ends in a letter other than s, the possessive is
formed by adding ’s : the children’s games, the
oxen’s hoofs, etc.
Beware of an apostrophe wrongly applied to an
ordinary plural, particularly in words ending in -o
but also in quite harmless words such as apples
and pears (e.g. p pear’s 30p a pound).
Beware also of confusing the possessive whose
with who’s, which is a contraction of who is (e.g.
p Who’s turn is it?).
For names ending in -s, the best course is to add
’s when you would pronounce the resulting form
with an extra s in speech (e.g. Charles’s, Dickens’s,
Thomas’s, The Times’s); and omit ’s otherwise (e.g.
Bridges’, Connors’, Herodotus’). With French
names ending in (silent) -s or -x, add ’s (e.g.
Dumas’s, le Roux’s) and pronounce the modified
word with a final -z.
An apostrophe should not be used in the pro-
nouns hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs.
Be careful to distinguish its from it’s. Its (no
apostrophe) is a possessive meaning ‘belonging to
it’, whereas it’s (with an apostrophe) is a contrac-
tion meaning ‘it is’ or ‘it has’:
Give the cat its dinner.
It’s hard to know where to start.
An apostrophe is not normally used in the plural
of abbreviated forms (e.g. several MPs were stand-
ing around), although it is used in the possessive
(e.g. the BBC’s decision to go ahead with the broad-
cast).
Another important use of the apostrophe is to
mark contractions such as I’ll, they’ve, couldn’t,
and she’s.
Hyphens
In print a hyphen is half the length of a dash, but
in writing there is often little noticeable differ-
ence. While the dash has the purpose of separat-
ing words and groups of words, the hyphen is
meant to link words and parts of words. The use of
hyphens is very variable in English, but the fol-
lowing guidelines reflect generally agreed princi-
ples.
The hyphen is used to join two or more words so
as to form a single word (often called a compound
word), e.g. free-for-all, multi-ethnic, right-handed,
and punch-drunk. Straightforward noun com-
pounds are now much more often spelled either as
two words (boiling point, credit card, focus group)
or as one, even when this involves a collision of
consonants, which used to be a reason for putting
in the hyphen (database, earring, breaststroke). In
American English compound nouns generally
written as two words in British English are often
written as one word.
There are two cases in which a compound
spelled as two words is made into a hyphened
form or a one-word form:
2 when a verb phrase such as hold up or back up is
made into a noun (hold-up, backup);
2 when a noun compound is made into a verb
(e.g. a date stamp but to date-stamp). Note that
a normal phrasal verb should not be hyphenat-
ed: write continue to build up your pension not
continue to build-up your pension.
A hyphen is often used:
2 to join a prefix ending in a vowel (such as co-
and neo-) to another word (e.g. co-opt, neo-
Impressionism), although one-word forms are
becoming more usual (cooperate, neoclassical).
2 to avoid ambiguity by separating a prefix from
the main word, e.g. to distinguish re-cover (=
provide with a new cover) from recover and re-
sign (= sign again) from resign.
2 to join a prefix to a name or designation, e.g.
anti-Christian, ex-husband.
2 to stand for a common second element in all but
the last word of a list, e.g. two-, three-, or four-
fold.
2 to clarify meanings in groups of words which
might otherwise be unclear or ambiguous (e.g.
twenty-odd people came to the meeting).
You should also use a hyphen to clarify the mean-
ing of a compound that is normally spelled as sep-
arate words, when it is used before a noun: an up-
to-date record but the record is up to date.
There is no need to insert a hyphen between an
adverb ending in -ly and an adjective qualified by
it, even when they come before the noun: a highly
competitive market, recently published material.
When the adverb does not end in -ly, however, a
hyphen is normally required to make the meaning
clear when the adverb precedes the noun: a well-
known woman (but the woman is well known).