ENI - Completion Design Manual PDF

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ENI S.p.A. DEPARTMENT ACTIVITY' DEPT. TYPE SECTION N.
Agip Division OF 295

STAP P 1 M 7100
TITLE
COMPLETION DESIGN MANUAL
DISTRIBUTION LIST
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NOTE: The present document is available in Eni Agip Intranet (http://wwwarpo.in.agip.it) and a
CD-Rom version can also be distributed (requests will be addressed to STAP Dept. in
Eni - Agip Division Headquarter)
Date of issue: 28/06/99
f
e
d
c
b Issued by M. Bassanini C. Lanzetta A. Galletta
28/06/99 28/06/99 28/06/99
REVISIONS PREP'D CHK'D APPR'D
The present document is CONFIDENTIAL and it is property of AGIP It shall not be shown to third parties nor shall it be used for
reasons different from those owing to which it was given
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INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION 8
1.1. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL 8
1.2. OBJECTIVES 12
1.3. FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLETION 13
1.4. MANUAL UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION 13
2. RESERVOIR CONSIDERATIONS 14
2.1. INTRODUCTION 14
2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 14
2.2.1. Porosity 14
2.2.2. Permeability 14
2.2.3. Relative Permeability 15
2.2.4. Wettabilty 16
2.2.5. Fluid Distribution 17
2.2.6. Fluid Flow In The Reservoir 18
2.2.7. Effects Of Reservoir Characteristics 24
2.2.8. Reservoir Homogeneity 27
2.3. HYDROCARBON DATA 28
2.3.1. Oil Property Correlation 28
2.4. RESERVOIR/PRODUCTION FORECAST 29
2.4.1. Inflow Perfomance 31
2.4.2. Reservoir Simulation For IPR Curves 42
2.4.3. IPR Selection 44
2.4.4. Outflow Performance 46
2.4.5. Flow Rate Prediction 55
3. WELL TESTING 60
3.1. INTRODUCTION 60
3.1.1. Types of Tests 60
3.2. DST OBJECTIVE 63
3.3. DST STRING 64
3.4. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS 69
3.4.1. Pressure Build-Up Analysis 69
3.4.2. Basics Of DST Operations 77
3.4.3. Common Test Tools Description 77
3.4.4. Tools Utilised With Permanent Packer Systems 80
3.4.5. Sub-Sea Test Tools Used On Semi-Submersibles 80
3.4.6. Deep Water Tools 81
3.4.7. Downhole Pressure Recording 82
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3.5. WELL PRODUCTION TEST OBJECTIVES 83

3.5.1. Periodic Tests 83
3.5.2. Productivity Or Deliverability Tests 84
3.5.3. Transient Tests 84
4. DRILLING CONSIDERATIONS 87
4.1. CASING DESIGN 87
4.1.1. Casing Profile 87
4.1.2. Casing Specifications 88
4.1.3. Casing Connections 89
4.2. WELL DEVIATION SURVEYS 89
4.3. CASING CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS 90
4.3.1. Production Casing Cementing 90
4.3.2. Production Casing Cement Evaluation 91
5. WELL COMPLETION DESIGN 92

5.1. FACTORS INFLUENCING COMPLETION DESIGN 94
5.1.1. Reservoir Considerations 94
5.1.2. Mechanical Considerations 96
5.1.3. Safety Considerations 96
5.2. RESERVOIR-WELLBORE INTERFACE 97
5.2.1. Open Hole Completions 97
5.2.2. Uncemented Liner Completions 98
5.2.3. Perforated Completions 100
5.2.4. Multi-Zone Completions 101
5.3. CASING-TUBING INTERFACE 104
5.3.1. Packer Applications 106
5.3.2. Packer-Tubing Interfaces 107
5.3.3. Annulus Circulation 108
5.4. TUBING-WELLHEAD INTERFACE 109
5.4.1. Tubing Hanger Systems 109
5.4.2. Xmas Trees 115
5.4.3. Metal-To-Metal Seals 115
5.5. FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS 117
5.5.1. Stimulation 118
5.5.2. Formation Management 118
5.5.3. Well Servicing Techniques 119
5.6. OPTIMISING TUBING SIZE 121
5.6.1. Reservoir Pressure 123
5.6.2. Flowing Wellhead Pressure 123
5.6.3. Gas-Liquid Ratio 123
5.6.4. Artificial Lift 124
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6. CORROSION 126
6.1. DEVELOPMENT WELLS 126
6.2. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CORROSION 126
6.3. FORMS OF CORROSION 128
6.3.1. Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC) 128
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6.3.2. Corrosion Caused By CO2 And Cl 135
6.3.3. Corrosion Caused By H2S, CO2 And Cl- 137
6.4. CORROSION CONTROL MEASURES 138
6.5. CORROSION INHIBITORS 139
6.6. CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS 139
6.6.1. Martensitic Stainless Steels 139
6.6.2. Ferritic Stainless Steels 140
6.6.3. Austenitic Stainless Steels 140
6.6.4. Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 140
6.6.5. Duplex Stainless Steel 142
6.7. COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE 142
6.7.1. CO2 Corrosion 142
6.7.2. H2S Corrosion 142
6.8. MATERIAL SELECTION 144
6.8.1. OCTG Specifications 145
6.8.2. DHE Specifications 146
6.8.3. Wellhead Specifications 147
6.9. ORDERING SPECIFICATIONS 152
7. TUBING DESIGN 153

7.1. POLICIES 153
7.2. THEORY 153
7.2.1. Mechanical Properties of Steel 154
7.2.2. Temperature 158
7.2.3. Tubing Movement/Stress Relationship 158
7.3. WELL DATA. 160
7.3.1. Casing Profile/Geometry 160
7.3.2. Tubing Data 160
7.3.3. Bottom-hole Pressure 160
7.3.4. Temperatures (Static and Flowing) 160
7.3.5. Reservoir Fluids 161
7.3.6. Completion Fluid 161
7.4. PRESSURE INDUCED FORCES 161
7.4.1. Piston Effect 162
7.4.2. Buckling Effect 163
7.4.3. Ballooning Effect 167
7.4.4. Temperature Effect 168
7.5. EVALUATION OF TOTAL TUBING MOVEMENT 169
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7.6. ANCHORED TUBING 170

7.6.1. Tubing Permitting Limited Motion 172
7.6.2. Packer Setting 174
7.7. TUBING LOAD CONDITIONS 174
7.7.1. Pressure Testing 174
7.7.2. Acid Stimulation 175
7.7.3. Fracturing 175
7.7.4. Flowing 177
7.7.5. Shut-In 177
7.7.6. Load Condition Summary 181
7.8. TUBING SELECTION 181
7.8.1. Critical Factors 182
7.8.2. Tubing Size And Weight 182
7.8.3. Anchoring Systems 184
7.9. TUBING CONNECTIONS 185
7.9.1. Policy 185
7.9.2. Class of Service 185
7.9.3. Selection Criteria 186
7.9.4. NACE And Proximity Definitions 189
7.9.5. CRA Connections 190
7.9.6. Connection Data 190
7.10. TUBING STRESS CALCULATIONS 190
7.10.1. Calculation Methods 191
7.10.2. Safety Factor 193
7.10.3. External Pressure Limit 195
7.10.4. Packer Load Limits 195
7.10.5. Example Manual Calculation 196
7.10.6. Example Computation 205
8. SUB-SURFACE EQUIPMENT 206

8.1. PACKERS 206
8.1.1. Selection Procedure 207
8.1.2. Selection Criteria 207
8.1.3. Well Classification 209
8.1.4. Packer Selection For Single String Completion 209
8.1.5. Single Selective Completion Packers 217
8.2. SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES 223
8.2.1. Policy 223
8.2.2. Applications 223
8.2.3. Wireline Retrievable Safety Valves 223
8.2.4. Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valves 224
8.2.5. Valve Type/Closure Mechanism Selection 224
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8.3. CONTROL/INJECTION LINE SELECTION 225

8.3.1. Control Lines 225
8.3.2. Injection Lines 225
8.3.3. Tube Specifications 226
8.3.4. Material Selection 228
8.3.5. Fittings 230
8.3.6. Protectors 230
8.3.7. Encapsulation 231
8.3.8. SCSSV Hydraulic Control fluid 233
8.3.9. Control/Injection Line Selection Procedure Flow Chart 236
8.4. WIRELINE NIPPLE SELECTION 237
8.4.1. Tapered Nipple Configuration 238
8.4.2. Selective Nipple Configuration 239
9. PERFORATING 240
9.1. SHAPED CHARGE PERFORATING 240
9.2. GUN TYPES 241
9.2.1. Wireline Conveyed Casing Guns 241
9.2.2. Through-Tubing Hollow Carrier Guns 243
9.2.3. Through-Tubing Strip Guns 243
9.2.4. Tubing Conveyed Perforating 243
9.3. GUN PERFORMANCE 244
9.3.1. API And Performance Data 244
9.3.2. Underbalanced Perforating 246
9.3.3. Firing Heads 247
9.3.4. Perforating Procedures 247
10. ARTIFICIAL LIFT 250

10.1. GAS LIFT 251
10.1.1. Impact On Completion Design 253
10.1.2. Common Problems 254
10.2. ELECTRICAL SUBMERISBLE PUMPS 254
10.2.1. ESP Performance 256
10.2.3. Common Problems 259
10.3. HYDRAULIC PUMPING SYSTEMS 260
10.4. ROD PUMPS 262
10.5. SCREW PUMP SYSTEMS 265
10.6. PLUNGER LIFT 265
10.7. SUMMARY ARTIFICIAL LIFT SELECTION CHARTS 268
10.7.1. Design Considerations And Comparisons 268
10.7.2. Operating Conditions Summary 270
10.7.3. Artificial Lift Considerations 272
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11. USE OF UNDERBALANCE COMPLETION FLUIDS 274

11.1. POLICY 274
11.2. BARRIER PRINCIPLES 274
11.3. APPLICATION 274
11.4. RISK ASSESSMENT 275
11.4.1. Well Testing 275
11.4.2. Completions 275
APPENDIX A - REPORT FORMS 276

A.1. INITIAL ACTIVITY REPORT (ARPO 01) 277
A.2. DAILY REPORT (ARPO 02) 278
A.3. WASTE DISPOSAL MANAGEMENT REPORT (ARPO 06) 279
A.3. PERFORATING REPORT (ARPO 07) 280
A.4. GRAVEL PACK REPORT (ARPO 08) 281
A.5. MATRIX STIMULATION/HYDRAULIC FRACTURE REPORT (APRO 09) 282
A.6. WIRELINE REPORT (ARPO 11) 283
A.7. PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE SURVEY REPORT (ARPO 12) 284
A.8. WELL PROBLEM REPORT (ARPO 13) 285
A.9. WELL SITUATION REPORT (ARPO 20) 286
APPENDIX B - NOMENCLATURE FOR TUBING CALCULATIONS 287
APPENDIX C - ABBREVIATIONS 289
APPENDIX D - BIBLIOGRAPHY 292
APPENDIX E - TUBING MOVEMENT/STRESS COMPUTER PROGRAMMES 294

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL

The purpose of this manual is to guide experienced engineers of all technical disciplines,
within the Eni-Agip Division and Affiliated Companies, in the completion design process and
its importance on well productivity, well servicing capabilities and completion life. These in
consequence, have a large impact on costs and field profit.
The Corporate Standards in this manual define the requirements, methodologies and rules
that enable to operate uniformly and in compliance with the Corporate Company Principles.
This, however, still enables each individual Affiliated Company the capability to operate
according to local laws or particular environmental situations.
The final aim is to improve performance and efficiency in terms of safety, quality and costs,
while providing all personnel involved in Drilling & Completion activities with common
guidelines in all areas worldwide where Eni-Agip operates.
The approach to completion design must be interdiscipline, involving Reservoir Engineering,
Petroleum Engineering, Production Engineering and Drilling Engineering. This is vital in
order to obtain the optimum completion design utilising the process described in this
manual.
The manual will provide the engineers within the various disciplines with a system to guide
them through the process with the objectives of helping them make the key decisions and
obtaining the optimum design to maximise productivity and, hence profit.
Many of the decisions made by the various disciplines are interrelated and impact on the
decisions made by other disciplines. For instance, the decision on the well architecture may
subsequently be changed due to the availability of well servicing or workover techniques.
This does not mean that the process is sequential and many decisions can be made from
studies and analysis run in parallel.
The design process consists of three phases:
Conceptual
Detailed design
Procurement.
The process of well preparation and installation of completions is fully described in the
Completions Procedures manual.
The activities in each phase are illustrated in figure 1.a, figure 1.b and figure 1.c.
The conceptual design process guides the engineers through analysis and key questions to
be considered. During this phase, the user will resolve many of the dilemmas, raised by the
interrelated decisions, at an early time. The final conceptual design will be used as the basis
for the detailed design process.
The conceptual design process begins at the field appraisal stage when a Statement Of
Requirements (SOR) of the completion is produced. It is essential that this is an accurate
statement including all the foreseen requirements, as it has a fundamental effect on the
field final design and development.
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As more information is gleamed from further development wells and as conditions change,
the statement of requirements need to reviewed and altered to modify the conceptual
design for future wells. This provides a system of ongoing completion optimisation to suit
changing conditions, increased knowledge of the field and incorporate new technologies.
Figure 1.A - Conceptual Completion Design Process

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Figure 1.B - Detailed Completion Design Process

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Figure 1.C - Procurement Process

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1.2. OBJECTIVES
The fundamental objectives for a completion are:
Achieve a desired (optimum) level of production or injection.
Provide adequate maintenance and surveillance programmes.
Be as simple as possible to increase reliability.
Provide adequate safety in accordance with legislative or company requirements
and industry common practices.
Be as flexible as possible for future operational changes in well function.
In conjunction with other wells, effectively contribute to the whole development
plan reservoir plan.
Achieve the optimum production rates reliably at the lowest capital and
operating costs.
These may be summarised as to safely provide maximum long term profitability. This,
however, in reality is not simple and many critical decisions are needed to balance long
term and short term cash flow and sometimes compromises are made.
An expensive completion may derive more long term profit than a low cost completion but
the initial capital costs will be higher (Refer to figure 1.d).
Figure 1.D - Completion Design Versus Profitability

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On the other hand if the data available is not accurate, the estimate of some well
performance and characteristics throughout the life of the well may be wrong and early
workover or well intervention operations will impact on well profitability.
An inherent problem is that the Reservoir Engineering Departments objectives do not
coincide with the Completion Engineering Departments in that Reservoir Engineerings
objectives are for the whole field performance whereas the Completion Groups is to
optimise for profit on a long term well by well basis which includes well servicing/workover.
Reservoir and geoscience groups often have to set plans and objectives for the field on well
performance based on limited information, in the early stages, but are not concerned about
production problems, well maintenance or detailed operations.
1.3. FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLETION

The main function of a completion is to produce hydrocarbons to surface or deliver injection
fluids to formations. This is its primary function, however a completion must also satisfy a
great many other functions required for safety, optimising production, servicing, pressure
monitoring and reservoir maintenance.
These main functional requirements must be built into the conceptual design and include:
Protecting the production casing from formation pressure.
Protecting the casing from corrosion attack by well fluids.
Preventing hydrocarbon escape if there is a surface leak.
Inhibiting scale or corrosion.
Producing single or multiple zones.
Perforating (underbalanced or overbalanced).
Permanent downhole pressure monitoring.
1.4. MANUAL UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION

The Corporate Standards in this manual define the requirements, methodologies and rules
that enable to operate uniformly and in compliance with the Corporate Company Principles.
This, however, still enables each individual Affiliated Company the capability to operate
according to local laws or particular environmental situations.
The final aim is to improve performance and efficiency in terms of safety, quality and costs,
while providing all personnel involved in Drilling & Completion activities with common
guidelines in all areas worldwide where Eni-Agip operates.
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2. RESERVOIR CONSIDERATIONS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Oil and gas wells are expensive faucets that enable production of petroleum reservoirs or
allow injection of fluids into an oil or gas reservoir. As pointed out in section 1.1, a
completion conceptual design must take into account all the well objectives to produce the
optimum design to maximise profitability.
The purpose of this section is to consider the characteristics of reservoir fluids and the flow
of these in the area around the wellbore to allow these parameters to be tied into the well
completion design and well intervention/workover operational requirements.
2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

2.2.1. Porosity
Porosity or pore space in reservoir rocks provides the container for the accumulation of oil
and gas and gives the rock characteristic ability to absorb and hold fluids. Most commercial
reservoirs have sandstone, limestone or dolomite rocks, however some reservoirs even
occur fractured shale.
2.2.2. Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the ability of which fluid can move through the interconnected
pore spaces of the rock. Many rocks such as clays, shales, chalk, anhydrite and some
highly cemented sandstones are impervious to movement of water, oil or gas even although
they may be quite porous. Darcy, a French engineer, working with water filters, developed
the first relationship which described the flow through porous rock which is still used today.
Darcys Law states that the rate of flow through a given rock varies directly with permeability
(measure of the continuity of inter-connected pore spaces) and the pressure applied, and
varies inversely with the viscosity of the fluid flowing.
In a rock having a permeability of 1 Darcy, 1cc of a 1cp viscosity fluid will flow each second
2
through a portion of rock 1cm in length and having a cross-section of 1cm , if the pressure
across the rock is 1 atmosphere.
qL Eq. 2.A
K=
Ap
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In oilfield units the linear form of Darcys Law for flow of incompressible fluid through a rock
filled with only one fluid is:
kA(p 1 p 2 ) Eq. 2.B
q=1.127 10 3
BL
where:
q = Flow rate, stb/day
k = Permeability, md
3
A = Flow rate, ft
= Viscosity, cp
L = Flow length, ft
p1 = Inlet pressure, psi
p2 = Outlet pressure, psi
B = Formation volume factor, res bbl/stb
2.2.3. Relative Permeability

As normally two or three fluids exist in the same pore spaces in a reservoir, relative
permeability relationships must be considered. Relative permeability represents the ease at
which one fluid flows through connecting pore spaces in the presence of other fluids, in
comparison to the ease that it would flow if there was no other fluid.
To understand this, assume a rock filled with only with oil at high pressure where gas has
not been able to come out of solution:
All available space is taken up by the oil and only oil is flowing.
If reservoir pressure is allowed to decline, some lighter components of the oil will
evolve as gas in the pore spaces. Flow of oil is reduced but gas saturation is too
small for it to flow through the pores.
If pressures to continue to decline, gas saturation continues to increase and at
some point (equilibrium gas saturation) gas begins to flow and the oil rate is
further reduced.
With further increases in gas saturation, the gas rate continues to increase and
less oil flows through the pores until finally only gas flows.
Significant oil may still occupy the pores but cannot be recovered by primary
production means as the permeability to oil has dropped to zero.
This same principle governs the flow of oil in the presence of water. The saturation of each
fluid present affects the ease of fluid movement or relative permeability.
The gas-oil or water-oil relative permeability relationships of a particular reservoir rock
depend on the configurations of the rock pore spaces and the wetting characteristics of the
fluids and rock surfaces. In an oil-water system, the relative permeability to oil is significantly
greater when the rock is water wet.
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Where two or more fluids are present, the permeability in eq. 2.b represents the
permeability of the rock to the desired fluid. This can be achieved by multiplying absolute
permeability of the rock by the relative permeability of the rock to the desired fluid.
k abs k ro A(p1 p 2 ) Eq. 2.C
q=1.127 10 3
B o L
where:
qo = Oil flow rate, stb/day
kabs = Absolute permeability, md
kro = Relative permeability to oil
For a well producing both water and oil, the water cut or fraction of water in the total flow
stream at standard conditions of temperature and pressure can be calculated by:
1 Eq. 2.D
fw =
k o w Bw
1 + +
k w o Bo
where:
ko = Relative permeability to oil
kw = Relative permeability to water
o = Viscosity of oil, cp
w = Viscosity of water, cp
Bo = Formation volume factor for oil, res bbl/stb
Bw = Formation volume factor for water, res bbl/stb
2.2.4. Wettabilty
Most reservoirs were formed or laid down in water with oil moving in later from adjacent
zones to replace a portion of the water. For this reason, most reservoir rocks are considered
to be water wet. This means that the grains of the rock matrix are coated with a film of
water permitting hydrocarbons to fill the centre of the pore spaces. The productivity of oil in
this condition is maximised.
Although it is extremely difficult to determine wettability of cores due to the cutting and
preparing specimens for laboratory testing which alters the wettability characteristics, it is
not important as this characteristic is included in the permeability measurements.
However, it is important when completing or servicing the well in that any foreign substance
which may come into contact with the rock may alter its wettability characteristic and reduce
the relative permeability to hydrocarbon fluids and cause emulsion which may block flow.
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2.2.5. Fluid Distribution

The distribution of fluids vertically in the reservoir is very important as the relative amounts
of oil, gas and water present at a particular level determines the fluids that produced by a
well completed at that level and also influence the relative rates of fluid production.
In rock the capillary forces, which are related to water wettability, work to change the normal
sharp interfaces between the fluids separated by density.
From the point in a zone of the free water level upward to some point where water
saturation becomes constant is called the transition zone. Relative permeability permits
both water and oil to flow within the transition zone. Water saturation above the transition
zone is termed irreducible water saturation or more commonly the connate water
saturation. Above the transition zone, only oil will flow in an oil-water system.
Connate water is related to permeability and pore channels in lower rocks are generally
smaller. For a given height, the capillary pressure in two different pore sizes will be the
same, therefore the water film between the water and the oil will have the same curvature,
hence more oil will be contained in larger pore spaces.
The nature and thickness of the transition zones between the water and oil, oil and gas, and
water and gas are influenced by several factors: uniformity, permeability, wettability, surface
tension and the relative density differences between the fluids. These can be summarised
in three statements:
The lower the permeability of a given sand, the higher will be the connate water
saturation.
In lower permeability sands, the transition zones will be thicker than in higher
permeability sands.
Due to the greater density difference between gas and oil as compared to oil
and water, the transition zone between the oil and gas is not as thick as the
transition zone between oil and water.
A well completed in the transition zone will be expected to produce both oil and water,
depending on the saturations of each fluid present at the completion level. figure 2.a
summarises oil, water and gas saturation in a typical homogeneous rock example.
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Figure 2.A - Example Fluid Distribution in a Uniform Sand Reservoir

(Containing Connate Water, Oil and Gas Cap)
2.2.6. Fluid Flow In The Reservoir

Oil has little natural ability to produce itself into the wellbore. It is produced principally by
pressure inherent in gas dissolved in oil, in associated free gas caps, or in associated
aquifers.
Pressure Distribution Around the Wellbore

Pressure distribution in the reservoir and factors which influence it are of great of
significance in interpreting well production trends caused by pressure characteristics.
Pressure distribution around a producing oil well completed in a homogeneous zone will
gradually drop from the reservoir pressure some distance from the wellbore until closer to
the wellbore where it will decline quite sharply. The wellhead pressure will be much lower
due to the influence of hydrostatic pressure and tubing frictional effects.
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In a radial flow situation, where fluids move towards the well from all directions, most of the
pressure drop in the reservoir occurs fairly close to the wellbore. As shown in figure 2.b, in a
uniform sand, the pressure drop across the last 15ft of the formation surrounding the
wellbore is about one half of the total pressure drop from the well to a point 500ft away in
the reservoir. Obviously flow velocities increase tremendously as fluid approaches the
wellbore. This area around the wellbore is the critical area and as much as possible should
be done to prevent damage or flow restrictions in this critical area.
Figure 2.B - Pressure Distribution Near Wellbore In Radial Flow
Radial Flow Around The Wellbore

Steady state radial flow of incompressible fluid is described by Darcys Law:
0.00708kh(p o p w ) Eq. 2.E
q=
r
B1n( o )
rw
Corrections are required to account for the flow of compressible fluids and for turbulent flow
velocities.
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Figure 2.C- Units For Darcys Law Equation
For non-homogeneous zones, which is the usual case, permeablities must be averaged for
flow through parallel layers of differing permeabilities.
k 1h1 +k 2 h 2 +k 3 h 3 Eq. 2.F
k=
h1 +h 2 +h 3
Figure 2.D - Radial Flow In Parallel Combination of Beds

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Varying permeabilities around the well in series can be averaged as follows:

ro Eq. 2.G
1n( )
rw
k=
r r r
1n( 1 ) 1n( 2 ) 1n( 3 )
rw r1 r2
+ +
k1 k2 k3
Figure 2.E - Radial Flow In Series Combination Of Beds
Linear Flow Through Perforations

Ideally perforating tunnels should provide be large and deep enough to prevent any
restriction to flow. In cases where there may be sand problems and a gravel pack is used,
the tunnels are packed with gravel to hold the formation in place, which will cause a
restriction.
Flow through perforating tunnels is linear rather radial and Darcys equation must be
corrected as turbulent flow usually exists.
Experiments have shown that pressure drop through gravel filled perforations compared
with uncorrected linear flow Darcys Law calculations is substantial as shown in figure 2.f
below. Curve A indicates that plugging with even high permeability (1 Darcy) sand gives a
large pressure drop. Actual test data with very high permeability sand, curve B, proves
turbulent flow results in higher pressure drop than Darcys Law calculations, curve C,
predict.
Investigators have provided turbulence correction factors which can be applied to Darcys
equation to permit calculation of pressure drop through perforating tunnels.
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Figure 2.F - Pressure Drop Versus Flow Rate Through Perforation
Causes Of Low Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure

In a well with uniform sand and fluid conditions, two factors may cause low flowing bottom-
hole pressures. These are permeability and producing rate.
With low permeability or excessive rate of production, pressure drawdown will be
appreciable higher than normal thus reducing flowing bottom-hole pressures and causing
the well to be placed on artificial lift if higher productions rates are necessary.
Low permeability is often caused by damage close to the wellbore through drilling,
completion or intervention operations. This is particularly detrimental as the effect close to
the wellbore is greatly magnified.
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The existence of damage can be calculated by well test results analysing the pressure
build-up periods. The skin effect (abnormal pressure drop) or the normal radial flow
pressure drop can be calculated by:
141.2qB Eq. 2.H
p s = s
kh
Other terms which are used to quantify formation damage are Damage Ratio and Flow
Efficiency. Damage ratio calculation is:
qt Eq. 2.I
DR=
qa
where:
qt = Theoretical flow rate without damage
qa = Actual flow rate observed
also:
Jideal Eq. 2.J
DR=
Jactual
pp wf
=
pp wf p s
Flow efficiency:
Jideal Eq. 2.K
FE=
Jactual
pp wf p s
=
pp wf
In multi-zone completion intervals, where transient pressure testing techniques may give
questionable results concerning formation damage, production logging techniques may
provide helpful data. Flow profiling may highlight zones, in an otherwise productive interval,
which are not contributing to the total flow. Non-contributing zones are likely to have been
damaged.
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2.2.7. Effects Of Reservoir Characteristics

Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
In an oil reservoir, primary production results from existing pressure in the reservoir. There
are three basic drive mechanisms:
Dissolved gas
Gas cap
Water drive.
Most reservoirs in actuality produce by a combination of all three mechanisms.

In a dissolved gas reservoir, the source of pressure is principally the liberation and
expansion of gas from the oil phase as pressure is reduced.
A gas drive reservoirs primary pressure source is the expansion of a gas cap over the oil
zone.
A water drive reservoirs principle pressure source is an external water hydrostatic pressure
communicated to below the oil zone.
The effect of the drive mechanism on the producing characteristics must be evaluated in the
completion design process, and also for later re-completions, to systematically recover
reservoir hydrocarbons. figure 2.g and figure 2.h, show typical reservoir pressures versus
production trends and gas-oil ratio production trends for the three basic drive mechanisms.
In a dissolved gas drive reservoir without any artificial pressure maintenance technique,
pressure declines rapidly, gas-oil ratio peaks rapidly and then declines rapidly, and primary
oil recovery is relatively low. Re-completing would not reduce the gas-oil ratio.
In a gas cap drive reservoir, pressure declines less rapidly and gas-oil ratios increase as the
gas cap expands into the up-structure well completion intervals. Well intervention or re-
completion to shut-off up-structure intervals may control the gas-oil ratio, therefore lose
pressure less rapidly.
Water drive reservoirs pressure remains high and gas-oil ratios are lower but down-
structure well intervals quickly begin to produce water. This is controlled by well
interventions or re-completions to shut-off the water production or the well is shut-in.
Gradually even the up-structure wells will water out to maximise oil recovery.
Obviously many factors must be considered in developing a reservoir, however the main
factors concentrate on the reservoir itself and the procedure used to exploit hydrocarbon
recovery. Well spacing, or well location, is fundamental and the cost of time, labour and
materials consumed in the drilling are largely non-recoverable, therefore if development
drilling proceeds on the basis of close spacing before the drive mechanism is identified, the
investment will have already been made.
This does not usually present an insurmountable problem as a field of any considerable
size will require a minimum number of wells to be drilled in any case to define the reservoir,
i.e. establish the detailed geological picture regarding zone continuity and locate oil-water
and gas-oil contacts. By careful planning when enough information is gained to determine
the well locations, these can be drilled at the appropriate spacing to maximise recovery with
the least amount of wells.
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Many case histories are available to show problems resulting from reservoir development
without having sufficient information about the stratigraphy of the reservoir.
Figure 2.G - Reservoir Pressure Trends For Various Drive Mechanisms
Figure 2.H - Gas-Oil Ratios Trends For Various Drive Mechanisms

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With regard to drive mechanisms, some general statements can be made:
Dissolved gas drive reservoirs:

Well completions in reservoirs with low structural relief can be made in a regularly spaced
pattern throughout the reservoir and, provided the rock is stratified, can be set low in the
reservoir bed.
A regular spacing can also be used for dissolved gas reservoirs with high angle of dip.
Again the completion intervals should be structurally low because of the angle of dip and
the exact sub-surface location would vary with well location on the structure. In this scenario
it would be expected that oil recovery would be greater with the minimum well investment as
the oil will drain down-structure through time. If this is recognised after drilling begins, the
well locations must be changed quickly to take full advantage of the situation.
Due to the low recovery by the primary drive mechanism, some means of secondary
recovery will almost certainly be required at some point in life of the reservoir and the initial
well completion design should take this into account.
Gas cap drive reservoirs:

Wells are generally spaced on a regular pattern where the sand is thick, dip angle is low
and gas cap is completely underlayed by oil.
Again completion intervals should be low in the structure to permit the gas cap to grow for
maximum recovery and minimum gas production.
Like the dissolved gas drive reservoir, the wells in thin sands with a high angle of dip is
likely to be more efficiently controlled by having the completion irregularly spaced and low to
conform to the shape of the reservoir. Regular spacing would place many completions too
near the gas-oil contact. Such reservoirs are common where multiple this sands are found
on a single structure and the oil column is only a fraction of the total productive relief.
Water drive reservoirs:

Wells can be spaced on a regular pattern on a thick sand and low angle of dip.
Completion intervals should be selected high on the structure to permit long production life
while oil is displaced up to the completion intervals by invading water from below.
A water reservoir in a thin sand with high angle of dip may best be developed with irregular
well spacing because of the structural characteristics. Regular spacing of the wells may
cause early water production and possible early abandonment in conjunction with reducing
the drive effectiveness through excessive water production.
Significant levels of water production are unavoidable in later field life when maximising
production rates.
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2.2.8. Reservoir Homogeneity

The general procedures, as described in the previous section is to complete water drive
reservoirs high and for dissolved gas drive reservoir low on the structure to obtain an
adequate number of wells without excess. However this is only practical if the reservoir is
uniform.
Most sandstone reservoirs were originally laid down as stratified layers of varying porosity
and permeability. Similar assumptions can be made for carbonate and even reef type
reservoirs which results in reservoirs of a highly stratified nature. Fluids from such reservoirs
will flow through the various layers at different restrictions to flow and often there are
impervious beds between the layers so that fluid cannot flow between the bed to bed. This
is demonstrated in figure 2.i and figure 2.j.
In thin beds or highly stratified beds, fingering of the free gas down from a gas cap, or
water from a water basin, is a distinct possibility, especially if the interval is short and
production rates are high.
If the reservoir is stratified, either by shale breaks or by variations in permeability, it will
probably be necessary to stagger the completion intervals in various members of the
reservoir to be sure that each is drained properly. Vertical staggering of the completion can
be effected during development to obtain proportionate depletion of the various strata.
Additional distribution of intervals in the various members can then be made during later
well interventions on the basis of data obtained, experience and operating conditions.
To maximise recovery, intervals should be produced independently wherever practical
(usually determined by economics). Single string/single zone completions are preferred to
facilitate thorough flushing for higher recovery and flexibility of re-completion to control
reservoir performance. Completions with more than one zone are termed multi-zone
completions and are required for long completion intervals for obtaining sufficient volumes
of production.
Figure 2.I - Irregular Water Encroachment and Breakthrough

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Figure 2.J - High GOR Production by Encroachment of Gas
2.3. HYDROCARBON DATA

The practical approach to the study of reservoir fluid behaviour is to anticipate pressure and
temperature changes in the reservoir and at surface during production, and to measure, by
laboratory tests, the changes occurring in the reservoir samples. The results of these tests
then provide the basic fluid data for estimates of fluid recovery by various methods of
reservoir operations and also to estimate reservoir parameters through transient pressure
testing.
Two general methods are used to obtain samples of reservoir oil for laboratory examination
purposes, by means of subsurface samplers and by obtaining surface samples of separator
liquid and gas. The surface samples are then recombined in the laboratory in proportions
equal the gas-oil ratio measured at the separator during well testing.
Information concerning the characteristics and behaviour of gas needed for gas reservoirs,
depends upon the type of gas and the nature of the problem. If retrograde condensation is
involved, it may require numerous tests and measurements. If the gas is wet with no
retrograde condensation, or if dry gas, the information is less complex.
2.3.1. Oil Property Correlation

Several generalisations of oil sample data are available to permit correlations of oil
properties to be made (refer to the Compant Well Test Manual for sampling techniques).
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2.4. RESERVOIR/PRODUCTION FORECAST

To obtain the optimum performance from a well, it is first necessary to determine its full
potential and which way this can be fully exploited within any technical or economic
constraints. The determination of the wells performance entails analysing the following:
In-flow performance
Near wellbore performance and design
Multiphase flow of tubing performance
Artificial lift.
The process of this analysis is shown in figure 2.k which requires continuous repetition
during field life to account for changing conditions.
The inflow performance relationship (IPR) provides the flow potential of the reservoir into
the wellbore against the resistance to flow of the formation and near wellbore region. The
theoretical IPR is an idealistic assumption of flow performance without pressure drop due to
skin effect in the near wellbore region and governed only by the size, shape and
permeability of the producing zone and the properties of the produced fluids. The basic
theory of this is described in this section along with some simplified IPR relationships from
observed field data.
Flow behaviour in the near wellbore region may cause a dramatic effect on the IPR curve
which results in greatly reduced flow capability. This is characterised by a damaged IPR
curve and the amount of damage or skin effect, is mainly caused by the drilling and
completion practices. Good drilling and completion practices can or may minimise this
damage allowing use of the idealised IPR curve to be used for completion design.
Some completion designs to deal with reservoir conditions, such as gravel packs for
unconsolidated sands, will also cause reduced IPR curves which must be anticipated during
the design phase. Two phase flow, velocity effects in gas wells, high rate or high GOR oil
wells, in undamaged near wellbore regions also reduce the IPR curve. Alternatively,
stimulation procedures which can provide a negative skin are desirable as this increases
production.
Once the IPR is completed, the outflow performance can be determined which takes into
consideration the relationship between the surface flowrate and pressure drop in the tubing.
The prediction of this relationship is complicated by the nature of multi-phase fluid flow.
Hence, analysis of the outflow performance requires predictions of phase behaviour,
effective fluid density, friction losses and flowing temperatures.
The results of the outflow performance analysis are usually produced graphically depicting
how bottom hole flowing pressure (BHFP), or pump intake pressure, varies with flowrate
against a fixed back-pressure which is normally the wellhead or separator pressure. These
curves are termed tubing performance curves (TPC) and the point of intersection is the
natural flowing point as demonstrated earlier in figure 2.k.
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Figure 2.K - Process of Determining Optimum Well Performance
Selecting, or optimising, the tubing size is necessary to optimise the well performance over
the life of the well and should include the potential benefits of artificial lift systems and/or
stimulation to reduce near wellbore skin effects.
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2.4.1. Inflow Perfomance

This section addresses the fundamental principles of inflow performance for oil and gas
wells. The use of IPRs generated from reservoir simulation models is also described as is
the technique for the applications of the various techniques for predicting inflow
performance. Essentially the less data which is available, the more appropriate it is to use
theoretical radial flow equation. As more data becomes available, an empirical expression
can be validated and applied, however for larger projects, reservoir simulation is usually
employed.
Oil Well - Straight Line IPR

The simplest IPR equation assumes that inflow into a well is proportional to the pressure
differential between the reservoir and the wellbore which is termed the drawdown.
p=p R p wf Eq. 2.L
where:
p = Drawdown pressure, psi
pR = Reservoir pressure, psi
pwf = Bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi.
With a straight line IPR, the flow rate is directionally proportional to the drawdown. The
linear relationship can be substantiated from theoretical arguments for a single
incompressible fluid (i.e. above the bubble point). However, it has been verified that the
straight line approach also provides the accuracy needed for well performance calculations
in situations which exceed the theoretical basis, e.g. low drawdowns and damaged wells.
In situations which allow the use of a straight line IPR, the constant of proportionality is
termed the productivity index (PI). PI defined as J by the API, is:
q Eq. 2.M
J=
p R p wf
where:
q = Total liquid flow rate at surface under stock tank conditions (14.7psia,
o
60 F)
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Figure 2.L - Straight Line IPR or Productivity Index J
The assumption of stable inflow performance relationship, or stabilised flow, is that well is
producing in pseudo-steady state or steady state flow conditions. Before this the well
produces under transient conditions, as in most well tests, result in higher estimates of
productivity than when under stabilised conditions.
Productivity Index, J, also needs to be treated with caution as Production Engineers and
Reservoir Engineers assume different basis for J. Production Engineers relate J to gross
liquid production (oil and water) whereas Reservoir Engineers relate it to oil productivity.
J can be calculated directly from bottom-hole gauges in well test results or estimated
pressures from simulation studies. Oil PI, J, can also be derived theoretically from Darcys
radial flow equation:
k oh Eq. 2.N
Jo =
r
141.2 o B o 1n e 0.75+S
rw
where:
h = Net pay thickness, ft
ko = Effective oil permeability, md
o Reservoir fluid viscosity, cp
Bo = Reservoir formation volume factor, bbl/stb
ro = Drainage radius, ft
rw = Wellbore radius, ft
S = Total effective skin, dimensionless (S = S + Dq)
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This assumes pseudo-steady state flow from a well in the centre of a circular reservoir and
it is worth noting that ko is the effective permeability to oil for an oil PI. As water saturation
increases, Ko obviously decreases and as does Jo.
Deviation from the theoretical ideal PI (i.e. S = 0) should be expected as a result of
additional pressure losses in the near wellbore area due to damage, fractures, increased
gas saturation in oil wells, producing below the bubble point, changes in radial flow
geometry and non-Darcy pressure losses due to high flow velocities in gas wells, high rate
or high GOR oil wells.
Damaged wells with positive skins have straight line IPRs with PIs less than the ideal PI.
Straight line IPRs with PIs greater than the ideal are typical of wells with negative skin such
as when they have been stimulated, have natural fractures or are highly deviated.
The PI is very useful for describing the potential of various wells as it combines all rock and
fluid properties as well as geometrical issues in a single constant making it unnecessary to
consider these properties individually.
Figure 2.M- Effect of Damage And Fractures on a Wells PI

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Oil Well - Vogels Two Phase Flow IPR

The previous straight line IPR does not hold with two phase flow (gas and liquid) in the
reservoir.
Once the BHFP falls below the bubble point pressure, gas saturation builds up around the
wellbore which reduces the permeability to liquid which of course reduces well productivity
at that particular drawdown compared to predicted by linear PI. This means the true IPR is
curved and, hence the PI J, decreases with increasing drawdown (slopes 1 and 2 in figure
2.o). There may also be some non-Darcy gas flow effects in wells producing below the
bubble point. Vogel used a computer programme to model a variety of solution gas
reservoirs and developed a generalised IPR reference curve to account for the two phase
flow effects below the bubble point. He also presented an approximation using the
expression:
2 Eq. 2.O
q p p
=10.2 wf 0.8 wf
qmax pR pR
where:
pR = Reservoir pressure, psi
pwf = Bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
q = Liquid production, stb/d
qmax = Maximum liquid production rate when pwf = 0, stb/d
Qmax is a theoretical value sometimes referred to as Absolute Open Flow (AOF) of the oil
well.
Figure 2.N - Typical IPR Curve for Saturated Reservoir

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Vogels equation has been validated through observed field data particularly on pumped
wells with high drawdowns where pwf approaches zero.
The model used to develop Vogels reference curve did not include skin effects which would
tend to straighten the IPR curve. Procedures to correct for skin are available.
Figure 2.O - Vogels IPR Reference Curve

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Where inflow relationship passes through the bubble point, a straight line IPR is drawn
above the bubble point and the curved IPR signifies the two phase flow below this point. For
this, Vogels equation is combined with the PI to develop a general IPR equation. This has
been published by Brown. When the BHFP is above the bubble point use the normal
straight line equation:
q o =J(p R p wf ) Eq. 2.P
and when it drops below the bubble point use the modified Vogel equation:
Jp
p p
2 Eq. 2.Q
qo =J(p R p wf )+ b 10.2 wf 0.8 wf
1 .8 pb pb

where:
pb = Bubble point pressure, psi
If water production is involved, it is dependant upon whether it is produced from the same
interval or others. As oil is normally produced from a different zone to the water, the
following equations are applied:
q w =J(p R p wf ) Eq. 2.R
p p
2
Eq. 2.S
q o =q o max 10.2 wf 0.8 wf
pR pR

If oil and water both flow from the same zone then the Vogel equation is used for the gross
flow rate:
p p
2
Eq. 2.T
q o +q w =(q o +q o max )10.2 wf 0.8 wf
pR pR
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Figure 2.P - Combined Straight Line IPR and Vogel IPR
Oil Wells - Generalised IPR Curves

As described earlier, curvature of the IPR curve is not solely due to the reasons highlighted
above but also due to rate dependent skin. This is where Darcys law which is good for
moderate to low flow rates is affected by high velocities. This non-Darcy flow, or turbulence,
is sometimes the most dominant factor especially for gravel packs and high rate gas-liquid
ratio wells.
Fetkovich recognised that many oil wells could be handled in the same way as gas wells
using the curved IPR:
(
q o =C p R p wf
2
)
2 n Eq. 2.U
where:
C = Linear deliverability coefficient
n = Deliverability exponent (0.5 to 1.0)
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Golan and Whitson showed how this relationship could be expressed in a similar form to
Vogels reference curve as:
p 2

n Eq. 2.V
q
= 1 wf
q max p R

This equation is compared with Vogels reference curve in figure 2.q, for two values of the
exponent, n. It is seen that when n = 1, the Vogel and Fetkovich IPRs are similar. It is
recommended that n be assumed to be 1 where no multi-rate data is available.
n is considered as the means to account for non-Darcy flow but there is no theoretical
technique for finding it as it is a function of the rate used during testing. If multi-rate data is
2 2
available then a log-log plot of q versus (pR - pwf ) will give a straight line with a slope of 1/n.
Figure 2.Q - Vogel And Fetkovich IPR Curve Comparisons
Use of this approach will provide better results than Vogels method, however it requires
four points at widely different flow rates to maximise the benefit of this method. If such data
is not available, n should be assumed as 1.
Blount and Jones presented an alternative generalised IPR equation which was an
extension to the Forcheimer equation to include the non-Darcy flow effects:
p R p wf =aq+bq 2 Eq. 2.W
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The Darcy flow coefficient, a, can be determined theoretically for a well producing at
pseudo-steady state flow in the middle of a circular reservoir:
141.2 o B o re Eq. 2.X
a= ln 0.75+S
kh rw
The skin term, S, is relative to all non-rate dependent skin contributions.
The other non-Darcy flow coefficient, b, can also be found theoretically but requires a
knowledge of the turbulence factor, , which is rarely measured in the laboratory. Similarly,
it takes no account of completion non-Darcy effects such as inefficient perforating, etc.
Again, if multi-rate test data is available, both a and b can be determined using a plot of (q R
- pwf)/q versus q gives a straight line with a slope of b and an interception of a.
In very high permeability wells, coefficient b can be much greater than b and perforating
efficiency (shots/ft and penetration) is a very important to productivity.
Oil Wells - Predicting Future IPRs

Estimates of future IPR curves throughout the life of the reservoir are frequently required for
production forecasting and planning artificial lift designs.
The effects of increasing water influx on the gross PI, described earlier in Section 2.2, leads
to a significant increase in skin due to scaling, mobilisation of fines, skin damage during
remedial operations and reduced contribution from reduced pay through plugging back.
In solution drive reservoirs, the reservoir pressure will decline against time, shifting the IPR
curve downwards resulting in a decline of the production rate and causing flow instability.
The relative permeability to oil will also decrease due to increased gas saturation further
shifting the curve downwards. The liberation of gas also affects the oil fluid properties.
Standing presented a method of predicting future IPR curves by the equation:
k ro Eq. 2.Y

J * future o B o future
=
J * present k ro

o B o present
and:
p
2 Eq. 2.Z
q future =J * future p R future 10.2 wf 0.8 p wf
p R future p Rfuture

where:
J* = PI at minimal drawdown (i.e. where two phase flow effects are
negligible)
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J* at present conditions is established by carrying out a well test or theoretically. Relative

permeabilities and fluid saturations are determined from special core analysis data and
reservoir material balance analysis (using either analytical calculations or a reservoir
simulation model). Fluid viscosities and volume are determined from PVT correlations.
If data for Standings equation are not available, the simpler approach like Fetkovich
relation for predicting qmax in Vogels reference curve. Eickmeier first proposed an
expression based on Fetkovichs work, which in modified form is:
q max .present p Rpresent

m Eq. 2.AA
=
q max .future p R future

It may be shown theoretically that exponent m could vary between 1 and 3. An exponent of
2.5 gives the best fit to the gas drive IPR curves by Vogel while values of 1.66 have been
found in actual field studies by Eickmeir.
Gas Wells - Simplified Deliverability Relationship

Rawlins and Schellardt developed a simplified gas well back-pressure equation which
relates gas flow rate to the BHFP and is the well Known AOF equation;
(
p g =C p R p wf
2
)
2 n Eq. 2.BB
This equation was developed empirically using several hundred multi-rate gas well test data
and not by theory but satisfactorily describes the behaviour of the gas well tests considered.
The exponent, n , in the equation must be estimated from one of a number of well test
methods (e.g. isochronal test) due to there being no accepted theoretical basis available. A
2 2
log-log plot of (pR - pwf ) versus q is conducted from which the slope gives the value of 1/n.
This exponent can vary between 1.0 for laminar flow to 0.5 for fully turbulent flow. Obviously
at low to moderate rates there is little turbulence and n is close to 1, however in high rates
this is highly improbable and makes the IPR projections almost impossible and erring on the
optimistic side. It is, therefore, critical that well tests are conducted up to or above the
rate of intended production.
The constant C is also found from the log-log plot and varies as a function of flow time until
it reaches a constant pseudo-steady state. In some instances C can be calculated from
reservoir parameters, using kh and S from build-up data but is only applicable if flow is
laminar (n = 1). To obtain a value of n, it is normal to test the well at three rates at a fixed
period of time followed by a single rate until stabilisation is reached to obtain C. The
problem with this isochronal test is the time required to reach stabilised flow in tight gas
sands which could be months.
While this method is widely used throughout the industry, it is not recommended for
estimating IPRs as it lacks the theoretical basis and other rigorous equations are available.
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Gas Wells - Generalised Deliverability

Due to the shortcomings of the back-pressure equation described above and since
turbulence which is common in gas wells, it must be accounted for properly and a
theoretical based method is more often used in modern engineering. The expression below
is based on the work of Forchemier and is:
p R p wf = Aqg + Aqg
2 Eq. 2.CC
The Darcy and non-Darcy coefficients, A and B, are determined in a similar manner as the
2 2
generalised IPR equation for an oil well, however the straight line plot is (pR - pwf )/q versus
q. It will be seen that the gas IPR is curved even when the non-Darcy term is 0.
eq. 2.cc is not precisely correct since inherent in its derivation is an assumption that the
product of and z is constant. For most gas compositions this is valid only at pressures less
than approx 2,000psi or if drawdown pressure changes are small which is the case in high
permeability wells above 3,000psi when z is proportional to pressure, an equation similar
to eq. 2.w can be used. Between 2,000psi and 3,000psi, there is curvature in the plot of z
against p making neither approach applicable. In this range the correct inflow equation is
written in terms of pseudo-pressures:
p
p Eq. 2.DD
m(p)=2
pb z
g
dp
where:
g = Gas viscosity, cp
z = Gas deviation factor
and where the integration limits are substituted with the pressure range being considered,
normally pg and pwf for inflow calculations, hence:
m(p R )m(p wf )= Aq g +Bqg

2 Eq. 2.EE
where:
T re
A = 1422 ln 0.75+S
k g h r w
TD
B = 1422
k gh
Here the results of the multi-rate test would be plotted as m(pg) - m(pwf)/q versus q to find a
value of B from the slope and to check the value of A from the intercept.
The non-Darcy coefficient B can also be calculated theoretically but, as for oil wells,
requires knowledge of the correct turbulence factor, . The non-Darcy skin is also frequently
accounted for by using:
q g T re Eq. 2.FF
m(p R )m(p wf )=1422 ln 0.75+S+Dqg
k gh rw
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where:
D is Derived from well tests
qg = Gas flow rate, mscf/d
o
T = Reservoir temperature, F
S = The sum of all non-rate dependent skin
D = Rate dependent skin
kg = Effective gas permeability, md
As modern test analysis use computer software, the pseudo-pressure values are readily
available, therefore there is a growing trend to use gas pseudo pressures for predicting gas
well IPRs at all pressure conditions although the pressure squared method has a use in the
field for convenience.
2.4.2. Reservoir Simulation For IPR Curves

Reservoir simulation is commonly used in the development, planning and reservoir
management of many fields today. With the use of simulation the production engineer is
able not only to predict pressures, WORs and GORs to obtain production targets, but also
to generate IPR curves for determination of how current and future well IPRs will vary
across the field.
To obtain the best use of simulation studies, a model needs to be set up by the reservoir
engineer with input from the production engineer. Typically the following should be
addressed:
Assumptions on the minimum permissible value of Pwf as dictated by the
outflow performance altered by varying water-cut, artificial lift or use of
compression.
Variations between the ideal IPRs and actual IPRs which may be expected from
the undrilled well locations. This information is derived from well test results and
is input into the models theoretical IPR equations as skin factor. Future
stimulation or any damaging effects need to be considered.
Long term effects from well interventions, workovers and movement of fines will
have on near wellbore performance causing changes of skin during the life of
the project.
Using expected off takes, predict turbulence and two phase flow effects by the
use of total skin S inclusive of near wellbore and rate dependent skin effects.
The value of D (Refer to eq. 2.ff) can also be directly entered into some
simulators.
If a PI is entered in rather than skin, well radius, etc., it will be necessary to
correct it for the grid blocks size and shape.
Outflow performance curves should be derived from an accurate computer
programme as some programmes are not rigorous in the handling of two phase
flow.
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The results from such field models will provide the reservoir pressure, production rates and
wellbore saturations at various time steps, however judgement is required when using these
results, in particular check:
Confirm if non-Darcy and multi-phase flow effects have been taken into
consideration.
Input on skin is realistic for the period covered.
Ensure that proposed completion effects on near wellbore performance, e.g.
gravel packing, partial completion, deviation, stimulation, etc. have been
considered.
If the reservoir pressure refers to grid block or to the drainage area.
Whether rates have been modified for downtime due to maintenance, workover
or sales contracts, etc.
As the use of full field reservoir simulation requires many assumptions and simplifications
are made to manage the problem, therefore the predicted flow rates should not be
considered as precise and the relevant reservoir engineer should be consulted to establish
the accuracy. They may also be able to advise on possible sudden changes in water cut or
gas production due to conning or cusping.
Often more reliable predictions in shape of the well IPR can be achieved by engineers using
single well models to study the probability of water or gas conning or to model transient well
test results. It is also used to determine the sensitivity of production to drawdown and
optimise perforating strategy.
When and as new well data from log and RFT/DST results becomes available, it should be
used to update the generalised IPR to reflect the actual pay interval, reservoir quality, skins,
saturations, pressure and mechanical data. From this, revisions can be made to the
completion designs, programmes and production forecast.
After using measured IPR curves, the model needs to be updated to include actual log and
test results. Once this achieved, then the model can be used to evaluate the effect of
depletion, water breakthrough and saturation changes on production and used for artificial
lift studies. Care must be exercised, however, in extrapolating the shape of the IPR and
determining the effects by well operations and production may have on skin.
It is extremely important that production engineers understand that the uncertainties
involved and do not give greater reliability on model studies than reasonably can be
expected.
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2.4.3. IPR Selection

In developing representative IPRs for a field, the appropriate IPR model needs to be
selected based upon the anticipated production conditions. These are summarised again in
the following table:
Type Of Well Producing Conditions Recommended IPR Model

Undersaturated oil Pwf > pb Linear PI or radial flow equation
Saturated oil Pwf < pb Vogel or Fetkovich
Damaged saturated oil Pwf < pb Standing or linear PI if very
S > +3 damaged (S > 7)
Undersaturated oil at pR but PR > pb Composite Vogel and linear
saturated at pwf Pwf < pb
Wells producing oil and water WC > 0 Use as above for the
appropriate oil and linear PI or
radial flow equation for water
Water zone WC > 90% Linear PI or radial flow equation
High rate undersaturated oil q > 25stb/d/ft Blount - Jones or radial flow
equation with turbulence
High rate saturated oil q > 25stb/d/ft Blount - Jones
Pwf < pb
Gas wells Pseudo-pressure equation
2
(m(pR) - m(pwf) = Aq + Bq )
Omit B if only single rate data
available
Table 2.A - IPR Selection Based on Reservoir Type
The appropriate technique will also depend on the reservoir data that is available which is
function of the development stage. The selection of an IPR model based on this is given in
table 2.b.
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Radial Flow Equation Reservoir Model Empirical IPRs

IPRs
Technical Evaluations
Prospect evaluation Guestimate potential. - -
Exploration well results Extrapolate test results. - Validate
interpretation
Development Planning
Conceptual design, large Primary method. Identify variations Validate results.
field geographically with Highlight damage
time. risks.
Conceptual design, Primary method. - Validate results.
small field/single well Highlight damage
risks.
Development plan Validate results and Primary method. Validate results.
skin assumptions. Highlight damage
risks.
Detailed design, large Validate results. Primary method. Validate results.
field Evaluate completion Highlight damage
results. risks.
Detailed design, small Primary method. If available, use for Validate results.
field/single well Evaluate completion future IPRs. Highlight damage
methods. risks.
Optimising Operations/ Workover
Well performance Estimate skin and - Primary method.
assessment determine cause.
Field studies (forecasts/ Primary method for Predict future IPR Primary method for
artificial lift, lift/ post workover IPR current IPRs.
compression)
Workover planning Primary method for Predict future IPR Primary method for
post workover IPR. current IPRs.
Revised development Define model input Primary method. Validate reservoir
plan model results.
Table 2.B - IPR Selection Based on Development Stage
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2.4.4. Outflow Performance

Tubing Performance
Predicting fluid flow behaviour in tubing involves combining the basic fundamentals of mass
momentum and energy conservation with complex mass transfer phenomena for multi-
component hydrocarbon mixtures. Application of these concepts, results in utilising the
following interrelated topics:
Phase behaviour.
Flowing Temperature prediction.
Pressure drop prediction.
The relationship between pressure and temperature drop in wells and PVT behaviour is
complex. Pressure drop is determined using empirical and semi-empirical correlations and
carried out on computer software programmes. Refer to the following sections.
The methods for predicting pressure and temperature drops are addressed in the following
sections.
PVT Relationships
There are two PVT methods used in the prediction of mass transfer between oil and gas,
the black oil model and the compositional model.
The black oil model assumes a constant composition for the liquid phase and accounts for
mass transfer using the parameters gas-oil ratio and formation volume factor. The variable
composition model requires performing vapour-liquid equilibrium (VLE) or flash calculations
to determine the amount and composition of both the gas and liquid phases. Each model
uses differing methods to determine the densities and viscosities for each phase and
interfacial surface tension.
In general the black oil model is easier to use than the compositional model.
Oil Well - PVT Relationships

With most modern software programmes there are four methods of obtaining PVT
properties for oil wells which are listed in order of preference. In the vast majority of cases
there are sufficient data to use the tuned black oil model correlation method.
Interpolate directly from experimental data.
Interpolate from compositional simulation data.
Tuned black oil model empirical correlations.
Untuned black oil model empirical correlations.
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The approach adopted when choosing the appropriate method for each application should
be:
a) Use the black oil model flash vaporisation lab data if they are available. Do not
use differential separation data since it is not representative of the vaporisation
that occurs in the tubing.
b) Use the tuned empirical correlations for black oil model variables if the
appropriate although limited experimental data are available.
c) Use black oil model parameters generated from results of compositional
simulation if it has been performed for incidental reasons, e.g. reservoir or
production reasons, but only if experimental data is not available.
d) Do not use untuned black oil model empirical correlations unless the data
available cannot justify a more rigorous method.
Gas/Gas Condensate Wells - PVT Relationships

In software programmes, PVT properties for gas and gas condensate wells must be
described with the compositional model. Black oil models parameters should never be used
to predict PVT properties for gas or gas condensate systems.
Temperature Drop Calculation

Predicting the temperature loss in the wellbore as a function of depth and time is necessary
to determine PVT properties for use in calculating pressure drop. Some software
programmes, temperature profiles may be specified in five ways:
Linear profile based on measured or assumed wellhead and bottom-hole
temperatures.
Profile based on adiabatic heat transfer, i.e. constant temperature throughout
the length of the string.
Profile based on a specified heat transfer coefficient.
Profile based on conservation of energy that utilises complex wellbore heat
transfer calculations.
Profile based on a simplified version of the complete rigorous calculation
involving correlating parameter for which there is unavailable information but
with data which are available.
The linear profile is the most widely used due to the complexity of heat transfer calculations
in conjunction with the lack of sufficient measured data. Although the linear approach is
unrealistic, the error has been found to be less than 15% in overall temperature drop in
typical wells. However, in gas wells it has amore significant effect.
Some wells have produced fluids with special properties that are very sensitive to
temperatures and more complex heat transfer calculations are required. These are:
Gas condensate wells with retrograde condensate.
High pour point crude oil wells.
Wells in which hydrate formation can occur.
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Pressure Drop Calculation

Calculating pressure drop in tubing involve numerical integration of the steady-state
pressure gradient equation over the entire tubing length. The equation consists of three
components and can be expressed as follows:
dp dp dp dp Eq. 2.GG
= + +
dL dL HYD dL FR dL ACC
where:
dp pgsin Eq. 2.HH
=
dL HYD gc
is the pressure gradient caused by the hydrostatic head of potential energy of the multi-
phase liquid.
dp f pv 2 Eq. 2.II
=
dL FR 2g c D
is the pressure gradient caused by wall friction.
dp p vdv Eq. 2.JJ
=
dL ACC g c dL
is the pressure gradient caused by fluid acceleration.
In multi-phase systems, the variables such as p and v in the pressure gradient equation are
normally averages for the gas and liquid phases present, therefore, the pressure is
sensitive to the relative amounts of gas and liquid present at any location in the tubing. The
hydrostatic head is the most predominant component of the pressure gradient in oil wells,
often accounting for 90% of the pressure drop. The friction losses are the remainder of the
pressure loss and are more significant in gas wells with acceleration effects being negligible
except when near to atmospheric pressure.
Gas and oil phases normally flow at different speeds which is the phenomenon referred to
as slippage. This slippage causes an additional accumulation of liquid in the tubing which is
termed liquid hold up. The amount of slippage that occurs is dependent upon the
geometrical distribution of the gas and liquid in the pipe, referred to as the flow pattern or
flow regime. Flow patterns are governed primarily by the flow rates of each phase, tubing
diameter and to a lesser extent PVT properties.
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Typical flow patterns are:

Annular flow
Churn flow
Slug flow
Bubble flow
Liquid flow.
Considering the above, it is obvious that the pressure at each point in the well and,
therefore, the total pressure drop is very dependent on flow pattern. Typical pressure
gradients in wells for different flow patterns are:
Single phase oil = 0.36psi/ft
Bubble flow = 0.25psi/ft
Slug flow = 0.20psi/ft
Mist flow = 0.1 - 0.2psi/ft
Hence, it is seen that prediction of pressure drop in multi-phase systems is complex and
has led to the development of different correlations to be used. Although many of these
have been successful to some degree, no single method has been universally been
accepted.
The early developed correlations assumed the flow as homogeneous mixtures ignoring
liquid hold up effects. Attempts were made to compensate for these errors in the equations
by single empirical derived friction factor. Subsequent correlations were developed to
predict liquid hold up but most of these first required an empirical correlation or map to
predict the flow pattern. The accuracy of existing correlations for predicting flow pattern,
liquid hold up pressure gradient is limited by the ranges of data used in their development
and no single method can be applied universally. More recent models developed based on
flow mechanisms and conservation principles, referred to as mechanical models, offer more
potential for accurate predictions but these are not readily accepted as standard design
methods as yet.
Some software programmes use all the correlations available and the more recent
promising mechanical models can be added.
Flow Patterns
Transition between the various flow patterns, as listed in the previous section, can be
identified using flow pattern maps. The most common maps are empirically derived with co-
ordinates based on dimensionless groups of variables that include volumetric flow rates,
diameter and PVT properties.
Although bubble, slug and churn floe predominate in oil wells, it is possible for oil and gas
wells to include all flow patterns in addition to single phase liquid and gas.
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Classification Of Methods
Published methods of multi-phase flow pressure gradients in wells can be placed into one
of three general categories based on the assumptions from which the method was
developed:
Homogeneous flow correlations where slippage and flow pattern are not
considered.
Slip flow correlations where slippage is considered but not flow pattern.
Flow pattern dependent correlations where liquid hold up and flow pattern are
considered.
Mechanised models where slippage, flow pattern and basic flow mechanisms
are considered.
Oil Well Correlations

Oil well correlations for predicting pressure gradients in oil wells have been published and
those most widely accepted in the Industry are:
Duns and Ros (1963)
Hagedorn and Brown (1967)
Orkiszewski (1967)
Aziz, Covier and Fogarasi (1972)
Beggs and Brill (1973).
As illustrated in figure 2.r and figure 2.s, these correlations predict different pressure drops
for the same application, however any one of these may be successful in a given field.
Validation and actual field data are the only means of choosing a pressure loss method but
this is not available at the time of designing the completions. Ansari recently performed an
evaluation of the most widely used correlations and his own proposed mechanistic model.,
performed using the TUFFP well databank consisting of 1775 flowing well surveys covering
a broad range of production variables and pressure loss methods were also evaluated for
each flow pattern. table 2.c presents the overall results below:
Method Average Error Absolute Standard Relative Performance

Average Error Deviation Factor, RPC
Ansari 9.3 101.3 163.9 1.000
Hagbr -28.5 102.8 178.4 1.132
Dunros 33.4 110.9 177.7 1.178
Aziz -20.8 116.6 190.4 1.198
Begbril 41.3 134.9 207.9 1.404
Orkis 12.2 151.3 273.3 1.597
Mukbr 78.7 159.8 217.2 1.666
Table 2.C - Evaluation of Pressure Loss Methods Using TUFFP Well Databank
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Selecting the best prediction method from table 2.c is not appropriate as the best statistical
results do not guarantee the best performance for a specific application. The choice must
be made on experience. The applicability of the various methods is compared in table 2.d.
Figure 2.R - Comparison Lift Curves for High Gas-Oil Ratio Well
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Figure 2.S - Comparison of Lift Curves for Low Gas-Oil Ratio Well
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Method Category Accuracy Data Fluids Application/Comments

Ansari (TUFFP Mechanistic Good N/A N/A Appears a little conservative. Gives
1963) Model consistent results for all flow patterns
and TCP minimum. Needs to be
verified through use.
Aziz et al (!972) Flow Pattern Variable Laboratory Oil, water, Optimistic. tends to under-predict
Dependent depending and field gas pressure drop.
on version
Beggs and Brill Flow Pattern Poor Laboratory Air, water Developed for deviated wells but
(1973) tends to significantly over-predict
pressure drop. Should be avoided
unless well is highly deviated.
Beggs and Brill with Flow Pattern Fair Laboratory Air, water Developed for deviated wells but
Palmer Dependent tends to over-predict.
Cornish (1976) Homo- Good in Field Oil, Gas Does not predict a TPC minimum.
geneous some flow (annular Usually not applicable for completion
patterns flow) design.
Duns and Ros Flow Pattern Good Laboratory Oil, gas, Conservative. Tends to over-predict
(1963) Dependent , water pressure drop. Good where several
experiment flow patterns exist.
al plus
field data
Hagedorn and Slip Flow Good in Field Oil, water, Does not predict a TCP minimum.
Brown (1965) some flow experiment air Poor in bubble flow. Liquid hold up
patterns prediction can be less than for no slip
flow. Should be used with caution.
Hagedorn and Flow Pattern Good Field Oil, water, Optimistic. Tends to under-predict
Brown with Griffith Dependent experiment air pressure drop. This is the preferred
Bubble and correlation in the absence of other
restriction on hold data.
up
Kleyweg et al Slip Flow Field Oil, water, Developed to optimise gas lift in
o
Occidental mod Gas highly deviated wells (>70 ) in
(1983) Claymore field. Should not be used
except for similar conditions.
Orkiszewski (1967) Flow Pattern Fair Some Oil, water, Conservative. Tends to over-predict
Dependent Hagedorn gas pressure drop. can cause
and Brown convergence problems in computing
data, field algorithm.
Table 2.D- Applicability of Pressure Loss Prediction Methods
Gas And Gas Condensate Correlations

For gas and gas condensate wells the following methods are frequently used:
Cullender and Smith
Single phase gas with modified gravities
Multi-phase flow correlations
Gray correlation.
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As with oil wells, validation with field data is the only reliable method for determining the
most appropriate correlation and, similarly, this is never usually available at the time that the
completions are designed. If this is the case, the Gray correlation is generally recommended
although the Ansari model mat prove to be even more accurate since it includes a good
model for predicting pressure gradient in annular flow which is the most predominant in gas
wells.
Care is needed in the selection of tubing in that, even in low liquid rates, wells can quickly
load up over a few weeks if it is not correctly sized. Although any of the correlations can be
used, the Gray correlation is recommended based on the work with Reinicke et al but
results should be used with caution.
In gas wells, liquid loading can also be predicted using simplified methods presented with
Turner et al which are independent of pressure drop calculations. These methods have
been reviewed by Lea and Tighe. For wells producing high gas-water or gas-condensate
ratios, it is recommended that tubing size be assessed using these methods in addition to
lift curve methods and that the most conservative approach be adopted.
Effect Of Deviation Angle

Nowadays most wells of interest to operators are directional or deviated wells. The accuracy
of pressure drop calculations in these circumstances using correlations developed for
vertical is obviously extremely questionable.
Flow pattern and liquid hold up is very dependent on deviation angle. For wells with
o
deviations up to 45 from vertical, vertical correlations perform accurately enough for wells
o
greater than 45 , accounting for deviation by simply using the sine in the hydrostatic
component of the pressure gradient equation may not be adequate in these cases, either
the Beggs and Brill correlation or a mechanistic model would be necessary.
In any study, differing correlations should not be used for different deviations, as the
difference between the predicted pressure drops is generally greater than the effect of the
deviation itself.
Effect Of Restrictions
Most oil and gas wells contain some types of flow control devices in the completion which
choke flow. The geometry of these restrictions varies from a simple reduced diameter axial
flow path to a tortuous complex path. When a multiphase mixture flows through a
restriction, the phase velocities dramatically increase. If these reach sonic velocity, critical
flow occurs.
For critical flow, simple empirical correlations such as the Gilbert equation are sufficiently
accurate. For sub-critical flow, behaviour is very dependent on geometry and a simple
Bernoulli type equation with a discharge coefficient is recommended.
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Effect Of Erosion
Erosion in completions occurs when there are high velocities and if there are solids particles
in the flow stream. The most common points for erosion is where there are restrictions
which cause increased velocities. The API have published a method in API RP 14E, to
determine the threshold velocities for erosion to occur in piping systems but the validity of
this for all conditions is questionable.
2.4.5. Flow Rate Prediction

Following the establishment of both the IPR and TPC, they must be presented in the same
plot from which the intersection of the lines can be used to predict the flow rate of a well at
given set of stable flow conditions (Refer to figure 2.t ).
Changing the system parameters like the tubing ID, reservoir pressure, GLR, etc., will effect
either or both the IPR and TPC and in consequence alters the production rate.
Systematically varying the system parameters allows comparison of the incremental effects
on production and these can, in turn, be forecast and analysed for cost/benefit of the
completion options. Continuing in this manner provides information on which decisions can
be made on optimum well configuration or optimum operating conditions. This section
describes this analysis.
Figure 2.T - Combining IPR and TPC Curves

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Natural Flow Point

The characteristic J shape of the TPC means there can be several possible intersections
with the IPR as shown in figure 2.t through figure 2.v. The TCP, Pmin, occurs due to the gas
and liquid phase velocities differ at low flow rates, i.e. slippage occurs. At low flow rates, the
hydrostatic component in the total pressure drop predominates. As liquid velocities tend
toward zero, the gas escapes from the well and the hydrostatic gradient approaches the
static pressure of the liquid. On the other hand, as the flow rate increases, the hydrostatic
component reduces due the gas lift effect while the friction component increases until the
minimum is reached when the friction pressure drop exactly offsets the decrease in
hydrostatic pressure drop.
In figure 2.t, the IPR and TPC curves intersect well to the right of the minimum and, under
these conditions, the well will flow at a stable rate defined as the natural flow point. The
optimum tubing size, or GLR, will give an intersection well to the right of the pmin and out of
the flat portion of the TCP curve. but without incurring excessive friction losses.
If the intersection is either close to or to the left of the minimum (Refer to Figure), the well
will tend to head and flow at unstable conditions due to the cyclic build up of liquid and
periodic slug lifting by accumulated pressure of the trapped gas. Because of the
inaccuracies of the two phase flow correlations and the difficulty in obtaining reliable data in
this region, the start of unstable flow conditions is rarely known especially with large size
tubing. As the usual aim is to keep to the right of Pmin, this is generally not a problem.
Figure 2.U- Combined IPR and TPC Curves Under Unstable Conditions
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If the natural flow point is in the unstable region, a smaller size tubing or artificial lift system
should be considered. Using smaller tubing may result in higher frictional pressure drops
and if this reduces flow rates to below uneconomic levels, a tapered tubing string may be a
consideration.
Where the IPR and TCP curves intersect close to, or to the left of the minimum, the flow will
become increasingly unstable and wells with large size tubing will die quickly, whereas small
tubing may sustain unsteady flow until the IPR and TPC curves become almost tangential.
Where the curves intersect at two rates (Refer to figure 2.v), the intersection point to the left
is always unstable and the well will either die or progressively produce more fluid until it
reaches the stable flow point. To obtain flow at these conditions, it is necessary to kick the
well off quickly.
Figure 2.V - IPR and TPC Curves with Two Apparent Intersection Points
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Artificial Lift Effects

A well will not flow naturally if the IPR and TPC curves do not intersect and in this case
artificial lift could be used to provide the pressure differential between the curves (Refer to
figure 2.w). An artificial lift system places an injection of energy into the flow system which
displaces the TPC curve downwards.
In a pumping well, the displacement is dependent on the pump performance curve (i.e.
pump differential versus rate) which is plotted below the well performance curves as shown
in figure 2.w. This results in a combined outflow performance curve termed the pump intake
curve.
It is necessary when carrying out this analysis, to consider the effect of downhole gas
separation on pump outflow performance.
In gas lifted wells, the TPC is displaced as a result of the effect of the gas on the density,
velocity and flow regime in the tubing above the operating gas lift valve.
By generating an outflow performance curve for each potential system, they can be used to
compare the deliverability of the various methods. From this an economic cost analysis can
be produced to analyse capital and operating cost differences.
Figure 2.W- Combining Pump Performance and TCP Curves

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As shown in the example (figure 2.x below), it is apparent that gas lift will maximise the
deliverability of good wells (PI = 2.5std/d/psi) provided 2 7/8ins tubing is installed, while
submersible pumping gives the maximum rate from the poorer zones (PI = 0.4 to
1.0stb/d/psi) provided there is no drawdown limitation.
Artificial lift is often widely used to improve flow stability and increase the production of
existing producing wells, however the operating and capital costs of equipment must be
justified against the incremental increase in production rate.
Figure 2.X - Artificial Lift Options for Deep Wells with 5 1/2ins Casing
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3. WELL TESTING
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The main objective when drilling an exploration well is to test and evaluate the target
formation. The normal method of investigating the reservoir is to conduct a well test. There
are two types of well test methods available:
Drill Stem Test (DST)
Where Drillpipe/Tubing in combination with downhole tools is used as a short
term test to evaluate the reservoir.
Production Test
Many options of string design are available depending on the requirements of
the test and the nature of the well.
Many designs of well testing strings are possible depending on the requirements of the test
and the nature of the well and the type of flow test to be conducted but basically it consists
of installing a packer tailpipe, packer and downhole test tools and a tubing or drill pipe string
then introducing a low density fluid into the string in order to enable the well to flow through
surface testing equipment which controls the flow rate, separates the fluids and measures
the flow rates and pressures.
3.1.1. Types of Tests

Drawdown
A drawdown test entails flowing the well and analysing the pressure response as the
reservoir pressure is reduced below its original pressure. This is termed drawdown. It is not
usual to conduct solely a drawdown test on an exploration well as it is impossible to
maintain a constant production rate throughout the test period as the well must first clean-
up. During a test where reservoir fluids do not flow to surface, analysis is still possible. This
was the original definition of a drill stem test or DST. However, it is not normal nowadays to
plan a test on this basis.
Multi-Rate Drawdown
A multi-rate drawdown test may be run when flow rates are unstable or there are
mechanical difficulties with the surface equipment. This is usually more applicable to gas
wells but can be analysed using the Odeh-Jones plot for liquids or the Thomas-Essi plot for
gas.
It is normal to conduct a build-up test after a drawdown test.
The drawdown data should also be analysed using type curves, in conjunction with the build
up test.
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Build-Up
A build-up test requires the reservoir to be flowed to cause a drawdown then the well is
closed in to allow the pressure to increase back to, or near to, the original pressure which is
termed the pressure build-up or PBU. This is the normal type of test conducted on an oil
well and can be analysed using the classic Horner Plot or superposition.
From these the permeability-height product, kh, and the near wellbore skin can be
analysed.
On low production rate gas wells, where there is a flow rate dependant skin, a simple form
of test to evaluate the rate dependant skin coefficient, D, is to conduct a second flow and
PBU at a different rate to the first flow and PBU. This is the simplest form of deliverability
test described below.
Deliverability
A deliverability test is conducted to determine the wells Inflow Performance Relation, IPR,
and in the case of gas wells the Absolute Open Flow Potential, AOFP, and the rate
dependant skin coefficient, D.
The AOFP is the theoretical fluid rate at which the well would produce if the reservoir sand
face was reduced to atmospheric pressure.
This calculated rate is only of importance in certain countries where government bodies set
the maximum rate at which the well may be produced as a proportion of this flow rate.
There are three types of deliverability test:
Flow on Flow Test
Isochronal Test
The Modified Isochronal Test.
Flow-on-Flow
Conducting a flow-on-flow test entails flowing the well until the flowing pressure stabilises
and then repeating this at several different rates. Usually the rate is increased at each step
ensuring that stabilised flow is achievable. The durations of each flow period are equal. This
type of test is applicable to high rate gas well testing and is followed by a single pressure
build up period.
Isochronal
An isochronal test consist of a similar series of flow rates as the flow-on-flow test, each rate
of equal duration and separated by a pressure build-up long enough to reach the stabilised
reservoir pressure. The final flow period is extended to achieve a stabilised flowing pressure
for defining the IPR.
Modified Isochronal
The modified isochronal test is used on tight reservoirs where it takes a long time for the
shut-in pressure to stabilise. The flow and shut-in periods are of the same length, except
the final flow period which is extended similar to the isochronal test. The flow rate again is
increased at each step.
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Reservoir Limit
A reservoir limit test is an extended drawdown test which is conducted on closed reservoir
systems to determine their volume. It is only applicable where there is no regional aquifer
support. The well is produced at a constant rate until an observed pressure drop, linear with
time, is achieved. Surface readout pressure gauges should be used in this test.
It is common practice to follow the extended drawdown with a pressure build-up. The
difference between the initial reservoir pressure, and the pressure to which it returns, is the
depletion. The reservoir volume may be estimated directly from the depletion, also the
volume of produced fluid and the effective isothermal compressibility of the system. The
volume produced must be sufficient, based on the maximum reservoir size, to provide a
measurable pressure difference on the pressure gauges, these must therefore be of the
high accuracy electronic type gauges with negligible drift.
Interference
An interference test is conducted to investigate the average reservoir properties and
connectivity between two or more wells. It may also be conducted on a single well to
determine the vertical permeability between separate reservoir zones.
A well-to-well interference test is not carried out offshore at the exploration or appraisal
stage as it is more applicable to developed fields. Pulse testing, where the flowrate at one
of the wells is varied in a series of steps, is sometimes used to overcome the background
reservoir pressure behaviour when it is a problem.
Injectivity
In these tests a fluid, usually seawater offshore is injected to establish the formations
injection potential and also its fracture pressure, which can be determined by conducting a
step rate test. Very high surface injection pressures may be required in order to fracture the
formation.
The water can be filtered and treated with scale inhibitor, biocide and oxygen scavenger, if
required. Once a well is fractured, which may also be caused by the thermal shock of the
cold injection water reaching the sandface, a short term injection test will generally not
provide a good measure of the long term injectivity performance.
After the injectivity test, the pressure fall-off is measured. The analysis of this test is similar
to a pressure build-up, but is complicated by the cold water bank.
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3.2. DST OBJECTIVE

A DST is conducted to determine the productivity characteristics of one specific zone.
Currently, analysis can provide good data to help evaluate the productivity of the zone,
completion practices, extent of formation damage and if there is a requirement for
stimulation.
In many cases, actual well production rates can be accurately predicted from DST data as it
shows what the well will produce against a gradually increasing back-pressure. From this a
Productivity Index (PI) or Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) can be established (Refer
to Section 2.4) and, if the flowing pressure gradient in the tubing can be estimated, then
actual producing rates can also be determined.
Testing is an expensive and high risk operation and, therefore, should only be conducted
for essential data. The starting premise should be that testing is not required unless it is
clearly justified.
The second premise is that, if testing is warranted, it should be done in the simplest
possible manner, avoiding any operations which entail higher risk, such as running wireline
or coil tubing through the testing string.
By adopting this position, the Petroleum Engineer should not appear to be negative but
work towards obtaining essential data, which the company needs rather than that which is
nice to have, in the most cost-effective manner.
The test objectives must be agreed by those who will use the results and those who will
conduct the test before the test programme is prepared. The Petroleum Engineer should
discuss with the geologists and reservoir engineers about the information required and
make them aware of the costs and risks involved with each method. They should select the
easiest means of obtaining data, such as coring, if possible. Such inter-disciplinary
discussions should be formalised by holding a meeting (or meetings) at which these
objectives are agreed and fixed.
The objectives of an exploration well test are to:
Conduct the testing in a safe and efficient manner
Determine the nature of the formation fluids
Measure reservoir pressure and temperature
Interpret reservoir permeability-height product (kh) and skin value
Obtain representative formation fluid samples for laboratory analysis
Define well productivity and/or injectivity
investigate formation characteristics
Evaluate boundary effects.
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3.3. DST STRING

The well testing objectives, test location and relevant planning will dictate which is the most
suitable test string configuration to be used. Some generic test strings used for testing from
various installations are shown overleaf. For more detailed information on well test strings
and tooling, refer to the Company Well Test Manual.
In general, well tests are performed inside a 7ins production liner, using full opening test
tools with a 2.25ins ID. In larger production casing sizes the same tools will be used with a
larger packer. In smaller casing sizes, smaller test tools will be required, but similarly, the
tools should be full opening to allow production logging across perforated intervals. For a
5
barefoot test, conventional test tools will usually be used with a packer set inside the 9 /8ins
casing.
If conditions allow, the bottom of the test string should be 100ft above the top perforation to
allow production logging of the interval.
In the following description, tools which are required both in production tests and
conventional tests are included. The list of tools is not exhaustive, and other tools may be
included. However, the test string should be kept as simple as possible to reduce the risk of
mechanical failure. The tools should be dressed with elastomers suitable for the operating
environment, considering packer fluids, prognosed production fluids, temperature and the
stimulation programme, if applicable.
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Figure 3.A- Typical Jack Up Test String With TCP Guns On Permanent Packer
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Figure 3.B - Typical Test String With TCP Guns Stabbed Through Production Packer
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Figure 3.C - Typical Jack Up Test String With Retrievable Packer

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Figure 3.D - Typical Semi-Submersible Test String - Retrievable Packer

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3.4. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS

Reservoir characteristics that may be estimated from DST analysis include:
Average Effective Permeability. This may be better than core permeability
since much greater volume is averaged. Also effective permeability rather than
absolute permeability is obtained.
Reservoir Pressure. Measured if shut-in time is adequate, or calculated if not.
Wellbore Damage. Damage ratio method permits estimation of what the well
should make without damage.
Barriers/Permeability Changes/Fluid Contacts. These reservoir anomalies
affect the slope of the pressure build-up plot. They usually require substantiating
data to differentiate one from the other.
Radius Of Investigation. An estimate of how far away, from the wellbore, the
DST can see.
Depletion. Can be detected if the reservoir is small and the test is conducted
properly.
In summary, the DST if properly applied is an essential tool for the Completions Engineer.
3.4.1. Pressure Build-Up Analysis

Horner Equation
Transient pressure analysis is based on the Horner pressure build-up equation which
describes the re-pressuring of the wellbore area during the shut-in period as the formation
fluids moves into the pressure sink created by the flowing portion of the test:
162.6qB t t Eq. 3.A
p ws =p i log10
kh t
where:
pws = Measured pressure in the wellbore during the build-up, psig
t = Flowing time, mins
t = Shut-in time, mins
pi = Shut-in reservoir pressure, psig
q = Rate of flow, stb/day
+ Fluid viscosity, cp
B = Formation volume factor, reservoir bbl/stb/day
k = Formation permeability, md
h = Formation thickness, ft
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Conditions which must be assumed during the build-up period for eq. 3.a to be strictly
correct are:
Radial flow
Homogenous formation
Steady state conditions
Infinite reservoir
Single phase flow.
Most of these conditions are met on a typical DST although steady state flow is the
condition which may cause most concern particularly at early shut-in time.
Horner Build-Up Plot

t p + t
Assuming these conditions are met, then a plot of pws versus log10 should yield a

t
straight line and the slope (m) of the straight line should be:
162.6qB Eq. 3.B
m=
kh
The constant m is representative of a given fluid having physical properties B flowing at a
rate q through a formation having physical properties kh.
figure 3.e shows an idealised Horner Plot with the pressure chart showing very simply how
tp and formation pressure pws at varied shut-in times t are picked from the chart and
related to the Horner plot. Usually pws is determined at 5min intervals along the shut-in
pressure curve.
In a multi-phase flow period DST, selecting a value for tp creates some problem
mathematically, however little error is caused by assuming that tp is the time of the flowing
period immediately before the particular shut-in period. With equal flow periods on a
multiple flow period DST, this is usually done. With a very short initial flow period, tp can be
assumed to be the total of the flowing times with very little error.
In figure 3.e, ,the slope m of the straight line is numerically the difference between the tp
t p +t t + t
pressure value at log10 =0 and at log10 p
t =1.0
t
If the points are plotted on semi-log paper, m is the change in pressure over one log cycle.
The ideal plot is where all the points align up in a straight line but is seldom found in
actuality, since after-flow or wellbore storage effects cause deviation from the straight line
in the early region. As a rule of thumb, four points are the fewest to determine a straight
line.
An important issue is the time required to approach steady state or straight line conditions,
depends on reservoir and fluid characteristics, and flow conditions. Experience has
formulated some certain rules of thumb to help determine the shut-in time. One of these is
that generally the shut-in pressure must reach at least 65% of the static pressure.
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Prior to type curve matching methods, no analysis of the plot was possible unless the
straight line was achieved, however, sometimes reasonable estimates of formation
parameters could be made.
Figure 3.E - Idealised Horner Build-Up Plot
Reservoir Parameters Obtained By Build-Up Analysis

Average permeability, k, can be calculated::
162.6qB Eq. 3.C
k=
mh
Parameters, viscosity, , and formation volume, B, can be estimated from available
correlations if the gravity of the crude oil and the gas-oil ratio are determined by
measurement.
Formation thickness, h, must be the net thickness of the productive zone, determined from
electric log analysis. If the net thickness is not available then kh or formation capacity is
determined:
162.6qB Eq. 3.D
kh=
m
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kh
If all the parameters are unknown, transmissibility is determined:
B
kh 162.6q Eq. 3.E
=
B m
Static reservoir pressure, pi, is obtained by extrapolating the Horner straight line to an
infinite shut-in time:
t + t t p + t
At infinite shut-in time, = 1.0.0 , or as shown in figure 3.e, log10 = 0.

t t
st nd
In figure 3.e, both the 1 build-up and 2 build-up plots extrapolate to the same static
pressure lending confidence to the analysis. If the second build-up pressure was lower than
st
the 1 , them depletion may have occurred.
Wellbore damage, is presented by the empirical equation for the dimensionless value, s,
skin factor:
p p k t p Eq. 3.F
s=1.151 i ff log +2.85
m crw
However, this factor cannot be readily applied to specific formations to obtain to show the
potential of the zone would be if there was no damage. This was carried on a stage further
introducing the concept of damage ratio, DR, which compares the flow rate observed, q, to
the theoretical flow rate without damage:
qt
DR=
qa
An another equation, for calculation of DR based on the skin factor relation of Hurst and
van Everdingen, is:
p i p ff Eq. 3.G
DR=
k t p
m log 2.85
cr w
2

where:
pi = Shut-in reservoir pressure, psi
pff = Formation pressure at flow time T, psi (final flowing pressure)
c = Fluid compressibility, vol/vol/psi
= Formation porosity, fraction
= Viscosity of reservoir pressure, cp
rw = Well bore radius, ins
k = Effective permeability, md
tp = Flowing time, mins
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Reservoir And Fluid Anomaly Indications

Many times the Horner build-up equation does not hold up under actual case. If changes
occur within the radius of investigation of the DST, they can be detected by a change in
shape of the slope of the of the line.
If it is seen that the rate of flow q remains constant, then permeability k or fluid viscosity
are likely suspects for change as the wave of increasing pressure travels towards the
wellbore.
Permeability may change due to natural lensing or formation damage but it is doubtful that
formation damage would affect sufficient volume of formation to be detected as a change of
slope on the build-up plot.
Fluid viscosities change by phase change or type of fluid. Seeing a gas-liquid contact from
an up-structure well would be difficult due to the normally short radius of investigation
through a gas column. Alternatively, seeing a gas-liquid contact from a down-structure well
is a much more likely possibility.
A sealing barrier such as a fault or permeability pinchout can cause a change of slope m.
If the barrier is a straight line as A - A in figure 3.f , then the build-up slope will change by a
factor of 2.
In summary, a change in permeability, viscosity, or existence of a barrier, can cause a
change in the slope of the Horner plot, therefore the fact that a change of slope appears on
the build-up plot, leaves open the question of what caused the anomaly. This must be
resolved through other geologic or reservoir information.
Figure 3.F - Effect of a Fault

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The distance to the anomaly, ra, whether it be a barrier, change of permeability, or a fluid
contact, can be calculated:
3,793r 2 a c t + t a Eq. 3.H
E =2.303ln p
t

kt p
a
where:
ra = Distance to anomaly, ft
Tp = Flow time, hrs
ta = Shut-in time at the point of slope change, hrs
-E = Exponential integral value.
Radius Of Investigation
The following equation from Van Poollen may be used to estimate the radius of
investigation of any particular DST in an infinite radial flow system:
kt i Eq. 3.I
ri =
5.7610 c 4
where:
ri = Radius of investigation
tp = Flow time, mins
Needless to point out, the longer the flowing time, the deeper the radius of investigation.
Depletion
As explained previously, if the extrapolated pressure from a second build-up is lower than
the initial pressure of the first build-up, then depletion may be the cause. Obviously, a
reservoir would need to be extremely small for this to occur, however there is plenty of field
examples to prove that it occurs.
Another reason that a recorded initial shut-in pressure may be higher than true shut-in
pressure. This effect is termed supercharged which may be caused by leak off of filtrate
over-pressuring the formation. This effect needs to be diagnosed to confirm supercharging.
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Reservoir Parameters - Gaseous System

When conducting DSTs of gas zones, flow rate is calculated in scf/day or if in large
quantities mscf/d. This involves correcting for deviation of the reservoir gas from the
o
perfect gas law using the gas deviation factor, Z. and the absolute temperature factor, R.
For the Horner build-up plot, the square of the formation pressure, pws, during the build-up is
t p + t
plotted versus as shown in figure 3.g.

t
If the SG of the gas is known, the values of Z and can be found from standard testing
literature.
Figure 3.G - Typical Horner Plot - Gas well
Equations for permeability, estimated wellbore AOFP for a gas zone are:
Permeability:
1637 q g Tf Z Eq. 3.J
k=
mg h
where:
Z = Gas deviation factor
Qg = Rate of flow, mscf/day
o o
Tf = Formation temperature, R = ( F + 460)
mg = Horner build-up slope for gas well
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Wellbore Damage:
2 2 Eq. 3.K
p p
i ff
EDR =
1
m g log t + 2.65
p
Absolute Open Flow Potential
Using the single point back-pressure test method:
AOF=
qg p 2 i( ) n Eq. 3.L
(p 2 2 n
i p i )
where:
n is an exponent varying between 0.5 and 1.0
qg p 2 i Eq. 3.M
If n=1.0Max AOF=
p 2 i p 2 ff
qg p i Eq. 3.N
If n=0.5Max AOF=
p 2 i p 2 ff
Type Curve Methods

There are several type curve methods are available for analysing early time DST data from
pressure transient tests. Although these methods are generally used on longer term
production tests, they can be used on DST analysis to salvage some information from a test
where sufficient data not available to obtain a straight line. Ramey, McKinley and
Earlougher-Kersch methods have applications with McKinley being the easiest to use but
the others perhaps more accurate.
It should be iterated that the Horner should be used whenever possible and type curves
used to in picking correct straight line by indicating when wellbore storage effects have
ended.
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3.4.2. Basics Of DST Operations

In simple terms, a DST is carried out by running test tools in a BHA on a test string in the
hole (Refer to previous Section 3.3). When the string is successfully installed and all
pressure and function testing is completed, a fluid is circulated into the tubing to provide an
underbalance to allow the well to flow after perforating.
The downhole tester valve is opened to flow the well to clean up perforating debris and
invasive fluids from the formation, the tester valve is then closed to allow the formation
fluids to build-up back up to reservoir pressure which is recorded on pressure recorders or
gauges.
1
After a suitable time (usually 1 /2 times the flow period), the tester valve is then reopened to
conduct the planned flow and shut-in periods in accordance to the programme requirements
to obtain other additional data and verification. figure 3.h shows a typical schematic of a
simple single flow operational sequence.
A description of the tools used in DST test strings are outlined in the next section.
Figure 3.H - DST Typical Sequence of Events
3.4.3. Common Test Tools Description

Refer to the Company Well Test Manual.
Bevelled Mule Shoe

If the test is being conducted in a liner the mule shoe makes it easier to enter the liner top.
The bevelled mule shoe also facilities pulling wireline tools back into the test string.
If testing with a permanent packer, the mule shoe allows entry into the packer bore.
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Perforated Joint/Ported Sub

The perforated joint or ported sub allows wellbore fluids to enter the test string if the tubing
conveyed perforating system is used. This item may also be used if wireline retrievable
gauges are run below the packer.
Gauge Case (Bundle Carrier)

The carrier allows pressure and temperature recorders to be run below or above the packer
and sense either annulus or tubing pressures and temperatures.
Pipe Tester Valve

A pipe tester valve is used in conjunction with a tester valve which can be run in the open
position in order to allow the string to self fill as it is installed. The valve usually has a
flapper type closure mechanism which opens to allow fluid bypass but closes when applying
tubing pressure for testing purposes.
The valve is locked open on the first application of annulus pressure which is during the first
cycling of the tester valve.
Retrievable Test Packer

The packer isolates the interval to be tested from the fluid in the annulus. It should be set by
turning to the right and includes a hydraulic hold-down mechanism to prevent the tool from
being pumped up the hole under the influence of differential pressure from below the
packer.
Circulating Valve (Bypass Valve)

This tool is run in conjunction with retrievable packers to allow fluid bypass while running in
and pulling out of hole, hence reducing the risk of excessive pressure surges or swabbing.
It can also be used to equalise differential pressures across packers at the end of the test. It
is automatically closed when sufficient weight is set down on the packer.
This valve should ideally contain a time delay on closing, to prevent pressuring up of the
closed sump below the packer during packer setting. This feature is important when running
tubing conveyed perforating guns which are actuated by pressure. If the valve does not
have a delay on closing, a large incremental pressure, rather than the static bottom-hole
pressure, should be chosen for firing the guns
Safety Joint
Installed above a retrievable packer, it allows the test string above this tool to be recovered
in the event the packer becomes stuck in the hole. It operates by manipulating the string
(usually a combination of reciprocation and rotation) to unscrew and the upper part of the
string retrieved. The DST tools can then be laid out and the upper part of the safety joint run
back in the hole with fishing jar to allow more powerful jarring action.
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Hydraulic Jar
The jar is run to aid in freeing the packer if it becomes stuck. The jar allows an overpull to
be taken on the string which is then suddenly released, delivering an impact to the stuck
tools.
Downhole Tester Valve

The downhole tester valve provides a seal from pressure from above and below. The valve
is operated by pressuring up on the annulus. The downhole test valve allows downhole shut
in of the well so that after-flow effects are minimised, providing better pressure data. It also
has a secondary function as a safety valve.
Single Operation Reversing Sub

Produced fluids may be reversed out of the test string and the well killed using this tool. It is
actuated by applying a pre-set annulus pressure which shears a disc or pins allowing a
mandrel to move and expose the circulating ports. Once the tool has been operated it
cannot be reset, and therefore must only be used at the end of the test.
This reversing sub can also be used in combination with a test valve module if a further
safety valve is required. One example of this is a system where the reversing sub is
combined with two ball valves to make a single shot sampler/safety valve.
Multiple Operation Circulating Valve

This tool enables the circulation of fluids closer to the tester valve whenever necessary as it
can be opened or closed on demand and is generally used to install an underbalance fluid
for brining in the well.
This tool is available in either annulus or tubing pressure operated versions. The tubing
operated versions require several pressure cycles before the valve is shifted into the
circulating position. This enables the tubing to be pressure tested several times while
running in hole. Eni-Agips preference is the annulus operated version.
Drill Collar
3
Drill collars are required to provide a weight to set the packer. Normally two stands of 4 /4
ins drill collars (46.8 lbs/ft) should be sufficient weight on the packer, but should be
regarded as the minimum.
Slip Joint
These allow the tubing string to expand and contract in the longitudinal axis due to changes
in temperature and pressure. They are non-rotating to allow torque for setting packers or
operating the safety joint.
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Crossovers
Crossovers warrant special attention, they are of the utmost importance as they connect
every piece of equipment in the test string which have differing threads. If crossovers have
to be manufactured, they need to be tested and fully certified. In addition, they must be
checked with each mating item of equipment before use.
3.4.4. Tools Utilised With Permanent Packer Systems

A permanent or permanent retrievable packer arrangement is used on a Jack-up or Land
Rig test utilising a production Xmas tree.
Pressure Operated Bypass Valve

This allows the test string to be stabbed into the packer in an un-performed well. The tool
equalises pressure between the sump and the annulus when the tester valve is closed,
preventing the sump from being pressured up due to the volume of the seal assembly
entering the packer. The valve is very similar to the circulating valve (bypass valve) except it
is closed by annulus pressure instead of weight.
If the tester valve can be run in the open position then this valve is not required.
Sub-Surface Safety Valve

A subsurface safety valve is often run for safety being placed at least 100 ft below the mud
line. A control line is run to the valve through a conventional tubing hanger/spool
arrangement. The designs can be like a modified lubricator valve or a completion type
subsurface safety valve. Some versions required by other operators are installed in the
string immediately below a surface test tree in the BOP stack arrangement but this does not
provide safety in the ultimate catastrophic situation when there is a collision by another
vessel.
Tubing Hanger
This will be spaced out to position the packer seal assembly into the packer and land off in
the tubing hanger spool.
3.4.5. Sub-Sea Test Tools Used On Semi-Submersibles

The sub-sea test tree (SSTT) assembly includes a fluted hanger, slick joint, and sub-sea
test tree.
Fluted Hanger
The fluted hanger lands off and sits in the wear bushing of the wellhead and is adjustable to
allow the SSTT assembly to be correctly positioned in the BOP stack so that when the
SSTT is disconnected the shear rams can close above the disconnect point.
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Slick Joint (Polished Joint)

The slick joint (usually 5ins OD) is installed above the fluted hanger and has a smooth
(slick) outside diameter around which the BOP pipe rams can close and sustain annulus
pressure for DST tool operation or, if in an emergency disconnection, contain annulus
pressure. The slick joint should be positioned to allow the two bottom sets of pipe rams to
be closed on it and also allow the blind rams to close above the disconnect point of the
SSTT.
Sub-Sea Test Tree

The SSTT is a fail-safe sea floor master valve which provides two functions; the shut off of
pressure in the test string and; disconnection of the landing string from the test string due to
an emergency situation or for bad weather. The SSTT is constructed in two parts; the valve
assembly consisting of two fail safe closed valves and; a latch assembly. The latch contains
the control ports for the hydraulic actuation of the valves and the latch head.
The control umbilical is connected to the top of the latch which can, under most
circumstances be reconnected, regaining control without killing the well. The valves hold
pressure from below, but open when a differential pressure is applied from above, allowing
safe killing of the well without hydraulic control if unlatched.
Lubricator Valve
The lubricator valve is run one stand of tubing below the surface test tree. This valve
eliminates the need to have a long lubricator to accommodate wireline tools above the
surface test tree swab valve. It also acts as a safety device when, in the event of a gas
escape at surface, it can prevent the full unloading of the contents in the landing string after
closing of the SSTT. The lubricator valve is hydraulic operated through a second umbilical
line and should be either a fail closed or; fail-in-position valve. When closed it will contain
pressure from both above and below
3.4.6. Deep Water Tools

Retainer Valve
The retainer valve is installed immediately above the SSTT on tests in extremely deep
waters to prevent large volumes of well fluids leaking into the sea in the event of a
disconnect. It is hydraulic operated and must be a fail-open or fail-in-position valve. When
closed it will contain pressure from both above and below. It is usually run in conjunction
with a deep water SSTT described below.
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Deep Water SSTT

As exploration moves into deeper and remote Subsea locations, the use of dynamic
positioning vessels require much faster SSTT unlatching than that available with the normal
hydraulic system on an SSTT. The slow actuation is due to hydraulic lag time when
bleeding off the control line against friction and the hydrostatic head of the control fluid. This
is overcome by use of the deepwater SSTT which has an Electro-Hydraulic control system.
The Hydraulic Deep Water Actuator is a fast response controller for the deepwater SSTT
and retainer valve. This system uses hydraulic power from accumulators on the tree
controlled electrically from surface (MUX). The fluid is vented into the annulus or an
atmospheric tank to reduce the lag time and reducing closure time to seconds.
If a programme required deepwater test tools, the tool operating procedures would be
included in the test programme.
3.4.7. Downhole Pressure Recording

The complete sequence of events are recorded by bottom-hole pressure gauges and some
flow data may also be recorded on surface read-out systems.
The gauges record the events from initial running of the test string to well kill and retrieval
procedures although, with the modern type gauges, they may be programmed to sleep
while the string is being installed as it wastes memory. However, with the large memory
electronic gauges on the market today, this is not necessary as they have sufficient memory
to record at fast intervals throughout even long term tests without running out of memory.
The problem then is to dump or ignore data points which are not relevant to data gathering.
Other gauges, termed smart gauges can be programmed to collect data at moderate time
intervals until they detect a quick pressure change, such as opening or shutting in the well,
when they change to very short time intervals where this facility is required.
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3.5. WELL PRODUCTION TEST OBJECTIVES

The main objective of well production varies from simple determination of the amount and
type of fluids produced to sophisticated transient pressure determinations of reservoir
parameters and hetrogenities. In short, well tests are tools which can be used to help
establish the condition of production or injection wells.
Engineers need to make themselves familiar with the various test procedures and know
their advantages and limitations in order for them to fully utilise them to optimise the design
of completions.
Well production tests may be classified as follows:
Periodic
Productivity or Deliverability
Transient Pressure.
Descriptions of some of these tests are described earlier in this section.

Periodic production tests have the purpose of determining the relative quantities of oil, gas
and water produced under normal producing conditions. They serve as an aid in well and
reservoir operation and meeting legal and regulatory requirements.
Productivity or deliverability tests are usually performed on initial completion, or re-
completion, to determine the capability of the well under various degrees of pressure
drawdown. Results may set production allowables, aid in selections of well completion
methods and design of artificial lift systems and production facilities.
Transient pressure tests require a higher degree of sophistication and are used to
determine formation damage or stimulation related to an individual well, or reservoir
parameters such as permeability, pressure, volume and hetrogenities.
3.5.1. Periodic Tests

Production tests are carried out routinely to physically measure oil, gas and water produced
by individual wells under normal producing conditions.
From the well and reservoir viewpoint, they provide periodic physical well conditions where
unexpected changes such as extraneous water or gas production may highlight well or
reservoir problems. Abnormal production declines may also indicate artificial lift problems,
sand build-up, scale build-up in perforations, etc.
On oil wells, results are reported as oil production rate, gas-oil ratio and water oil ratio as a
percentage of water in the total liquid stream. Accuracy in measurement, with careful
recording of the conditions is essential. Choke size, tubing pressures, casing pressure,
details of artificial lift system operation and all other effects on the well producing capability
should be recorded. Potential production problems should be recognised in order that they
can be properly handled such as emulsions, security of power fluid or gas lift gas supply,
etc.
It is important that the well is produced at its normal conditions as flow rate will vary the
relative quantities of oil, gas and water.
On gas wells, routine are less common as each well normally has individual measuring
capability. Gas production is reported as well as condensate and water. Similar to oil wells,
the wells must be produced at the normal rates.
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3.5.2. Productivity Or Deliverability Tests

This test is different from the periodic test in that the liquid flow performance can be
determined empirically using measured flow rates at varying bottom-hole pressure
drawdowns and they do not rely on mathematical descriptions of the flow process. With a
limited number of measurements, they permit prediction of what a well could produce at
other pressure drawdowns. This is then used to predict the PI (Refer to Section 2.4.1) and
are successfully applied to non-Darcy conditions.
They do not permit calculation of formation permeability or the degree of abnormal flow
restrictions (formation damage) near the wellbore. They do, however include the effects of
formation damage, therefore can be used as an indicator of well flow conditions or a basis
for simple comparison of completion effectiveness among wells in a particular reservoir.
Commonly used deliverability tests for oil wells may be classified as:
Productivity Index
Inflow Performance
Flow-After-Flow
Isochronal.
These tests are described in Section 2.4.1 or in Section 3.4.1 above.

Gas well deliverability tests are designed to establish AOFP. Termed multi-point back-
pressure tests, they can be classified as:
Flow-After-Flow
Isochronal.
These tests are described in Section 2.4.1 or in Section 3.4.1 above.
3.5.3. Transient Tests

Radial Flow Characteristics
Flow from reservoirs are characterised as transient, pseudo-steady state or steady state
flow, depending on whether the pressure response initiated by opening the well had
reached the drainage area boundary and on the type of boundary.
Transient flow occurs when the well is initially opened or has a significant rate change, and
is a result of the pressure disturbance moving out towards the outer boundary of the
drainage area. During this the production conditions at the wellbore change rapidly and the
BHPF, pwf, decreases exponentially with time.
Most DSTs and many production tests are conducted under transient flow conditions and
consequently the observed productivity will often appear greater than that seen in long term
production. This means that corrections need to made to compensate for transient flow
behaviour as well as for skin effects.
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When the flow reaches the outer boundary, flow becomes steady state or pseudo- steady
state. If the boundary is a constant pressure boundary, then PR will not alter with time and is
termed steady state. However if it is a no-flow boundary, then PR will decline purely as a
result of depletion and the flow is then termed pseudo-steady state.
When the BHFP appears to be constant or declining slowly proportionally with time, the well
is stabilised and pseudo-steady state flow equations can be used to predict the long term
deliverability of a well.
Transient pressure tests are classified as:
Pressure Build-up
Pressure Drawdown
Multiple Rate
Injectivity or Fall-off
Multiple Well Interference.
Each type presents certain advantages and limitations and factors which are important for
reasonable results.
Transient pressure testing and calculation procedures for oil wells are particularly well
covered in SPE Monograph No. 5 - Advances in Well Test Analysis.
Pressure Build-Up Tests

Pressure build-up tests are described earlier in Section 3.4.1 - DST tests.
Pressure Drawdown Testing

Pressure drawdown tests have advantages over pressure build-up tests, production
continues as the test is being carried out, and an estimate can be made of the reservoir
volume in communication with the wellbore. Therefore, the Reservoir Limit Test can be
used to estimate if there is sufficient hydrocarbons in place to justify additional wells in a
new reservoir.
Multiple Rate Testing

Pressure build-up or drawdown tests require a constant flow rate which is sometimes
difficult to achieve over a long period of time. Multiple rate analysis can be applied to
several flow situations, e.g. uncontrolled variable rates, a series of constant rates or
constant bottom-hole pressure with continually changing flow rate.
Multiple rate tests have the advantage of providing transient test data without the need for
well shut-in. They minimise wellbore storage effects and phase segregation effects so
provide good results where build-up or drawdown tests would not.
Accurate flow rate and pressure measurement is essential and more critical than on build-
up or drawdown tests. The rate changes must be significant enough to effect the transient
pressure behaviour. The analysis procedure is direct and simple but computations are more
troublesome and are often conducted by computer software.
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Injection Well Tests

Injection well transient testing is basically simple provide the mobility of the injected fluids is
similar to the in-situ fluids. The injectivity parallels the drawdown test and a pressure fall-off
test parallels the build-up test. Calculation of reservoir characteristics is similar.
A stepped rate injectivity test can be carried out to estimate fracture pressure in an injection
well which is useful in tertiary flood applications to avoid accidental injection of expensive
fluid into uncontrolled fractures.
Interference Tests (multiple well testing)

In interference testing, a long duration rate change in one well creates a pressure change in
an observation well that is related to reservoir characteristics. A pulse test is an interference
test that provides data by changing production rate in a cyclic manner to produce short term
pressure pulses which are measured in the observation well(s). The responses may be very
small, therefore, accurate pressure monitoring devices are required.
Using computers the data can be analysed to give a description of the variation in reservoir
properties according to location. Vertical pulse testing may indicate vertical formation
continuity. Orientation and length of vertical fractures may be estimated through pulse
testing and reservoir simulation techniques.
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4. DRILLING CONSIDERATIONS
These are primarily the responsibility of drilling engineering, however the production
department provide the design parameters to the drilling engineers.
4.1. CASING DESIGN

Refer to the Drilling Design and Casing Design Manuals for all casing design policies and
criteria. These manuals provide the policies and design procedures for both exploration and
development wells.
4.1.1. Casing Profile

The surface and intermediate casings are designed to provide well control and borehole
stability during the drilling operation. The production casing is the string, or combination of
strings, through which the well will be completed and controlled throughout its life. The
production casing and its cement isolates the producing intervals to facilitate reservoir
control, anchor the completion equipment and act as a safety barrier to the uncontrolled
emission of hydrocarbons.
The production casing is usually:
A full string of pipe cemented at TD.
A drilled through casing and liner.
In highly productive wells, e.g. offshore, the production casing size may be swedged to
accommodate larger tubing and completion equipment (i.e. TRSSVs with control line) near
surface or a hot string of isolated pipe. This larger tubing reduces friction losses.
The size of the production casing is primarily dictated to accommodate the optimum size of
completion tubing and equipment, and/or artificial lift systems. However, as is obvious in
deep high pressure wells, there is a limit to the size of production casing which can be
provided. In low rate and deep land wells, production casing sizes are typically 7ins or
1 3 5
5 /2ins. In high rate and offshore wells, 10 /4ins, 9 /8ins and 7ins are the common sizes
(Refer to the Casing Design Manual).
The decision whether to run a liner or not primarily lies with the drilling engineer however
the impact of the completion needs to thoroughly considered. If there were a choice, the
completions engineer would always prefer the largest casing possible to provide the
flexibility in well interventions, workovers and re-completions with artificial lift, etc. However
today, the popularity of the mono-bore completion, where a large size tubing mates to a
similar size liner utilising a PBR or similar type system, it is a completion design parameter.
This is a design which provides the greatest flexibility to live well intervention operations as
the completion is full bore allowing regular tools to be run and used in the sump area
eliminating the use of through-tubing devices. This gives live well interventions much more
scope to conduct stimulation, plugging back, straddle packing-off gassed out zones, etc.
which may have required a workover in previous times.
figure 4.a shows these various casing profile options.
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Figure 4.A - Casing Schemes and Terminology
4.1.2. Casing Specifications

Design criteria and casing specifications are fully described in the Casing Design Manual.
Specifically with regard to metallurgy, it is Eni-Agips policy to use standard service
production casing where there is a casing tubing annulus as the tubing is designed for the
well environment and isolates the production casing. However, production casing or liner
below the production packer or liner hanger PBR system, will have similar specification to
the tubing in order to combat corrosion from produced fluids. The crossover between the
two different materials must be selected in order that there is no localised erosion.
Casing exposed to H2S will have a specification in accordance to NACE MR01-75. Casing
above the packer is exposed to the completion or packer fluid which must be chemically
dosed to prevent any corrosion although, in general, only a biocide and possibly corrosion
inhibitor needs to be added.
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4.1.3. Casing Connections

Where an annulus is to be used as a production conduit for gas production, injection or gas
lift supply, a premium thread connection should be used to reduce the risk of leakage
especially if the pressure is above circa 1,250psi. This is due to the poor performance of the
API Buttress Thread.
Some operators specify premium connections if the wellhead pressure is to be above
5,000psi.
The main problem in casing design of producing wells over exploration wells is the
increased temperature. Usually production casing is held in tension but this may not be
adequate enough in high temperature and thermal wells to prevent buckling. An overpull is
often required especially if the casing is not cemented into the previous shoe.
4.2. WELL DEVIATION SURVEYS

A well directional survey must be carried out to ensure the tolerances for well deviation and
doglegs have not been exceeded as the installation of the completion is sensitive to angle
and getting fairly large diameter tubing through casing doglegs as well as placing extreme
bending loads on the tubing. Refer to the Directional Control and Surveying Procedures
Manual and the Casing Design Manual.
Any anomalies found in the deviation survey needs to be communicated to the completion
engineer to ensure that all potential problems are analysed and will not impede the
completion of the well.
Although the drilling of highly deviated and horizontal wells is now commonplace it should
o
be noted that in wells above 70 deviation, there are problems with logging, cementing,
gravel packing and the completion process as wireline cannot be used above this limit.
Completion tools or equipment operated by different methods must be adopted.
To help overcome these problems, many operators drill S shaped profiles with drop off
through the pay zone for critical wells, however this does not satisfy all situations.
The method of drilling horizontal wells also needs to be considered by the drilling engineer
as the turning radius will be dependant upon the completion method employed. For
instance, the turning radius for an open hole or liner may be short but a long radius is
required for gravel packing or installation of pre-packed screens.
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4.3. CASING CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS

The primary function of the cement around the production casing is to isolate individual
formations to provide selectivity, prevent movement of formation fluids along the well path
for reservoir control, and to isolate higher weaker formations from well pressures. The
cement also acts to support and protect the casing from buckling, eccentric loading,
excessive movement due to pressure or temperature and external corrosion.
4.3.1. Production Casing Cementing

The minimum cement column height requirements will depend upon local regulations,
operating conditions, temperatures, formation properties, fluid properties and pressures.
The cement column should extend well past (circa 500m) above the highest pay zone but
also cover aquifers or any other potential producing zones. A minimum lap of 100m is
normal.
Many operators prefer to cement up inside the previous casing shoe to provide even greater
support and protection, however this is not possible in high rate offshore wells where
temperature increase in the casing/tubing annulus on the trapped fluids causes pressure
which cannot be bled off at surface, therefore is allowed to bleed off at the casing shoe.
Thermal wells are normally cemented to surface to avoid this problem.
A cement job which does not successfully flush out the drilling fluid in front of the cement
and, if there is poor bonding between the outside of the pipe and the cement, and bonding
between the cement and the formation, channelling and micro-annuli may be formed which
are paths through which the formation fluids can flow. This problem can be alleviated by
thorough planning, using a good fluids programme and adopting good operating
procedures.
The main problems associated with primary cementing are:
Channelling of the cement and bypassing of mud due to pipe eccentricity and
poor fluid rheology.
Failure to cement washouts.
Poor formation bonding due to lack of mud cake removal.
Poor cement procedure leading to gas entry or cross flow.

o
Cement strength loss due to high temperatures (<230 F) when using normal
Portland cement.
Cement dehydration opposite high temperature zones.
Dissolution of evaporites by the cement.
In general, the list of recommendations given below will help improve the success of zonal
isolation:
Drill the hole within gauge.
Condition the mud correctly.
Use a 500ft low viscosity spacer with surfactant if required.
Use a thin slurry at the front end.
Use cement with an API high temperature/high pressure fluid loss of less than
3 3
200cm /30 min for high permeability oil wells and 50cm /30min for gas wells.
Use the highest practical displacement velocities.
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Design the programme so as the cement has a minimum contact time of 4 mins
at all points where zonal isolation is needed.
The cement column should extend 1,200ft above the top of the pay zone.
Pipe reciprocation should be used or otherwise rotation.
Centralise the casing in the pay zone.
Ensure quality control of the cement formulation is strict.
Use batch mixing whenever possible.
4.3.2. Production Casing Cement Evaluation

To ensure that the cement programme has been successfully isolated the formation/casing,
formation/liner or casing/liner annulus, the quality of the cement should be evaluated. This
is carried out by running a cement bond log (CBL-VDL) which is an acoustic device that
looks for channelling. However, the tool averages the condition around the circumference of
the casing and sometimes fails to detect small channels.
A more recent tool is the Schlumberger CET, which uses eight helically mounted sensors to
scan the cement and provides a measurement of the compressive strength which should in
theory give a better detection.
Generally there is ambivalence shown towards the results of cement bond evaluation logs
and unless they show extremely poor conditions, they tend to be ignored especially as
repair of cement jobs is very difficult to conduct successfully.
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5. WELL COMPLETION DESIGN
The aim of this section is now to develop the structure of the completion based on the work
carried out according to the previous sections. This means that the SOR must be
established, the conceptual designs have been developed and the optimum well
performance determined.
The completion structure and procedures, that satisfy the above, now need to be
developed. However this cannot be carried out in isolation as well servicing and workover
philosophies as well as the completion installation process need to be considered.
To enable this process, it is necessary to describe the basic architectural components of a
completion, particularly:
Reservoir and wellbore interface.
Casing and tubing interface.
Tubing and wellhead interface.
Refer to figure 5.a

The solutions adopted will vary according on the well objectives, environment, location,
artificial lift method (if applicable), anticipated well problems and cost. Although the tools are
available to provide the most complex completions to solve severe production or
mechanical problems and meet the specific objectives, it should never be forgotten that, in
principle, completions should be kept as simple in design as possible to minimise the
installation risks and costs.
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Figure 5.A - Completion Design Interface Classification Options

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5.1. FACTORS INFLUENCING COMPLETION DESIGN

5.1.1. Reservoir Considerations
Production Zone Isolation
Consideration of reservoir management and regulatory requirements will determine the
zonal isolation in thick pay zones (<30m) or multiple-zone completions. Special attention
must be given to layers with great in permeability variations to determine differential
depletion.
With zones of have significant different inflow performance characteristics, then it may be
more economic to segregate production. This can be achieved by drilling a well into each
zone which is extremely costly, or as more likely, by using a multiple-string completion.
Wells with gas cap or water drive reservoirs which need to be produced at controlled rates
may also be candidates for a multiple completion. The downside of using multiple
completions is there complexity, cost and installation.
Distance From Fluid Contacts

The distance of producing interval from fluid contacts may influence the offtake rate and the
perforating policy. It is obviously economically attractive to perforate high permeable
sections close to fluid contacts, however for the short term gain there may be increased
penalties later with increased gas or water production which may need to be plugged off by
a well intervention.
These aspects need to be considered as does perforating the lower sections in downdip
wells in flank and bottom water drive reservoirs. The effects of partial peforating need to be
considered on the well IPR.
Secondary Targets
Potential secondary or re-completion targets need to be identified and included in the SOR
because if they are not considered, they may be inadvertently isolated behind a liner lap or
shoe track. They should be treated as a normal pay zone which will be left unperforated.
Minimum Zone Separation

The main cementing service companies are able to provide information on the minimum
separation by good cement between zones for effective hydraulic under differential
depletion conditions. A guideline chart for recommended isolation depth is shown in Fig
figure 5.b below. If fracture stimulation is planned the separation distance is approximately
three times greater.
The effect of bridge plug setting and completion equipment lengths on zonal isolation must
be considered as they may demand longer separation intervals, e.g. between production
packers, etc.
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Figure 5.B - Guideline for Length of Cemented Interval Required for Zonal Isolation
Interval Length
The interval length should be determined by reservoir requirements as perforating lengths
can be adjusted to suit. Casing guns standard perforating lengths are 5, 10 and 15ft and
through tubing guns 20, 30 and 40ft, however one (or more sections) can be partially
loaded.
Wireline guns are run and fired sequentially therefore only the first perforations can be
carried out with a static underbalance. To create an underbalance for other runs, the well
needs to flowed which carries a risk of the guns being blown up the hole. The use of tubing
conveyed means that great lengths can be installed and fired simultaneously, and
underbalanced if desired, although deploying and retrieving these long lengths may impact
on safety and needs use of a safe deployment method. This is particularly useful on
perforated horizontal wells.
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5.1.2. Mechanical Considerations

The main mechanical influence on completion design is the casing profile and deviation
discussed previously in sections 4.1 and 4.2.
It is essential that sufficient clearance is available to allow the completion to fit comfortably
inside the casing profile. With completions large tubing sizes, this may mean running of a
tapered casing string to accommodate the TRSV and control line. To this end it is important
to carry out the procedures to prepare the well by cleaning it and displacing to clean
completion fluids and checking the internal drift.
Entry into liner laps in high angles are also problematic, especially when running the
completion from a moving floater so consideration needs to be given to the procedure or by
using an automatic mule shoe.
The type of production packer selected is dependent upon its application and installation
method due to hole angle, whether it is single trip, etc.
5.1.3. Safety Considerations

Safety of the personnel and well site installation are paramount in completion design and
the completion procedures.
Whenever possible and economical, perforated completions should be used over open hole
for well control as the casing, once it is tested, is a mechanical barrier which is safer for
BOP removal. Modern compact or high performance wellheads are preferred over the
traditional spool systems as the completion may be installed with out BOP removal (Refer to
the Drilling Design Manual).
Downhole packers in the completion string which anchor the tubing are barriers used to
protect the annulus from well pressures and corrosion from well fluids although
operationally they also isolate gas lift gas or pump power fluids from formation pressures in
gas lift and pump completions. Refer to section 8.1 for the Eni-Agip Company policy on the
use of packers.
Downhole safety valves are installed as per the En-Agip company policy given in section
8.2.1.
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5.2. RESERVOIR-WELLBORE INTERFACE

There are three reservoir-wellbore interface options which can be further classified into
seven major alternatives in completion architecture (Refer to figure 5.a):
Open hole completions
Uncemented liner completions.
- Slotted pipe
- Wire wrapped screens
- Open hole gravel packs
Perforated completions.
- Standard perforated
- Fracture Stimulation
- Cased hole gravel packs
5.2.1. Open Hole Completions

Their use is predominately in thick carbonate or hard sandstone reservoirs that produce
from fracture systems or thin permeable streaks which are difficult to identify on logs and
are easily damaged by drilling and cementing operations. They maximise the fracture
intersections and inflow potential due to the large surface area if drilling and completion
damage is avoided. However they provide little or no selectivity in reservoir management to
reduce unwanted water or gas production. An open hole completions can subsequently be
converted to a liner completion to overcome the selectivity problem.
Often referred to as a barefoot completions, the method of completion entails drilling down
to a depth just above the producing formation and setting the production casing. A hole is
now drilled through the formation exposing it to the wellbore. The well is now completed
with no casing set across the formation (Refer to figure 5.c).
The decision process depends on four key issues:
Is there a risk of causing damage to well productivity with a cased and
perforated completion ?
Is zonal selectivity required ?
Is fracture stimulation required ?
Is there any potential sand production ?
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Figure 5.C - Open Hole and Uncemented Liner Interface Options
5.2.2. Uncemented Liner Completions

Uncemented liners are used to overcome production problems associated with open hole
completions and to extend their application to other types of formations. The formation is
supported by a either a slotted liner, sand screen or is gravel packed (Refer to figure 5.c).
Although they have some advantages over open hole, they still have the same selectivity
and undesired fluid problems.
The selection process depends on four key issues is the same as for open hole
completions:
Is there a risk of causing damage to well productivity with a cased and
perforated completion ?
Is zonal selectivity required ?
Is fracture stimulation required ?
Is there any potential sand production ?
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If a slotted liner or plain screen is to be used, a designer must also consider:

Whether to use the more expensive and finer wire wrapped screen or slotted
pipe.
Slot width requirement which is dependent on the sand size and stability, fluid
viscosity and control objectives. A slot width that would retain the coarsest 10%
of the sand is common practice in heavy oil wells with coarser slots for light oil
wells, and finer slots or pre-packed screens for filtering and for uniform sized
sands.
Clearance required for washover (1 - 1.5ins on OD) and whether centralisers
should be expandable, or millable, solid type.
The location of the packer and packer tailpipe.
Is gravel packing more suitable alternative ?
For open hole gravel packs, the following additional issues need to be considered:
Loss circulation control during under-reaming and tripping, and how the LCM
can be subsequently removed before gravel packing.
The stability of the hole during under-reaming and the limitations this may
impose on hole angle and screen length.
Gravel pack design with regard to grain size, length of blank pipe, volumes,
reserve volume, etc.
Type of gravel packer and will it double as the production packer ?
Slotted Liner
This type of completion entails a liner with flow slots machined throughout its length
installed below the production casing. The slot widths can range between 0.254 - 1.016mm.
A slotted liner is used where there is a risk of wellbore instability to maintain a bore through
the formation which otherwise might collapse and plug off all production. It also helps in
liquid lift due to the smaller flow area.
Wire Wrapped Screen

A plain wire wrapped screen is used either as a simple filter to strain out small amounts of
intermittently produced sand from a relatively stable formation or as a sand retention screen
where high permeability, coarse sands would readily flow onto the screen forming a rubble
zone.
External Gravel pack

An open hole gravel pack is used where the sands are too fine or abrasive for a plain
screen. The open hole is under-reamed to remove drilling damage and to create a larger
annulus for the filter sized gravel to pack against the formation wall. When properly
installed, it is the most effective sand control measure for weak sandstones and
unconsolidated rocks, however carries more risk than a cased hole gravel pack.
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5.2.3. Perforated Completions

This type of completions are the most common world-wide due to the selectivity, flexibility,
lower costs, increased safety and convenience that they provide. There are three
subdivisions, standard, fracture stimulation and cased hole gravel pack (Refer to figure 5.d).
The key issues in cased hole completion design are:
Perforated interval selection, gun type, shot density, underbalance or
overbalance, and perforating method, i.e. casing guns, through tubing guns or
TCP.
Completion fluids programme selection with regard to fluid quality and formation
damage.
Type of formation and if special perforating techniques are required, e.g. high
shot density, ultra deep penetration or stimulation treatments.
Effective zonal isolation due to cement quality and distance between zones.
Standard Perforated Casing Completions

These are used when the rock is reasonably stable and permeable. Deep penetrating
perforating charges are generally used especially in hard rock, with the shot density
dependent upon the vertical permeability and layer frequency, the deliverability
requirements and method of perforating.
The deep penetrating charges are desired to perforate through the damage zone cause by
the drilling or completing process. Perforating underbalance may also improved perforation
clean-up.
Fracture Stimulation
Fracture stimulation is used to increase the effective sandface area and to provide a high
permeability flow path to the wellbore increasing the IPR from low permeability rocks
(<25md).
The risk in fracture stimulation is that the fractures will more than likely not be contained
within the pay zone and the casing cementing programme completion equipment rating, etc.
would need to be designed with the additional loading of the stimulation operation.
Cased Hole Gravel Pack

Cased hole gravel pack completions are used to control sand production in perforated
completions. Unlike the open hole gravel pack, the cased hole gravel is placed between the
cased hole and the sand screen, ideally, with the gravel forced into the perforations holding
the formation sand in place.
Since the gravel has an finite permeability, a large flow area must be achieved by using big
hole charges with the maximum shot density (dependent on gun size).
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Figure 5.D - Perforated Casing Interface Options
5.2.4. Multi-Zone Completions

There are four main methods of completing multi-zone wells (Refer to figure 5.e):
Commingled production
- allowing all zones to produce together.
Sequential zonal production
- through live well intervention methods
- by re-completion.
Single string multi-zone segregated production
- by initial (or eventual) commingling
- by sequential (or alternating) production.
Multi-string (dual) multi-zone segregated production
- using parallel strings
- using concentric strings.
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Commingled Production
Commingled production is only allowable is limited instances where there are no reservoir
management problems and regulatory rules allow.
Sequential Zonal Production

Due to its simplicity and ease of installation, completion designers prefer to use single
string/single zone completion methods for mutli-zone situations. This preference is subject,
however, to economics, reservoir management and regulatory requirements. In this method,
the zones are depleted from the bottom upwards and temporarily suspended or abandoned
sequentially and then the next higher zone completed.
If zones are close together, the initial completion can be installed to allow plugging and
perforating of each zone by well intervention methods, however there is a trade off in that
flow efficiency of the deeper zones and depth access for artificial lift and well killing will be
compromised. An option is to conduct a workover pulling the tubing and re-completing by
moving the packer depth upwards.
Single String Multi-Zone Production

These provide easy methods of bring on other fresh zones when the first zone experiences
production problems. They may also be used for reservoir management, by allowing
commingling or individual section production at different stages in the wells life in order to
maximise the full potential of the reservoir. Downhole chokes or regulators can be installed
to control flow from each zone when commingling to prevent cross-flow, reduce excessive
gas, etc.
Dual String Multi-Zone Production

Dual string multi-zone completions are often used offshore or on stacked reservoirs where
the production rate is per zone is limited by inflow performance and the previous methods
described above would be uneconomic. They can often double an individual wells
productivity for a reasonably low cost increment.
Either parallel strings or concentric strings can be used. Concentric strings may yield higher
flow capability but obviously no downhole safety valve can be installed in the outer tubing.
Some operators use the casing tubing annulus as another flow conduit but this is subject to
individual operator philosophy and regulatory rules dictating.
If artificial lift is required parallel strings would normally be needed.
Triple strings and indeed quadruple string have been used in the past, but generally they
are not economic as they are too restrictive of well capacity.
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Figure 5.E - Multi-Zone Completions

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5.3. CASING-TUBING INTERFACE

There are three main casing-tubing interface options which have six sub-divisions (Refer to
figure 5.f):
Packerless completions
- Anchored
- Unanchored
- Tubingless.
Packer Completions
- Shallow set
- Deep set.
PBR Completions
- Liner hanger.
Packers and PBRs are required to provide a seal between the tubing and production casing
or liner for the following reasons:
To isolate the casing-tubing annulus from well fluids and pressure acting as a
barrier on the annulus side.
To prevent heading in the annulus improving flow conditions.
Prevent annulus corrosion from well fluids.
To allow the annulus to be used for supplying artificial lift fluids or injection of
inhibitors.
To allow the annulus to be used for production (if permitted).
To isolate liner laps or casing leaks.
To anchor the tubing if no tubing movement is desired.
To facilitate well operations through having wireline nipples in a tailpipe, e.g. well
plugging, BHP gauge positioning, etc.
To protect formations from damage from well intervention or workover fluids by
plugging in the tailpipe.
Some onshore low pressure wells are completed without a packer or liner PBR as the risk of
damage to the wellhead, hence the risk of injury to personnel and pollution of the
environment, is low. This has both advantages and disadvantages. There is one barrier less
on the annulus side and the casing may be exposed to corrosive well fluids and the well
pressure even if it is low and some operators do not allow this practice. On the other hand,
on pump completions it is useful for venting off gas. It is essential for plunger lift
completions which uses annulus gas as its energy source for unloading liquids.
Tubingless completions, i.e. wells which use a small diameter casing or a tubing as the
production casing, offers serious well control problems as there is no downhole safety at all.
These are used on low rate, low pressure wells but are not allowed by most operating
companies.
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Anchored tubing completions are used on rod pumpers to keep the tubing in tension so that
the reciprocation of the rods does not cause buckling on the upstroke and stretch on the
downstroke unless the well is shallow and annulus clearance is small.
Packer completions are the most popular due to their flexibility in the options in which they
are available and their ability to be installed in an exact position at any desired depth
compared to the liner PBR. The liner PBR completion offers a larger through bore than a
packer option and, therefore are used in high rate wells and mono-bore completions where
full bore access is gained to he formation.
The liner PBR interface should not be confused with the packer PBR system which
although is exactly the same in basic design, is used for packer-tubing sealing and catering
for tubing movement.
Figure 5.F - Casing-Tubing Interfaces

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5.3.1. Packer Applications

Packer application with regard to completion design is addressed in this section as there
are some basic features which affect the completion architecture.
Although there are many varieties of packers available, there are three basic types used in
completion designs:
Permanent
Retrievable
Permanent Retrievable.
Eni-Agip do not have any particular policy to the type of packer system to be used in a
particular situation due to the wide range of packers available and changing technology but
do operate a packer qualification system to ensure that any packer used meets with specific
criteria. The packer qualification system is specified in STAP-M-1-M-5010.
Retrievable Packer Systems

The definition of a retrievable packer is that it is installed and retrieved on the completion
tubing. They have advantages in that they can be installed in high angle wells although their
operating differential pressure rating, temperature rating and bore size are less than
equivalent permanent packers. It is important that designers fully consider the effects of
pressure and tubing stresses on these packer systems and associated packer-tubing
connections. Their packing element systems are also more sensitive to well fluids as they
are more complex due to their ability to be retrieved but after redressing they can be re-
used.
Retrievable packers tend to be used for the following applications:
Completions which have relative short life span.
Where there is likely to be workovers requiring full bore access.
Multi-zone completions for zonal segregation.
In relatively mild well conditions.
Retrievable packer setting mechanisms are by:

Tubing tension
Tubing compression
Hydraulic pressure
Tubing rotation.
Tension or compression set packers are very sensitive to tubing movement and are rarely
used nowadays owing to the benefits and variety of other retrievable packers available.
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Permanent Packer Systems

The definition of a permanent packer is that it is retrieved from the well by milling.
Permanent packers have high differential pressure and temperature ratings and larger
bores. They have many options of both tailpipe and packer-tubing attachments to cater for
a large range of applications such as:
Severe or hostile operating conditions with differential pressures > 5,000psi and
o
temperatures in excess of 300 F and high stresses.
Long life completions.
Where workovers are expected to be above the packer, hence not requiring its
removal which is costly.
Where workovers are expected to be above the packer and the packer tailpipe
can be used for plugging the well and isolating foreign fluids from the formation.
Providing large bore for high rate wells.
Permanent packer setting mechanisms are by:

Wireline explosive charge setting tool.
Tubing tension.
Hydraulic pressure by workstring setting tool or on the completion string.
Tubing rotation.
Permanent Retrievable Packer Systems

Permanent retrievable packers are a hybrid of the permanent style packer designed to be
retrieved on a workstring without milling. They offer similar performances as permanent
packers but generally have smaller bores.
All the packers above can be equipped with tailpipes to accommodate wireline downhole
tools such as plugs, standing valves, BHP gauges, etc.
5.3.2. Packer-Tubing Interfaces

Tubing can be interfaced with packers through three basic options:
Fixed
By threaded connection to the packer mandrel as with retrievable packers.
Snap latch requiring an overpull to release
By an anchor latch system to a permanent packer.
Free moving
Seal unit in a packer bore.
Seal unit in a PBR attached to the packer.
Travel joint.
ELTSR.
Limited movement
Seal unit set down in a packer bore allowing upward movement only.
Closed PBR or ELTSR.
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Free movement or partial movement options are used when tubing movement must be
catered for otherwise it may be over-stressed due to tubing forces found through the stress
analysis (Refer to section 7). However, sometimes they suffer from premature seal failure
due to being dynamic seals and if the material type has not been correctly selected for the
environment and pressure differentials. To help prevent seal failure, seal units can be shear
pinned in a mid open or closed position to prevent seal movement until the stresses in the
tubing reach a predetermined level.
The selected packer-tubing interface has a significant effect on the completion architecture
especially with regard to installation procedure, well kill method, stimulation treatment and
type of hanger system.
The most popular packer systems are those which have one trip installation saving extra
trips by workstring or wireline to install the packer before running the completion tubing.
5.3.3. Annulus Circulation

Communication between the tubing and annulus on packer type completions is consider to
be beneficial to efficient well killing, maintaining a fluid barrier in the annulus, circulating kill
fluid before workovers or circulating in underbalance fluids well kick off. This is the same
reasons for installing kill strings in packerless completions.
Circulating devices, typically sliding sleeves or sliding side doors (SSDs) installed above the
top packers, are used for this purpose but they have traditionally been a weak link in design
when seals material was not suited to the well conditions. This would require a workover to
replace the sleeve so other devices such as SPMs are used as the seals can be recovered
and replaced by wireline methods. Some operators recommend that no circulation device
be used which limits the flexibility of the completion and requires a tubing punch to be used
for circulation before workovers.
If a circulating device is undesired but the option is to kill the well by circulation rather than
bullheading, a single shot shear kill valve can be installed which is operated by annulus
pressure.
Annulus circulation is used for:
Displace completion fluids and Kick-Off wells.

Isolation/opening of producing intervals in single selective or dual selective
completions.
Well killing in tight formations where bullheading might be difficult.
Installation of hydraulic pumps
The SSD type circulating valves are normally equipped with a landing nipple
profile in the upper sub to allow installation of a straddle to stop leaks or for
normal wireline nipple uses.
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5.4. TUBING-WELLHEAD INTERFACE

The wellhead carries the casing and completion loads which is transferred to the ground
through the surface casing. It also isolates the top of the tubing-casing annulus, mates and
seals with the Xmas tree and provides annulus access to all the annuli. It consists of an
assembly made up of casing head spools, tubing hanger/spool and Xmas tree. The casing
head and tubing hanger spools are now commonly replaced by compact or unitised
wellheads (Refer to the Drilling Design Manual) to reduce height and improve safety as
there are less BOP removals for spool installations.
Wellhead specifications are laid out in API Specification 6A and are rated by:
Maximum working pressure according to the maximum anticipated surface
pressure.
Temperature operating range.
Temperature Classification Operating Range, oF

K -75 to 180
L -60 to 180
M -40 to 180
P -20 to 180
S 0 to 150
T 0 to 180
U 0 to 250
PSL O -20 to 250
Table 5.A - API Temperature Classifications
o
Above 250 F the working pressure is de-rated against temperature (down to
o
72% of rating at 650 F.
Retained fluid rating (Refer to section 6).
Product specification level PSL (Refer to API spec 6A).
5.4.1. Tubing Hanger Systems

There are five common types of tubing hanger systems available:
Slip and seal assemblies.
Mandrel compression hangers.
Ram type tension hangers.
Downhole tubing hangers (e.g. annular safety system).
Direct attachment to the Xmas tree (threaded).
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The main consideration in hanger selection is whether the tubing is to be placed in

compression or tension and/or the number of tubings, flow or supply. Other considerations
are DHSV control lines, downhole chemical injection lines, downhole electronic gauge
cables and ESP cables which are terminated by stab seals, extended necks or annular ring
seals. On subsea wells vertical annular access is usually required for well plugging which
requires mandrel type hangers with orientation to the guide base and, hence subsea tree.
Dual hanger systems also need to be orientated to mate with the dual Xmas tree.
Depending on the well location, i.e. subsea, platform or land, well plugging for tree removal
needs to be considered and that is usually satisfied by having a locking profile in the hanger
bores, either wireline nipple profile or a back pressure thread for land wells.
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Figure 5.G - API Recommended Minimum PSL for Wellhead Equipment

Typical outlines for on-shore, off-shore single and dual completion class -A and class -B
(STAP -M-1-SS-5701E)
AGIP CASING HEAD SPOOL CASING HEAD SPOOL TUBING SPOOL TUBING HANGER
CASING HEAD
CODE
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Ref.nr Top Max. Btm (CSG) Ref. nr Btm Max. Top Max. Ref. Btm Max. Top Max. Ref. Btm Max. Top Max. Ref. Diam Max. Diam
flange W.P. (in) Flange W.P. flange W.P. nr flange W.P. flange W.P. nr Flange W.P. flange W.P. nr (in) W.P. tbg
(in) (psi) (in) (psi) (in) (psi) (in) (psi) (in) (psi) (in) (psi) (in) (psi) (psi) (in)
Agip Division
MSCL 1 1.3 13 5/8 5000 13 3/8 & 9 5/8 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.1 13 5/8 5000 9 5000 6.1 9 5000 2 7/8
ARPO
MSCL 2 1.3 13 5/8 5000 13 3/8 & 9 5/8 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.1 13 5/8 5000 9 5000 6.2 9 5000 3 1/2
MSCL 3 1.3 13 5/8 5000 13 3/8 & 9 5/8 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.1 13 5/8 5000 9 5000 6.3 9 5000 5
DCSFSL 1 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.1 13 5/8 5000 9 5000 6.6 9 5000 2 x 2 3/8
DCSFSL 2 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.2 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 10000 5.2 13 5/8 10000 9 10000 6.8 9 10000 2 x 2 3/8
DCSFSL 3 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.3 13 5/8 5000 11 5000 6.5 11 5000 2 x 3 1/2
SCSO 1 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.4 13 5/8 5000 7 1/16 5000 6.4 7 1/16 5000 3 1/2
DCSO 1 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.1 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 5000 5.4 13 5/8 5000 7 1/16 5000 6.9 7 1/16 5000 2 x 2 3/8
DCSO 2 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.2 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 10000 5.5 13 5/8 10000 7 1/16 10000 6.7 7 1/16 10000 2 x 2 3/8
STAP-P-1-M-7100
DCSO3 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.4 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 5000 2.2 13 5/8 5000 13 5/8 10000 5.2 13 5/8 10000 9 10000 6.8 9 10000 2 x 2 3/8
IDENTIFICATION CODE
(*) 1.2 21 1/4 5000 20 & 18 5/8 2.5 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 10000 2.3 13 5/8 10000 13 5/8 10000
3 CASING HEAD SPOOL
1.1 26 3/4 3000 24 1/2 2.6 26 3/4 3000 21 1/4 5000 2.5 21 1/4 5000 13 5/8 10000 2.3 13 5/8 10000 13 5/8 10000
0
(*) Typical wellhead configuration for deep wells (po Valley)
Table 5.B- Eni-Agip Standard Wellhead Equipment Chart

PAGE
REVISION
112 OF 295
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20"
13 3/8"
9 5/8"
7"
WP (psi) 3K (A) 3K (B) 5K (C) 5K (D) 10K (E) 10K (F) 15K (G) 15K (H)
Section 1 470 470 470 470 470 510 510 -
Section 2 620 620 625 690 690 850 850 510
Section 3 472 472 472 670 660 700 700 850
Section 4 - - - 581 700 700 750 700
Section 5 - - - - - -- 750
Figure 5.H - Typical Wellhead
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Figure 5.I - Typical Unitised Wellhead and Xmas Tree

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5.4.2. Xmas Trees

The type of Xmas tree and construction are important as they have an effect on safety and
cost. The important pointers for the design engineer are:
Conventional composite flanged connection trees with a single master valve are
the norm for land and low to moderate offshore wells.
In very high pressure wells (i.e. 15,000psi) Eni-Agip normally installs an
additional gate valve between the tubing spool and the Xmas tree to provide
double barrier protection.
A second master valve is normally required to enable repair to any of the other
tree valves with two barriers in situ (the lower master valve and the tubing
hanger plug). Today it is normal to have to justify only a single master valve as
the upper master is usually an ESD hydraulically operated valve which is at risk
of undue wear and tear.
Trees for sour service or high pressure will normally have two outlets, production
and kill wing sides. The kill wing is often permanently connected up to the kill
line to a permanent pump or to allow quick and easy connection of a portable
pump.
A swab valve is an essential element to enable safe rig up of vertical well
interventions by wireline, coiled tubing or snubbing services or for the BPV rod
lubricator.
The production wing, which is often a remote hydraulic operated valve, choke
and flowline arrangement must be configured to meet with how the well is
closed-in and opened up. Pressure losses of the offtake system must be
considered in the well deliverability analysis (Refer to Section 2.4.3).
Chemical injection points are usually available at the tree or through the hanger
system for downhole.
If the tree upper master valve and production wings are fully automated, the
control system should be designed to close the wing valve first a few seconds
before the upper master to avoid erosion or damage over a period of time to the
upper master gate and seats as they are more difficult to repair.
A typical Xmas tree is shown in figure 5.i.
5.4.3. Metal-To-Metal Seals

The purpose of metal-to-metal seals is to provide enhanced sealing where it is required in
particular applications.
Policy
Metal-to-metal seals shall be used in the applications outlined in the following sections.
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Application
The following criteria is applicable to the various conditions listed in the following tables:
a) Between producing strings/casing/tubing hanger and tubing hanger seal flange.
b) Between tubing hanger and tubing spool.
c) On production casing or production liner.
d) On control line connections.
These designations A, B, C and D will be used in the tables in the tables below.
Oil And Gas Producers

These tables apply equally to onshore and offshore wells.
Sweet Service Wells (with top hole temperature less than 100C)
9 = YES 8 = NO
Sealing WP, psi A B C D
5,000 9 8 8 9
10,000 9 9 8 9
>10,000 9 9 8 9
Sweet Service Wells (with top hole temperature exceeding 100C)

5,000 9 9 8 9
10,000 9 9 8 9
>10,000 9 9 9 9
H2S Service Wells

5,000 9 8 8 9
10,000 9 9 8 9
Gas Injectors

5,000 9 8 8 9
10,000 9 9 8 9
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Water Injectors

5,000 9 8 8 9
10,000 9 9 8 9
Artificial Lift Wells (both onshore and offshore wells)

5,000 9 8(1) 8 9
10,000 9 9 8 9
(1) If H2S is present it will be a YES.
5.5. FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

Built into the conceptual stage, a design life for the completion will have been established.
During this process future well servicing and maintenance will also have been planned. This
will have included identification of the potential reasons for well interventions or workover
servicing. This will have an impact of the completion architecture and establish a
philosophy.
The well location and type of development has a large impact on the techniques available
and cost of well servicing and maintenance optimising the completion design around the
potential problems and remedial techniques is a balancing act between effectiveness and
cost.
As an example of this is horizontal completions selected to maximise initial well productivity,
where the stand-off from the water or gas zones increases the risk of producing early
unwanted fluids. In this case to the stand-off can be increased but there is a penalty in
lower initial production rates.
Another example is on offshore subsea fields, due to the high cost of subsea well re-entrys,
well servicing should be minimised as they require a floating vessel from which to deploy
the re-entry system. This means well life should be planned for the life of the field or as long
as feasible (typically 7-10 years) although some unplanned problems may occur.
Alternately, on an easily accessible land wells where servicing and workover methods are
relatively much less costly, servicing can be conducted almost on demand. This may lend to
the selection of a wireline retrievable type safety valve rather than a tubing retrievable type
as in the event of failure, the valve can be replaced cheaply without requiring a workover.
Well servicing or workover techniques also have an impact on the well area with regard to
height and lateral space, and may be problematic on platforms where space, height and
weight are at a premium.
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5.5.1. Stimulation
If future stimulation operations are required such as fracturing, the effects of the pressures
causing additional stresses on the tubing and packer need to be input and catered for in the
tubing design process (Refer to Section 7). If the costs of upgrading the well tubulars to
resist these stresses are prohibitive, e.g. the surface pressure would demand a higher
pressure rated Xmas tree than required for production only, then straddles are sometimes
utilised to keep pressure off the SCSSV and Xmas tree. It could also increase the tubing
movement and alter the choice of tubing movement device and spacing out.
If acid stimulations are planned, the effects on the completion materials needs to be
considered or alternatively to use coiled tubing for spotting of the acid before pumping to
the formation.
5.5.2. Formation Management

As the fluid interfaces move through time and unwanted fluids are produced, or as
producing zones become depleted and require isolating before brining on other zones,
cement squeezes and reperforating techniques are required. Also, producing zones are
sometimes damaged by scale build up or movement of fines, etc. and need reperforating.
If the well has been planned for these operations then the completion may have been
designed to accomplish these operations without pulling of the tubing in a workover
operation.
A single string sequential completion may be employed where existing perforations can be
isolated simply by installation of a bridge plug on wireline but often the perforations require
to be squeezed off with cement (Refer to Section 5.2.4). This can be conducted by coiled
tubing or snubbing services without killing the well. The next production zone can then be
perforated using through tubing perforating techniques (Refer to Section 9).
If a multi-zone single string selective completion design has been installed then producing
zones can be closed off or opened up by wireline techniques and hence, are more flexible
but have higher initial capital cost.
Excessive water or gas production due to fingering which requires continuing production
from lower zones can be isolated by cement squeezing or if using a monobore type
completion by installing a straddle across the interval on wireline or coiled tubing methods.
If multi-zone multi-string completions are installed then the individual zones can simply be
closed off by shutting in the well at surface or, if there are more than one zone to a string,
by opening and closing isolation sleeves.
Where this problem has not been planned into the completion design a complete workover
to re-complete may be required.
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5.5.3. Well Servicing Techniques

Well servicing includes live well intervention services or major workovers to pull the tubing.
Live well interventions can be conducted by:
Wireline (electric line or slickline).
Coiled Tubing.
Snubbing.
Pumps.
Snubbing cannot be deployed from any floating installation.

A specialist subsea wireline technique has been developed for subsea well interventions
without using the riser re-entry system which is much quicker and less costly.
Workovers can be conducted by:
Workovers rigs
Drilling rigs
Hydraulic workover units.
Hydraulic workover cannot be deployed from any floating installation.
Slickline
Is probably the most widely used well servicing method and is used for:
Mechanical well clean out (tubing and sump)
Installation and retrieval of flow controls (plugs, chokes, standing valves, gas lift
valves, etc.)
Tubing control (drifting)
Calipering
Swabbing
BHP pressure and temperature monitoring
Electronic memory logging
Opening and closing of circulation devices
Perforating
Fishing.
Braided Line
Braided line is used for:
Heavy duty wireline work (installing large heavy flow controls).
Fishing (when slickline has been unsuccessful, fishing electric line).
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Electric Line
Electric line is used for:
Logging (PLT, etc.
Calipering
Real time BHP surveys
Perforating
Packer setting
Installing bridge plugs.
Coiled Tubing
Coiled tubing (C/T) is used for:
Stimulation (acidising)
Cementing
Cleaning out tubing and sump
Gas lifting
Logging (stiff wireline)
Installing flow controls (wireline type tools)
Milling
Drilling (underbalance side tracking, multi-laterals)
Fishing (generally when wireline has been unsuccessful).
Snubbing
Snubbing is used for:
Stimulation (acidising)
Cementing
Cleaning out tubing and sump
Gas lifting
Installing flow controls (wireline type tools)
Milling
Drilling (underbalance side tracking, multi-laterals).
Snubbing has found a revival with platform horizontal wells where it is used to work in long
horizontal sections where C/T may not be capable.
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5.6. OPTIMISING TUBING SIZE

The optimum tubing size is selected to obtain the desired offtake rates at the lowest capital
and operating costs. This usually means at the maximum initial flow rate and maintaining it
as long as possible, however, depending on the inflow capability (Refer to Section 2.4), it
may be possible to accelerate offtake by the early installation of artificial lift.
Whatever the case, the selection process inevitably involves analysis of the gross fluid
deliverability and flow stability under changing reservoir conditions to confirm that the
production forecast can be met and to determine when artificial lift or compression is
required.
A fixed flow rate, as tubing size increases, fluid velocities decrease and reduces the
frictional effects. The net result should be higher production rates only if the IPR/TPC
intercept remains to the right of the TPC minimum. If the PI was infinite, one increase in API
tubing size would double the maximum theoretical capacity.
1
The example well #1 in figure 5.j shows that the 4 /2 tubing size should be selected to
ensure the offtake exceeds the target of 8,000 to 9,000stb/d and perhaps even larger
tubing could be investigated. However, at low rates, the reduced fluid velocities experienced
in larger tubing increase the hydrostatic head because of slippage. This shifts the TPC
minimum to a higher rate and, therefore widening the flat uncertain portion around the
minimum. If the IPR curve intersects the TPCs in the region near the minimum, the optimum
tubing size will be a compromise maximising flow rate and having steady producing
1
conditions. For example, using the IPR for well 2, the maximum flow rate is obtained with /2
7
tubing but only a slight reduction in flow rate is seen if the 2 /8 tubing is selected which
gives steadier and regular flow.
It is generally recommended to select a tubing size such that the flowing pressure, Pwf, is
greater than 1.05 of pressure minimum, pmin to ensure stability.
As previously mentioned, the changing conditions over the life of the well must be
considered when selecting tubing size. These changes are normally declining reservoir
pressure and increasing water cut which will reduce flow rates. This trend is downwards
towards cessation of flow and ,obviously the tubing selected for the start of production will
not be the optimum size after some period of time. The choice at that time will be to reduce
wellhead pressure, replace the tubing with a smaller size or to implement artificial lift which
will have associated costs.
The optimum size of tubing is clearly the size which will be most cost effective over a
number of years, typically 5-8 years. Where high costs workovers are involved such as on
subsea wells, the selection may be for an even longer period of time, incurring early loss of
potential production.
The following sub-sections describes the various factors and there effect on TPC.
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Figure 5.J - Example Tubing Sizes on Well Deliverability
Figure 5.K- Effect of Reservoir Pressure on TPC

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5.6.1. Reservoir Pressure

As reservoir pressure declines over time, it collapses towards the origin, as illustrated in
figure 5.k, leading to decreasing natural flow rates. Unstable flow conditions and eventually
cessation will occur unless some other change in the system is made.
In reservoirs where significant reductions in reservoir pressure are anticipated, the effect on
productivity must be considered during the completion design stage to find the most cost
effective method of maximising productivity, e.g. where workover costs are high to complete
with smaller size tubing to ensure stability through the economic life of the well.
5.6.2. Flowing Wellhead Pressure

Any flowing wellhead pressure is actually back-pressure transmitted downhole to the
bottom-hole flowing pressure, therefore reducing the potential drawdown. Also high
wellhead pressures reduces the amount of free gas and compresses the remaining free
gas, both which increase hydrostatic head. All of these reduce the natural flow rate of the
well.
The larger tubing sizes are more sensitive to changes in flowing wellhead pressure as the
density factor dominates more than in smaller tubing. Again this means that smaller tuning
may need to be selected instead of the ideal larger tubing to cater for anticipated changes
in wellhead pressure.
Changes in wellhead pressure can be attributed to slugging in the flowline, wells being
produced or closed in which use the same flowline, facility malfunctions, build-up of wax,
etc.
This clearly shows how important the assumed wellhead pressure accuracy is in the well
deliverability forecast and economics.
5.6.3. Gas-Liquid Ratio

Increasing gas-liquid ratios cause a decrease in hydrostatic head and increase in frictional
pressure drop which in the early stages may actually result in increased flow rates.
However, above a critical point there will be a net increase in the overall pressure drop,
hence flow rates. In these circumstances the frictional effects near surface become very
dominant and can be alleviated by the use of a tapered tubing string.
figure 5.l shows the effect of increasing GLR.
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Figure 5.L - Effect of Increasing GLR
5.6.4. Artificial Lift

The intention of installing artificial lift is to reduce the hydrostatic head and, therefore,
bottom-hole pressure. This effectively shifts the TPC downwards bringing the intersection
point further towards stable flowing conditions. An example of rates which can be obtained
by different artificial lift methods is illustrated in figure 5.m.
Refer to section 10 for the applications and comparisons of the various methods of artificial
lift.
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Figure 5.M - Examples of Artificial Lift Performance

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6. CORROSION
A production well design should attempt to contain produced corrosive fluids within tubing.
They should not be produced through the casing/tubing annulus.
However, it is accepted that tubing leaks and pressured annuli are a fact of life and as such,
production casing strings are considered to be subject to corrosive environments when
designing casing for a well where hydrogen sulphide (H2S) or carbon dioxide (CO2) laden
reservoir fluids can be expected.
During the drilling phase, if there is any likelihood of a sour corrosive influx occurring,
consideration should be given to setting a sour service casing string before drilling into the
reservoir.
The BOP stack and wellhead components must also be suitable for sour service.
6.1. DEVELOPMENT WELLS

Casing corrosion considerations for development wells can be confined to the production
casing only.
Internal corrosion
The well should be designed to contain any corrosive fluids (produced or injected)
within the tubing string by using premium connections.
Any part of the production casing that is likely to be exposed to the corrosive
environment, during routine completion/workover operations or in the event of a tubing
or wellhead leak, should be designed to withstand such an environment.
External corrosion
Where the likelihood of external corrosion due to electrochemical activity is high and the
consequences of such corrosion are serious, the production casing should be cathodically
protected (either cathodically or by selecting a casing grade suitable for the expected
corrosion environment).
6.2. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CORROSION

Most corrosion problems which occur in oilfield production operations are due to the
presence of water. Whether it may be present in large amounts or in extremely small
quantities, it is necessary to the corrosion process. In the presence of water, corrosion is an
electrolytic process where electrical current flows during the corrosion process. To have a
flow of current, there must be a generating or voltage source in a completed electrical
circuit.
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The existence, if any, of the following conditions alone, or in any combination may be a
contributing factor to the initiation and perpetuation of corrosion:
Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen dissolved in water drastically increases its corrosivity potential. It can cause
severe corrosion at very low concentrations of less than 1.0ppm.
The solubility of oxygen in water is a function of pressure, temperature and chloride
content. Oxygen is less soluble in salt water than in fresh water.
Oxygen usually causes pitting in steels.
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Hydrogen sulphide is very soluble in water and when dissolved behaves as a weak
acid and usually causes pitting. Attack due to the presence of dissolved hydrogen
sulphide is referred to as sour corrosion.
The combination of H2S and CO2 is more aggressive than H2S alone and is frequently
found in oilfield environments.
Other serious problems which may result from H2S corrosion are hydrogen blistering
and sulphide stress cracking.
It should be pointed out that H2S also can be generated by introduced micro-
organisms.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid, decreases the pH of
the water and increase its corrosivity. It is not as corrosive as oxygen, but usually also
results in pitting.
The important factors governing the solubility of carbon dioxide are pressure,
temperature and composition of the water. Pressure increases the solubility to lower
the pH, temperature decreases the solubility to raise the pH.
Corrosion primarily caused by dissolved carbon dioxide is commonly called sweet
corrosion.
Using the partial pressure of carbon dioxide as a yardstick to predict corrosion, the
following relationships have been found:
Partial pressure >30psi usually indicates high corrosion risk.
Partial pressure 3-30psi may indicates high corrosion risk.
Partial pressure <3psi generally is considered non corrosive.
Temperature
Like most chemical reactions, corrosion rates generally increase with increasing
temperature.
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Pressure
Pressure affects the rates of chemical reactions and corrosion reactions are no
exception.
In oilfield systems, the primary importance of pressure is its effect on dissolved gases.
More gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased this may in turn increase the
corrosivity of the solution.
Velocity of fluids within the environment

Stagnant or low velocity fluids usually give low corrosion rates, but pitting is more
likely. Corrosion rates usually increase with velocity as the corrosion scale is removed
from the casing exposing fresh metal for further corrosion.
High velocities and/or the presence of suspended solids or gas bubbles can lead to
erosion, corrosion, impingement or cavitation.
6.3. FORMS OF CORROSION

The following forms of corrosion are addressed in this manual:
Corrosion caused by H2S (SSC)
-
Corrosion caused by CO2 and Cl
Corrosion caused by combinations of H2S, CO2 and Cl-
Corrosion in injection wells and the effects of pH and souring are not included.
The procedure adopted to evaluate the corrosivity of the produced fluid and the
methodology used to calculate the partial pressures of H2S and CO2 will be illustrated in the
following sub-sections.
6.3.1. Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC)

The SSC phenomenon is occurs usually at temperatures of below 80C and with the
presence of stress in the material. The H2S comes into contact with H2O which is an
+
essential element in this form of corrosion by freeing the H ion. Higher temperatures, e.g.
above 80C inhibit the SSC phenomenon, therefore knowledge of temperature gradients is
very useful in the choice of the tubular materials since differing materials can be chosen for
various depths.
Evaluation of the SSC problem depends on the type of well being investigated. In gas wells,
gas saturation with water will produce condensate water and therefore create the conditions
for SSC. In oil wells, two separate cases need to be considered, vertical and deviated wells:
a) In vertical oil wells, generally corrosion occurs only when the water cut becomes
higher than 15% which is the threshold or commonly defined as the critical
level and it is necessary to analyse the water cut profile throughout the
producing life of the well.
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b) In highly deviated wells (i.e. deviations >80 ), the risk of corrosion by H2S is
higher since the water, even if in very small quantities, deposits on the surface
of the tubulars and so the problem can be likened to the gas well case where
the critical threshold for the water cut drops to 1% (WC <1%).
The following formulae are used to calculate the value of pH2S (partial pressure of H2S) in
both the cases of gas (or condensate gas) wells or oil wells.
Firstly, the potential for SSC occurring is evaluated by studying the water cut values
combined with the type of well and deviation profile. If the conditions specified above are
verified then the pH2S can be calculated.
Gas Or Condensate Gas Well

H2S partial pressure is calculated by:
pH2S = SBHP x Y(H2S)/100 Eq. 6.A
where:
SBHP = Static bottom-hole pressure [atm]
Y(H2S) = Mole fraction of H2S
pH2S = Partial H2S pressure [atm]
SSC is triggered at pH2S >0.0035 atm and SBHP >4.5 atm.
Oil Bearing Well

The problem of SSC exists when there is wetting water; i.e.:
Water cut >15% for vertical wells
o
Water cut >1% for horizontal or highly deviated wells (>80 )
3 3
or if the GOR >800 Nm /m
The pH2S calculation is different for undersaturated and oversaturated oil.
Undersaturated Oil
In an oil in which the gas remains dissolved, because the wellhead and bottom-hole
pressures are higher than the bubble point pressure (Pb) at reservoir temperature, is termed
undersaturated.
In this case the pH2S is calculated in two ways:
Basic method.
Material balance method.
If the quantity of H2S in gas at the bubble point pressure [mole fraction = Y(H2S)], is not
known or the values obtained are not reliable, the pH2S is calculated using both methods
and the higher of the two results is taken as the a reliable value. Otherwise the basic
method is used.
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Basic Method
This method is used, without comparison with the other method, when the H2S value in the
separated gas at bubble point conditions is known and is reliable or if Y(H2S), molar fraction
in the separated gas at bubble point pressure (Pb) is higher than 2%.
The pH2S is calculated by:
pH2S = Pb x Y(H2S)/100 Eq. 6.B
where:
Pb = Bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature [atm]
Y(H2S) = Mole fraction in the separated gas at bubble point (from PVT data if
extrapolated)
Material Balance Method

This method is used when data from production testing is available and/or when the
quantity of H2S is very small (<2,000ppm) and the water cut value from is lower than 5%
(this method cannot be used when the WC values are higher). The value of H2S in ppm to
be used in the calculation must also be from stable flowing conditions. Note: H2S sampled
in short production tests, is generally lower than the actual value under stabilised
conditions.
The following algorithm is used to calculate the pH2S:
Step 1
pH2S is calculated at the separator (pH2Ssep):
pH2Ssep = (Psep x H2Ssep)/106 Eq. 6.C
where:
Psep = Absolute mean pressure at which the separator works (from tests) in
atm
H2Ssep = Mean H2S value in the separator gas (generally measured in ppm)
The mean molecular weight of the produced oil, PM :
1000 Eq. 6.D

PM =
(d 29 )
GOR
1000 +
23.6 GOR

PM giac 23.6
where:
n
PM =
mean molecular weight of the reservoir oil = Ci Mi / 100
i =l
Ci = Mole % of the ith component of the reservoir oil
Mi = Molecular weight of the ith component of the reservoir oil
d = Density of the gas at separator conditions referred to air =1
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The quantity of H2S in moles/litre dissolved in the separator oil is calculated:
[H2S]oil = (pH2Ssep/H1 x ( x 1000)/ PM ) Eq. 6.E
where:
H1 = Henry constant of the produced oil at separator temperature (atm/Mole
fraction). (See Procedure for calculating Henry constant)
PM = Mean molecular weight of the produced oil
= Specific weight g/l of the produced oil
The quantity of H2S in the gas in equilibrium is calculated (per litre of oil):
6
[H2S]gas = (GOR/23.6 x H2Ssep/10 ) Eq. 6.F
where:
3 3
GOR = Gas oil ratio Nm /m (from production tests)
23.6 = Conversion factor
The pH2S is calculated at reservoir conditions:

pH2S = (([H2S]oil + [H2S]gas)/K ) x H2 Eq. 6.G
where:
K = ( x 1000/ PM + GOR/23.6) total number of moles of the liquid phase in
the reservoir
H2 = Henry constant for the reservoir temperature and reservoir oil (see
procedure for calculating Henry constant)
In general, H2S corrosion can occur at either the wellhead or bottom-hole without distinction.
There is SSC potential if pH2S >0.0035 atm and STHP >18.63 atm.
Procedure For Calculating Henry Constant

The value of the Henry constant is a function of the temperature measured at the separator.
The mapping method can be applied for temperatures at the separator of between 20C
and 200C. Given the diagram in figure 6.a which represents the functions H(t) for the three
types of oils:
Heptane PM =100
N-propyl benzene PM = 120
Methylnaphthalene PM =142
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Remarks On The H1 Calculation

Having calculated the molecular weight of the produced oil PM using the formula in eq. 6.d,
the reference curve is chosen (given by points) to calculate the Henry constant on the basis
of the following value thresholds:
If PM > 142, the H(t) curve of methylnaphthalene is used.
If PM > 120, the H(t) curve of propyl benzene is used.
If PM > 100, the H(t) curve of heptane is used.
If 100 < PM < 120, the mean value is calculated using the H(t) curve of propyl
benzene and the H(t) curve of methylnaphthalene.
If 120 < PM < 142 the mean value is calculated using the H(t) curve of heptane
and the H(t) curve of propyl benzene.
Given FTHT, wellhead flowing temperature, the H1 value is interpolated linearly
on the chosen curve(s). For this purpose the temperature values immediately
before and after the temperature studied are taken into consideration.
Comments On The H2 Calculation

Having calculated the molecular weight of the reservoir oil PM res, using temperature
measured at the separator, H2 is measured in a similar way as H1.
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130 Henry
atm/Y[H2S]
120
110
100
90
methylnaphthalene PM = 142
80 N-propylbenzene PM = 120
heptane PM = 100
70
60
50
40
30
20
T C
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Figure 6.A - H(t) Reference Curves
Oversaturated Oil
Oil is considered oversaturated when the gas in the fluid separates because the pressure of
the system is lower than the bubble point pressure. Two situations can arise:
Case A
FTHP < Pb
FBHP > Pb
Case B
FTHP < Pb
FBHP < Pb
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Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case A:

1) Calculation is of the partial pressure in the reservoir:
In this case pH2S is calculated in the way described for undersaturated oil.
2) Calculation is of the partial pressure at the wellhead, i.e. when FTHP <Pb:
The data result from the production conditions and only the basic method is used.
Basic Method
pH2S = STHP x Y(H2S)/100
where:
STHP = Static tubing head pressure [atm]
Y(H2S) = Mole fraction in separated gas at STHP pressure and wellhead
temperature
The SSC phenomenon is triggered off at the wellhead if pH2S >0.0035 atm and STHP
>18.63 atm.
Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case B:

Calculation of partial pressure in the reservoir:
In the reservoir the gas is already separated, FBHP <Pb, calculation of pH2S can be
approximated on the basis of the following:
The PVTs are reliable, Y(H2S) >0.2%, the partial pressure is calculated as:
pH2S = Y(H2S) x FBHP 1
where:
Y(H2S) = Molar fraction in gas separated at FBHP and at reservoir
temperature (from PVT)
The PVTs are not reliable, the material balance method can be used as in the
case of undersaturated oil; these are the worst conditions. The error made can
be high when Pb > FBHP.
Calculation Of Partial Pressure At Wellhead

The calculation method is that used for case A (FTHP <Pb) 2
1 If the percentage (ppm) of H2S in the gas under static conditions is not known, the corresponding
value in reservoir conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
2 If the percentage (ppm) of H S in the separated gas under static conditions is not known, the
2
corresponding value in reservoir conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
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6.3.2. Corrosion Caused By CO2 And Cl-

In the presence of water, CO2 gives rise to a corrosion form which is different to those
caused by the presence of H2S. It also occurs only if the partial pressure of CO2 exceeds a
particular threshold. As in the case of SSC, the possibility that corrosions exist in water cut
values combined with the type of well and deviation profile is evaluated. If the conditions
described in section 6.3.1 exist, then the pCO2 is then calculated.
Gas Or Condensate Gas Wells

The partial pressure is calculated:
pCO2 = SBHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
SBHP = Static bottom-hole pressure [atm]
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction of CO2
pCO2 = Partial pressure of CO2 [atm]
Corrosion occurs if pCO2 >0.2 atm.
Oil Bearing Wells

The problem exists where there is wetting water; i.e.:
Water cut >15% for vertical wells.
Water cut >1% for horizontal or highly deviated wells (> 80 degrees).
Undersaturated Oil Wells

The partial pressure of CO2 is calculated:
pCO2 = Pb x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Pb = Bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction of CO2 in separated gas at bubble point pressure (from
the PVTs)
The pCO2 values calculated in this way are used to evaluate the corrosion at bottom hole
and wellhead; i.e. pCO2 at wellhead is assumed as corresponding to reservoir conditions.
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Oversaturated Oil
The oil is considered oversaturated when the gas separates in the fluid because the
pressure of the system is lower than bubble point pressure. Two situations may arise:
Case A
FTHP <Pb
FBHP >Pb
Case B
FTHP <Pb
FBHP <Pb
Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case A:

Calculation of pCO2 in reservoir conditions:
FBHP >Pb pCO2 is calculated in the same way as undersaturated oil wells earlier in this
section.
pCO2 = Pb x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Pb = Bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction in separated gas at bubble point pressure (from the PVTs)
Calculation Of pCO2 At Wellhead:

pCO2 = STHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction in separated gas at STHP3
STHP = Static tubing head pressure [atm]
3If the percentage (ppm) of CO2 in the gas under static conditions is not known, the corresponding
value in reservoir conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead
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Calculation Of Partial Pressure In Case B:

Calculation of pCO2 at reservoir conditions:
pCO2 = FBHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction in separated gas at pressure FBHP (from the PVTs)
Calculation Of pCO2 At Wellhead:

The calculation method is the same as the one used in the wellhead conditions in case A:
pCO2 = STHP x Y(CO2)/100
where:
Y(CO2) = Mole fraction in separated gas at STHP4
There is corrosion if pCO2 >0.2 atm.
6.3.3. Corrosion Caused By H2S, CO2 And Cl-

-
It is possible to encounter H2S and CO2 besides Cl . In this case the problem is much more
complex and the choice of suitable material is more delicate. The phenomenon is
diagnosed by calculating the partial pressures of H2S and CO2 and comparing them with the
respective thresholds.
4If the percentage (ppm) of CO2 in the gas under flowing/static conditions is not known, the
corresponding value in reservoir conditions is assumed as being partial pressure at the wellhead.
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6.4. CORROSION CONTROL MEASURES

Corrosion control measures may involve the use of one or more of the following:
Cathodic protection
Chemical inhibition
Chemical control
Oxygen scavengers
Chemical sulphide scavengers
pH adjustment
Deposit control
Coatings
Non metallic materials or metallurgical
Control
Stress reduction
Elimination of sharp bends
Elimination of shock loads and vibration
Improved handling procedures
Corrosion allowances in design
Improved welding procedures
Organisation of repair operations.
Refer to table 6.a below.
Measure Means
Control of the environment pH
Temperature
Pressure
Chloride concentration
CO2 concentration

2
H S concentration

2
H O concentration
Flow rate
Inhibitors
Surface treatment Plastic coating
Plating
Improvement of the corrosion resistivity of the Addition of the alloying elements micro
steel structure
Table 6.A - Counter Measures to Prevent Corrosion
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6.5. CORROSION INHIBITORS

An inhibitor is a substance which retards or slows down a chemical reaction. Thus, a
corrosion inhibitor is a substance which, when added to an environment, decreases the rate
of attack by the environmental on a metal.
Corrosion inhibitors are commonly added in small amounts to acids, cooling waters, steam
or other environments, either continuously or intermittently to prevent serious corrosion.
There are many techniques used to apply corrosion inhibitors in oil and gas wells:
Batch treatment (tubing displacement, standard batch, extended batch)
Continuous treatment
Squeeze treatment
Atomised inhibitor squeeze - weighted liquids
Capsules
Sticks.
6.6. CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS

Stainless steel is usually used in applications for production tubing, however it is
occasionally used for production casing or tubing below the packer depth.
The main reason for the development of stainless steel is its resistance to corrosion. To be
classed as a stainless steel, an iron alloy usually must contain at least 12% chromium in
volume. The corrosion resistance of stainless steels is due to the ability of the chromium to
passivate the surface of the alloy.
Stainless steels may be divided into four distinct classes on the basis of their chemical
content, metallurgical structure and mechanical properties these are:
6.6.1. Martensitic Stainless Steels

The martensitic stainless steels contain chromium as their principal alloying element. The
most common types contain around 12% chromium, although some chromium content may
be as high as 18%.
The carbon content ranges from 0.08% to 1.10% and other elements such as nickel,
columbium, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, and sulphur are added in small amounts for
other properties in some grades.
The most important characteristic that distinguishes these steels from other grades is their
response to heat treatment. The martensitic stainless steels are hardened by the same heat
treatment procedures used to harden carbon and alloy steels.
The martensitic stainless steels are included in the 400 series of stainless steels. The most
commonly used of the martensitic stainless steels is AISI Type 410. The only grade of
oilfield tubular used in this category is 13Cr. As their name indicates, the microstructure of
these steels is martensitic. Stainless steels are strongly magnetic whatever the heat
treatment condition.
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6.6.2. Ferritic Stainless Steels

The second class of stainless steels, is the ferritic stainless steels, which are similar to the
martensitic stainless steels in that they have chromium as the principal alloying element.
The chromium contents of ferritic stainless steels is normally higher than that of the
martensitic, stainless steel, and the carbon content is generally lower.
The chromium content ranges between 13% to 27% but are not able to be hardened by
heat treatment. They are used principally for their temperature properties.
Ferritic stainless steels are also part of the 400 series, the principal types being 405, 430,
and 436.
The microstructure of the ferritic stainless steels consists of ferrite, which are also strongly
magnetic. Ferrite is simply body cantered cubic iron or an alloy based on this structure.
6.6.3. Austenitic Stainless Steels

The austenitic stainless steels have two principal alloying elements, chromium and nickel.
Their micro-structure consists essentially of austenite which is face cantered cubic iron or
an iron alloy based on this structure.
They contain a minimum of 18% chromium and 8% nickel, with other elements added for
particular reasons, and may range up to as high as 25% chromium and 20% nickel.
Austenitic stainless steels generally have the highest corrosion resistance of any of the
stainless steels, but their strength is lower than martensitic and ferritic stainless steels. They
are not able to be hardened by heat treatment although they are hardenable to some extent
by cold working and are generally non-magnetic.
Austenitic stainless steels are grouped in the 300 series, the most common being 304.
Others commonly used are 303 free machining, 316 high Cr and Ni which may include Mo,
and 347 stabilised for welding and corrosion resistance.
These steels are widely used in the oilfield for fittings and control lines, but due to its low
strength is not used for well tubulars.
6.6.4. Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels

The most recent development in stainless steel is a general class known as precipitation
hardened stainless steels, which contain various amounts of chromium and nickel.
They combine the high strength of the martensitic stainless steels with the good corrosion
resistance properties of the austenitic stainless steels.
Most were developed as proprietary alloys, and there is a wide variety of compositions
available.
The distinguishing characteristic of the precipitation hardened stainless steel is that through
specific heat treatments at relatively low temperatures, the steels can be hardened to
varying strength levels.
Most can be formed and machined before the final heat treatment and the finished product
being hardened. Precipitation in alloys is analogous to precipitation as rain or snow.
These are most commonly used for component parts in downhole and surface tools and not
as oilfield tubulars. Refer to figure 6.b for the various compositions of stainless steels.
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Figure 6.B- Stainless Steel Compositions

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6.6.5. Duplex Stainless Steel

In general, ferritic-austenitic (duplex) stainless steel consists of between 40-70% ferrite and
has a typical composition of 22% Cr-5.5% Ni-3% Mo-0.14% N.
The resulting steel has properties that are normally found in both phases: the ferrite
promotes increased yield strength and resistance to chloride and hydrogen sulphide
corrosion cracking; while the austenite phase improves workability and weldability.
This material is used extensively for tubulars used in severe CO2 and H2S conditions.
As a general note, there is a large gap between the 13Cr and Duplex Stainless Steels used
as tubulars for their good anti-corrosion properties. This gap is attempted to be filled with
Super 13Cr tubing being developed.
6.7. COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE

6.7.1. CO2 Corrosion
In producing wells, the presence of CO2 may lead to corrosion on those parts coming in
contact with CO2 which normally means the production tubing and part of the production
casing below the packer.
Corrosion may be limited by:
The selection of high alloy chromium steels, resistant to corrosion.
Inhibitor injection, if using carbon steel casing. Generally, wells producing CO2
partial pressure higher than 20psi requires inhibition to limit corrosion.
6.7.2. H2S Corrosion

In wells, where there is H2S, consideration should be given to limit casing and
wellhead yield strength according to API 5CT and NACE standard MR-01-75.
Casing and tubing material will be selected according to the amount of H2S and other
corrosive media present.
Refer to figure 6.c and figure 6.d for partial pressure limits.
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Figure 6.C - Sour Gas Systems
Figure 6.D - Sour Multiphase Systems

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6.8. MATERIAL SELECTION

The choice of material is based on the application of engineering diagrams supplied by
manufacturers of tubing and, hence the use of the modified SMI has been adopted, refer to
figure 6.e and figure 6.f. The choice of materials proposed is conservatively as recent
develop materials such as 13%Cr and Super Duplex class have not been considered
because experiments on these materials are not completed.
In the partial pressures of H2S and CO2 are below the critical thresholds established in the
previous section, all materials in class C-steel/L-A-steel can be used, otherwise the
following combinations of conditions may exist:
Solely H2S in oil wells
Solely H2S in gas or gas condensate wells

-
Solely CO2 and Cl
Both H2S and CO2.
The tables regarding the choice of materials are shown below. These give the rules used by
Eni-Agip sectioned on the basis of the conditions as listed above and the use in the well.
Materials are sub-divided into three categories, OCTG, DHE materials and wellhead
materials.
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6.8.1. OCTG Specifications

Refer to table 6.b below.
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By H2S Only In Oil Wells
Conditions Material Alternately
o
0.0035< pH2S max < 0.1 FBHT >80 C J55, K55, N80, C95, P110 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
o o
0.0035< pH2S max < 0.1 60 C< FBHT >80 C J55, K55, N80 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
o
0.0035< pH2S max < 0.1 FBHT >80 C L80 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
pH2S max < 0.1 L80 Mod, C90-1, T95-1
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By H2S Only In Gas Wells
o
0.0035< pH2S max < 0.1 FBHT >80 C J55, K55, N80-2, C95 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
o
0.0035< pH2S max < 0.1 FBHT <80 C L80 L80-Mod, C90-1, T95-1
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By CO2 And Cl*
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100 FBHT <150 C Cl* <50,000 13% Cr
o o
0.2< pCO2S max <100 150 C< FBHT <200 C 22% Cr
o o
0.2< pCO2S max <100 200 C< FBHT <250 C 25% Cr-SA 25% Cr
OCTG Materials For Corrosion By CO2 , H2S And Cl*
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e FBHT <150 C Cl* <50,000 13% Cr-80KSI 22% Cr
0.0035< pH2S max < Max 25% Cr
0.005
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e FBHT <200 C Cl* >50,000 22% Cr CW
pH2S max <0.005 25% Cr CW
o o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e 150 C< FBHT <200 C Cl* <50,000 22% Cr
0.0035< pH2S max <0.005 25% Cr
o o
0.0035< pH2S max <0.005
o o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e 200 C< FBHT <250 C Cl* >50,000 25% Cr CW
0.0035< pH2S max <0.005
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e FBHT <250 C Cl* <20,000 25% Cr
0.005< pH2S max <0.1
o
pCO2S max <100e FBHT <250 C Cl* <50,000 25% Cr CW
0.005< pH2S max <0.1
o o
0.005< pH2S max <0.1
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e FBHT <200 C Cl* <50,000 22% Cr SA 22% Cr, 25% Cr
0.1< pH2S max <1 Incoloy 825
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e FBHT <250 C Cl* <50,000 25% Cr SA 28% Cr
0.1< pH2S max <1 Incoloy 825
o
0.2< pCO2S max <100e FBHT <200 C Cl* >50,000 28% Cr Incoloy 825
0.1< pH2S max <1
0.2< pCO2S max <100e 28% Cr Incoloy 825
pH2S max >1
Table 6.B - OCTG Materials for Sour Service

ENI S.p.A.
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6.8.2. DHE Specifications

Refer to table 6.c below.
Materials For DHE Corrosion By H2S Only In Oil Wells
o
pH2S max < 0.1 FBHT >80 C AISI-41XX-110KSI-MAX
o
o
pH2S max < 0.1 FBHT <65 C AISI-41XX-HRC-22-MAX
o
pH2S max > 0.1 FBHT <65 C AISI-41XX-HRC-22-MAX
Materials For DHE Corrosion By H2S Only In Gas Wells
o
pH2S max < 0.1 AISI-41XX-HRC-22-MAX
o
FBHT <80 C AISI-41XX-HRC-22-MAX
Materials For DHE Corrosion By CO2 And Cl*
o
pCO2S max <100 FBHT <100 C Cl* <50,000
o o
pCO2S max <100 100 C< FBHT <150 C Cl* <50,000
o o
pCO2S max <100 150 C< FBHT <250 C 28% Cr Inconel 718
Incoloy 825
Materials For DHE Corrosion By CO2 , H2S And Cl*
Conditions Material Alter Or
o
pCO2S max <100e FBHT <100 C Cl* <50,000 9% Cr-1Moly
pH2S max < 0.005
o o
pCO2S max <100e 100 C< FBHT <150 C Cl* <50,000 13%-Cr-80KSI- 22% Cr Inconel 718
pH2S max < 0.005 MAX 25% Cr Incoloy 825
o o
pCO2S max <100e 150 C< FBHT <250 C Cl* <50,000 22% Cr Inconel 718
pH2S max < 0.005 25% Cr Incoloy 825
o o
pCO2S max <100e 200 C< FBHT <250 C Cl* <50,000 25% Cr
pH2S max <0.005 Inconel 718
Incoloy 825
o o
pCO2S max <100e 100 C< FBHT <150 C Cl* >50,000 22% Cr CW Inconel 718
pH2S max <0.005 25% Cr CW Incoloy 825
o o
pCO2S max <100e 150 C< FBHT <250 C Cl* >50,000 25% Cr CW Inconel 718
pH2S max < 0.005 Incoloy 825
o o
pCO2S max <100e 200 C< FBHT <250 C Cl* <50,000 25% Cr Inconel 718
pH2S max <0.1 Incoloy 825
o o
pCO2S max <100e 200 C< FBHT <250 C Cl* >50,000 28% Cr Inconel 718
pH2S max <0.1 Incoloy 825
o
pCO2S max <100e FBHT <200 C Cl* <50,000 22% Cr SA 22% Cr,
pH2S max <1 25% Cr SA Inconel 718
Incoloy 825
o
pCO2S max <100e FBHT <250 C Cl* <50,000 25% Cr SA Inconel 718
pH2S max <1 28% Cr Incoloy 825
o
pCO2S max <100e FBHT <250 C Cl* >50,000 28% Cr Inconel 718
pH2S max <1 Incoloy 825
Table 6.C- DHE Material for Sour Service

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6.8.3. Wellhead Specifications

Refer to below.
Wellhead Materials For Corrosion Caused By H2S
Conditions Tubing Tbg Head Tubing Cross Top Casing Stud Nut
Hanger Adapter Spool Adapter Spool
pH2S-MAX > AISI-4140 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 ASTM- ASTM-
0.035 HRC-22- HRC-22- HRC-22- HRC-22- HRC-22- HRC-22- A193-B7M A194-2M
MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX
pH2S-MAX < AISI-4140 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 AISI-4135 ASTM- ASTM-
0.035 A193-B7M A194-2H
Automatic-Master-Valve Manual Master-Valve

Conditions Body Bonnet Gate & Seats Steam Body Bonnet Gate & Seats Steam
Flanges Flanges
pH2S-MAX> AISI-4135- AISI-4140- AISI-4140- AISI-4135- AISI-4140- AISI-4140
0.035 HRC-22-MAX HRC-22-MAX HRC-22-MAX HRC-22-MAX HRC-22-MAX HRC-22-MAX
pH2S-MAX < AISI-4135 AISI-4140 AISI-4140 AISI-4135 AISI-4140 AISI-4140
0.035
Wellhead Materials For Corrosion Caused By CO2 and Cl-

Conditions Tubing Tbg Head Tubing Cross Top Casing Stud Nut
0.2<pCO2 Max 100 13%-Cr- 13%-Cr- AISI-4135 13%-Cr- 13%-Cr- Carbon-Steel ASTM- ASTM-
FTHT < 150 Cl < - 80ksi-Max 80ksi-Max 80ksi-Max 80ksi-Max AISI-41XX A193-B7 A194-2H
50000 F6NM F6NM F6NM F6NM
pCO2-Max < 100 Monel-K500 AISI-4135-IC AISI-4135 AISI-4135- AISI-4135-IC AISI-4135 ASTM- ASTM-
150 <FTHT <200 Inconel-718 Inconel-625 IC Inconel - Inconel -625 A193-B7 A194-2H
625 Monel-
Cl- < 50000 K500 Monel-K500

Flanges Flanges
0.2 < pCO2-Max 13%-Cr-80ksi- 13%-Cr-80ksi- Monel-K500 13%-Cr- 13%-Cr- Monel-K500
< 100e Max Max 80ksi-Max 80ksi-Max
FTHT < 150e F6NM 17-4-PH F6NM 17-4-PH
-
Cl < 50000
pCO2-Max <100e AISI-4135-IC Inconel -718 Inconel -718 AISI-4135-IC Inconel-718 Inconel-718
150<FTHT< 200e Inconel-625 Inconel-625
-
Cl < 50000
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-
Wellhead Materials For Corrosion Caused By H2S, CO2 and Cl
Condition Tubing Tbg Head Tubing Cross Top Casing Stud Nut
pCO2 -Max < 100 F6NM 13%-Cr AISI-4135 13%-Cr- 13%-Cr AISI-4135 ASTM- ASTM-
80ksi-Max HRC-22- 80ksi-Max 80ksi-Max HRC-22-Max A193-B7M A194-2M
pH2S-Max <
0.005 F6NM Max F6NM F6NM
FTHT < 150
-
Cl < 50000
pCO2-Max < 100 F6NM F6NM AISI-4135- F6NM F6NM AISI-4135 ASTM- ASTM-
pH2S-Max < 0.2 Monel- HRC-22- HRC-22-Max A193-B7M A194-2M
K500 Max ASTM-
FTHT < 150
- A194-2M
Cl < 50000
pCO2-Max < 100 F6NM F6NM AISI-4135- F6NM F6NM AISI-4135- ASTM- ASTM-
pH2S-Max < 0.2 Monel- HRC-22- HRC-22- A193-B7M A194-2M
K500 MAX MAX ASTM-
FTHT < 150
- A194-2M
Cl < 50000
pCO2-Max < 100 Inconel- AISI-4135- AISI-4135 AISI-4135- AISI-4135- AISI-4135 Monel- Monel-
pH2S-Max <0.8 718 IC HRC-22- IC IC HRC-22- K500 K500
Inconel- MAX Inconel- Inconel- MAX
FTHT< 150
- 625 625 625
Cl < 50000
Monel- Monel-
K500 K500
pCO2-Max < 100 Inconel- AISI-4135- AISI-4135 AISI-4135- AISI-4135- AISI-4135 Inconel- Inconel-
pH2S-Max <0.8 718 IC HRC-22- IC IC HRC-22-Max 718 718
- Inconel- Max Inconel- Inconel-
Cl > Water
50000 625 625 625
pCO2-Max <100 Inconel- Inconel-

718 718
pH2S-Max e >
0.8
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Flanges Flanges
pCO2 -Max < 100 13%-Cr-80KSI- 13%-Cr-80 KSI- 17-4-PH F6NM 13%-Cr-80KSI- 13%-Cr- 17-4-PH
pH S- Max < Max Max Max 80KSI- Max F6NM
2
0.005 F6NM F6NM
FTHT < 150
-
Cl < 50000
pCO2- Max < 100 F6NM 13%-Cr-80 KSI- Monel-K500 F6NM 13%-Cr- Monel-K500
pH2S- Max < 0.2 Max 80KSI- Max -
FTHT < 150 Stellite-6 Stellite--6
-
Cl < 50000
pCO2- Max < 100 AISI-4135-I.C. F6NM Monel-K500 AISI-4135-I.C. F6NM Monel-K500
pH2S- Max < 0.8 Inconel-625 Inconel-718 Inconel-625 Inconel-718
FTHT< 150
-
Cl <50000
pCO2- Max < 100 AISI-4135- I.C. Inconel-718 Inconel-718 AISI-4135-I.C. Inconel-718 Inconel-718
pH2S- Max < 0.8 Inconel-625 Inconel-625
-
Cl Water 50000
pCO2- Max < 100
pH2S- Max e >
0.8
Table 6.D- Wellhead Material for Sour Service

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100
FBHT <= 200 C
FBHT <= 150 C FBHT<= 250 C Cl-<=50000 ppm
pCO2 22 % Cr-SA (*)
and Cl- <= 50000 ppm and
(atm) 13% Cr Cl- <= 20000 ppm or
25 % Cr-SA
FBHT<= 150 C
25% Cr-CW
28 % Cr Cl- <= 50000 ppm
150 > FBHT <= 200 C FBHT<=250 C INCOLOY- 825 13 % Cr 80 Ksi max
10 Cl- <= 50000 ppm and FBHT < 200 C
22% Cr Cl- <= 50000 ppm FBHT <= 250 C 28 % Cr
or 22 % Cr 25 % Cr
(*) 25% Cr-CW Cl- <= 50000 ppm
25 % Cr-SA
or
INCOLOY-825 FBHT <= 200 C
200<FBHT<=250 C 200<FBHT<=250 C or
25% Cr-SA and 28 % Cr Cl- > 50000 ppm
or Cl- > 50000 ppm INCOLOY- 825 22 % Cr- CW 25 % Cr -CW
25% Cr 28 % Cr
1 or FBHT<= 250 C
INCOLOY- 825 Cl- > 50000 ppm 150 < FBHT <= 200 C
28 % Cr Cl- < 50000 ppm
INCOLOY- 825
22 % Cr 25 % Cr
200 < FBHT <= 250 C

10-1 FBHT < = 65 C Cl- < 50000 ppm
L 80 25 % Cr-CW
or
L 80 mod;C 90 T1
T 95 T1 200 < FBHT <= 250
Cl- > 50000 ppm
25 % Cr-CW
FBHT >80 C
10-2 J55 K55 N80-1 C95
C- STEEL LOW ALLOY STEEL
P110-1 (only oil)
J 55 or
N 80 L80 mod C90 T1 L 80 mod
P 110 C 90 T1
C 95 T1
10-3 65 < FBHT<= 80C
J 55 K 55 N80-1
or
L 80 mod C90 T1
T 95 T1
10-4
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 100

pH2S (atm)
Figure 6.E - OCTG Material Selection Diagram

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100 FBHT <= 200 C

Cl-<=50000 ppm
FBHT <= 100 C 22 % Cr-SA
pCO2 25 % Cr-SA (*)
Cl- <= 50000 ppm 200 < FBHT<= 250 C
(atm) 9 Cr 1 Mo Cl- <= 50000 ppm 28 % Cr
INCOLOY 825
150 < FBHT <= 200 C
25 % Cr
or INCONEL 718 Cl- <= 50000 ppm
100 < FBHT <= 150 C INCONEL 718 22 % Cr 25 % Cr
10 Cl- <= 50000 ppm INCOLOY 825 200 < FBHT <= 250 C FBHT < 200 C
13 % Cr 80 ksi max Cl- <= 50000 ppm 28 % Cr INCONEL 718
(*) 25 % Cr-SA
28 % Cr
or
INCOLOY 825
INCOLOY 825
150 > FBHT<= 250 C 200 < FBHT<=250 C INCOLOY 825 INCONEL 718
25% Cr-CW Cl- > 50000 ppm INCONEL 718
or 28 % Cr 200 < FBHT <= 250 C
25% Cr or FBHT<= 250 C
1 INCONEL 718 INCONEL 718 Cl- > 50000 ppm Cl- > 50000 ppm
INCOLOY 825 INCOLOY 825 28 % Cr 25 % Cr
INCOLOY- 825 INCONEL 718
INCONEL 718
INCOLOY 825
10-1 FBHT < = 65 C 100 < FBHT <= 200 C

AISI 41XX Cl- > 50000 ppm
22 HRC max
22 % Cr-CW 25 % Cr-CW
INCONEL 718
INCOLOY 825
65 < FBHT <=80 C
C-STEEL 80 Ksi max
AISI 41XX
10-2 C-STEEL
or 200 > FBHT <= 250 C
FBHT > 80 C AISI 41XX Cl- > 50000 ppm
AISI 41XX
C-STEEL 110 Ksi max 22 HRC max 25 % Cr-CW
AISI 41XX
INCONEL 718
INCOLOY 825
10-3
10-4
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 100

pH2S (atm)
Figure 6.F - DHE Material Selection Diagram

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6.9. ORDERING SPECIFICATIONS

When ordering tubulars for sour service, the following specifications should be included, in
addition to those given in the above table.
1) Downgraded grade N80, P105 or P110 tubulars are not acceptable for orders for J55
or K55 casing.
2) The couplings must have the same heat treatment as the pipe body.
3) The pipe must be tested to the alternative test pressure (see API Bulletins 5A and
5AC).
4) Cold die stamping is prohibited, all markings must be paint stencilled or hot die
stamped.
5) Three copies of the report providing the ladle analysis of each heat used in the
manufacture of the goods shipped, together with all the check analyses performed,
must be submitted.
6) Three copies of a report showing the physical properties of the goods supplied and
the results of hardness tests (Refer to step 3 above) must be submitted.
7) Shell modified API thread compound must be used.
Note: Recommendations for casing to be used for sour service must be

specified according to the API 5CT for restricted yield strength casings.
The casing should also meet the following criteria:

The steel used in the manufacture of the casing should have been quenched
and tempered. (This treatment is superior to tubulars heated/treated by other
methods, e.g. normalising and tempering).
All sour service casing should be inspected using non-destructive testing or
impact tests only, as per API Specification 5CT.
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7. TUBING DESIGN
7.1. POLICIES
All completion tubing strings will have tubing movement calculations conducted to ascertain
the maximum load applied to the string and/or completion tubing movement to be catered
for in the completion design.
All tubing strings should be designed for stress, preferably using an appropriate up to date
computer programme. Currently Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates recommended programme
is the Enertech WS-Tube programme to the latest version.
A safety factor (SF) of 1.25 applies to the ratio of the calculated stress in a string to
the minimum yield strength of the selected tubing in carbon steels.
A safety factor (SF) of 1.35 applies to the ratio of the calculated stress in a string to
the minimum yield strength of the selected tubing of CRA materials.
If the stress SF is less than these limits, the calculation should be run again substituting,
either a heavier weight or, a higher grade of pipe. Under some special conditions, the SFs
may be reduced, refer to the criteria in section 7.10.2.
Tubing size shall be determined by the reservoir engineers using IPR curves and Nodal
analysis (Refer to section 5.6).
7.2. THEORY
During completion tubing design process, it is necessary to calculate the variations in length
for the stresses applied under load conditions. When these have been determined it will
confirm the suitability of the selected tubing.
Tubing movement occurs due to only two reasons:
Temperature changes
Change in pressure induced forces.
Movement can only occur if the tubing is free to move. If the tubing is not free to move and
is anchored to a packer then stress will be subjected to the tubing string and packer. This
relationship is fully explained in section 7.10 Stress Calculations.
Tubing movement upwards (contraction) is assumed to be negative and downwards
(lengthening) is positive.
To fully understand these effects, it is first necessary to understand the properties of steels
used in the manufacture of tubing.
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7.2.1. Mechanical Properties of Steel

Failure of a material or of a structural part may occur by fracture (e.g. the shattering of
glass), yield, wear, corrosion, and other causes. These failures are failures of the material.
Buckling may cause failure of the part without any fracture of the material. As load is
applied, deformation takes place before any final fracture occurs. With all solid materials,
some deformation may be sustained without permanent deformation, i.e., the material
behaves elastically. Beyond the elastic limit, the elastic deformation is accompanied by
varying amounts of plastic, or permanent, deformation. If a material sustains large amounts
of plastic deformation before final fracture, it is classed as a ductile material, and if fracture
occurs with little or no plastic deformation, the material is classed as brittle.
Tests of materials may be conducted in many different ways, such as by torsion,
compression and shear, but the tension test is the most common and is qualitatively
characteristic of all the other types of tests. The action of a material under the gradually
increasing extension in the tension test is usually represented by plotting apparent stress
(the total load divided by the original cross-sectional area of the test piece) as ordinates
against the apparent strain (elongation between two gauge points marked on the test piece
divided by the original gauge length) as abscissae. A typical curve for steel is shown in
figure 7.a.
In this, the elastic deformation is approximately a straight line as called for by Hooke's Law,
and the slope of this line, or the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range, is the
modulus of elasticity E, sometimes called Young's Modulus. This gives rise to Poissons
Ratio, both are explained in figure 7.b.
Figure 7.A - Stress-Strain Curve for Tubing Steel

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Beyond the elastic limit, permanent or plastic strain occurs. If the stress is released in the
region between the elastic limit and the yield strength; see figure 7.a, the material will
contract along a line generally nearly straight and parallel to the original elastic line, leaving
a permanent set.
Figure 7.B - Deformation Constants for Tubing Steel

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In steels, a curious phenomenon occurs after the elastic limit, known as yielding. This gives
rise to a dip in the general curve followed by a period of deformation at approximately
constant load. The maximum stress reached in this region is called the upper yield point
and the lower part of the yielding region the lower yield point.
In the harder and stronger steels, and under certain conditions of temperature, the yielding
phenomenon is less prominent and is correspondingly harder to measure.
In materials that do not exhibit a marked yield point, it is customary to measure a yield
strength. This is arbitrarily defined as the stress at which the material has a specified
permanent set (the value of 0.2% is widely accepted in the industry).
For steels used in the manufacturing of tubular goods, API specifies the yield strength as
the tensile strength required to produce a total elongation of 0.5% to 0.6% of the gauge
length.
Similar arbitrary rules are followed with regard to the elastic limit in commercial practice.
Instead of determining the stress up to which there is no permanent set, as required by
definition, it is customary to designate the end of the straight portion of the curve (by
definition the proportional limit) as the elastic limit. Careful practice qualifies this by
designating it the proportional elastic limit.
As extension continues beyond yielding, the material becomes stronger causing a rise of
the curve, but at the same time the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes less as it
is drawn out.
This loss of area weakens the specimen so that the curve reaches a maximum and then
falls off until final fracture occurs. The stress at the maximum point is called the tensile
strength or the ultimate strength of the material and is its most often quoted property.
The mechanical and chemical properties of casing, tubing and drill pipe are laid down in API
specification of further specs. 5CT which is a combination of former specs. 5A, 5AC, 5AX
and 5AQ - Casing and Tubing requirements. Depending on the type or grade, minimum
requirements are laid down for the mechanical properties, and in the case of the yield point
even maximum requirements (except for H-40). The denominations of the different grades
are based on the minimum yield strength, e.g.:
H-40 - min. yield strength 40,000 psi.
J-55 - min. yield strength 55,000 psi.
L-80 - min. yield strength 80,000 psi.
Others are shown in figure 7.c.

The lines indicating equivalent hardness of 22 and 23 Rc indicates the tolerances for use of
the materials in H2S conditions according to NACE which is fully described in section 7.9.4.
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Figure 7.C - Strengths of Various Grades of Steel

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7.2.2. Temperature
Temperature changes cause expansion and contraction in metals which is a significant
factor in tubing strings. All metals have a particular expansion rate which is termed the Co-
efficient of thermal expansion.
For a given volume, an object will expand or contract through temperature change by the
Co-efficient of thermal expansion for the type of material.
-6
The co-efficient of liner expansion for tubular steels is usually 6.9 x 10 in/in/F.
7.2.3. Tubing Movement/Stress Relationship

Steel tubing, as seen in the previous section 7.2.2 will expand or contract due to changes in
temperature or pressure induced forces.
If the tubing is free to move then the calculations will determine the maximum expansion or
contraction which needs to be catered for by the utilisation of a tubing movement
compensation system such as a packer and seal unit, a PBR, ELTSR or a travel joint
depending on which type of packer system is utilised.
If the tubing is attached to a packer, then the tubing is unable to move as it can in the free
movement scenario and, in this case, changes in tubing stress will be exerted. This may
increase or decrease the stress already exerted to the tubing when it was installed, which is
the initial tubing condition. All subsequent changes in temperature or pressure induced
forces are calculated form this initial condition.
There are three methods in which tubing is connected to the packer:
a) Tubing is fully free to move either way.

b) The tubing is positioned where it is fully free to move upwards but its downward
movement is restricted and stress applied to the packer.
c) The tubing is connected to the packer by being threaded to, or latched to, the
packer
Further explanation of these three modes are explained below.
a) Free Movement
The tubing is free to move fully upwards or downwards using the packer bore with a seal
assembly, a PBR, a TSR or travel joint (Refer to figure 7.d below).
Calculations must be conducted to establish the full tubing movement in order that the
length of tubing movement device can be determined. These devices are usually available
in 10ft stroke lengths or multiples of 10ft, i.e. 10ft, 20ft and 30ft.
The movement determined by calculation should be used to select a device which
accommodates this movement with a margin of error, e.g. with a calculated movement of +
6ft and - 3ft = total 9ft, a 20ft device should be selected as a 10ft device would not provide
enough contingency for error, unless the movement was subsequently restricted as
described in the next section.
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b) Limited Downward Movement

In this case the tubing is fully free to move upwards but is restricted in its downward
movement (Refer to figure 7.e).
This restricted downward movement results in further stress applied to the bottom of the
tubing and, correspondingly to the packer. This additional stress will be calculated during
the tubing movement calculations and must not exceed the stress limit for the tubing,
otherwise permanent deformation will occur.
c) Anchored Tubing
In this case the tubing is anchored to the packer by being threaded to it (as in the case
when using retrievable packers) or by using an anchoring device such as an Anchor Latch,
Ratchet Latch, etc. (Refer to figure 7.f).
When the tubing is anchored to the packer and movement is eliminated, it will result in
increased tensional and compressive forces, hence increased stress in the tubing. This may
be acceptable when temperature and pressure changes are not excessive. Similarly, the
calculations will determine that the tubing stress limit is not exceeded.
Figure 7.D - Free Moving Figure 7.E - Limited Figure 7.F - Anchored Tubing
Movement
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7.3. WELL DATA.

The well data and parameters required (or already determined) to produce an accurate
tubing movement/stress analysis and, hence, selection of a tubing are:
Casing design profile
Casing programme contingency profile
Tubing size from optimisation analysis
Pressure gradient
Temperature gradient
Reservoir fluids specific gravities
Completion fluid specific gravities
Production/injection or stimulation forecast.
7.3.1. Casing Profile/Geometry

The planned casing design and contingency plans are required as they affect the tubing
movement calculations (Refer to 4.1.1). Each casing or liner weight and corresponding
length of section must be known to enable calculation. Deviation tables are also required.
7.3.2. Tubing Data

The optimum tubing size, determined by nodal analysis conducted by the reservoir
engineers, is required and is the basis of all the calculations. The tubing grade is selected in
accordance to the criteria listed in section 6 to combat the effects of any corrosion from the
well conditions.
The tubing movement/stress calculations will then determine the tubing weight or any
change in grade required to meet with the applied SF for stress.
The well deviation is also important to determine the type of packer/tubing seal device
and/or tubing movement device to ensure that, either, straight pull or torque can be applied
to the tubing downhole at the packer depth overcoming any frictional drag.
Once the tubing size, weight and grade is confirmed then the appropriate rated completion
components can be specified in order that the purchasing department can prepare tender
documents.
7.3.3. Bottom-hole Pressure

Accurate initial and prognosed future formation pressures both static and dynamic are
fundamental to tubing movement/stress calculations. These pressures can be obtained
from previous well exploration test data or appraisal well test reports.
7.3.4. Temperatures (Static and Flowing)

Accurate well temperature data are vital in tubing movement/stress analysis as the
temperature effect is usually the effect which causes the greatest tubing movement.
The average temperature of each section of tubing and casing must be known or
determined to input into the calculations.
Similar to the pressure data, temperature data may be found from previous well test results.
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7.3.5. Reservoir Fluids

As described earlier, the constituents of the produced reservoir fluids will initially determine
the material required for the tubing. This is subject to any corrosion inhibition methods
which may be implemented.
Particular importance should be paid to Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbon Dioxide and Chloride
levels. In the presence of water and under certain temperature conditions, these corrosive
agents can cause serious problems, therefore it is essential that a detailed corrosion study
is completed to enable the choice of materials and/or inhibition procedures.
If justified economically, the material chosen should combat the effects of corrosion,
however if this choice is not economic and some corrosion inhibition process was suitable
then this would be a fallback position.
Future parameters must also be considered as water may rise and the GOR will change,
therefore the materials should be chosen to last the planned life of the completion.
7.3.6. Completion Fluid

The completion fluid, usually a brine, is chosen for its compatibility with the formation and its
fluids so as not to cause any formation damage. It should be selected to provide an
overbalance at the top of the reservoir. It also must be selected for its stability over long
time periods and not suffer from dehydration or deterioration.
As the completion fluid (sometimes referred to as the packer fluid) will be left in the annulus,
it should be suitably dosed with corrosion inhibitors and oxygen scavenger to prevent
corrosion to the exposed tubulars and elastomers.
The information required to make a considered selection may be obtained from the ADIS
(Advanced Drilling Information System) database (which holds all the data regarding the
drilling of the well), well tests carried out earlier and other sources which may be useful in
the decision making process.
7.4. PRESSURE INDUCED FORCES

When a well is completed, either with a tubing seal unit in a packer bore or a tubing
movement device, it will have completion fluid in both the tubing and the annulus, this is
referred to as the initial condition. All subsequent conditions are calculated from this initial
condition.
These are three pressure induced effects which produce forces that moves the tubing.
These effects are:
a) Piston effect.
b) Buckling effect.
c) Ballooning effect.
Each of these effects are addressed in this section.

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7.4.1. Piston Effect

Tubing, when run in a well must first withstand the load of its own weight which may be a
significant factor especially in deep wells. This tensile load is greatest in the joint
immediately below the tubing hanger. The tubing is run into a completion fluid with
equivalent fluid density inside and outside the tubing which results in a reduction of the load
due to buoyancy.
If there is an alteration from this initial condition causing a change in pressure forces across
the packer seal unit then a piston effect is caused. This will alter the tensile load on the top
and bottom of the tubing.
The change in length due to these alterations is calculated from Hooks Law:
Where E is the modulus of elasticity (sometimes referred to as a Youngs Modulus formula).
The force (F) change is caused by the change in piston force from the initial conditions
created by a change in pressure in the annulus or tubing at the packer. 7.7 and figure 7.h
illustrate this piston force for two cases, tubing larger than the packer bore, and tubing
smaller than the packer bore. The formula in each case is the same:
L Eq. 7.A
L1 = F
EAs
Substituting for F, the equation becomes:
L1 =
L
[(Ap A1) P1 (Ap Ao ) Po] Eq. 7.B
EAs
where:
L = Length of the tubing string to the packer depth (ins)
E = Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (psi)
2
As = Cross sectional area of tubing (ins )
2
Ap = Area of the packer bore (ins )
2
Ai = Area of the tubing ID (ins )
2
Ao = Area of the tubing OD (ins )
Pi = Change in tubing pressure at the packer (psi)
Po = Change in annulus pressure at the packer (psi)
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Ao Ao
Ai Ai
r r
Po Po
Ap Pi Ap Pi
Figure 7.G - Packer Bore Larger Than Figure 7.H - Packer Bore Smaller Than Tubing
Tubing OD OD
7.4.2. Buckling Effect
Helical buckling is initiated by compressive force acting on the bottom of the tubing and is
the formation of helical spirals in the tubing string. The helix shown in figure 7.i has a
variable pitch as the compressive force is progressively lowered by the weight of the pipe
hanging below. The buckling effect is greater when pressure differential is applied across
the pipe. Unless the tubing string is short or the compressive force is exceedingly high,
some of the tubing will be buckled and the rest straight. The exact point between the
buckled and straight sections is the neutral point (Refer to figure 7.i).
The neutral point can be calculated from the following:
F
n= Eq. 7.C
w
where:
W = Ws + Wi - Wo
Wi = Ai x Weight of fluid inside the tubing
Wo = Ao x Weight of fluid outside the tubing
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Figure 7.I - Neutral Point
When the neutral point is within the tubing length (and so the helix can fully develop), the
length reduction due to helical buckling (Refer to figure 7.i) can be calculated by the
following formula:
F2 r2 Eq. 7.D
L2 =
8EI w
where:
(D 4 d 4 )
I=
64
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L2
F
Figure 7.J - Helical Buckling
If the tubing is very short (as happens for example on selective type completions between
two packers) all the string may be affected by buckling and there is no neutral point. In this
case, the length reduction due to the buckling effect is dependant upon the entire length of
the string and can be calculated by the following formula:
F 2 r 2 Lw Lw Eq. 7.E
n>L L2 = 2
8 EIw F F
As seen, the formulae for both piston effect and helicoidal buckling above has so far used
F, i.e. the change in the piston force acting on the bottom of the tubing. However, in order to
complete the understanding of the effects which lead to variations in length due to buckling,
we must also consider the effect caused by pressure differential across a pipe.
If the internal pressure in a pipe is greater than the external pressure, the tube remains
straight only if it has an axially symmetric cross-section with no deformation to change its
shape. This configuration is unstable and any distortion can lead immediately to a stable
equilibrium condition which is helicoidal buckling.
Helicoidal buckling is caused by the effect of the pressure which acts on the lateral surface
of the pipe wall as the convex surface of the bend in a greater force is larger than the
concave surface (Refer to figure 7.k). The internal pressure will therefore exert a greater
force on the convex side of the helix, than that exerted on the concave section of the same
bend. The resulting force will, therefore, create the helicoidal buckling configuration.
The same occurs when the stable external pressure is greater than the internal pressure
also resulting in helical buckling.
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Moreover, the effect of the external pressure on the tubing lateral surfaces is equivalent to a
tensile force applied at the tubing bottom of:
F f = Ai Pi
I
Eq. 7.F
= Ao Po
II
Ff Eq. 7.G
R R
Po Po
Pi Pi
Internal pressure External pressure
Figure 7.K - Pressure Induced Helical Buckling Effect
From this it can be concluded that the effect of the internal pressure on the tubing lateral
surfaces is equivalent to a compressive force applied at the bottom of the tubing.
I II
Therefore the tubing will be buckled by the piston force and by the sum of Ff and Ff . The
fictitious force Ff is obtained from the sum of the three elements:
Ff = Ff + Ff + Fa
I II
Eq. 7.H
by substitution:
F f = A p (Pi Po ) Eq. 7.I
If Ff is greater than zero it will cause helical buckling and hence, if it is less than zero there
is no deformation.
It is however important to relate that the only force actually applied at the bottom of the
tubing is the piston force, while the fictitious force is used only to calculate the buckling
effect.
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It should be remembered that, to calculate the variations in length, the variations of the
forces compared to initial conditions must be calculated. Therefore, to sum up:
in the L1 (Hookes law), the variation of the piston force Fa must be used;
in the L2 (buckling), the variation of the fictitious force Ff must be used when
this is positive, otherwise, being a tensile force, it cannot buckle the string and
L2 = 0.
The theory above was developed considering Pi = Po in the initial conditions, it thus follows
that the Ff is equal to zero and that the variation of fictitious force Ff is therefore equal to
the final fictitious force.
7.4.3. Ballooning Effect

The third element which changes the length of a string, due to the changes to internal and
external pressure, is caused by ballooning. This effect occurs when P = Pi - Po is positive
and tends to swell the tubing which, contracts axially or shortens (Refer to figure 7.m). On
the other hand, when P = Pi - Po is negative, the tubing is squeezed and, expands axially
or elongates. This is termed reverse ballooning (Refer to figure 7.l).
The normally used simplified formula to calculate the ballooning or reverse ballooning effect
is:
2 Pim R 2 Pom Eq. 7.J
L3 = L
E R2 1
In this the average internal and external pressure variations are defined by the formulae:

Pi ( final ) Pi (initial ) + Pi ( final ) Pi (initial )
bottomhole
Pim =
tophole
2
Eq. 7.K

Po ( final ) Po (initial ) + Po ( final ) Po (initial )
bottomhole
Pom =
tophole
2
Eq. 7.L
Again this is developed from Hookes law using Youngs Modulus of elasticity (already used
in the piston and buckling effect) and Poisson ratio.
Poissons ratio v as earlier expressed is:
t / t
V=
L / L
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Figure 7.L - Reverse Ballooning Figure 7.M - Ballooning
7.4.4. Temperature Effect

The final effect considered when calculating tubing length variations, is the temperature
effect which usually induces the largest movement.
During a well operation, e.g. stimulation, the temperature of the tubing may be much less
than that in, either, the initial or flow rate conditions. During well stimulations, significant
quantities of fluids are pumped through the tubing at ambient surface temperature which
may change the temperature of the tubing by several degrees.
The formula used to calculate the change of length due to temperature effect is:
L4 = TM L
Eq. 7.M
where the average temperature variation in the string can be calculated as follows:
(T final Tinitial )tophole + (T final Tinitial )bottomhole
TM = .
2
Eq. 7.N
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In the formula represents the materials coefficient of thermal expansion. For steel this
value is: = 6.9 x 10-6 in/in/F.
figure 7.n shows typical geothermal temperature gradients during both stimulation and
production conditions. It can be seen that the temperature variations to which the tubing is
subjected may cause considerable changes to its length.
0 100 200 300

T (F)
PRODUCTION
2500 GEOTHERMAL
INJECTION
5000
7500
D (feet)
Figure 7.N - Typical Geothermal Gradients
7.5. EVALUATION OF TOTAL TUBING MOVEMENT

The sum of the length changes obtained from the changes in pressure induced forces and
temperature effects, gives the total shift of the bottom end of the string at the packer depth
where it is free to move in the packer-bore. This sum is calculated:
Ltot = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4
Eq. 7.O
With free moving packer/tubing seals systems, the calculations are made for the selection
of an appropriate length of seal assembly, PBR or ELTSR with anchored packer/tubing
systems, this same calculation can be made to select the length of tubing movement
devices such as telescopic or expansion joints. However, if no movement is converted to
stress in the tubing, the resultant is stress on the packer (Refer to section 7.6).
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7.6. ANCHORED TUBING

In some completions the tubing is firmly fixed to the packer, preventing any movement of
the string when well conditions vary (figure 7.o). In this situation the tubing-packer forces
generated by the presence of the anchoring must be determined so as to be able to confirm
if the tubing-packer anchoring system and the packer have sufficient strength to safely
withstand all the forces exerted.
Moreover, once this force is known, the load on the tubing can be calculated to check if the
completion components have sufficient strength.
Figure 7.O - Tubing Anchored To Packer
The tubing-packer force can be calculated by initially assuming that the tubing is free to
move in the packer seal-bore and it is possible to calculate the final total length change of
the tubing under pressure and temperature variations of all conditions. Subsequently, the
force needed to re-anchor the tubing to the packer can be determined.
To understand this concept better, consider figure 7.p where it is presumed that the tubing
can move away from its anchored condition while maintaining the seal with the packer and
that the tubing undergoes only L4 contraction caused by the temperature effect. Since no
force is applied at the end of the tubing which could cause buckling, all the movement is
linear and to restore to the tubings real anchored position, it is sufficient to impose a L4
elongation by applying a force FP which is obtained from Hookes law:
FL EAs
L = FP = L4
EAs L
Eq. 7.P
However, in general the problem of identifying the tubing/packer reaction is not linear due to
the helical buckling effect and so, it is possible to use a graphical approach.
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The first step is to plot the characteristic strength/length variation of the system. This curve,
shown in figure 7.p is determined by the size of tubing, on the material, radial distance
between the tubing OD and casing ID and on the fluids in the well. This can be plotted using
the following formulae:
FL
L = ( for F < 0 )
EAs
FL F 2 r 2
L = ( for F > 0 )
EAs 8 EIw
Eq. 7.Q
The second step is to identify, on the curve, the tubing representative point in the well when
it is subjected to the fictitious force, even when this is negative. On the curve given in figure
7.q this condition is identified by intersection point (Ff, Lf). Indeed, if a force of Ff, was
applied at the end of the tubing, the cause of the buckling would be eliminated and the
neutral point would return to the bottom in the tubing.
The origin of the axis moves to the point found in this way (Ff ,Lf) and the diagram
obtained has a total length variation of LP = -ltot, so to position the tubing in the packer
after contracting the string must be elongated accordingly. As shown in figure 7.q the Fp
force, transferred between the tubing and packer, is then identified.
L4
Fp
L4
Fp F
Figure 7.P - Graphical Representation Of Movement

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Lp
Fp
Fp F
Lf Lp
Ff
Figure 7.Q - Graphical Representation of Force
7.6.1. Tubing Permitting Limited Motion

Another method which may be used in some types of completions is that the tubing is fully
or partially limited in downhole movement. In this method, after the packer is set, some of
the weight of the string is set down on the packer, putting the tubing into compression or
slackened-off (Refer to figure 7.r).
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Figure 7.R - Limited Downward Movement
The shortening of the string caused by this, Pso, makes it possible to limit the length
variations of the string, for example, during an injection operation, therefore, Ltot, i.e. the
total length variation calculated as the sum of the above described effects, is decreased by
Lso. The Lso value is determined using the following formula:
Fso L Fso2 r 2
Lso =
E As 8 E I w
Eq. 7.R
where:
Fso = slack-off force released on the packer.
With this type of anchoring it is, therefore, possible to limit the movements of the tubing with
respect to the packer and consequently the length of the packer seal-assembly. If an
anchored type constraint is considered then the tubing-packer force with respect to the
anchored tubing can be reduced, e.g. in an injection operation.
In practice, applying slack-off is the same as moving the packer upwards by Lso,
compressing the string and thus causing part of the length variation which would occur in
any case at a later stage due to the effects described above.
The same considerations can be made if Ltot < 0 during the operation while, on the other
hand, any elongation of the string would be prevented, causing a force on the packer which
would be equal to that of the slack-off amount.
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7.6.2. Packer Setting

A particular problem arises in tubing tied to packer completions when using hydraulic set
packers, as pressure is applied to the tubing to set the packer, it changes the length of the
tubing during the setting process. This in turn places stress in the tubing after the packer is
set and the pressure is bled off.
This stress needs to be taken into account to determine the total stress applied to the
tubing.
Hydraulic packers are set by plugging the tubing below the packer either by dropping a
setting ball onto a shear out ball seat, or by installing a plug with wireline.
The formulae for determine this tubing length change are:
Fa L
L1 = (Hookes law)
EAs
2 Pim
L3 = L (ballooning)
E R2 1
where:
Fa = Ai Pi and Pim=Pi
7.7. TUBING LOAD CONDITIONS

The load conditions of the tubing string during the wells life causes stresses through the
pressure, temperature and mechanical loads for each condition imposed.
It is therefore obvious why, when selecting the type of tubing for a completion, it is essential
to identify exactly what operations will be carried out in future to determine the consequent
loads and thus the associated load conditions. A manual or computer programme is then
used to calculate and then ascertain whether the given tubing is able to withstand the
maximum load with an acceptable safety level.
The operations normally carried out on a well for which the string control is necessary are
illustrated below. These should be seen only as an example of load conditions as each
case must be addressed individually as planned operations may vary.
It is important, in any case, to analyse the characteristics of each operation in order to be
able to identify the heavier loads which may be imposed.
7.7.1. Pressure Testing

The very first load condition experienced during and after the installation of the completion
string is pressure testing. This involves applying predetermined test pressures to both the
tubing and annulus. These pressures may be applied more than once during the installation
operation.
During the time taken to install the tubing, the completion will have warmed up to ambient
well conditions, therefore the only load applied is the pressure induced forces of piston
effect buckling and ballooning. However, the designed test pressures should be equal to or
greater than any other subsequent pressures applied to the completion so the magnitude is
high.
This may be of particular concern when using large bore tubing movement devices as the
forces generated by the test pressure are greater than packer tubing seal arrangements.
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7.7.2. Acid Stimulation

Acid jobs are carried out to remove formation damage caused during drilling by the invasion
of fluids and cuttings or to stimulate the formation by improving permeability. This operation
is carried out by pumping a predetermined quantity of acid down the tubing to the formation
at set pressures and flow rates.
From the point of view of the stresses exerted on the tubing string, the maximum pressure
able to be applied at the well head must be considered in order to determine the rate of acid
which can be applied, together with the temperature variations caused by the injection of
colder fluid. It may be necessary in some cases, to reduce the loads on the tubing by pre-
heating the acid in order to limit the thermal expansion and pressurising the annulus to
reduce the tubing ballooning effect. Friction reducers may also be used to increase flow at
the same wellhead pressure, and decreasing the bottom hole pressure thus reducing the
load.
It is important to monitor the pressure and temperature trends during the operation as the
acid rate will probably increase due to the effect of the acid on the formation. This may lead
to greater cooling down of the tubing with reduced pressures.
figure 7.s shows the pressure and temperature trends required to be known so as to ensure
stress control of the string, according to the classical Lubinsky theory. Other data are often
needed for more complex calculations, using computer programmes, which, in Eni-Agip
Division and Affiliates case are in-house software which allows reproduction of the correct
temperature trend.
7.7.3. Fracturing
Fracturing involves the propagation of fractures in the formation for the improvement of
productivity of hydrocarbons. These fractures reach from the well bore deep into reservoir
and allows better drainage.
To carry out fracturing, the formation must be pressurised until one (or more) fractures are
created. This entails obtaining in advance the injection parameters from various injectivity
tests with increasing flow rates. The calculated flow rate is applied during the operation and
the pressure trend (which usually decreases when the fracture is created due to the
reduction of load losses in the formation) is monitored.
With regard to the stresses on the string similar to acid stimulations, it is important to assess
the drop in temperature caused by the injection of colder fluid which, is carried out at high
flow rates even though of short duration.
The pressures which can be attained, especially during the early injection stage, are higher
than that during acid jobs. At times during these early stages, in order to exceed the
fracturing gradient, the maximum allowable pressure for some well head equipment may be
reached. This equipment must therefore be protected using special isolating tools or
protection sleeves. To check the string design is suitable, the pressure and temperature
trends can be plotted as shown by the previous example of the acid stimulation (figure 7.s),
selecting the end of the operation as the final conditions but with a well head pressure
equal to the maximum estimated.
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If during the initial stages of the operation, a significant break-down is forecast (by a marked
reduction of pressure when the fracture is opened up in the formation). The latter condition
may be too conservative, therefore two conditions should be checked; the first with high
pressures without temperature variations, and the second with marked temperature
variations and lower pressures.
0 100 200 300

0 T (F)
INITIAL CSG AND TBG - FINAL CSG
2500
FINAL TBG
5000
7500
D (feet)
0 5000 10000 15000

0 P (psi)
FINAL CSG FINAL TBG
2500
5000
INITIAL TBG
INITIAL CSG
7500
D (feet)
Figure 7.S - Pressure and Temperature Trends During Fracturing

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7.7.4. Flowing
In this case it is not an operation carried out on the well but the normal flowing load
conditions to which the string is being subjected. It is therefore very important to establish,
or at least approximate, the pressure and temperature profiles during the life of the well.
Different production situations will occur which cause changing load conditions; e.g.
temperature differences between the beginning and end of the productive life or the need to
increase or decrease the flow rate for reasons external to the well.
Compared to the initial condition, the string undergoes temperature increases which cause
elongation in the string. The resulting compressive forces may lead to the buckling
phenomena and even cause the tubing to exceed its elastic limit.
As shown in the diagrams of figure 7.t and figure 7.u, which give the pressure and
temperature bottom hole trends as a function of the depth at production start up and when
the reservoir is depleted, external pressure may be greater than internal pressure, making it
necessary to ensure a collapse control of some sections.
7.7.5. Shut-In
Once a well is in production, it is necessary to interrupt production for maintenance or in
order to take some data measurements. This shut-in operation involves closing the well
during which the well head pressure increases because the reservoir pressure rises to static
condition, pressuring up the fluids in the tubing.
This load condition is considered critical as, at the moment of shut-in, the temperature of
the string does not vary greatly due to the thermal inertia of the well. The situation is now
similar to that during production but with well head pressures which are greater and hence
increase the stresses on the string.
figure 7.u shows typical pressure and temperature trends after a shut-in.
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0 100 200 300

0 T (F)
2500 FINAL TBG
5000
INITIAL CSG E TBG - FINAL CSG
7500
D (feet)
0 5000 10000 15000

0 P (psi)
FINAL TBG
2500
INITIAL TBG
5000
INITIAL CSG - FINAL CSG
7500
D (feet)
Figure 7.T - Pressure and Temperature Trends in Normal Production Conditions

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Figure 7.U - Pressure and Temperature Trends in Depleted Reservoir Production Conditions
0 100 200 300

0 T (F)
2500 FINAL TBG
5000
INITIAL CSG E TBG - FINAL CSG
7500
D (feet)
0 5000 10000 15000

0 P (psi)
FINAL TBG
2500
INITIAL TBG
5000
7500
D (feet)
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0 100 200 300

0 T (F)
2500 FINAL TBG
5000
INITIAL CSG AND TBG - CSG FINAL
7500
D (feet)
0 5000 10000 15000

0 P (psi)
FINAL TBG
2500
INITIAL TBG
5000
7500
D (feet)
Figure 7.V - Pressure and Temperature Trends After Shut-In

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7.7.6. Load Condition Summary

The operations described above were chosen because they are the most common and
show which aspects of an operation must be known in order to determine which loads will
have to be considered to verify string design.
As shown in the examples above, it is important to be able to plot the pressure and
temperature trends of the casing and tubing on the two pressure/depth and temperature/
depth diagrams for the moment before the packer is set (initial conditions) and at the end of
this operation (final condition) or, in any case, during the stage considered most critical as
regards the loads applied.
Using the above diagrams, and knowing the completion configuration, the relative loads on
the sections of the string can be calculated, generally this is greatest in the section above
the packer and below the well head. If the string is tapered or has one, or more,
intermediate packers, it will be necessary during the control stage to know the pressure and
temperature data of all the packers and of the tubing cross-section variations and is good
practice to plot these data on diagrams.
7.8. TUBING SELECTION

The tubing string selection procedure and subsequent stress analysis is fundamental to the
completion design process as it is during these two stages, that the optimum solution is
found through a sequence of approximations. By using an iterative method, i.e. by choosing
and verifying the various possibilities, the correct safety factor for all the calculated load
conditions expected during the life of the well, can be obtained.
The Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates approach to choosing the tubing string is similar to that
followed when designing any other mechanical part. A draft design is considered based on
the expected well conditions and then this design is checked to obtain the safety factor(s).
Alterations are then made to the draft completion until the ideal safety factor, which may
differ depending on the local environmental conditions and on some parameters discussed
below, is reached.
Since the economic factor plays a primary role of importance when selecting a completion,
it is necessary to assess all the various possible solutions. A typical example is that of wells
with the presence of corrosive agents where either strings and down hole equipment can be
made in Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA) or carbon steel with inhibitors injected downhole
can be used. In both cases the problem of completing the well is solved but it is necessary
to verify both cost and whether it is better to use on CRA, avoiding future workovers or if it
is more economical to use carbon steel with an inhibition system and scheduled workovers.
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7.8.1. Critical Factors

The main factors driving the choice of the string are described below. Taking into
consideration the well conditions, it is then possible to identify the optimum mechanical
solutions.
Materials
The choice of material for the tubing string depends mainly on the well environment, in
terms of all the mechanical stresses and corrosivity of the fluids.
In general, the ideal material is determined by the results of corrosion studies carried out
prior to the tubing design stage, especially when the severity of the conditions suggest the
use of expensive CRA materials (Refer to section 6).
With regard to corrosion studies, it is always necessary to determine, the exact quantities of
H2S, CO2, chlorides and water from production tests and to enter these data into an expert
system, or for a quicker choice, using the engineering diagrams supplied by manufacturers.
However, this method does not provide a solution to using carbon steel in conjunction with
an inhibition system. In this case, it is best to base the choice on an appropriate corrosion
study which takes into account many other parameters, e.g. thickness of the corrosion
product, economics, frequency of workovers, etc.
Once the choice of materials has been identified, it will be necessary to take into
consideration their mechanical properties to ensure that a suitable factor can be verified in
the subsequent stress analysis stage. Indeed, to complete a well with the presence of
corrosive agents (H2S and/or CO2) the use carbon steel with controlled hardness and/or
martensitic steel, is often sufficient though these only reach a maximum grade of T95 (95
ksi yield) therefore do not always meet with stress requirements in high pressures and great
depth.
When CRA steels are used (which must be cold worked in order to obtain the required
mechanical characteristics), the possibility of anisotropies must be checked into as they
generally imply a lower compressive yield load than tensile yield load and corresponding
reductions for their use at high temperatures. The presence of residual tension may induce
stress corrosion and over-stressing problems which must also be taken into consideration.
7.8.2. Tubing Size And Weight

One of the main elements of the completion string design process, is the choice of the size,
wall thickness and grade of tubing which is optimum to requirements, outlined below. The
inside and outside diameter of the tubing, and if the string has more than one size of tubing
as in a tapered string, the length of each section needs to be determined at this point.
Given that the dimensions of the tubing and components of the string (safety valves,
landing nipples, etc.) must fit inside the production casing and/or liner, it is essential to
establish the size in order to find out if it impacts on the casing design.
Note: It is vital that any detrimental impact caused by the casing programme is
discussed with the drilling engineers to solve any problems, whether this
entails changes to either the casing programme or the completion design.
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The first indications of tubing size obtained is from tubing inflow performance analysis.
These studies can generally be completed quickly using Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates
software which directly provides the diameters of tubing for the expected flow rates and
projected rates, which take into account the type of fluid, surface pressures, bottom hole
pressures and other parameters. Calculation of the tubing inflow performance is very
complicated and time consuming in most cases and is not covered in this manual.
Once the projected size of the tubing is established for the required flow rate then in gas, or
gas condensate wells, it is necessary to calculate the velocities in the string during
production. This rate must be lower than the rate at which erosion occurs. These threshold
velocities can be found in API RP 14E.
The most important value to be decided on the selected tubing is its mechanical strength.
As explained in the following section, the loads resulting from the various load conditions
(acid jobs, production, etc.) applied to the selected string, the safety factor under these
loads against the yield strength are calculated. Once this calculation has been made, it may
be necessary to increase the weight or grade because the string is too weak. In some
particular situations non-traditional solutions must be chosen as some parameters, such as
cost, limit the choices. In the case of a very expensive super austenitic steel string for
example, it may be more appropriate to choose more structurally efficient solutions which
use a tapered string with different diameters thus reducing the amount of material needed
and therefore the cost.
Wells in which hydrocarbons containing corrosive agents are produced are sometimes
completed using carbon steel and it is accepted that a certain amount of the material will be
lost through corrosion during the life of the well. The strings of these wells, which generally
will be equipped with a corrosion inhibitor injection system, should therefore have added
thickness so as to have sufficient material to last until the scheduled workover. The two
cases; i.e. the new string (maximum thickness, maximum weight) and the workover stage
(minimum thickness, minimum weight) must both be taken into consideration when
calculating the strings stress resistance. It is prudent in such cases to reduce through
tubing interventions which knock off the corrosion exposing fresh material and, hence,
faster wall thickness reduction.
When choosing the thickness of the tubing forming the string, it is useful to consider the
thickness tolerance adopted by the manufacturer of the selected tubing. API standards for
carbon steels define a 12.5% eccentricity tolerance which means one point on the tubings
circumference probably has less thickness. This value for CRA tubings is often only 10%.
which provides a better safety factor under similar conditions. Another reduction of
thickness which must be taken into account on used tubing, may be due to repairs, by
grinding, carried out to remove tong marks.
The above factors can often lead to a variety of solutions, so it is necessary to evaluate
each one in order to obtain the most suitable solution in terms of cost, mechanical strength
and practical feasibility.
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7.8.3. Anchoring Systems

As illustrated earlier, the operations carried out during the life of a well cause movement of
the tubing string which can depend on the type of tubing/packer seal system used between
the bottom of the tubing and the packer, will generate different loads in the string will be
generated.
From figure 7.w, which shows the three most common types of packer/tubing systems, it is
clear from this that the least severe system is where the tubing seal assembly is free to
move in the packer bore. This system does, however, have some disadvantages which are
often unacceptable such as dynamic seals.
In very deep wells, with high pressures and temperatures the movements of the lower end
of the tubing may reach several feet in magnitude and hence very long seal units would
need to be used in the packer which brings related assembly and protection problems
during running in. Another important problem of free tubing, is the continuous movement of
the seal elastomers which may become damaged due to wear or from the debris deposited
in the annulus above the packer.
The best solution, due to the use of static seals, is systems to screw the tubing to the
packer using a threaded connection on retrievable packer systems or to a tubing anchor
(which allows the packer to be released when necessary) on permanent packer systems.
This type of anchoring provides the solution to seal life, but leads to greater stressing of the
tubing string. In preference, the free moving system is the first choice and if the loads it
creates do not allow for a suitable safety factor during well operations are other systems
considered.
Free Movement Limited Downward Attached

Movement
Figure 7.W - Tubing/Packer Systems
The second preference is where downward tubing movement is restricted i.e. using a No-
Go locator shoulder fitted above the seal assembly where it is positioned to prevent the
elongation of the string while leaving it free to shorten.
This will reduce movement of the packer seal assembly by eliminating downward movement
and upward movement would only occur in certain limited lead conditions (stimulations or
fracturing). This will extend seal life.
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7.9. TUBING CONNECTIONS

The Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates policy for tubing connections is that the use of premium
connections is mandatory. In conjunction Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates also
recommended that a premium connection be used for production casings and production
liners, especially when the annulus is to be used for gas lift or an underbalance fluid is used
as a completion fluid.
7.9.1. Policy
The use of premium connections for tubing is mandatory.
The use of premium connections for production casing is advised but not
mandatory.
The connections to be used shall be qualified according to the requirements as set in the
Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates procedure Connection Procedure Evaluation.
7.9.2. Class of Service

According to the specification STAP M-1-M 5006 Connection Procedure Evaluation, there
are two service classes, I and II, termed Application Levels (AL). Application Level I applies
to the most severe service conditions.
To date three tubing connections have been qualified for the most severe conditions ALI.
They are :
Coupled Connections
AMS 28 ( manufacturer Dalmine)
Vam ACE ( manufacturer Vallourec and Sumitomo)
Integral Connections
Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates A-DMS (Dual Metal Seal)
Other connections like Hydril CS, PJD Dalmine and Antares MS have not yet been
subjected to the complete qualification programme as per STAP M-1-M- 5006 or API 5C5.
They have however been used successfully for years with good results. They may be used
for all service condition where an Application Level II connection is required.
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7.9.3. Selection Criteria

The following are the selection criteria for connections used in different types of wells and
operating conditions.
Work string or well testing string:

Integral AL1 connection shall be used
Horizontal wells with Build up 20/100 feet:

Integral AL1 connection should be used
Wells with TVD 4500m:

Integral AL1 connection shall be used
Producing Oil And Gas Wells (TVD < 4500m)
Criteria Requirement
NACE no no yes yes
Close Proximity yes no yes no
Differential WP 0 - 4000 psi AL II AL II AL I AL II
Differential WP 4000 - 8000 psi AL I AL II (*) AL I AL I
Differential WP over 8000 psi AL I AL I AL I AL I
(*) For Gas Injection wells, AL I
Table 7.A - Connection Specification
Storage/Injection Gas Wells (TVD < 4500m)
Differential WP 0 - 4000 psi AL I
Differential WP 4000 - 8000 psi AL II
Table 7.B - Connection Specification
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Water Injection Wells (TVD < 4500m)
Table 7.C - Connection Specification
A flow chart reaffirming the above is shown in figure 7.x.

Note:
Section 7.9.4 explains the NACE and Close Proximity definitions.
Differential working pressure is the maximum differential pressure (internal and/or external)
to which the production string is subjected during the life of the well.
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Figure 7.X - Connection Application Level Selection Flow Chart

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7.9.4. NACE And Proximity Definitions

NACE Requirement
This applies to the partial pressure of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in the produced fluid as
defined by NACE Standard MR 01-75.
Close Proximity
A proximity assessment should be prepared to consider the potential impact of an
uncontrolled well flow condition on the life of personnel and the environment around the
wellhead. The following list of criteria can be used for determining this potential risk. Other
criteria for consideration should be included when necessary.
100ppm Radius of Exposure (ROE) of H2S is greater than 50ft. from the wellhead and in-
cludes any part of a public area except a public road.
Public area shall mean a dwelling, place of business, church, school, hospital, school bus
stop, government building, a public road, all or any portion of a park, city, town, village, or
other similar area that one can expect to be populated. Public road shall mean any federal,
state, county or municipal street or road owned or maintained for public access or use.
500ppm ROE of H2S is greater than 50ft. from the wellhead and includes any part of a
public area including a public road.
Well is located in any environmentally sensitive area such as parks, wildlife
preserve, city limits, etc.
Well is located within 150ft. of an open flame or fired equipment.
Well is located within 50ft. of a public road (lease road excluded).
Well is located in state waters.
Well is located in or near inland navigable waters
Well is located in or near surface domestic water supplies.
Well is located within 350ft of any dwelling.
These conditions are recommended minimum considerations. It will be necessary to meet

any other local regulatory requirements.
Texas Railroad Commission Rules

The following information is taken from Texas Railroad Commission Rule 36:
For determining the location of the 100ppm radius of exposure:
X = [(1.589) (mole fraction H2S) (Q)] 0.6258
For determining the location of the 500ppm radius of exposure:
X = [(0.4546) (mole fraction H2S) (Q)] 0.6258
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where: X = Radius of exposure in feet

Q= Maximum volume determined to be available for escape in cubic feet per day.
H2S = Mole fraction of hydrogen sulphide in the gaseous mixture which could
escape.
The volume used as the escape rate in determining the radius of exposure shall be that
specified below, as is applicable:
For the new wells in developed areas, the escape rate shall be determined by using the
current adjusted open-flow rate of offset wells, or the field average current adjusted open-
flow rate, whichever is the larger.
The escape rate used in determining the radius of exposure shall be corrected to standard
o
conditions of 14.65psia and 60 F.
When a well is in an area where insufficient data exists to calculate a radius of exposure,
but where hydrogen sulphide may be expected, a 100ppm radius of exposure equal to
3,000ft shall be assumed.
7.9.5. CRA Connections

For steels with a high chrome content (>13%), there is a tendency to gall during make up.
This requires special surface treatment in the connections pin and box. The anti-galling
treatments (e.g. Bakertron or copper plating) is always applied to the couplings to ensure
the utmost coating, hence protection.
7.9.6. Connection Data

Data on tubing connections are available from API specifications and tables in industry
handbooks.
7.10. TUBING STRESS CALCULATIONS

The final stage of the completion string design is the calculation of stress in areas under the
highest loads. After these calculations are made, it is possible to determine how close the
stresses are to the materials yield strength.
At this point of the process all the possible elements needed for the design verification are
available; i.e. information about the load conditions, the type of tubing and materials to be
used to meet the requirements outlined in section 6.8.
Using the calculation theory illustrated previously, it is possible to calculate the forces acting
on the packer, Fp, and consequently, the fictitious and piston forces in the string sections.
During the verification stage it may be seen that the loads on the string are unacceptably
high. The string or load conditions or the tubing strength must therefore be altered until the
calculation produces an appropriate safety factor (SF). Computer programmes are very
useful in this phase as it is possible to make repeated calculations quickly with different
parameters.
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7.10.1. Calculation Methods

Taking, as an example, the type of completion shown in figure 7.y, the sections where the
string design must be verified are indicated by x-x at the well head and y-y at the downhole
just above the packer. For other types of completions, string design must be verified at all
the appropriate sections where there are variations in diameter, have intermediate packers
or other discontinuities.
With reference to figure 7.y, the tables below summarise the forces acting on the sections
of the string which will be used for the design verifications. The asterix distinguishes the
forces calculated in a completion with the string anchored to the packer verses those
calculated for a string free to move in the seal bore.
Section Y-Y (Packer)

Tubing-Packer Mode Piston Forces Fictitious Forces
Free tubing Fa Ff
Tubing permitting limited motion Fa* = Fa + F p F f* = F f + F p
and anchored
Table 7.D - Forces at Y-Y
Section X-X (Well Head)

Tubing-Packer Mode Piston Forces Fictitious Forces
Free tubing Fa tp = Fa w s L F f tp = F f wL
Tubing permitting limited motion Fa*tp = Fa* w s L F f*tp = F f* wL

and anchored
Table 7.E - Forces at X-X
As can be seen, the forces at the well head coincide with those at the packer depth if L = 0.
Therefore, to calculate forces on intermediate sections between the well head and packer
depth, it is sufficient to use an intermediate length l ( L > l > 0 ) measured from the packer,
instead of L of the previous formulae.
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X X
Y Y
Figure 7.Y - Example Completion #1
The piston forces obtained in this way are used to calculate the axial stress which is given
by the expression:
Fa
a =
As
The fictitious force is used to calculate the axial stress caused by the tubing bending when
helically buckled, it is given by the expression:
Dr
b = Ff
4I
therefore, b is calculated only if the section of the string to be verified is buckled.
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Now all the factors needed to determine the equivalent stress a, b, Po and Pi are
available, i.e. the stress which, by applying suitable criterion (for the materials used in the oil
industry the most appropriate is Von Mises), allows comparison of the stresses due to the
different effects in a particular section of the string against the material yield stress rating.
In this case the equivalent force will be the greater of the two, calculated using the
expression below, which gives the equivalent stresses in the outside and inside wall of the
considered tubing section.
2
P P P R Po
2 2
o = 3 i 2 o + i 2 + a b
R 1 R 1
R 2 (Pi Po )
2 2
Pi R 2 Po b
i = 3 + +
R 1
R 1
2 2 a
R
As stated above, if the section to be calculated is buckled, both calculations must be made
to determine the higher of the two values while, if there is no buckling b = 0 and the greater
stress is that in the inside wall, the equivalent stress is eq = i
The higher of the stress values determined above will make it possible to obtain the SF of
the string for the load conditions and the section considered:
sn
SF =
eq
The SF must be greater than the minimum dictated by policy and listed in section 7.1 which
gives the SF values to be used by Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates.
7.10.2. Safety Factor

A completion strings safety factor is defined as the ratio between the yield stress and the
maximum value of the stress obtained as described above. It, therefore, provides a quick
reference parameter to evaluate the magnitude of the stresses present in the tubing
compared to the maximum acceptable.
To calculate the SF the yield limit values of the material are taken into consideration so that
there is no permanent corkscrewing of the string which could jeopardise, even if only
slightly, its functionality.
The Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates policy is to apply different types of material due to their
different mechanical behaviours and resistance to corrosion.
Carbon and CRA Steels up to 13%Cr
The acceptable SF for these types of materials is:
1.25
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In each individual case the string design and stress analysis engineer may evaluate
whether the acceptable SF can be lowered to 1.15 for some particular operations and for
specific well conditions. (e.g. low pressure oil wells, economic decision not to use the next
grade of tubing etc.).
Cold Worked (CW) CRA Steels
The acceptable SF for these types of materials which include duplex, super-austenitic and
Incoloy is:
1.35
Similarly, the engineer may evaluate whether, for some particular operations and for
specific well conditions, the acceptable SF can be lowered to 1.20.
The different SFs between the carbon and CRA steels can be attributed to the different
behaviour of these materials for stress values above the yield point. As stated previously,
the SF is calculated using the yield point but also the collapse rating of the string. This is a
dangerous situation which occurs at the breaking point.
figure 7.z shows the stress/strain diagrams for the above two types of materials. As can be
seen, apart from the yielding the cold worked materials reach breaking point soon after the
yield point while the carbon steels maintain a greater plastic deformation margin before the
breaking point.
Furthermore, the cold worked materials retain residual stress so, from both the viewpoint of
stress corrosion and mechanical strength, the SF should be slightly higher. It is, therefore,
clear that a higher SF for Cold Worked materials is required in order to maintain the same
safety factor relevant to the breaking points for the two types of materials.
Figure 7.Z - Stress/Strain Diagrams
COLD WORKED CARBON STEEL

r
r
sn sn

r = breaking point
sn = yield point
= elongation
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The SF discussed up to this point is valid, if referred to only as in the condition of triaxial
stress which, therefore, takes into consideration all the stress components to determine the
eq, from which it is possible to make a comparison with the yield load.
Any other SFs, referred to, in a state of monoaxial stresses, cannot be compared in any
way to those described in this manual because they take into consideration only one mode
of loading. For example, tension tubing, if applied individually, causes a state of monoaxial
stress. However, it would be incorrect to use the SF for tension alone because during the
life of the well it will be subjected to a combination of stresses.
7.10.3. External Pressure Limit

During the productive life of a well, conditions may occur making it necessary to limit the
external pressure on the string. One example is a well at the end of its productive life with
less pressure in the tubing than in the annulus, due to the depletion in reservoir pressure.
Another example is downhole pumps for artificial lifting and are operated by the power fluid
pumped down the annulus, which require substantial differential operating pressures.
Calculation of external pressure is carried out using the formulae supplied by API Bulletin
5C3 which identifies four types of collapse at external pressure in relation to the D/t ratio
and the Yp yield stress of the material. In fact the causes of collapse can range from
material yield as in the case of pipes with a low D/t ratio, to the sections elastic limit which
occurs in thin-walled pipes.
In order to use the API Bul 5C3 formulae, once D/t and Yp are known, the type of formula is
chosen then the maximum withstandable pressure calculated. If an axial force is applied to
the pipe as well as external pressure, the Yp value for use for calculations is adjusted using
a special formula.
7.10.4. Packer Load Limits

If the Fp force value transmitted by the string to the packer is known, it is possible to
calculate this value under various well conditions. By evaluating the magnitude of this force
and considering other factors such as the possibility of future recovery, the most suitable
type of packer in relation to the completion type, can be determined. By using diagrams
supplied by the manufacturer, it is possible to check whether well conditions come within
the limits set by the packer rating.
A typical diagram for packer force limits is shown in figure 7.aa. If the force exerted by the
tubing on the packer (Fp = set-down, if negative, Fp = tension, is positive) and the differential
pressure above and below the packer (Po>Pi above, Po<Pi below), are known, this diagram
can be used to ascertain the suitability of the condition.
As can be seen, when the pressure in the annulus increases compared to that in the tubing,
greater tensile loads can be applied and vice versa. In order to comply with the
specifications of the supplier, the tensile strength in this case is positive.
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400
(tension)
300
200
(Thousands)
FORCE
100
0 Safety zone
(set-down)
-100
-200
-20 -10 0 10 20
(Thousands)
(above) PRESSURE DIFF. (below)
Figure 7.AA - Typical Packer Force Limit Diagram
7.10.5. Example Manual Calculation

As an example of applying the method detailed above, we can consider the single
completion in the well shown in figure 7.bb. During a cement squeeze operation, the
analysis of the possible packer/tubing configurations available in this set-up is free tubing to
packer and fully anchored. This allows calculation of the variations in length and thereafter
the anchoring force in the packer.
Data:
7 2
Tubing 2 /8in 6.5lb/ft : Ai = 4.68in
2
Ao = 6.49in
2
As = 1.81in
R = 1.178
ws = 0.542lb/in
4
I = 1.61in
sn = 80,000psi
Casing 7in 32lb/ft: ID = 6.094in
r = 1.61in
Packer bore: Dpb = 3.25in
2
Ap = 8.3in
Length of string: L = 10,000ft = 120,000in
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Initial Conditions
Initially both the tubing and the annulus are filled with 30 API oil, while the temperature is
60F at the well head and 200F at the bottom hole. figure 7.cc shows the pressure and
temperature variations against depth. It should be noted that 30 API corresponds to a
3
specific gravity of 0.0317lb/in and, therefore, to a pressure gradient of 0.38 psi/ft.
Final Conditions
Final conditions are cement displacement with a specific gravity of 15lb/gal, obtained by
pressurising the tubing at 5,000psi and the casing at 1,000psi. This operation causes the
string to cool to 160F at the bottom hole and creates the pressure and temperature trend
3
shown in figure 7.cc (15lb/gal corresponds to a specific gravity of 0.0649lb/in and to a
pressure gradient of 0.7795psi/ft).
X X
Y Y
Figure 7.BB - Example Completion #2

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P (psi) 60
T (F)
O O
GEOTERMICO
CSG e TBG
10000 10000
3800 200
D (feet) D (feet)
FINAL CONDITIONS
P (psi) 60
T (F)
O 1000 5000 O
TBG
SQUEEZE
CSG
10000 10000
4800 12795 160
D (feet) D (feet)
Figure 7.CC - Initial and Final Condition (Example #2)
Calculation Method
a) Calculation of variations in length
The variation in the piston force between initial and final conditions is expressed by:
Fa = Pi (Ap Ai ) Po (Ap Ao )
= 8995 (8.3 4.68) 1000 (8.3 6.49)

= 30751.9 lb
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so the variation in length according to Hookes Law (piston force) is given by:
Fa L 30751.9 x 120000
L1 = =
E As 30000000 x 1.81
= 67.96 in
The fictitious force, which is initially zero because Pi = Po, is given by:
F f = A p (Pi Po )
= 8.3 x (12795 4800 )
= 66358.5 lb
As this value is positive, then the string is buckled, so it is necessary to determine the
position of the neutral point in order to calculate the L2.
The weight of string, w, fully immersed in fluids, is calculated in the following way:
w fi = Ai fi
= 4.68 x 0.0649
= 0.3037 lb/in
w fo = Ao fo
= 6.49 x 0.0317
= 0.2057 lb/in
w = ws + w fi w fo
= 0.542 + 0.3037 0.20567
= 0.640 lb/in
The neutral point from the bottom hole is therefore:
Ff
n=
w
66358.5
=
0.640
= 103685.16 in
As this distance is less than the length of the string, not all the string is buckled.
The variation in length L2, is calculated using the first of the two formulae in section 7.4.2.
F2 r 2
L 2 =
8Elw
(1.6166358.5 )
2
=
8300000001.610.64
= 46.16
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As regards the variation in length due to ballooning, the average variations in pressure
along the string can be calculated using the formulae in section 7.4.3:
Pim =
(5000 0) + (12795 3800 )
2
= 6997.5 psi
Pom =
(1000 0 ) + (4800 3800)
2
= 1000 psi
Therefore, the variation in length caused by ballooning is as follows:
2 Pim R2 x Pom
L3 = x xL
R 1
2
E
6997.5 (1.178) x 1000
2
2 x 0.3
= x x 120000
30000000 (1.178)2 1
= 34.73 in.
As regards the variation in length due to temperature, the formula in section 7.4.4, is used
to calculate the average variation in temperature along the string:
TM =
(60 60 ) + (160 200)
2
= 20 F
The variation in length is therefore:
L4 = TM L
= 6.9 x 10 6 x ( 20 ) x 120000
= 16.56 in.
The variation in total length of the tubing, if the tubing can freely move in the packer-bore, is
therefore given by
Ltot = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 1
= 165.4 in.
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b) Tubing Permitting Limited Motion

The variation in length calculated above, may sometimes be unacceptable, as it would
create seal assembly lengths which are not practicable for the planned type of completion.
One method for containing these elongations is to use a tubing permitting limited motion, as
it off-loads weight on the packer after it is set (slack-off) and compresses the string. The
slack-off operation modifies the variations in length the string will undergo during the
subsequent cement squeeze stage as shown below.
During initial conditions, oil is the fluid inside the tubing and so:
w fi = Ai fi
= 4.68 x 0.0317
= 0.1483 lbs/in
w = w s + w fi w fo
= 0.542 + 0.1483 0.20575
= 0.48 lbs/in.
Assuming that the slack-off force off loaded on the packer is 20,000lb, the neutral point is
located as:
Fso
n=
w
20000
=
0.485
= 41266.4 in.
from the bottom of the string.
As this value is less than the total length of the string, it makes it possible to use the formula
in section 7.6 in order to obtain:
Fso L Fso2 r 2
Lso =
E As 8 E I w
=
20000 x 120000

(1.61 x 20000) 2
30000000 x 1.81 8 x 30000000 x 1.61 x 0.485

= 49.73 in.
The variation in the length of the string during the cement squeeze job, when there is a
tubing permitting limited motion is given by:
Lsotot = Ltot L so
= 165.41 ( 49.73)
= 115.68 in.
As can be seen, this value is lower than that calculated for a free tubing.
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c) Anchored tubing
If we assume a condition obtained with a tubing which only permits limited motion, giving
Ltot = -115.68 in. This value may still be unacceptable so it is necessary to use anchoring
so
in both directions. In this case as slack-off after setting the packer is present it is necessary
to determine the force required to position the end of the tubing in the packer (Fp), thus
setting the elongation Lp =-Ltot =115.68 in .
so
Figure 8.6 shows the diagram obtained using the formulae which supplies the
force/elongation characteristic for tension and compression. When the data of the example
are replaced, the formulae below are obtained (the diagram can be quickly plotted by
entering any F values and calculating the corresponding L):
F
L = [in] for F<0
452.5
F F2
L = [in] for F >0 .
452.5 95403727
If the diagram is plotted with the value of the fictitious force calculated previously
(66358.5lbs), it is possible to identify the point where the origin of the axes has moved to.
From this point, movement in the direction of elongation by a Lp value is made in order to
locate the point which is distant from the curve by a Fp value. As figure 7.cc shows, Fp = -
37000lbs, so the string is subject to stress at its lower end which is equal to 37,000lbs and
the packer is forced upwards by the same amount.
d) Tubing Stress Control

If we consider a tubing anchored to the packer during a cement squeeze operation, with a
slack-off of 20,000lbs, the fictitious and piston forces, calculated according to section 7.6,
are:
Fa* = Fa + F p
= Pi (A p Ai ) P0 (A p Ao ) + F p
= 629 in.
F f* = F f + F p
= 29358 lb
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In the section above the packer (figure 7.bb), the forces at the well head are:
Fa*tp = Fa* w s x L
= 629 6.5 x 10000

= 64371 in.
F f* tp = F f* w x L
= 29358 0.64 x 120000

= 47442 in. allungamenti
[in]
100
allungamenti
[in]
50
20 40 60 80 100
trazione -40 -20 compressione
[lbx1000] [lbx1000]
-50
Fp
-100
-150 Lp
20 40
-200 Ff
compressione
[lbx1000]
accorciamenti
[in]
Figure 7.DD - Anchored Tubing (Example #2)

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Bottom Hole
The piston force generates an axial stress equal to:
Fa*
a =
As
629
=
1.81
= 347 psi
the deformation due to buckling generates an axial stress equal to:
Dr *
b = Ff
4I
2.875 x 1.61 x 29358
=
4 x 1.61
= 21095 psi
If we replace the a e b, values, along with Pi = 12795 psi e Po = 4800 psi, the values
below are obtained using the formulae in section 7.10:
o = 51688psi
i = 60223psi ,
therefore, if we consider the highest value found as equivalent force, the result is eq = i,
we can obtain the following bottom hole safety factor:
sn
SF =
eq
80000
=
60223
= 1.33
Well Head
As Ff tp < 0 the string at the well head is not buckled, b = 0 and the greatest amount of
*
stress is generated on the inner wall of the tubing:

Fa*tp
a =
As
64371
=
1.81
= 35564 psi
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If we replace the a value obtained and as pi = 5,000psi and po = 1,000psi, the value below
is obtained using the formula in section 7.10:
i = 36117 psi
therefore as eq = i, , the well head safety factor is:
sn
SF =
eq
80000
=
36117
= 2.21
The safety factor for the cement squeeze operation results as the lowest of obtained
values, therefore:
SF = 1.33
This value is acceptable because the lower limit for a carbon steel string is 1.25.
7.10.6. Example Computation

As an example we have included two cases of string calculations, carried out using the
Wellcat programme supplied by Enertech. The first example is the same as that dealt with
by Lubinsky. The second is a case history, analysed during completion studies for the
Villafortuna-Trecate field. Particular attention should be paid to data entry and presentation
of results in order to obtain knowledge of how the programme handles these two cases.
For a description of the programmes general functions, please refer to the notes in
Appendix D and the users manual available in the Companys library.
Examples done with the Vertubing programme, have been deliberately omitted as this
programme is no longer used by Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates. Therefore only a brief
description has been given in Appendix D. For further information please refer to the users
manual.
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8. SUB-SURFACE EQUIPMENT
8.1. PACKERS
The types of packer systems and applications have already been described in section 5.3.1.
This section defines the series of criteria for choosing packer characteristics to apply to
single and selective completions.
The packers considered are listed in table 8.a below. The proposed criteria for the choice
only take into consideration general technical aspects and do not cover the individual
characteristics of particular models or tools, while still reflecting the needs which lead to
selection of the most commonly used models.
Once the packer type and model have been defined, the next stage is establish its
performance to meet with all the expected operating conditions (applied force and pressure
differences). For this reason regarding permanent packers, reference is made to the
operating Envelopes; i.e. operating diagrams for the packers supplied by the manufacturer
of the particular packer and to the pressure ratings for retrievable packers.
Type Of Packer Setting Method Setting Tool Sealbore Features

Permanent Mechanical Hydraulic setting tool Std/Large/Dual
Electric line Std/Large/Dual
Hydraulic N/A Std/Dual
Permanent/ Mechanical N/A Std/Large/Dual
Retrievable
Hydraulic N/A Std/Dual
Retrievable Hydraulic N/A
Hydrostatic N/A
Weight N/A
Table 8.A - Packer Types
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8.1.1. Selection Procedure

Packer selection has three stages:
1) Selection of type of packer
2) Selection of setting mechanism
3) Selection of main packer accessories including the tubing-packer connection
In stage 3, stress analysis is carried out to check the completion string (packer and tubing)
under the stress to which they are exposed, refer to section 7.5 which describes the
iterative process of tubing weight/grade/stress calculations.
8.1.2. Selection Criteria

Various representations can be used to describe the categories of criteria. This section
illustrates the flow diagrams, identifying the standard procedures for each stage (Refer to
figure 8.a.).
The selection process includes the following categories of data:
General Well Data

This includes data which effects the configuration of the well to be completed, the most
important being:
Location (on-shore/ off-shore platforms, off-shore under water)
Pressures and temperatures
Type of well (production, injection)
Type of fluid produced (oil, gas)
Deviation (max. deviation angle).
Completion Data
This includes the following parameters such as:
Type and density of the completion fluid
Perforation of the casing using tubing-conveyed or wireline techniques
Use of a production liner.
These data also include type of packer chosen and setting, setting depth, etc.
Operational Data
The following operational data are required:
Stimulations (planned, unplanned)
Type of de-compression operations, in particular:
a) removal of the tubing by itself
b) removal of the tubing and packer simultaneously
Planned frequency of de-compression operations
Potential damage to the formation caused by the workover fluid.
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Figure 8.A - Selection Process Diagram

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8.1.3. Well Classification

An important parameter for defining the characteristics of a packer is the degree of difficulty
of the well to be completed. To this end four classes of well have been identified which are
used to analyse the various problems involved in the selection of the packer:
1) High corrosive wells
The fluids have high corrosive problems.
2) Highly critical wells:

Deep depths > 4500m.
High temperatures, SBHT > 130C.
High pressures, SBHP > 700 atm.
Subsea well-head well.
Platform well having the risk of failure due to the potential collision from a vessel
with the structure.
Gas injection well with pressures, ITHP above 3,000psi.
3) Critical Well
Temperatures between 100 and 130C
Depths between 3,000 and 4,500m.
4) Non-critical well
Depth of less than 3,000m.
Temperatures below 100 C.
The depths indicated are true vertical depths.
8.1.4. Packer Selection For Single String Completion

Type Of Packer Procedure
The choice is mainly linked to the type of well:
1) In the case of a highly critical well, select a permanent packer.
2) If the well has high corrosive, select a permanent/retrievable or permanent packer,
with priority be given to the former.
3) If the well is critical or non-critical, (Refer to figure 8.b).
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Figure 8.B - Type of Packer for Critical and Non-Critical Wells
Explanation of figure 8.b:
(A) High frequency of tubing pullout.
(B) High frequency of tubing-packer pullout.
(C) Use of TCP drilling techniques.
(D) Measured well depth 3000 m.
(E) The workover fluid damages the formation.
(F) The packer fluid is a high density mud (> 1.6 kg/l) with probable solid deposits
on the packer.
(G) Gas injection well with injection pressure > 3,000psi.

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At points A and B, high frequency of extraction corresponds to a completion life of less than
five years.
The rectangle Choose indicates the choice between the two alternatives, the priority is
indicated by a number (1 corresponds to a higher priority than 2). For example, in the
choice is made on the basis of point (D) then there are no particular constraints (no
workovers, or requests due to the completion fluid characteristics).
The safety factor of using a retrievable packer or not depends on the criticality of the well
and, in particular, on its depth.
Packer Setting Method

Permanent and Permanent/Retrievable Packers
The selection is dependent mainly on the well characteristics:
1) If the well is corrosive or very critical, choose hydraulic setting.
2) If the well is critical or not critical, (Refer to figure 8.c).
3) Reference (A) is only true if one of the following conditions are relevant:
SBHT > 150 C (= 270 F).
Is a deviated well, with a maximum deviation angle > 50.
The completion fluid = mud with density > 1.6 kg/l.
Gas a production liner with inclination > 30.
Figure 8.C - Packer Setting Method for Critical and Non-Critical Wells
For a mechanical type permanent packer, the setting is defined by the conditions
detailed in (A). The same procedure will also be used later for packers of the type
used in a selective type completion.
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Retrievable Packer Setting Method

The method of setting used for retrievable packers is made, following the diagram in figure
8.d:
Figure 8.D- Retrievable Packer Setting Method
1) Check (A) is only true if one of the following conditions are relevant:
The well is deviated with a maximum deviation angle of > 20.
The bottom-hole temperature (SBHT) is > 60 C.
The vertical depth of the packer setting is > 2,000m (this is true to definitive and
not test completions).
Stimulations are planned.
2) Check (B):
Using TCP shooting techniques.
3) Check (C):
There is high frequency of tubing pullout (life of the completion < 5 years).
4) Check (E):
Completion fluid and damage to the formation
5) Check (F):
The packer fluid is a high density mud (> 1.6 kg/l) with the probability that it
leaves solid deposits on the packer.
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The decision of whether to use a hydraulic, or hydrostatic, set is left to the engineer. The
main consideration is the required setting pressure (lower for hydrostatic packers) which
influences the wellhead pressure rating.
The conditions at the moment of packer setting decides whether to use a retrievable
packer. If these are outwith the capacity of the retrievable packer, a permanent/retrievable
packer will be utilised and consequently, the corresponding setting procedure will have to
be adopted (see permanent packers above).
Permanent And Permanent/Retrievable Packers Setting Method

There are principally two aspects to analyse:
The choice of the tubing-packer connection.
To integrate this choice with the stress analysis procedures.
If during the application of the stress analyses of the string gives negative results, a
configuration which fulfils the stress analysis requirements must be considered for the
packer-tubing connection5.
The shear ring value is generally set by increasing the maximum force applied to the packer
by 25%. The maximum force is determined using stress analysis (to take into account the
tolerance of the nominal shear value 5 to 10%). The shear value is checked for the stress
conditions at the wellhead section during the packer release stage.
Tubing-packer connections seal assembly elements will be of the moulded seal type when
subjected to alternating pressure cycles, e.g. gas injection wells where the IBHP is greater
than the packer fluid pressure and SBHP is lower than the packer fluid pressure.
Highly Critical Well: Anchored Completion

For a highly critical well, the approach is the same as that for an anchored tubing-packer.
defines the type of anchoring on the basis of the conditions for (A), in particular the choice
is made between a shear release or anchor seal assembly.
The type of anchor to be used can be defined during this first stage for an anchored
completion (without shear release):
If the packer is set mechanically, the anchor will be a ratchet type or,
alternatively, fixed.
If the stress analysis results are negative:

If a shear release is needed, an anchor seal assembly is used.
If anchor is needed, a dynamic seal is used (Refer to figure 8.d).
5 If the failure of the stress analysis is due to the tension caused by the tubing-packer connection. At present the stress
analysis procedure is developed using the Veritas software package .Veritas is the UNIX version of the VERTBG package.
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Figure 8.E - Anchored Completion Option
Check (A):
Deviated well:
if it is an injection well it cannot be critical (see section 8.1.3).
For an anchor with shear release:

If the stress analysis upon releasing is negative, an anchor will be used and the
check will be carried out again.
Highly Critical Well: Dynamic Seal

This stage considers an anchored completion which fails the stress analysis calculation
because of problems associated with the tubing-packer connection. In this case a dynamic
seal is used (Refer to figure 8.f).
Figure 8.F - Dynamic Seal
Check (A)
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The packer fluid is a high density mud (> 1.6 kg/l) which may leave solid
deposits on the packer.
Check (B):
The packer is one trip installation, i.e. run on the tubing. This is only possible
with hydraulically packers.
The procedure illustrated in figure 8.f gives a general description of the criteria behind the
choice of dynamic seal to be adopted. Reference will be made to this later and also for
cases which are different to those described in highly critical wells above.
Here, following any failure of the stress analysis, no other rules are apply as, in general,
when using dynamic seals, the stress analysis results are corrected using factors other than
the seal element.
Critical, Non-Critical Well

The easiest solution in these cases is to choose a Standard Seal Locator.
This is the case with the following conditions:
No stimulations are planned.
The well is not an injection well.
The packer is not set hydraulically.
If these conditions do not apply, the procedure illustrated in figure 8.g is followed.
Figure 8.G - Critical and Non-Critical Wells, Seal Element

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Check (A):
the packer fluid is a high density mud (> 1.6 kg/l) which may leave solid deposits
on the packer.
(B):
deviated well with max. deviation angle > 20.
(C):
expected life of the completion < 5 years.
(D):
the packer is set mechanically.
Again in figure 8.g, the outlet conditions included in the rectangle indicate, besides the
choice of tubing-packer connection, the need to use the packing setting procedure
specified.
In the case of a deviated well, anchored completion is not recommended. It is better to use
a completion with a shear element which is more easily releasable, or a dynamic seal
whenever feasible.
No additional adaptation of the seal element is foreseen as a consequence of any stress
analysis.
Retrievable Packer Tubing-Packer Connections

The choice of the tubing-packer connection for retrievable packers (hydraulic and set down
weight) is made on the basis of that in figure 8.h.
Particular conditions raise questions over which type of retrievable packer to use. In these
cases, a permanent/retrievable packer is the priority or a permanent should be used and
consequently the associated setting procedure and seal assembly selected.
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Figure 8.H - Tubing-Packer Connections for Retrievable Packers
8.1.5. Single Selective Completion Packers

The criteria illustrated here are valid for selective completions with 2 or 3 producing zones.
The solutions given are for a case with only 2 zones and if a third zone is to be taken into
consideration it is assumed that the selection made for the upper zone of the two zone
scenario applies.
Packer Selection
The first case classifies the well on the basis of depth characteristics ( 4,000m) but more
on the basis of its complexity.
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Figure 8.I - Single Selective Packer For Complex Wells
if several different configurations are available, as for example in figure 8.i, the engineer
has a certain degree of freedom of choice but is, however, governed by the order of priority
specified along with the choices.
If the conditions as of figure 8.i, are not applicable, these cases are classified by well depth:
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Figure 8.J - Selective Single Well with Depths Between 3,000 and 4,000m
Figure 8.K - Selective Single Well with Depths Between 1,500 and 3,000m
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Figure 8.L - Selective Single Well with Depths Less Than 1,500m
In the case of depths less than 1,500m in a well not considered complex, it is strongly
recommend that a retrievable type packer be used.
Application of the criteria illustrated in figure 8.i through figure 8.l is common with the only
exception, in the case of multiple choices, being that the order of priority for the lower zone
can be changed by applying the following rules:
If workovers are planned with removal of the tubing and packer, and a
retrievable packer is one in the list of possible choices, then it should be
selected.
If the completion fluid is a mud with deposition problems, and a permanent or
permanent/retrievable packer are in the list of possible choices, then the
permanent/retrievable should be selected over of the retrievable.
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Packer Setting Method

The type of setting method proposed depends on the following factors:
Type of packer
Setting distance between the packers.
The setting criteria of a mechanical permanent packer (on a workstring, or wireline) are
those already defined for the single completion described in section 8.1.4.
Permanent Stacked Packers:

Refer to figure 8.i with all permanent packers, if the setting distance between the packers is
> 500m (check with the packer manufacturer), choose hydraulic setting for all the packers or
else mechanical setting.
Lower Permanent Packer With Upper Retrievable:

Refer to figure 8.j, figure 8.k and figure 8.l, in these cases the reference packer is
permanent and the other packers are the retrievable or permanent/retrievable type. With
these type of packers, if the completion fluid is a brine, hydraulic type setting should be
used or else the packers can be set mechanically.
Mechanical setting is preferred for the reference packer and the setting should be by
electric line when the distance between the packers is < 500 m.
If the reference packer is set by a workstring, a depth control procedure is necessary to
verify the depth of the packer setting to ensure positioning of the blast joint across the
upper zone which is open to production.
All packers are Retrievable

Refer to figure 8.k and figure 8.l where all packers are retrievable, hydraulic setting should
be used for this type of packer. It is essential to check with manufacturers that the distance
between the packers is sufficient for the packers to be set.
Tubing-Packer Connection Selection

The criteria continues by classifying the packers by type and setting with the zones treated
separately. In some cases, three zones are assumed (upper, intermediate, lower). In cases
where there is no specific mention of an Intermediate zone, it is treated with the same
criteria used for the upper zone.
Generally, the results of the stress analysis specifically identifies the packers with releasing
problems. Due to this, the zones are be treated separately; i.e. modifications are be made
only to those packers which have the problems. It is recommended in any case to re-check
the completion after having made the modifications.
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Upper packer
The rules described for the single completion are applied to the upper packer (Refer to
8.1.4).
Lower or Intermediate Packer

There are three possible ways of treating the lower zones:
1) All the packers are of the permanent or permanent/retrievable types with hydraulic
setting. Initially an anchor with shear release should be selected. In the case of failure
of the stress analysis on this packer, a dynamic seal will be used (anchor with PBR or
telescopic joint).
2) The lower zone packer is a permanent with mechanical setting. A dynamic seal should
be used; in particular, a standard length locator. In the case of failure of the stress
analysis, a longer locator with seal bore extension should be used. For the
intermediate zone in the three zone case, an anchor or retrievable type packer will be
used, for the intermediate packer.
3) The lower zone packer is a retrievable. In the case of failure in the stress analysis a
dynamic seal with telescopic joint will be used.
For the intermediate zone in the case of three zones, a telescopic joint should be used
when there is failure in the stress analysis.
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8.2. SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES

This section provides the Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates policy and guidelines for the
application and selection of Sub-Surface Safety Valves (SSSV). The policy defined shall be
applied to all Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates completion designs world-wide. Any variation
to this policy and selection procedures herein, shall only be sanctioned by the Eni-Agip
Division and Affiliates Head Office.
8.2.1. Policy
All Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates completions shall incorporate a SSSV in the
completion string to provide safety in the event of an uncontrolled well flow.
Surface controlled sub-surface safety valves (SCSSVs) shall be used accordingly to the
criteria listed below in section 8.2.4.
8.2.2. Applications
The applications for SSSVs are given in section 8.2.5.
The choice of SSSV for a particular development will depend on:
Well location
Fluid properties
Required flow area
Well intervention capabilities.
This will determine whether the selected SSSV is Wireline Retrievable (WRSV) or Tubing
Retrievable (TRSV).
8.2.3. Wireline Retrievable Safety Valves

Wireline retrievable valves may be, either, sub-surface controlled sub-surface safety valves
(SSCSSV) otherwise known as direct acting valves or surface controlled sub-surface safety
valves (SCSSV).
SSCSSVs are either pressure differential or ambient pressure operated valves. Both types
are generally referred to as storm chokes.
The use of these valves should be avoided as they are set up to operate on predetermined
conditions representing a major leak at surface, e.g. a flowline rupture, but under some
circumstances, when there is a leak of insufficient rate, the valve may fail to close. In
conjunction, flow erosion of the valve internals may alter the closure settings.
A derivative of the storm choke is the injection valve which is held open by water or gas
injection and closes when injection ceases.
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8.2.4. Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valves

These are designed for tubing retrievable, wireline retrievable or annulus safety valve
systems. They are controlled normally by surface applied hydraulic pressure through a
control line clamped to the outside of the tubing string. Hydraulic pressure opens and then
retains the valve open. Removal of the pressure allows the valves to close. These valve
systems are fail safe and are preferred to SSCSSVs.
The guidelines given in section 8.2.5 indicate in which applications WRSVs and TRSVs
should be used.
The following table 8.b specifies when SCSSVs shall be used.
Well Type Criteria

Oil Producer All new offshore development.
All wells onshore which can sustain natural flow.
All old wells in above categories which are to be
recompleted.
All isolated wells.
Gas producer All new offshore development.
All old wells being recompleted.
Gas storage All wells.
Gas injection All wells.
Water injection All wells.
Artificial lift All wells on gas lift, tubing and annulus.
Electrical submersible pump, tubing and only
annulus if used for gas venting.
H2S in produced fluids All wells.
Table 8.B - Criteria For Use of SCSSV's
8.2.5. Valve Type/Closure Mechanism Selection

This section gives recommendations on the choice of valve with the corresponding type of
closure mechanism.
Note: All valves with ball type closure mechanisms are not recommended for
use as they are less reliable than flapper valves.
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Type of Valve Applications

Tubing Retrievable Flapper Valve Offshore platform wells.
Subsea wells.
Wells with the presence of H2S or CO2.
Wells with surface flowing temperature greater
than 130C.
Wells with shut-in surface.
Wireline Retrievable Surface Controlled As on insert valve for tubing retrievable
Flapper Valve SCSSVs.
Storm Chokes As a backup to the WRSV above when there is a
control line failure. Set in the next lowest
wireline nipple.
Annular Safety Systems Gas lift wells.
ESP wells with gas venting.
Jet pump wells, under the pump.
Wireline Retrievable Injection Valves All waste wells.
Table 8.C - SSSV Closure Mechanism Applications
Gas or water injection wells may have either a tubing retrievable or wireline retrievable
SCSSV.
8.3. CONTROL/INJECTION LINE SELECTION

The purpose of this sub-section is to define the basic criteria for the selection and the use of
small diameter tubes for SCSSV control line and injection line applications. These two
different cases will be considered separately below.
8.3.1. Control Lines

Tube used as control line to operate downhole safety valves are installed along with the
production string. In this case, SCSSVs are usually set at shallow depths and, therefore,
the length of line required is generally relatively short.
8.3.2. Injection Lines

Tube used as injection lines to inject chemical products such as corrosion or scale
inhibitors down hole or as deep as possible in the well, are also installed with the tubing
string. The line length required in this case, will be considerably longer.
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8.3.3. Tube Specifications

Size
Small diameter tubes for control or injection line applications are manufactured either as
seamless or seam-welded and sunk. They are usually available in a full range of materials
and sizes.
In the seamless tube manufacturing process, the raw material comes in the form of
extruded hollows, which are then reduced to the desired diameter and wall thickness by a
cold drawing operation. In the case of welded tube process, the raw material comes in
strips which are first rolled into tube form which is fed through a welding head to perform a
fusion weld. The cycles of cold drawing with a floating plug drawing method is preferred and
annealing operations performed to reach the desired dimensions and produce a weld zone
homogeneous with the rest of the tube material.
Welded tubes are considered the norm as opposed to seamless which are considerably
more expensive and limited in length (usually a max. of 1000 ft in length). Welded tubes
can be produced in extra long coils more than 3200 ft by butt welding lengths of tubings
together.
Both types of lines comply with ASTM specification A269 Seamless and Welded Austenitic
Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service and ASTM-B751 specification General
requirement for Ni and Ni alloy Seamless and Welded Tube.
1
The standard size for both applications, control and injection line, is /4 OD and the wall
thickness chosen from among the following sizes according to the pressure requirements:

1
/4 OD x 0,035 wall thickness

1
/4 OD x 0,049 wall thickness

1
/4 OD x 0,065 wall thickness.
Control Line Working Pressures

A down hole safety valve is usually set at a relatively shallow depth, ranging about 30m to
50m from well head for on-shore installations or from sub sea level in case of off-shore
activity. For this reason the configuration of the control line is not effected by the well
deviation, therefore in most cases external encapsulation it is not recommended. Once the
working pressure has been defined as explained in the following paragraph, refer to table
8.d for the selection of the size which most suits the requirements.
The working pressure (WP) is defined as follows:
WP = Safety Valve WP + Valve Opening Pressure
Safety Valve WP is as specified by the manufacturer.
Valve Opening Pressure, provided by the manufacturer, is the pressure required to
overcome the closing force of the spring plus resistance due to friction effects. Usually it
ranges between 1,500 to 2,000psi depending on the manufacturer.
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Chemical Injection Line Working Pressures

Chemical injection lines are run to injection mandrels which are installed as close as
possible to the bottom of the tubing. The definition of working pressure is based on the
following considerations:
Well configuration, therefore total vertical depth.
Injection fluid characteristics such as density and viscosity.
Injection rates to choose the correct diameter and evaluate friction losses.
Total pressure required to inject chemicals through the line.
Injection rates referred to in this application are always low, therefore the flow profile can be
assumed to be laminar. Once the friction losses for laminar flow have been calculated then
the diameter size can be determined accordingly. figure 8.n shows the graphs of pressure
losses per 100m versus flow rate plotted for various internal diameters and various values
of fluid viscosity. Once the working pressure has been defined as explained below, (Refer
to table 8.d), the selection of the tubing size to meet with requirements can be made.
Working pressure is defined as follows:
WP = BHSP + Pfr Phd
Eq. 8.A
where:
WP = BHSP + Pfr - Phd
BHSP= Bottom hole static pressure.
Pfr = Friction losses (see figure 8.n).
Phd = Hydrostatic pressure of injection fluid.
The pressures given in the table are computed with ultimate and yield tensile strength
values given in table 8.f and they are rated to temperatures between -20 and 100F. Values
obtained are based on the Lams formula for thick section pipes using internal pressure
only and stress defined at the internal diameter face, combining radial and tangential stress
to determine an equivalent resultant using the Von Mises Theory of Distortion Energy:
OD 2
Ys 1
ID
P=
4
OD
3x +1
ID
Eq. 8.B
Variables are defined as:
P = computed pressure (psi)
Ys = ultimate tensile strength to compute Burst Pressure (psi)
Ys = yield strength (2% offset) to compute Test Pressure (psi)
WP = 80% of test pressure (psi)
OD = outside diameter (in)
ID = inside diameter (in)
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Type of alloy OD (inch) Wall (inch) WP (psi) Burst (psi) Test (psi)
AISI 316 L 0.250 0.035 5.328 18.646 6.659
0.250 0.049 7.118 24.914 8.898
0.250 0.065 8.809 30.831 11.011
0.375 0.035 3.651 12.780 4.564
0.375 0.049 5.004 17.515 6.255
Monel K400 0.250 0.035 5.967 18.646 7.459
0.250 0.049 7.972 24.914 9.965
0.250 0.065 9.866 30.831 12.333
0.375 0.035 4.089 12.780 5.112
0.375 0.049 5.605 17.515 7.006
Incoloy 825 0.250 0.035 7.459 22.642 9.323
0.250 0.049 9.965 30.252 12.457
0.250 0.065 12.333 37.438 15.416
0.375 0.035 5.112 15.518 6.390
0.375 0.049 7.006 21.268 8.757
Inconel 625 0.250 0.035 12.786 31.965 15.983
0.250 0.049 17.084 42.709 21.355
0.250 0.065 21.142 52.854 26.427
0.375 0.035 8.763 21.908 10.954
0.375 0.049 12.010 30.025 15.013
Table 8.D - Theoretical Working, Bursting and Testing Procedures
(for welded stainless steel tubing at between -20F to 100F)
8.3.4. Material Selection

Among the stainless steels and nickel alloys available, the most commonly used for control
or injection line applications are listed in table 8.e together with their relative characteristics.
Compatibility of packer or completion fluid with the selected material must be confirmed by
means of condition specific laboratory testing. table 8.f shows the mechanical properties of
these materials in the annealed condition.
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Type of Alloy Main Characteristics

AISI 316 L Is an austenitic stainless steel with reduced carbon content. Has good resistance
to grain boundary attack and improved resistance to pitting and crevice attack. It
is susceptible to chloride stress cracking when the presence of stress is
combined with a packer fluid containing chlorides.
Monel K400 Is a nickel-copper alloy resistant to corrosion and stress corrosion over a wide
range of conditions.
Incoloy 825 Is an austenitic nickel-base alloy with good resistance to pitting in chloride
solutions and to stress corrosion has improved resistance to corrosion by many
acids.
Inconel 625 Is a Nickel-base alloy with a higher percentage of molybdenum to give the
highest resistance to chloride attack.
Table 8.E - Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys Most Commonly Used
Once the type of material to be used has been defined, based on pressure ratings and
working environment, the corrosion department should be consulted to confirm compatibility
with the packer fluids.
Control or Injection line made of the above material shall comply with the following ASTM
specifications:
AISI 316L - In accordance with ASTM specification A269 (TP316L).
Monel K400 - In accordance with ASTM specification B165.
Incoloy 825 - In accordance with ASTM specification B423.
Inconel 625 - In accordance with ASTM specification B704.
Type of Alloy Tensile Strength (psi) Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset (psi)
AISI 316 L 70,000 25,000
Monel K400 70,000 28,000
Incoloy 825 85,000 35,000
Inconel 625 120,000 60,000
Table 8.F - Nominal Mechanical Properties in Annealed Conditions
(For temperatures between -20 to 100F)
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8.3.5. Fittings
Connections for either SCSSV control lines or chemical injection lines shall be performed as
follows:
In case of pressure rating < 5000 psi, line connections shall be of the Swagelok
type.
In case of pressure rating > 5000 psi, line connections shall be of the
Autoclave type as recommended by API Spec. 6A (Wellhead & Christmas Tree
Equipment) at the paragraph Equipment specification requirement under test
and gauge connections.
It is suggested to avoid, as far as possible, any intermediate connections to reduce potential
leak paths.
8.3.6. Protectors
Control line protectors are designed to support and avoid (bare or encapsulated) crushing at
where it is most exposed, e.g. where it crosses large offsets like couplings, downhole safety
valves or gas lift mandrels. Protectors shall be designed for small annular clearances
allowing sufficient annulus flow area. They should be of the one piece type without loose
parts and designed so as to be quickly installed and removed.
Across coupling tubing protectors are recommended for use with both SCSSV control and
injection lines applications. For control lines used on SCSSVs installed at shallow depth
(less than 250m), other types of protectors may be used. In general, steel banding or
banding straps, rubber based and mid joint protectors shall be avoided at all costs.
The following technical requirements will identify protector performance:
Material shall be of all metal construction. No structural welding shall be allowed.
Lab corrosion tests shall be run to verify compatibility with annular environment.
Capable of firmly supporting bare or encapsulated lines when performing
completions and recovery during workover allowing control line and protector re-
use.
Force indicated in l or tons that the protector will support against axial
displacement without failing or damaging the supported line.
Force stated in lb or Kg that protector will resist as a direct pull on supported
line without any slippage.
Maximum load expressed in lb or kg that protector will withstand when
contacting the casing wall without damage.
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8.3.7. Encapsulation
Encapsulation of this line is recommended only for chemical injection lines applications.
Encapsulation increases crush resistance during installation, protects line against abrasion,
pinching and improves clamping profile. Several encapsulation materials are available,
covering a wide range of environmental conditions. table 8.g indicates the compatibility of
the main encapsulation materials with the most commonly used packer/completion fluids. In
some cases, braided wire is placed alongside the injection line and bonded together by the
encapsulation material, to further enhance resistance and strength avoiding any rolling and
twisting tendencies (Refer to table 8.h).
The following laboratory tests are suggested to confirm the lines mechanical characteristics
and compatibility of the encapsulation material with the packer fluid used:
Immersion test of the encapsulated line in downhole conditions for a defined
period of time. No evidence of a change in physical appearance should be
observable.
Gas impregnation tests at various temperatures, pressures and with various
gasses for a fixed period of time. No evidence of cracking, blistering or
embrittlement should be observable.
Combined brine/sour gas exposure tests according to the operating conditions,
as above.
Combined crude oil/sour gas exposure tests according to operating conditions
as above.
Abrasion resistance test to compare the resistance against abrasion between
bare and encapsulated lines.
Crush resistance test by loading the tube laterally, across the diameter,
simulating various loading levels, until tube collapse is evident. Encapsulated
line results should be compared to bare line tests.
The following table 8.g shows the main properties of the most common types of
encapsulation material available. The choice of material, is mainly based on type of packer
fluid, well deviation and working temperatures to be experienced and shall be confirmed by
laboratory tests for compatibility.
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Encapsulation Material Main properties

Nylon Compatible with diesel packer fluids containing high gas
percentages. Nylon should not be used with completion fluids that
contain calcium chlorides, calcium bromides or zinc bromides at
high temperatures. Its maximum temperature rating is 250F.
Santroprene Compatible with most packer fluids with the exception of diesel or
fluid at high gas concentration. Maximum operating temperature
rating is 275F - 300F.
Halar Chemically resistant to almost all downhole fluids. Excellent
mechanical strength and abrasion resistance. Compatible with high
gas content environments. Recommended for highly deviated wells.
Maximum operating temperature is 400F.
Rislan II Chemically resistant to almost all downhole fluids. Excellent
Foraflon PVDF Chemically resistant to almost all downhole fluids. Excellent
Table 8.G - Compatibility and Characteristics of Encapsulation Materials
Halar (fluoropolymers) is a registered trademark of Ausimont USA

Santoprene (thermoplastics rubber) is a registered trademark of Monsanto
Rilsan II (polyamide thermoplastic)
Foraflon PVDF (polyvinylidine fluoride thermoplastic material)
Samples of different types of encapsulated tubes have been tested under compressive,
laterally applied, loading simulating possible damage arising during installation to determine
the tube crushing resistance and extend of polymer damage, (see Table below).
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Sample Size Applied load in metric tons Applied load in metric tons (line
(no damage detected) partially crushed, fluid flow not
interrupted)
100mm - 1/4 OD x 0.049 2.45 3.5
Alloy 825 bare line
100mm - 1/4 OD x 0.049 2.65 3.8
Alloy 625 bare line
100mm - 1/4 OD x 0.049 7.0 9.0
Alloy 825 encapsulated with
Foraflon: size 15mm x 12mm
Table 8.H - Crush Resistance Test For Encapsulated Injection Lines
8.3.8. SCSSV Hydraulic Control fluid

The criteria in this section is for SCSSV control line applications only.
Today hydraulic fluids are almost exclusively based on mineral oils. Other types of synthetic
based oils, are employed only when operating temperatures are very low and special
thermal standby properties are required. Most of the synthetic based oils used are of the
flash fire resistant category as they have a very low pour floc point combined with a good
performance at higher temperatures.
With regard to subsea completions, the control fluid is the same fluid as used for the Xmas
tree controls.
table 8.i shows the main properties of the recommended oils for control line applications.
8.13 and figure 8.n below shows typical friction losses of control line fluids.
Injected fluid viscosity = 5cP
100
90
80
Fri
c. 70
los 60
ses 50
psi 40 O.D = 0,25 inches
/10
0m 30
20
w.t.= 0,035
10
w.t.= 0,049
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 w.t.= 0,065
Q injection - liters/hr
Figure 8.M - Fluid Friction Loss with 5cP Fluid

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Injected fluid viscosity = 1cP
20
18
16
Fric. losses psi/100m
14
12
10
8 O.D = 0,25 inches
6
4
w.t.=0,035
2
w.t.=0,049
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 w.t.=0,065
Q injection - liters/hr
Figure 8.N - Fluid Friction Loss with 1cP Fluid
The above graphs are based on the following formula:

Q x L x
Pf =
612.95 Di 4
Eq. 8.C
where:
Pf = Friction losses (kPa)

Di = Internal diameter (inches)
L = Length (meters)
= Viscosity (cP)
Q = Flow rate (lt / min)
kPa X 0.145 = psi
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Oil Name/Properties Agip Arnica 32 Agip OSO 32 Agip Betula S 32

(Petroleum based) (Paraffinic based) (Synthetic based)
Viscosity at 40 C cSt 32 30 29,4

Viscosity at 100 C cSt 6,4 5,3 5,1
Viscosity index 163 110 98
Pour Point C -39 -30 -55
Flash point C 202 204 206
Density at 15 kg/l 0,865 0,875 0,841
Floc point C - - -60
Table 8.I - Properties of Recommended SCSSV Hydraulic Oils
* cSt x Density = cp
**Density variation = 0.00065 (kg/l) / C
For standard applications Agip Arnica 32 is recommended as it has better theological
properties than OSO 32. Agip Betula 32 should be employed only when operating
temperatures are very low as in Siberia where temperatures may reach -50C.
In order to avoid plugging of the control line while running in hole, testing and running
procedure must be carefully programmed and hydraulic fluid may have to be flushed
through a filtration unit, if required (usually 5 micron absolute).
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8.3.9. Control/Injection Line Selection Procedure Flow Chart
Figure 8.O - Control/Injection Line Selection Flow Chart

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8.4. WIRELINE NIPPLE SELECTION

The nipples required for completion purposes are based on the results of the previous
design stages. The aim of this section is to determine the type (selective or tapered) and
configuration of the diameters in order to optimise access to the sump and prevent friction
pressure drop. This must take into consideration all the diameter constraints imposed by the
casing profile and completion characteristics.
The nipples are selected based on those most commonly used by the company; and
include the following models:
Selective:
Halliburton (previously Otis) X, XN, R, RN
The choice of the type of nipple is subject to the working pressure which characterises the
completion (e.g. SCSSV or wellhead). X and XN nipples are used for working pressure <
10,000 psi, while R and RN types are used on all higher pressures.
Tapered:
Baker F top no-go (AF-HF-VF) and R bottom no-go (AR-HR-VR).
Like the case in selective nipples, the choice depends on the working pressure of the string
configuration
AF, AR (WP < 10,000 psi)
HF, HR (WP between 10,000 and 15,000 psi)
VF, VR (WP > 15,000 psi).
The principal physical characteristics of a nipple are:

Seal bore diameter
No-go diameter, if applicable
Lock mandrel OD (LMOD).
Data on all of these nipples can be found in the manufacturers current catalogue. Do not
rely on data produced elsewhere or use old catalogues as changes to the nipple systems
may have been made resulting in incompatibility.
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8.4.1. Tapered Nipple Configuration

The configuration of the nipples begins at the top of the string and moves downwards
towards the bottom or packer tailpipe. The following physical dimensional values are
required:
Running clearance (RC) = 0.050ins
No-go dimension (NGD)
= 0.050ins for tubing OD < 3.313ins
= 0.060ins for tubing OD < 5ins
= 0.080ins otherwise
The first nipple, generally in the tubing hanger, is always a Baker type F and is chosen with
the maximum diameter available for the size of the completion tubing below the hanger.
For the lower nipples, the minimum top and bottom restriction dimensions are determined
by the following procedure:
1) The top restriction (RA) is the minimum upper diameter of the nipple, chosen from one
of the following:
ID of the packer
Drift of the tubing
ID of the safety valve
Vertical access of the wellhead
Sealbore diameter (top) or no-go ID (bottom) of the upper nipple.
2) The bottom restriction (RB) is determined by the ID of the SCSSV tubing-retrievable,

and the only one used.
At this stage a hypothesis of seal bore diameter of the nipple (SB) is determined by
analysing the following conditions:
If RB is not defined, or:
RB > RA or (RA - RB > NGD + RC)
then:
LMOD = RA - RC
SB = LMOD - NGD
3) In other cases, the previous conditions are re-applied, decreasing the NGD to adjust
the calculations. The minimum values which can be reached by the NGD are:
0.042ins for tubing OD < 3.313ins
0.050ins for tubing OD < 5ins
0.070ins otherwise.
4) The data obtained are then used to match the nipple. To select the nipples to be as
compatible as possible with the available options in the suppliers catalogues, an
approximation of 1/100ins for SB is acceptable.
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1) In the event of achieving a good match, the nipple is compared with the data from the
catalogue. If there is no nipple with the characteristics required, there are two options:
Produce a new nipple size
Select the maximum nipple diameter from the catalogue < SB.
2) The type of nipple (e.g. F) is obtained from the previous selection. If F is chosen, it is
then possible to use an R type nipple if the following conditions exist:
The nipple in question is not required for the installation of a W/L retrievable
backup SCSSV
The subsequent nipple must be type F with the following characteristics:
SB(F) < SB(R)

LMOD(F) + 0.050 < no-go ID(R).
8.4.2. Selective Nipple Configuration

Criteria similar to those detailed in the tapered nipple procedure are used to choose the
tubing hanger nipple, i.e. the maximum diameter nipple which is compatible with the rated
pressure of the Christmas tree is selected.
For the subsequent nipples, the previous size is selected but only for a maximum of three
nipples in series. After this it is necessary to reduce the diameter again.
It is a rule that if the spacing between two successive nipples is < 30m, a tapered nipple will
be used.
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9. PERFORATING
The objective of perforating a well is to establish communication between the wellbore and
the formation by making holes through the casing, cement and into formation in such a
manner so as not to inhibit the inflow capacity of the reservoir.
To optimise perforating efficiency, it is not solely down to the perforating technique but
relies extensively on the planning and execution of the well completion which includes
selection of the perforated interval, fluid selection, gun selection, applied pressure
differential or underbalance, well clean-up, and perforating orientation.
One of the important aspects is the underbalance, which has been proven to significantly
help to achieve a post-perforating flow rate to effectively flush out gun debris and remove
the crushed zone which surrounds every perforating tunnel. If this is not effective, increased
perforating skin can reduce production rates.
The advantages of perforated casing wells is already described in section 5.2.3 and offers
selectivity, however the perforated volume in the pay is relatively small compared to open
hole (+/- 25%), therefore perforation damage is an extremely important aspect. To this end
it is necessary to obtain an adequate shot density with a sufficiently deep enough
penetration to pass through the drilling damage and maximise flow through each tunnel.
9.1. SHAPED CHARGE PERFORATING

The principle of shaped charge perforating is available in any service providers sales and
technical literature (Refer to figure 9.a). The important issues for the completion engineer
are the charge selection to meet with the conditions and provide the maximum perforating
efficiency.
o
The explosives for use in most shaped charges up to 300 F is RDX (cyclonite) and above
this temperature and depending on time exposed to the temperature, HMX, PS, HNS or
PYX is used. The performance of each is available from the suppliers. The detonating cord,
which couples all the charges to the detonator in the firing head, must match the explosive
selected.
The detonator is triggered by electrical heating when deployed on wireline systems or by a
firing pin in mechanically or hydraulically operated firing head systems employed on tubing
conveyed perforating (TCP) systems.
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Figure 9.A- Perforation Process
9.2. GUN TYPES

There are four main types of perforating guns:
Wireline Conveyed Casing Guns
Through-tubing Hollow Carrier Guns
Through-tubing Strip Guns
Tubing Conveyed Perforating Guns.
9.2.1. Wireline Conveyed Casing Guns

These types of guns are generally run in the well before installing the tubing, therefore no
underbalance can normally be applied although in large size monobore type completions
some sizes can be run similar to through-tubing guns using an underbalance.
The advantage of casing guns over the other wireline guns are; high charge performance,
minimal debris, low cost, highest temperature and pressure rating, high mechanical and
electrical reliability, minimal casing damage, instant shot detection, multi-phasing, variable
shot densities of 1-12spf, speed and accurate positioning using CCL/Gamma Ray.
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Figure 9.B - Types of Guns

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9.2.2. Through-Tubing Hollow Carrier Guns

These are smaller versions of casing guns which can be run through tubing, hence have
o
lower charge sizes and, therefore performance, than all other guns. They only offer 0 or
o 1 7
180 phasing with a max. of 4spf on the 2 /8 OD gun and 6spf on the 2 /8 OD gun. Due to
the stand-off from the casing which these guns may have, they are usually fitted with
decentralising/orientation devices.
9.2.3. Through-Tubing Strip Guns

These are semi-expendable type guns and consist of a metal strip into which the charges
are mounted. The charges have higher performance and are much cheaper than through-
tubing carriers guns, however they also cause more debris, casing damage and have less
o o
mechanical and electrical reliability. They also provide 0 or 180 phasing.
A new version called the pivot gun has even larger charges for deep penetration which
pivot out from a vertical controlled OD to the firing position.
Due to the potential of becoming stuck through strip deformation, they must have a safety
release connection so they can be left in the well.
They have a particular application for perforating through DST strings and reperforating
completed wells.
By being able to be run through the tubing, underbalance perforating can possibly be
adopted but only for the first shot. Subsequent runs would need the well to be flowed to
cause a differential pressure.
9.2.4. Tubing Conveyed Perforating

TCP guns are a variant of the casing gun which can be run on tubing, therefore, allowing
much longer lengths to be installed. Lengths of over 1,000ft are possible (and especially
useful for horizontal wells) and perforating under exceedingly high drawdowns is possible
with no risk to the guns being blown up the hole.
In completion operations, they may be deployed and hung-off in position before installation
of the completion string, run on the bottom of the completion packer or run through the
tubing on coiled tubing. Alternately they can be run in long lengths for overbalance
perforating before completion string installation.
Normally the completion is displaced to an underbalance fluid, then the guns detonated by
either:
A bar dropped from surface
Hydraulic pressure applied from surface then subsequently reduced to the
planned underbalance pressure during a time delay.
Hydrostatic pressure reduction.
Impact by a wireline deployed tool.
Another version available, normally used on well tests, is where a differential is applied
between the annulus and the sump via porting through the test packer.
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The main problems associated with TCP are:

Gun positioning is more difficult
The sump needs to be drilled deeper to accommodate the gun length if it is
dropped after firing
A misfire is extremely expensive
Shot detection is more unreliable.
Due to the longer exposure time because of the deployment, higher grade charges may
also be required.
9.3. GUN PERFORMANCE

9.3.1. API And Performance Data
For most completion applications, API RP 43, which includes performance data produced
by the suppliers, can be used as a qualitative comparison of charge performance. This
provides under two specific tests:
Entrance hole size and penetration length into a 5ft diameter concrete target.
Entrance hole, penetration and flow efficiency in a Berea sandstone target at
elevated temperatures and an estimated 800psi effective stress.
The performances are listed in two sections I and II.

Section II is normally used for comparisons, however the performance in actual use may
differ due to differences in rock strength, overburden stress and wellbore pressure and
temperatures. The variations for these reasons is non-linear and depends on the type of
charge. The API tests are also unreliable as the targets have had differing strengths and
porosities and there is no consistent quality control standard for production of the charges.
Ageing of explosives, charge alignment, moisture contamination, gun stand-off, the
thickness of casing and cement or if multiple casings are to be perforated also has an
impact on the gun performance.
It is necessary for engineers to obtain as much accurate data from the suppliers and use
Eni-Agip historic data in order to be able to make the best choice of gun.
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Guidelines
Gravel Pack Completions
Due to the problem of flow restriction discussed earlier in section 2.4.1, the important
factors are:
Hole diameter to achieve adequate flow area.
Shot density to achieve adequate flow area.
Debris removal.
Shot phasing.
Penetration.
This in conjunction with correct gravel pack procedures is essential for to prevent high skin
factors.
High Underbalanced TCP Perforating

High drawdowns over 500psi for production wells require, if possible:
TCP methods
Deep penetrating charges.
High shot density over 8spf.

o
Minimum 90 phasing.
Underbalanced Perforating With Through-Tubing Guns

If TCP costs cannot be justified and if formation perforated skin factor is acceptable,
underbalanced perforation can be carried out with through tubing systems. On the first run a
high overbalance can be used but on subsequent runs the only means of producing a
differential is to flow the well at a rate governed not to blow the gun up the hole. This is
affected by the gun weight, type of fluid, bypass area and expected flow rate.
The use of these relatively smaller guns require contact with the casing wall, orientation at
o o o
90 with 180 phased guns or in line with the contact point if 0 phased.
Shot Density
Shot density in homogeneous, isotropic formations should be a minimum of 8spf but must
exceed the frequency of shale laminations. If perforating with through-tubing guns, this will
require multiple runs.
A shot density greater than this is required where:
Vertical permeability is low.
There is a risk of sand production.
There is a risk of high velocities and hence turbulence.
A gravel pack is be conducted.
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Penetration
In general, the deeper the shot the better, but at the least it should exceed the drilling
damage area by 75mm. However, to obtain high shot density, the guns may be limited to
the charge size which can physically be installed which will impact penetration.
Phasing
o o o o
Providing the stand-off is less than 50mm, 180 or less, 120 ,90 , 60 is preferable. If the
smallest charges are being used then the stand-off should not be more than 25mm. If
o
fracturing is to be carried out then 90 and lower will help initiate fractures.
Gun Stand-Off
Gun stand-off should be minimised for improved performance, especially at high pressures.
If low phase angle, high density shots are preferred then TCP and casing guns should be
used. As a general rule stand-off should never be more than 50mm.
Hole Size
The hole size obtained is a function of the casing grade and should be as follows:
Between 6mm and 12mm for natural completions.
Between 15mm and 25mm in gravel packed completions.
Between 8mm and 12mm if fracturing is to be carried out and where ball sealers
are to be used.
Overbalanced Perforating
If a well is to be perforated overbalanced, then strict control over the fluid used to ensure it
is compatible with the reservoir formation, formation fluids and must also be clean to
prevent formation damage.
9.3.2. Underbalanced Perforating

To optimise the perforating clean up, an underbalance should be used. King et al
developed a recommended minimum level of drawdown based on a number of field studies
where TCP perforating had been employed, (Refer to the Figures below). These guidelines
should be used to select the appropriate drawdown for consolidated completions.
In unconsolidated sands, the intention is to cause perforation enlargement to remove the
crushed zone without collapsing the cavity or sanding in the guns. This requires that less
drawdown is exerted during the well clean up.
The optimum clean up period is subjective and opinions range from 1gall to 5gall per
perforation. The best method of clean up is to flow the well continually for several hours
after perforating at normal offtake rates.
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9.3.3. Firing Heads

As described earlier, there are a number of different firing heads for various applications. .
Wireline perforating systems are normally electrically trigger by passing an electrical signal
down the cable to the guns. However, in TCP systems there are a wide variety including
pressure operated, bar drop, wireline activated, etc.
Two very important considerations are safety during installation of TCP systems and
redundancy in the event of a fault occurring in the primary firing system.
Safety
The use of tubing installed hydraulic actuated systems has the problem of how to conduct
pressure integrity tests on the completion with sufficient margin between the gun activation
pressure and the highest test pressure applied. Obviously, it is undesirable to have a gun
actuation pressure higher than the test pressure as a leak may occur while trying to trigger
the guns. Protecting the firing head from test pressure is a dangerous procedure as a plug
may leak will also cause premature detonation.
It is good practice to use a bar drop firing mechanism (deployed on wireline if possible as
dropping the bar from surface may damage sensitive completion items) or wireline installed
firing heads which can be installed after the completion is set and tested. This provides full
safety during gun deployment.
Redundancy
This is an important aspect, for if there is a firing head fault, gun recovery would be very
costly. Using wireline installed firing heads provides some redundancy in that the first head
can be retrieved and a second head deployed. There are other side-by-side systems
available which provide a tubing installed pressure activated firer with a secondary
receptacle for a wireline installed firer.
9.3.4. Perforating Procedures

Refer to the Completion Procedures Manual.
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Figure 9.C - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Gas Zones in Stable Sandstones
Figure 9.D - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Gas Zones in Stable Sandstones
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Figure 9.E - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Shallow Unconsolidated Gas Sands
Figure 9.F - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Shallow Unconsolidated Oil Sands
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10. ARTIFICIAL LIFT
The benefits and most commonly used artificial lift were described previously in section
5.6.4. The application of artificial lift simply displaces the TPC curve downwards so that a
lower bottom-hole flowing pressure is achieved. In simple terms, the artificial lift injects
energy into the system.
Energy can also be introduced by reservoir pressure maintenance. Reservoir development
optimisations studies are necessary to determine the relative technical and economic
benefits of the options and the timing of the investments.
In some fields, both pressure maintenance and artificial lift are used which defers the
installation. In other cases, artificial lift from the outset is necessary to achieve the
production and economic targets. Just as tubing size is critical to high PI wells, then
minimisation of the FBHP is critical to low PI, low pressure wells.
To summarise the reasons for the installation of artificial lift are to:
Reduce the effects of declining bottom-hole pressures.
Offset the effects of increasing water production.
Overcome high friction effects of heavy viscous or waxy crudes.
Meet with targeted high offtake rates.
Kick off high GLR wells that die when shut-in.
The selection of the most appropriate artificial lift system involves a number of factors but
mainly on specific well performance. Section 10.7 lists all the systems, their applications,
design considerations, limitations and comparisons.
Selection of the method is also based upon operating costs and workover frequency costs.
System life is difficult to predict as it is a function of operating conditions, e.g. ESP life can
vary between days and five years depending on temperature, solids production, GLR and
lack of particular experience with the system. Some systems are able to cope better with
production problems than others which will obviously affect the choice.
Consideration of future artificial lift requirements must be taken during the planning stage,
such as casing size, liner top setting, etc. These early decisions can save much expense
later, such as:
Casing ID
Casing connection in on gas lift
Size and positioning of liners
Provision of a sump for rod pumpers
Pre-positioning of gas lift mandrels for gas lift and ASV system
Pre-installation of conduits for hydraulic pumps
Parallel bore for plunger lift
etc.
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10.1. GAS LIFT

The continuous gas lift method adds gas into the producing fluids which reduces the
hydrostatic head and, hence the back-pressure on the formation.
The injection gas is supplied in a closed loop system in which it is taken from the separators
and then compressed, dried if necessary and then delivered to the well (Refer to figure
10.a).
The lift gas is normally pumped into the annulus and into the tubing through gas lift valves
installed in Side Pocket Mandrels (SPMs). Occasionally the gas is pumped into the tubing
and the production taken up the annulus or in the annular space in a concentric completion.
Another less common application is Intermittent Gas Lift, also shown in figure 10.a, which is
used to produce low volumes of liquid (<350stb/d) from wells with low BHFP (<0.1psi/ft).
Due to the low liquid production, it must be produced in slugs by intermittently gas injection
through a motorised valve. A standing valve is sometimes necessary to prevent the gas
from flowing into the formation.
In continuous gas lift, it is desirable to position the lower gas injection point as deep as
possible in the well, however this is limited by:
available gas lift pressure
the flowing tubing pressure at the intended offtake rate
the depth of the packer and deepest gas lift mandrel
the differential required to close the upper valves closed (+/-20psi) and to
ensure that injection at the operating GLV is stable (between 50 and 500psi)
figure 10.b illustrates the fundamental principle of a gas lift design and operation. As can be
seen the gas is injected down the annulus and into the tubing through the topmost valve
lightening the fluid column in accordance with the total GLR curve shown. As the fluid
gradient changes, the gas moves down to the next valve unloading the casing fluid and as
the reaches the second valve and lightens the fluid gradient from that point, the first
unloading valve closes so that all the gas passes through the second valve. This continues
in sequence for all other valves until reaching the operating valve where the casing
pressure will drop below the initial kick-off pressure. During this process the well BHP will
drop to the point where the well will flow.
Production is determined by:
reservoir pressure
PI
water cut
gas injection rate
Once the well reaches a stabilised rate, the injection is optimised to maximise production.
As described in section 2.4.3, increasing GLR initially decreases the bottom-hole pressure
on the TPC. There is an optimum GLR to produce stabilised flow for a particular tubing size
and a minimum BHFP. As GLR requirements are subject to diminishing returns, most gas lift
systems are based on available gas supply volumes, Qi, or either the near optimum GLR
which provides a BHFP within 20-50psi of the minimum.
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From this it is seen:

Liquid rate, q, is dependent on the IPR and attainable BHFP.
Total GLR = Producing GLR + Injection GLR </= optimum GLR.
IGLR = Qi/q
Figure 10.A - Typical Gas Lift System

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Figure 10.B - Example Gas lift design
10.1.1. Impact On Completion Design

In recent times, much higher gas supply pressures have been used to enable deeper valves
to be reached or reduce the number of mandrels and valves required. This increased
pressure, however, applies more pressure on the annulus casing, hence gas tight or
premium connections are generally selected.
Modern gas lift systems usually now use SPMs with wireline GLVs to reduce servicing
costs. SPMs have relatively large ODs and this needs to be considered in the casing
design. All mandrel depths are taken of the design as TVDs and these must be converted to
MD. As the mandrels at deeper depths become increasingly closer, the spacing of them is
much more critical.
Although gas lift valves incorporate check valves to prevent back flow, these are not reliable
and as the annuli contain quite a considerable inventory of gas, an annulus safety system is
installed for platform safety. This may again impact on the casing design.
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10.1.2. Common Problems

The worst problem that can arise is that the pressure losses in the gas injection system and
slugging have been underestimated and that the valve spacing is too far apart.
Operationally, the problems are usually inefficiency through upper gas lift valve or tubing
leaks.
10.2. ELECTRICAL SUBMERISBLE PUMPS

ESPs greatest application is in moving large volume of low GOR (<100scf/stb) fluids. They
are particularly popular for high rate undersaturated oil wells, high water cut wells and water
supply wells. Their main limitation is gas production but improved downhole separators and
procedures can now handle GORs up to 1,000scf/stb.
ESPs performance is best at stable conditions within +/-25% of the optimum rate. Versions
with variable frequency drives (VFD) are available or the use of surface chokes can be used
to increase the band of rate (50-190%) but incur higher capital and operating costs.
The construction of the ESP is a multi-staged centrifugal connected through a short shaft to
the downhole electric motor. Each stage consists of a rotating impeller and stationary
diffuser. The differential pressure or total dynamic head (TDH) developed by the pump is a
function of the pump flow rate which is relative to the head developed by each stage and
obtainable from manufacturers publishings.
TDH=Ns Hs Eq. 10.A
where:
NS = number of stages
HS = head per stage
The pump characteristics are based on constant rotational speed which is dependent on the
AC supply frequency, 3,500 rpm at 60 Hertz and 2,915 at 50 Hertz. Due to these high
speeds and pump construction it is obvious that sand production is very detrimental and
that emulsions are easily formed. To prevent sand production it is sometimes necessary to
install a gravel pack or pre-packed screen for pump protection.
The ESP delivery capacity will vary according to:
Well IPR
Reservoir pressure
Surface back-pressure
Electrical supply frequency
figure 10.c shows the most common types of ESP installations and the pump components.
Surface equipment usually includes a three phase transformer, motor controller and a
wellhead pack-off for the cable.
If possible, the installation should be designed to facilitate downhole separation of free gas
and vented up the annulus which is necessary when the gas volume exceeds the pump
operating limit (typically +/-10% of the total fluid volume). On offshore installations, gas
production up the annulus may be a significant problem.
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As can be seen from the schematic, most pump installations are on the end of tubing and
positioned above the perforations or open hole. The motor is situated at the bottom of the
assembly so that the well flow around the motor will dissipate the heat generated. If the
pump has to be positioned below the interval, a shroud is used to draw the produced fluid
down past the motor. Bottom discharge pumps are used in powered dump flood wells.
Figure 10.C- Typical ESP Installations

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Other less common deployment methods are:

Suspended on the cable and latched into a downhole receptacle.
On coiled tubing with the cable through the coil which is terminated with a
special wellhead arrangement.
Both of these suffer from some problems such as cable failures with the cable suspension
method and well control issues with the C/T mounted method (i.e. downhole safety systems
if the well can flow naturally). A recent development with the later is in Norway where
downhole safety is satisfied by the installation of shear seal capability below the coiled
tubing hanger.
10.2.1. ESP Performance

It is normal procedure to select the largest pump that will fit into the production casing
(especially if this was catered for in the planning stage). Small casing or liners will obviously
limit the pump size selection. ESP sizes and capacities are shown in table 10.j below.
Casing Size, ins Pump OD, ins Motor OD, ins Rate, stb/d Power, HP TDH, ft
1
4 /2 3.375 3.750 100-1,900 50-125 5,000-12,000
1
5 /2 4.000 4.500 200-5,000 100-300 5,000-12,000
7 5.625 5.437 1,000-16,000 200-650 5,000-12,000
5
8 /8 6.750 7.375 4,000-26,000 400-850 3,000-10,000
3
10 /4 8.625 N/A 12,000-33,000 500-1020 2,000-5,000
3
13 /8 11.250 N/A 24,000-100,000 500-1030 500-3,500
Table 10.J - ESP Capacity Ranges
Two approaches are commonly used to evaluate an ESP system:

1) Pre-select the production target and corresponding BHFP and determine the TDH and
pump size and depth required to meet this rate. This often carried out by plotting the
pressure traverses above and below the pump (Refer to figure 10.d).
2) Pre-select the maximum pump horsepower, or number of stages, and determine the
attainable pump rate with:
a fixed IPR and various tubing sizes

a fixed tubing size and various IPR options
In this approach the pump performance curve is often plotted below the system
performance curves. An example this to optimise the number of stages for a
maximum pump HP is shown in figure 10.e.
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Figure 10.D - Example ESP Design for a Pre-selected Rate

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Figure 10.E- Example ESP Design for a Pre-selected HP

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The key to an efficient ESP design is heat removal and insulation material selection for the
actual operating temperatures and environment, especially when temperatures are in the
o
region of 250 F. The clearance between the pump and the casing should be small enough
that a flow velocity of a minimum of 1ft/sec is achieved. In large casings, a shroud must be
used to provide this rate. Centralisation of the pump is also critical.
The pump should be set in a straight section of casing to avoid bending and the cable
needs to firmly attached to the tubing for support by cable clamps (two per joint).
Centralisation and crush resistant clamps should be installed across doglegs.
When re-completing a ESP well the pump should be moved slightly from the original
position to help minimise any casing corrosion due to eddy currents.
Casing design is obviously has a large impact on the completion design or in the case of an
ESP completion, vice versa. Also consideration must be given to the optimum tubing size
and cable dimensions to ensure they can be accommodated in the casing.
The completion design is also affected if downhole separation is required in conjunction
with downhole safety.
Tubing hanger and penetration systems for packers have been well developed now for fast
easy installation with the testing of the connections carried beforehand in the workshop. If
properly planned an ESP completion only requires one onsite termination.
10.2.3. Common Problems

The biggest problem with ESP completions is short running time before failure with the cost
impact for re-completion. However, ESP systems are becoming evermore reliable. The most
common problems are due to:
Bad installation procedures.
Inadequate system analysis leading to the system operating outside the range.
Unsuitable cable insulation material for the conditions.
Too much free gas and no enlarged intakes stages.
Sand production.
Too many frequent start ups when there is no soft start facilities.
Scaling up of the impellers.
Poor voltage supply stability.
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10.3. HYDRAULIC PUMPING SYSTEMS

Hydraulic pumping systems are attractive alternative to ESP systems where there is high
temperatures, depth, deviation or severe operating environments. The downside is the
requirement for two reasonably large conduits to minimise fluid pressure losses, maintaining
a clean solids free power fluid and the high capital and operating costs. It is also popular
where there is insufficient gas for a gas lift system and is a viable alternative to rod pumps
for deep (>8,000ft) wells.
The two simplest and common systems are the Jet Pump and the Piston Pump which are
interchangeable in most instances which provides great flexibility in coping with changeable
well conditions. The pumps can be installed and retrieved by wireline or pumping method
using swab cups, hence providing lower servicing costs.
The conduits for the power fluid and returns can be the annulus with a single tubing,
however this exposes the annulus to potential corrosion so, if this is a problem, dual tubing
strings can be used either parallel or concentric. The annulus is sometimes required for gas
venting and in this case a dual string is required.
Piston Pump
The piston pump is a reciprocating pump operated with a drive piston which automatically
shuttles backwards and forwards exhausting the spent power fluid into the returns.
In effect the piston pump is equivalent to the rod pump except that the pump drive is
subsurface but can produce up to 8,000stb/d although it is normally used to produce
<2,000stb/d. Their application is commonly for deviated wells between 8,000-18,000ft
although high surface power fluid pressures are required below 12,000ft.
There is flexibility in the system as pump rates are controlled by controlling the power fluid
supply rate.
There is a large selection of pump sizes/stroke length available for a wide range of
operating conditions.
Jet Pump
The jet pump uses no moving parts and imparts momentum into the fluid using the venturi
effect with a jet, throat and diffuser. The size of the these can be varied to pump volumes of
1
100-15,000stb/d although free pump systems are limited to 8,000stb/d with 4 /2 tubing.
To prevent cavitation, it is recommended to submerge the pump by at least 20% of the TDH
so is better suited to respectfully productive, or restricted offtake target wells.
As there is no moving parts, the pump is not as sensitive to damage and lower quality
power fluids can be used and can be used in higher GOR wells up to 3,000scf/stb. However
pump efficiency is low at 33-66% and large production rates can only be achieved in high
rate installations.
Pump performance is a complex function of GOR, pump intake pressure, supply pressure
and rate. Optimisation is generally through using suppliers computer software. A
preliminary calculation of the pump intake or output curve can be made by hand. The
maximum attainable performance have been summarised in table 10.k below.
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Head Ratio Flow Ratio

0.45 0.5
0.25 1.0
0.17 1.5
0.10 2.0
Table 10.K- Jet Pump Maximum Performance
In table 10.k above:

pump output pressure pump inlet pressure
Head Ratio =
downhole power fluid pressure pump output pressure
reservoir production rate
Flow Ratio =
power fluid rate
Often the maximum power fluid supply pressure and rate is fixed by surface equipment
rating, e.g. p<5,000psi, qPF <4,500stb/d.
When calculating bottom hole pressures, the completion configuration and power fluid rate
to the production to obtain the total discharge rate. The pump intake curve (PIC) can then
be generated using table 10.k above plotted against well IPR (Refer to figure 10.f).
Figure 10.F- Example Jet Pump Design Curve

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Turbine Pumps
The hydraulic turbine pump developed by Weir Pumps is an alternative to the ESP for
producing very large volumes of fluid, 2,000-100,000stb/d. It has the same principle of
operation as the ESP but the motor is replaced by a hydraulic turbine which rotate the shaft
at 5,000-10,000rpm. This provides higher lift capacities (head and volume) per stage,
therefore the units are much shorter approximately 10% of the ESP.
The operating range is much greater as the pump can be controlled by varying the supply
pressure giving 10-100% rate and 20-50% TDH at reduced rates.
Their reliability is still suspect due to the high rotating speed and metallurgy problems.

The casing size is obviously important here to accommodate the pump size and perhaps
two tubing strings. Sometimes concentric completions are preferred or the annulus is used
but consideration must be given to potential corrosion due to oxygen in the power fluid. Like
the piston pump solids free power fluid is essential.
Like the ESP, gas venting may be necessary which would require a third conduit (generally
the annulus). Occasionally the DHSV is controlled by pressure from the pump.
10.4. ROD PUMPS

The most common pumping system on low rate land wells is the rod or beam pumping. It is
usually limited to shallow wells (<8,000ft) producing less than 500stb/d although they can
produce up to 2,000stb/d.
The system consists of three elements, the downhole pump assembly, the sucker rod and
the surface pumping unit.
The annulus is usually left open and used to vent any free gas that is separated downhole.
Tubing is used as the production conduit and contains the rods preventing wear and
corrosion to the annulus. The tubing is usually anchored to the casing and pulled into
tension to reduce tubing movement, buckling and, hence rod wear.
There are two versions of bottom-hole pump, the tubing retrievable barrel and the rod
retrievable barrel. The tubing pump requires the tubing to be pulled to retrieve the barrel
and the rod pump barrel is retrieved when pulling the rods. The tubing pump has the largest
capacity but is more costly to repair than the rod pump which is the most common.
The pump displacement, PD, is defined by the plunger stroke, SP, and the pump speed, N,
the plunger diameter, D and the amount of liquid fillage and/or slippage past the plunger, EP
= 0.7 to 9.5.
2
PD = Ct x Sp x N x D x Ep
Eq. 10.B
where:
EP = Pump efficiency
2
Ct = Correction factor 0.1166 for oilfield units, (in, spm, in , stb/d)
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Figure 10.G- Typical Rod Pumping System

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As the rod suffers from stretch and dynamic forces, SP will not be the same as the stroke at
surface, S, therefore load-displacement plot forms the basis for pump design and analysis.
The fluid load, Fo, carried by the rods on the upstroke is dependent on the net lift, H, which
is the vertical distance from the operating fluid level (OFL) in the annulus to surface plus the
equivalent head of any surface back-pressure. It also depends on fluid SG or density. API
recommends ignoring the area of the rods when calculating this load:
2
Fo = Ct x SG x D x H
where:
2
Ct = 0.340 in oilfield units (SG, in , ft, lbs)
This load can be estimated from dynamometer surveys, which measure the rod load versus
displacement at the surface and serves the most effective means of diagnosing pump
problems.
As the loads on the polished rod includes fluid load, dynamic forces and rod weight, the rod
weights may be relatively large in deep wells and in these cases a tapered rod string is
preferred where the rod diameter is larger with increasing load. Buoyancy varies throughout
the cycle but it is generally taken on the downstroke when the travelling valve is open.
Acceleration and friction are also factors in dynamic loading with the peak polished rod load
on the upstroke will be significantly higher than the sum of the rod and fluid loads. Similarly,
on the downstroke, the minimum will be less than the buoyant weight of the rods. Pump
stroke efficiency is a function of pump speed and rod loading. The dynamics also cause the
rods to oscillate harmonically like a stiff spring.
Typical pumping speeds are 8 to 15spm which amounts to 4.2 to 7.9 million cycles per year,
therefore the rod design must focus on minimising fatigue failures which is exacerbated by
corrosion in the operating environment.
The surface pump unit is usually a beam type although other concepts have been
developed. The surface prime mover and gearbox have been developed over the years to
cater for the rod pump to reduce failures.
System design is very complex and is an iterative process normally carried out by computer
software. API have produced a programme to generate a set of design curves published in
API RP11L and provided some general results in Bulletins 11L3 and 11L4 which are a
useful starting point for design. However, in 11L4, API used 100% efficiency and pump
rates which are higher than those generally found in the field, therefore, it is advisable to
enter a curve which is 100 to 200% of the intended target for scoping out the required
o
equipment capacity. It is also not reliable for heavy oil wells (<20 API) unless correction
factors are applied for fluid vicosities and lack of rod weight on the downstroke. Rod fall
problems often cut restrict pump rates to 1.5 to 2.5spm which lead the use of long stroke
pumps. Sand problems are often a problem with high viscous crudes which increase wear
of the pump parts.
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If free gas is expected then a packer should not be installed to allow the gas to vent up the
annulus if it is planned to convert a completion to rod pump lift within a few years unless
required for zonal isolation.
If a well has to be pumped which is below the bubble point, it is advised to set the pump
below the producing interval to aid gas separation, maximise drawdown and minimise
perforation blocking by fill. If a well is fractured, the pump must be set above the
perforations as frac sand can damage the pump.
The casing geometry must be sufficient enough to enable the gas to percolate through the
fluid column against the down-flow.
10.5. SCREW PUMP SYSTEMS

Screw or progressive cavity pump is a rotary positive displacement pump consisting of a
rubber stator and stainless steel rotor. The rotary drive to the downhole pump is through
sucker rods from a prime mover through a gearbox.
They rates of between 5 to 500stb/d, although in some circumstances capacities of
1,500stb/d is possible, on heavy oil wells or viscous emulsions where conventional rod
pumps are hindered by rod fall. They have an advantage in that they can handle some sand
production and less costly.
The production rate is proportional to the rotary speed and are determined from
manufacturers charts, generally between 50-100rpm in heavy oil and 500rpm in light oils.
The selection of the material for the rubber stator is the key for operational life in the well
environment.
10.6. PLUNGER LIFT

Plunger lift are used on high GLR wells that produce liquids at relatively low rates
(<500stb/d). The tubing/casing annulus is used to store gas energy provided to the tubing
when the well is opened up. This energy is used to drive the plunger up to surface carrying
a small slug of liquid. After production of the following tail gas when the liquid begins to kill
the well the plunger is dropped again and the cycle repeated.
It is particularly useful for de-watering gas wells. Operating requirements are:
GLR >500scf/stb
PI <1stb/d/psi
Plunger velocity 700 to 1,000ft/min
Efficiency of this system decreases with depth and PI but increases with tubing size. It is
essential that the completion tubing is parallel and drifted to ensure correct operation of the
plunger.
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Figure 10.H- Typical Screw Pump Installation

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Figure 10.I - Typical Plunger Lift Installation

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10.7. SUMMARY ARTIFICIAL LIFT SELECTION CHARTS

10.7.1. Design Considerations And Comparisons
Consideration Rod Pumping Screw Pumping ESP Hydraulic Hydraulic Jet Continuous Intermittent Plunger Lift
Piston Pumping Gas Lift Gas Lift
Pumping
Capital Cost Low to Low increase Relatively low Varies but often Competitive with Low well Same as Very low, only
moderate with depth and capital cost if competitive with rod pump. Cost equipment costs continuous flow low cost well
increase with larger rates. commercial rod pumps. increases with but lines and gas lift. equipment if
depth and larger electric power Multiple well, higher compression no compressor
units. available. Costs central systems horsepower. costs may be required.
increase as reduce cost per high. Central
horsepower well but is more compression
rises. complicated. system reduces
cost per well.
Downhole Reasonably Good design Requires proper Proper design Requires Good valve Unload to Operating
Equipment good rod design and operating cable in addition plus good computer design and bottom with gas practices have
and operating practices to motor, operating design spacing lift valves. to be tailored
practices needed. May pumps, seats, practices programme for essential. Consider to each well for
needed. Data have problems etc. Good essential. sizing. tolerant Moderate cost chamber or high optimisation.
bank of rod and with selection of design plus requires to moderate for well PI and low BHP Some
pump failures appropriate good operating powerful solids in power equipment wells. problems with
beneficial. Good stator practices conductor. Free fluid. No moving (valves and sticking
selection, elastomer. essential. pump and parts in pump. mandrels). plungers.
operating and choose powerful Long service life Choice of
repair practices option. and simple wireline
needed rods repair retrievable or
and pump. procedures. conventional
valves.
Efficiency Excellent total Excellent. May Good for high Fair to good, not Fair to poor. Fair increases Poor, normally Excellent for
(output system exceed rod rate wells but as good as rod Maximum for wells that requires a high flowing wells.
hydraulic HP efficiency. Full pumps for ideal decreases pumping owing efficiency only require small injection gas No input
divided by pump fillage cases. Reported significantly for to GLR, friction 30%. Heavily injection GLRs. volume/bbl fluid. energy
input HP) efficiency system <1,000 BFPD. and pump wear. influenced by Low wells for Typical lift required
typically about efficiency 50- Typically total Efficiencies power fluid plus wells requiring efficiency is 10- because it
50-60% feasible 70%. More system range from 30- production high GLRs. 50% improved uses the well.
if well is not operating data efficiency is 40% with GLR gradient. Typical with plungers. Good even
over-pumped. needed. about 50% for >100. May be Typically efficiencies at when small
high rate well higher with operating 20% but range supplementary
but for <1,000 lower GLR. efficiencies of from 5-30%. gas is added.
BID, efficiency 10-20%.
typically is 40%.
Flexibility Excellent, can Fair, can alter Poor. Pumps Good to Good to Excellent. Gas Good, must Good for low
alter stroke speed. usually run at a excellent. Power excellent. Can injection rate adjust injection volume wells.
speed, length, Hydraulic unit fixed speed. fluid rate and vary power fluid varied to change time and cycles Can adjust
plunger size and provides Requires careful speed of rate and rates. Tubing frequently. ingestion time
run time to additional sizing. VSD downhole pressure adjusts needs to be and frequency.
control flexibility but at provides more pump. the production sized correctly.
production rate. added cost. flexibility but Numerous rate and lift
added costs. pump sizes and capacity.
Time cycling pump/engine Selection of
normally ratios adapt to throat and
avoided. Must production and nozzle sizes
size pump depth needs. extend range of
properly. volume and
capacity.
Miscellaneous Stuffing box May have Requires a Power fluid More tolerant of A highly reliable Labour intensive Plunger hang-
problems leakage may be limited service highly reliable solids control power fluid compressor with to keep time up or sticking
messy and a in some areas. electric power essential. Need solids, 200ppm 95+% run time tuned otherwise may be a
potential hazard. Because this a system. Method 15ppm of 15m of 25m particle required. Gas poor major problem.
Anti-pollution newer method, sensitive to rate particle size size acceptable. must be performance.
stuffing boxes field knowledge changes. max. to avoid Dilutents may dehydrated maintaining
are available. and experience excessive be added if properly to avoid steady gas
are limited. engine wear. required. Power gas freezing. show often
Must add water (fresh, causes injection
surfactant to a produced or gas
water power seawater) measurement
fluid for acceptable. and operating
lubrication. problems.
Triplex plunger
leakage control
required.
Table 10.L - Design Considerations and Overall Comparisons (pg1)

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
Pumping
Operating Very low for Potentially low Varies, if HP is Often higher High cost owing Well costs low. Same as Usually very
Costs shallow to but short run life high, energy than rod pump to HP Compression continuous flow low,
medium depth on stator or rotor costs are high. even for free requirement. costs vary on gas lift.
(<7,500ft) and frequently High pulling systems. Short Low pump fuel cost and
locations with reported. costs result run life maintenance compressor
low production from short run increases total cost typical with maintenance.
(,400BFPD). life. Other repair operating costs. properly sized Key is to inject
costs are high. throat and nose. as deeply as
possible with
optimum GLR.
Reliability Excellent. Run Good. Normally Varies. Good with a Good with Excellent if Excellent if there Good if well
time efficiency over-pumping Excellent for correctly proper throat compression is an adequate production is
>95% if good and lack of ideal gas lift designed and and nose sizing system is supply of stable.
operating experience cases, poor for operated for the operating properly ingestion gas
practices are decreases run problem areas. system. conditions. Must designed and and adequate
adopted and time. Very sensitive to Problems or avoid operating maintained. low pressure
corrosion, wax operating changing well in cavitation storage volume
asphaltenes, temperatures conditions range of jet for injection gas.
solids, and electrical reduce pump throat, System must be
deviations, etc., malfunctions. downhole pump related to pump designed for the
are controlled. reliability. intake pressure. unstable gas
Frequent More problems flow rates.
downtime if pressures
results from >4,000psig.
operational
problems.
Salvage Value Excellent, easily Fair to poor. Fair. Some Fair market for Good. Easily Fair. Some Same as Fair. Some
moved and Easily moved trade in value. triplex pumps, moved. Some market for good continuous flow trade in value.
good market for and some Poor open good value for trade in value. used gas lift. Poor open
used current market market values. wellsite system Fair market for compressors market value.
equipment. for used that crane can triplex pump. and some trade
equipment move easily. in value for
mandrels and
valves.
System (total) Straightforward Simple to install Fairly simple to Simple manual Computer An adequate Same as Individual well
and basic. and operate. design but or computer programme volume, high continuous flow or system.
procedures to Limited proven requires good design, typically typically used pressure, dry gas lift. Simple to
design, install design, rate data. used. Free for design. non-corrosive design, install
and operates installation and System not pump easily Basic operating and clean gas and operate.
following API operating forgiving. retrieved for procedures supply source is Requires
specifications specifications Requires servicing. needed for needed adjusting and
and Each well needs excellent Individual well downhole pump throughout the plunger
recommended an individual operating unit very flexible and wellsite entire life. maintenance.
practices. Each system. practices. but extra cost. unit. Free pump System
well needs an Follow API Requires easily retrieved approach
individual recommended attention. for onsite repair needed. Low
system. practices in Central plant or replacement. back-pressure
design, testing more complex, Downhole jet beneficial. Good
and operation. usually results often requires data needed for
Typically each in test and trial and error to valve design
well is an treatment arrive at and spacing.
individual problems. best/optimum API
producer using jet. specifications
a common and
electric system. design/operatin
g recommended
practices should
be followed.
Usage/ Outlook Excellent. Used Limited to An excellent Often used as a GOR try higher Good, flexible, Often used as a Essentially a
on about 85% of relatively high rate default artificial volume wells high rate default artificial low liquid rate,
US artificial lift shallow wells artificial lift lift system. requiring flexible artificial lift lift method in high GLR lift
wells. The with low rates. system. Best Flexible operation. system for wells lieu of sucker method. Can
normal standard Used on less suited for operation, wide System will with high rod pumps. Also be used for
artificial lift than 0.5% of US <200oF and rate range tolerate wide bottom-hole a default for low extending flow
method. lifted wells. >1,000BFPD suitable for depth ranges, pressures. Most bottom-hole life or
Used primarily rates. Most relatively deep, high like a flowing pressure wells improving
on gas well de- often used on high volume, temperatures, well. Used on on continuous efficiency.
watering. high water cut high corrosive fluids, about 10% of gas lift. Used on Ample gas
wells. temperature high GOR and US lifted wells, <1% of US lifted volume and/or
deviated oil significant sand mostly offshore. wells. pressure
wells. Used on production. needed for
<2% of US lifted Used on <1% of successful
wells. US lifted wells. operation.
Sometimes Used on <1%
used to test of US lifted
wells that will wells.
not flow
offshore.
Table 10.M - Design Considerations and Overall Comparisons (Pg2)

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
10.7.2. Operating Conditions Summary

Pumping
Casing size Problems only Normally no Casing size will Larger casing Small casing The use of 4.5 Small casing Small casing
limits (restricts in high rate problem for limit use of large required for size often limits and 5.5ins (4.5 and 5.5ins) suitable for this
tubing size) wells requiring 4.5ins casing motor and parallel free or producing rate casing with 2ins normally is not a low volume lift.
large plunger and larger but pumps. Avoid closed systems. owing to high nominal tubing problem for this Annulus must
pumps. Small gas separation 4.5ins casing. Small casing (unacceptable) normally limits relatively low have adequate
casing size (4.5 may be limited. Reduced (4.5 and 5.5ins) friction losses. rates to volume lift. gas storage
and 5.5ins) may performance mat result in Larger casing <1,000stb/d. For volume.
limit free gas inside 5.5ins excessive may be required rates
separation. casing friction losses if dual strings >5,000stb/d use
depending on and limits run. >7ins casing
depth and rate. production rate. and >3.5ins
tubing needed.
Depth limits Good, rods of Poor, limited to Usually limited Excellent, Excellent, Controlled by Usually limited Typically
structure may relatively to motor HP or limited by power similar limits as system injection by fallback, few <10,000ft.
limit rate at shallow depths, temperature. fluid pressure reciprocating pressure and wells >10,000ft.
depth. possibly 5,000ft. Practical depth (5,000psi) or pump. Practical fluid rates.
Effectively about about 10,000ft. HP. Low depth of Typically for
500stb/d at volume, high lift 20,000ft. 1,000stb/d with
7,500ft and head pumps 2.5ins nominal
150stb/d at operating at tubing. 1,440psi
15,000ft. depths to lift system and
17,000ft lift system and
1,000 GLR, has
an injection
depth of about
10,000ft.
Intake Excellent, Good, <100psi Fair. if little free Fair but not as Poor to fair, Poor restricted Fair when used Good, bottom-
Capability <25psig feasible provided gas (i.e. good as rod >350psig to by the gradient without hole pressures
provided adequate >250psi pump pumping. Intake 5,000ft with low of the gas lifted chambers. PIP <150psi at
adequate displacement intake pressure GLR. Typical fluid. Typically >250psi for 10,000ft for
displacement and gas venting. pressure). Poor <100psig design targets moderate rate is 10,000ft well. low rate, high
and gas venting. if must handle usually results 25% limited to about Good when GLR wells.
Typically about >5% free gas. in frequent submergence. 100psi/1,000ft used with
50 to 100psig. pump repairs. injected depth. chamber. PIP of
Free gas Thus the back- <250psi feasible
reduces pressure on at 10,000ft.
efficiency and 10,000ft well
service life. may be
>1,000psig.
Noise Level Fair, moderately Good with the Excellent with Good low well Same as piston Low at well but Same as Low.
high for urban surface prime low noise. Often noise. Wellsite pump. noisy at continuous flow.
areas. mover causing preferred in power fluid units compressor.
the only noise. urban areas if can be sound
production rate proofed.
is high.
Obtrusiveness Size and Good low profile Good low profile Fair to good Same as piston Good low profile Same as Low.
operation are surface but requires wellhead pump. but must provide continuous flow.
drawbacks in equipment. transformer equipment has for compressor.
populated and bank. low profile. Safety
farming areas. Transformer Requires precautions
Special low may cause surface treating must be taken
profile units are problems in and high for high
available. urban areas. pressure pressure gas
pumping lines..
equipment.
Prime mover Good, both Good, both Fair, requires a Excellent. Prime Same as piston Good, engines, Same as None normally
flexibility engines or engines or good power mover can be pump. turbines or continuous flow. required.
motors can be motors can be source without electric motor, motors can be
used easily. used. spikes or gas or diesel used for
Motors are more interruptions. fired engines or compression.
reliable and Higher voltages motors.
flexible. can reduce I2R
losses
Surveillance Excellent, can Fair, analysis Fair based on Good to fair. Same as piston Good to Fair but Good but
be easily can be based electrical Downhole pump pump. excellent. Can complicated by depends on
analysed based on production checks but performance be analysed standing valve good well test
on well test, and fluid levels special can be analysed easily. Bottom- and fallback. and pressure
fluid levels, etc. only. Not equipment from surface hole pressure charts.
Analysis possible to use needed power fluid rate and production
improved by use dynamometers otherwise. and pressure, log surveys
of and pump-off speed and easily obtained.
dynamometers cards. producing rate. Optimisation
and computers. Bottom-hole and computer
pressure control being
obtained with tried.
free pumps.
Table 10.N - Operating Conditions Summary

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
Pumping
Testing Good, Well Good, same as Good, Well Fair. Well Same as piston Fair. Well Poor. Well Well testing is
testing is simple rod pumping. testing is simple testing with pump. Three testing testing simple with
with few with few standard stage complicated by complicated by few problems.
problems using problems. High individual well production tests injection gas injection gas
standard water cut and units presents can be volume/rate. volume/rate..
available high rate wells few problems. conducted by Formation GLR Measurement of
equipment and may require a Well testing adjusting obtained by both input and
procedures. free water with a central production step subtracting outflow gas is a
knock-out. system is more rates. A injected gas problem.
complex pressure from total Intermittent flow
requiring recorder must produced gas. can cause
accurate power be used to Gas operating
fluid monitor intake measurement problems with
measurement. pressures. errors are separators.
common.
Time cycle and Excellent if well Good. Avoid Poor. Soft start Poor, is Poor. Does not Not applicable. Poor. Cycle Not applicable.
pump-off can be pumped- shutdown in and improved possible but not appear must be
controllers off. high seals and normally used. applicable periodically
application viscosity/sand protectors Usually owing to intake adjusted.
producers. recommended. controlled only pressure Labour intensive
by displacement requirement
checks. Pump- higher than
off control not pump-off.
developed.
Table 10.O - Operating Conditions Summary (Pg2)

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
10.7.3. Artificial Lift Considerations

Pumping
Corrosion/ Good to Good. Batch Fair. Batch Good to Good to Good. Inhibitor Same as Fair. Normal
scale handling excellent. treatment inhibition excellent. Batch excellent. in the injection continuous flow. production
ability frequently for inhibitor used treatment only or continuous Inhibitor mixed gas and/or cycle must be
both corrosion down annulus to intake unless inhibition with power fluid batch inhibiting interrupted to
and scale feasible. shroud is used. treatment can mixes with down tubing batch treat the
control. be circulated produced fluids feasible. Steps well.
with power fluid at entry of jet must be taken
for effective pump throat. to avoid
control. Batch treat corrosion in
down annulus is injection gas
feasible. lines.
Crooked/ Fair, increased Poor to fair. Good. Few Excellent if Excellent, short Excellent. Few Same as Excellent.
deviated holes load and wear Increased load problems. tubing can be pump can pass wireline continuous flow.
problems. High and wear Limited run in the well. through doglegs problems up to
angle deviated problems. experience in Pump will up to 24o/100ft 70o deviation for
holes (>70o) and Currently very horizontal wells. normally pass in 2ins nominal wireline
horizontal wells few known Requires long through the tubing. Same retrievable
are being installations. radius wellbore tubing. Free condition as valves.
produced. Some bends to get pump retrieved hydraulic piston
success in through. without pulling pump.
pumping tubing. Feasible
15o/100ft using operation in
rod guides. horizontal wells.
Dual Fair. Parallel No known No known Fair. Three Same as piston Fair. Dual gas Same as No none
application 2x2ins low rate installations. installations. string non- pump except it lift is common continuous flow. installations.
dual feasible Larger casing vented can possibly but good
inside 7ins would be applications handle higher operating of
casing. Dual needed. have been GLRs but at dual lift is
inside 5ins Possible achieved with reduced complicated and
casing currently running and complete efficiency. inefficient
not in favour. pulling isolation of resulting in
Gas is a problems. production and reduced rates.
problem for power fluid from Parallel 2x2ins
lower zone. each zone. nominal tubing
Increased Limited to low inside 7ins
mechanical GLRs and casing and
problems. moderate rates. 3x3ins tubing
inside 95/8ins
casing feasible.
Gas handling Good if can vent Poor if it must Poor for free Good to fair. Similar to piston Excellent. Same as Excellent.
ability and use natural pump any free gas >5% Concentric fixed pump. Free gas Produced gas continuous flow
gas anchor with gas.. through pump. pump or parallel reduces reduces need
properly Rotary gas free permits gas efficiency but for injection gas.
designed pump. separators venting with helps lift. Vent
Poor if must helpful if solids suitable free gas if
pump >50% free not produced. downhole gas possible. Use a
gas. separator below gas anchor.
pump intake.
Casing free
pump limited to
low GLRs.
Offshore Poor. Must Poor. May have Good. Must Fair. Feasible Good. Produced Excellent and is Poor in wells Excellent for
application design for unit some special provide operation in water or the most needing sand correct
size, weight and application electrical power highly deviated seawater may common control. Use of application.
pulling unit offshore, and service wells. Requires be used as a method if standing valves
space. Most however a pulling unit. deck space for power fluid with adequate risky. Heading
wells are pulling unit is treatment tanks wellsite type injection gas causes
deviated and needed. and pumps. system or power available. operating
typically Water power fluid separation problems.
produce sand. fluid can be before
used. Power oil production
a fire and safety treating system.
problem.
Paraffin Fair to good. Fair. Tubing Fair to good. Good to Same as piston Good Same as Excellent as it
handling Hot water/oil may require Hot water/oil excellent. pump. mechanical continuous flow cuts paraffin
capacity treating and/or treatment. Rod treatments, Circulate heat to cutting gas lift. and removes
use of scrapers scrapers not mechanical downhole pump sometimes small deposits.
possible but used. Possible cutting, batch to minimise required.
they increase to unseat pump inhibition build-up. Injection gas
operating and circulate hot possible. Mechanical may aggravate
problems and fluids. cutting and existing
costs. inhibition problem.
possible.
Soluble plugs
available. Free
pumps can be
surfaced on a
schedule.
Table 10.P - Artificial Lift Considerations (Pg1)

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
Pumping
Slim-hole Feasible for low Feasible if low No known Possible but Same as piston Feasible but can Same as Good. Similar
completions rates <100stb/d rates, low GORs installations. may have high pump. be troublesome continuous flow. to casing lift
(27/8ins and low GOR and shallow friction losses or and inefficient. but must have
production <250. Typically depths but no gas problems. adequate
casing string) are used with known Suitable for low formation gas.
1.5ins nominal installations. rates and low
tubing. GLRs.
Solids/sand Poor to fair for Excellent up to Poor. Requires Poor. Requires Fair to good. Jet Excellent. Limit Fair but Sand can stick
handling ability low viscosity 50% sand with <200ppm <10ppm solids pumps are is inflow and standing valve plunger,
<10cP high viscosity solids. Improved power fluid for operating with surface may cause however it
production. >200cP crude. wear resistant good run life. 3% sand in problems. problems. Same wipes tubing
Improved Decreases to materials Also produced produced fluids. Typical limit is as continuous clean.
performance for <10% sand for available at fluids must have Power fluid to 0.1% sand for flow.
high viscosity water premium cost. low solids jet pump can inflow and
>200cP cases. producers. <200ppm of tolerate 200ppm outflow
May be able to 15m particles of 25m particle problems.
handle up to for reasonable size. Fresh
0.1% sand with life. Use fresh water treatment
special pumps. water injection for salt
for salt build-up formations.
formations.
Temperature Excellent and Fair but limited Limited to about Excellent. Excellent and Excellent. Same as Excellent.
limitation currently used in by stator <250oF for Standard possible to Typically a continuous flow.
thermal elastomer. At standard and materials up to operate to 500oF maximum of
operations. present <325oF with 300oF+ and to with special about 350oF.
550oF. normally below special motors 500oF+ feasible materials. Need to know
250oF. and cables. with special temperatures to
materials. design bellows
charged valves.
High viscosity Good for Excellent for Fair, limited to Good in >8o API Good to Fair. Few Same as Normally not
fluid handling <200cP fluids high viscosity about 200cP. production with excellent. problems for continuous flow applicable.
capability and low rates fluids with no Increases HP <500cP Production with >16 o API. or
400stb/d. Rod stator/rotor and reduces possible. Power up to 800cP below 20cP
fall problems for problems. head. Potential fluid can be possible. Power viscosity.
high rates. solution is to used to dilute oil of oil >24o Excellent for
Higher rates use core flow low gravity API and ,50cP high water cut
may required with 20% water. production. viscosity or lift even with
dilutent to lower water power high viscosity
viscosity. fluid reduces oil.
friction losses.
High volume lift Fair but Poor. Restricted Excellent. Good. Limited Excellent. Up to Excellent. Poor. Limited by Poor. Limited
capacity restricted to to relatively limited by by tubular and 15,000stb/d with Restricted by cycle volume by number of
shallow depths small rates. needed HP and HP. Typically adequate tubing size and and number of cycles.
using large Possibly can be 3,000stb/d from flowing bottom- injection gas possible Possibly
plungers . max. 2,000stb/d from restricted by 4,000ft and hole pressure, rate and depth. injection cycles. 200stb/d from
rate about 2,000ft and casing size. In 1,000stb/d from tubular size and Depending on Typically about 10,000ft.
4,000stb/d from 200stb/d from 5.5ins casing 10,000ft with HP. reservoir 200stb/d from
1,000ft and 5,000ft. can produce 3,500psi pressure and PI 10,000ft with
1,000stb/d from 4,000stb/d from system. with 4ins <250psi pump
5,000ft. 4,000ft with 240 nominal tubing, intake pressure.
HP. Tandem rates of
motors can be 5,000stb/d from
used but will 10,000ft feasible
increase costs. with 1,440psi
injection gas
and GLR of
1,000.
Low volume lift Excellent. Most Excellent for Generally poor. Fair. Not as Fair, >200stb/d Fair. Limited by Good. Limited Excellent for
capabilities commonly used <100stb/d Lower efficiency good as rod from 4,000ft. heading and by efficiency low flow rates
method for wells shallow wells and high pumping. slippage. Avoid and economic of 1 to 2stb/d
producing that do not operating costs Typically 100 to unstable flow limit. Typically with high
<100stb/d. pump-off. for <400stb/d. 300stb/d from range. Typically 0.5 to 4stb/cycle GLRs.
4,000 to lower limit is with up to 48
10,000ft, 200stb/d for cycles/d
>75stb/d from 2ins tubing
12,000ft without heading,
possible. 400stb/d for
2.5ins and
700stb/d for
3.5ins tubing.
Table 10.Q - Artificial Lift Considerations (Pg2)

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
11. USE OF UNDERBALANCE COMPLETION FLUIDS
11.1. POLICY
The purpose of this section is to provide the basic criteria when non-kill weight packer
fluids can be used in completion design.
The use of non-kill weight packer fluid has been thoroughly evaluated and is permitted for
the wells which have pressure gradients above 1.30kg/Lt/10m, i.e. high pressure and high
temperature (HP/HT) wells.
This policy does not refer to gradients below 1.30kg/Lt/10m where it is still considered good
practice to use overbalance completion fluids.
11.2. BARRIER PRINCIPLES

Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates has determined that a packer fluid, regardless of the density,
cannot be considered as a barrier.
The main reasons are:
The integrity of the annulus, with regard to double barrier protection is
mechanically obtained by means of the wellhead, the tubulars (tubing and
casing) and packer system and, therefore, does not require the presence of an
overbalance fluid.
A hydrostatic overbalance fluid can only be considered a barrier on a long term
basis if it is fully maintained, however tubing leaks and deterioration of the fluid
cannot be guaranteed. This being the case, it should not be classified as a
barrier.
Over and above this, some completion types such as High Rate liners using a
liner PBR may be some considerable distance from the formation, therefore is
not a practical barrier.
11.3. APPLICATION
The use of non-kill weight packer fluid will be considered in the following situations:
When a brine with a gradient lower than the formation gradient has already
been used as completion fluid, i.e. through tubing perforation after packer
setting.
When it is necessary to replace a completion fluid containing solids in
suspension, i.e. high density oil mud.
The re-use of the completion fluid is envisaged when it is opportune or cost
effective.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
11.4. RISK ASSESSMENT

11.4.1. Well Testing
For exploration wells, prior to commencing a well test using non-kill weight packer fluid, a
risk analysis evaluation (HAZOP) must be carried out by the District Drilling & Completion
Engineering Department, in order to identify and evaluate the operative risks associated
with downhole equipment functionality.
11.4.2. Completions
Similar to above, a risk assessment should be carried out to ensure, if an underbalance
completion fluid is to be used, that the completion design will keep the formation pressure
off the production casing.
However, as contingency against a tubing/packer envelope leak, the casing design must be
able to withstand full well pressure in conjunction with the completion fluid hydrostatic
pressure at respective depth. The worst possible case being immediately above the
packer.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
APPENDIX A - REPORT FORMS

To enable the contents of this completion manual and other operating procedures manuals
to be improved, it is essential that ENI - Agip Division and Affiliates obtain feed-back from
the field. To this end a feed-back reporting system is in use which satisfies this requirement.
Feed-back reports for drilling, completion, workover and well testing operations are
available and must be filled in and returned to head office for distribution to the relevant
responsible departments as soon as possible as per instructions.
The forms relevant to completion operations are:
ARPO 01 Initial Activity Report
ARPO 02 Daily Report
ARPO 06 Waste Disposal Management Report
ARPO 07 Perforating Report
ARPO 08 Gravel Pack Report
ARPO 09 Matrix Stimulation/Hydraulic fracturing Report
ARPO 11 Wireline Report
ARPO 12 Pressure/Temperature Survey Report
ARPO 13 Well Problem Report
ARPO 20 Well Situation Report
Behind each report form are instructions on how to fill in the forms. As the first section is
generic to all the forms it is only shown in ARPO 01 instructions.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
A.1. INITIAL ACTIVITY REPORT (ARPO 01)
INITIAL ACTIVITY WELL NAME
FIELD NAME
District/Affiliate Company
DATE:
REPORT ARPO 01 Cost center
Permit/Concession N Well Code
General Data Depth Above S.L . Joint venture

On shore Off shore Ground Level[m] AGIP: % %
Latitude: Water Depth [m] % %
Longitude Rotary Table Elev.[m] % %
Reference First Flange[m] Type of Operation
Rig Name Top housing [m]
Rig Type Reference Rig Program TD (Measured) [m]

Contractor Ref. Rig RKB - 1st Flange Program TD (Vertical) [m]
Rig Heading [] Cellar Pit Rig Pump

Offset FROM the proposed location Depth [m] Manufacturer
Distance [m] Length [m] Type
Direction [] Width [m]: Liner avaible [in]
Major Contractors
Type of Service Company Contract N Type of Service Company Contract N
Mud Logging
D. & C. Fluids
Cementation
Waste treatment
Operating Time Jack-up leg Penetration Supply Vessel for Positioning

Moving [gg:hh] Leg Air gap Penetration N Name Horse Bollard pull
Positioning [hh:min] N [m] [m] Power [t]
Anchorage [hh:min]
Rig-up [hh:min]
Delay [hh:min]
Lost-time Accidents [hh:min]
Rig Anchorage
Anchor Mooring Line Piggy Back Mooring Line Tension Operative Total
Bow Weight Length Weight Chain Cable [Tested] Tension Time
N Angle Type & Manufacturer [t] Cable Chain N [t] Length Length [t] [t] [hh:min]
[m] [m] [m] [mm] [m] [mm]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Note: Supervisor
Superintendent
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-7100 0
A.2. DAILY REPORT (ARPO 02)
DAILY REPORT WELL NAME
Drilling FIELD NAME

DATE: ARPO 02 Cost center
Rig Name RT Elevation [m] Well Code

Type of Rig Ground Lelel / Water Depth [m] Report N of
Contractor RT - 1st flange / Top Housing [m] Permit / Concession N
Well Last casing Next Casing BOP Type w.p. [psi] M.D. (24:00) [m]
nom.[in] Stack T.V.D. (24:00) [m]
Top [m] Diverter Total Drilled [m]
Bottom [m] Annular Rotating Hrs [hh:mm]
Top of Cmt [m] Annular R.O.P. [m / h]
Last Survey [] at m Upper Rams Progressive Rot. hrs [hh:mm]
LOT - IFT [kg/l] at m Middle Rams Back reaming Hrs [hh:mm]
Reduce Pump Strockes Pressure Middle Rams Personnel Injured
Pump N 1 2 3 Middle Rams Agip Agip
Liner [in] Lower Rams Rig Rig
Strokes Last Test Others Other
Press. [psi] Total Total
Lithology
Shows
From (hr) To (hr) Op. Code OPERATION DESCRIPTION
Operation at 07:00
Mud type Bit N Run N N Run N Bottom Hole Assembly N __________ Rot. hours
Density [kg/l] Data Description Part. L Progr.L Partial Progr.
Viscosity [s/l] Manuf.
P.V. [cP] Type
Y.P. [g/100cm2] Serial No.
Gel 10"/10' / IADC
Water Loss [cc/30"] Diam.
HP/HT [cc/30"] Nozzle/TFA
Press. [kg/cm2] From [m]
Temp. [C] To [m]
Cl- [g/l] Drilled [m]
Salt [g/l] Rot. Hrs.
pH/ES R.P.M.
MBT [kg/m3] W.O.B.[t]
Solid [%] Flow Rate Stock Quantity UM Supply vessel
Oil/water Ratio. Pressure
Sand [%] Ann. vel.
pm/pom Jet vel.
pf HHP Bit
mf HSI Total Cost Supervisor:
Daily Losses [m 3] I O D L I O D L Daily
Progr. Losses [m 3] B G O R B G O R Progr.
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A.3. WASTE DISPOSAL MANAGEMENT REPORT (ARPO 06)
WASTE DISPOSAL WELL NAME
Management Report FIELD NAME

DATE: ARPO-06 Cost center
Report N Depth (m) Mud Type
From [m] Interval Drilled (m) Density (kg/l)

3
To [m] Drilled Volume [m ] Cl- concentration (g/l )
3
Phase size [in] Cumulative volume [m ]
3 3
Water consumption Phase /Period [m ] Cumulative [m ]
Usage Fresh water Recycled Total Fresh water Recycled Total
Mixing Mud
Others
Total
3 3
Readings / Truck Fresh water [m ] Recycled [m ]
3
Mud Volume [m ] Phase Cumulative Service Company Contract N
Mixed Mud Company
Lost Waste Disposal
Dumped Transportation
Transported IN
Trans orted OUT
Waste
Water base Disposal
cuttings Period Cumulative Remarks
[t]
Oil base cuttings [t]
Dried Water base cuttings [t]
Dried oil base cuttings [t]
Water base mud [t]
Oil base mud transported IN [t]
Oil base mud transported OUT [t]
Drill potable water [t]
Dehidrated water base mud [t]
Dehidrated oil base mud [t]
Sewage water [t]
Transported Brine [t]
Remarks
Supervisor
Superintendent
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A.3. PERFORATING REPORT (ARPO 07)
PERFORATING WELL NAME
FIELD NAME
District/Affiliate Company REPORT
DATE: ARPO-07 Cost center
Well location Formation name: Pool:

Onshore Lithology
Offshore
Total Depth [m] Rotary Table Measurement [m] Final Completion Report [date]
st
Well Type M.D. Drilling Rig RKB - 1 Flange Final Workover Report [date]
st
Vertical T.V.D. Workover Rig RKB - 1 Flange Reference Logs:
Deviated Max. inclination [] Workover Rig RKB - Sea Level
Horizontal at [m] Workover Rig RKB - Sea Bottom Recorded on:
Well Size [] Steel Thickness Measured Depth Vertical Depth Cement Top
Situation Grade [lb/ft] Top [m] Bottom [m] Top [m] Bottom [m] M.D. [m] T.V.D. [m]
Liner
Casing
Casing
Tubing Service Company
Packer
Tubing shoe
Perforation System
Wireline Overbalance Completion fluid Density [kg/l]
TCP Underbalance Fluid in front of Perforation Density [kg/l]
2
Thru Tubing Differential Pressure [kg/cm ] Fluid Losses after Perforation [m3]
Data Gun Gun Gun Charge S.P.F Measured Depth Vertical Depth Pool Remarks
Type Specific. Type Top [m] Bottom [m] Top [m] Bottom [m]
Note:
Supervisor Superintendent
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A.4. GRAVEL PACK REPORT (ARPO 08)
Cannot Load File form supplied Eni-Agip Excel

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A.5. MATRIX STIMULATION/HYDRAULIC FRACTURE REPORT (APRO 09)
WELL NAME
MATRIX STIMULATION
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FIELD NAME
DATE: ARPO - 09 Cost center
Well Location General Data Interval to be Treated

Onshore M.D. [m] Open hole Tot. net perf.:
Offshore T.V.D. [m] Perfor. interval Formation name:
Well Type Open hole Slotted liner
Vertical Prod. casing / liner From [m] Pool:
Deviated Shoe M.D. [m] To [m] Lithology:
Horizontal Top liner [m]
Treatment Type Reservoir Parameters Treatment Data Completion Data
Matrix stimulation Reservoir fluid Service Company Bottom hole gauge [Y / N]
Acid Density [Kg/l] HHP avaible Type
2
Solvent Gradient [Kg/cm /10 m.] Initial Shut-in pressure [psi] Wellhead type
Other Fracturing gradient [calculated] Annulus pressure [psi] Packer type
Hydraulic Fracturing Fracturing gradient [tested] Pressure test [psi] Packer fluid
Foam Porosity % Max. injection rate [bpm] Density
Water base SBHT [C] at m Max. injection pressure [psi] Fluid in well at operation beginning
2
Oil base SBHP [kg/cm ] at m Pumping time [min]
Other Pumping time [min] String O.D. [in]
Acid Fracturing Main Frac Treatment Equipment String capacity [l]
Acid Proppant type: Coiled Tubing [Y / N] Packer - Top perforation Volume [l]
Gelled acid API Mesh Size
Acid + Gel Amount of Propant [t] Stimulation vessel / Other equipment
3
Other Total Frac Fluid Vol. [m ]
Operation Description
Fluid Fluid Schedule
Mixed Volume [m3 ]
Ref. Fluid Type Fluid Composition Density [kg/l]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Pumping Parameter
N Starting Pumping Volume Progr. Progr.Vol. Proppant Initial Final Injection Casing Notes
Circulated
Injected
Fluid Time Rate Volume Entering in Concentr. Press. Press. Index Press.
3 3 Formation
Ref. [bbl/1'] [m ] [m ] [lb/gal] [psi] [psi] [bbl/day/psi] [psi]
Notes / Remarks:
Supervisor
Superintendent
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A.6. WIRELINE REPORT (ARPO 11)
WIRE LINE REPORT WELL NAME
FIELD NAME
DATE: ARPO - 11 Cost center
SINGLE COMPLETION SELECTIVE SHORT STRING Well Code

DUAL COMPLETION LONG STRING
General Data Flanges
RKB Elevation @ m. Base Flange Tbg Spool Top Flange Psi
Tubing Size OD Weight [lb/ft] @ m. Flowing Flange Psi
Tubing Size OD Weight [lb/ft] @ m. Kill Line Flange Psi
Tubing Shoe @ m. BPV Type
Packer data @ m.
@ m. Wellhead Pressure Check
Minimum I.D. String THP [Kg/cm2] CHP [Kg/cm 2]
Previous Bottom Hole @ m. Annulus / P [Kg/cm 2]
Annulus / P [Kg/cm 2]
Request Operation Annulus / P [Kg/cm 2]
POOL
Perforated Zones Open Hole
From [m] To [m]
Note
Operation Description
Situation After the Job

NO TOOLS IN HOLE SCSSV Actual Bottom Hole:
TSV BPV PLUG OTHER TOOLS Max Size Run in Hole @m
Note Supervisor
Superintendent
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A.7. PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE SURVEY REPORT (ARPO 12)
Cannot Load File form supplied Eni-Agip Excel

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A.8. WELL PROBLEM REPORT (ARPO 13)
WELL PROBLEM FIELD NAME
District/Affiliate Company REPORT WELL NAME
DATE: ARPO -13 Cost center
Problem Top [m] Start date

Code Bottom [m] End date
Well Measured Depth Vertical Depth KOP [m] Mud in hole

Situation Top [m] Bottom [m] Top [m] Bottom [m] Max inclination [] Type
Open hole @m Dens.[kg/l]:
Last casing DROP OFF [m]
Well problem Description
Solutions Applied: Results Obtained:
Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor
Remarks at District level:
Superintendent
Lost Time hh:mm Loss value [in currency]
Remarks at HQ level Pag.

Of
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A.9. WELL SITUATION REPORT (ARPO 20)
FIELD NAME
WELL SITUATION
(COMPLETION TALLY) WELL NAME
DATE: ARPO 20 / E Cost center
SINGLE COMPLETION DUAL COMPLETION SHORT STRING LONG STRING

Joint m Progr. Note Joint m Progr. Note Joint m Progr. Note
n m n m n m
Remarks: Supervisor
Superintendent
pag.: of:
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APPENDIX B - NOMENCLATURE FOR TUBING CALCULATIONS

Ai = Area inside tubing
Ao = Area outside tubing
Ap = Packer-bore area
As = Resistant tubing area (Ao - Ai)
D = External diameter of tubing
d = Internal diameter of tubing
Dpb = Packer-bore diameter
7
E = Youngs module (310 psi for steel)
F = Generic force applied to the tubing end
Fa = Piston force at the packer depth
*
Fa = Piston force above the packer with anchored tubing
Fa tp = Piston force at well head conditions
*
Fa tp = Piston force at well head conditions with anchored tubing
Ff = Fictitious force
*
Ff = Fictitious force above the packer with anchored tubing
I
Ff = Fictitious force due to the effect of internal pressure
II
Ff = Fictitious force due to the effect of external pressure
Ff tp = Fictitious force at well head conditions
*
Ff tp = Fictitious force at well head conditions with anchored tubing
Fp = Tubing-packer force
Fso = Slack-off force
I = Moment of inertia of the resistant tubing section
L = Tubing length
n = Distance between the lower end of the tubing and the neutral
point
Pi /pi = Pressure inside the tubing at packer depth / well head
Po /po = Pressure outside the tubing at packer depth / well head
R = Ratio between the external and internal diameters of the tubing
r = Tubing-casing radial distance (Douter casing -D)/2
t = Tubing wall thickness
Tfinal = Final temperature of tubing
Tinitial = Initial temperature of tubing
w = Linear weight of the tubing immersed in fluid
ws = Linear weight of the tubing in air
wfi = Linear weight of fluid inside the tubing
wfo = Linear weight of fluid outside the tubing

-6
= Coefficient of thermal expansion (6.9 10 in/in/F for steel)
fi = Specific gravity of fluid inside the tubing
fo = Specific gravity of fluid outside the tubing
Fa = Variation in the piston force
Ff = Variation in the fictitious force
L = Generic variation in the tubing length
L1 = Variation in length due to Hookes Law
L2 = Variation in length due to buckling
L3 = Variation in length due to ballooning
L4 = Variation in length due to thermal effects
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Lp = Total variation in length prevented by the packer

Lf = Variation in length generated by fictitious force
lso = Variation in length generated by slack-off force
ltot = Total variation in length of the tubing (= - Lp)
Pi = Variation in pressure inside the tubing
pim = Average variation in pressure inside the tubing
pom = Average variation in pressure outside the tubing
TM = Average variation in tubing temperature
= Poissons coefficient (0.3 for steel)
a = Axial stress in the tubing section
b = Axial stress in the tubing section due to buckling
eq = Equivalent axial stress
i = Equivalent axial stress on the inner wall of the tubing
o = Equivalent axial stress on the outer wall of the tubing
sn = Material yield axial stress
Yp = sn
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APPENDIX C - ABBREVIATIONS
API American Petroleum Institute
BHA Bottom Hole Assembly
BHP Bottom Hole Pressure
BHT Bottom hole temperature
BOP Blow Out Preventer
BPD Barrel Per Day
BPM Barrels Per Minute
BPV Back Pressure Valve
BSW Base Sediment & Water
BUR Build Up Rate
C/L Control Line
CBL Cement Bond Log
CCL Casing Collar Locator
CET Cement Evaluation Tool
CGR Condensate Gas Ratio
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy
C/T Coiled Tubing
DC Drill Collar
DE Diatomaceous Earth
DHSV Down Hole Safety Valve
D&CM Drilling & Completion Manager
DP Drill Pipe
DST Drill Stem Test
E/L Electric Line
ECD Equivalent Circulation Density
ECP External Casing Packer
EMW Equivalent Mud Weight
ESD Electric Shut-Down System
ESP Electrical Submersible Pump
ETA Expected Arrival Time
FBHP Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure
FBHT Flowing Bottom Hole Temperature
FTHP Flowing Tubing Head Pressure
FTHT Flowing Tubing Head Temperature
GLR Gas Liquid Ratio
GOC Gas Oil Contact
GOR Gas Oil Ratio
GP Gravel Pack
GPM Gallon (US) per Minute
GPS Global Positioning System
GR Gamma Ray
HAZOP Hazard and Operability
HP/HT High Pressure - High Temperature
IADC International Drilling Contractor
ID Inside Diameter
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IPR Inflow Performance Relationship

JAM Joint Make-up Torque Analyser
KOP Kick Off Point
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
LCM Lost Circulation Materials
LMRP Low Marine Riser Package
LOT Leak Off Test
LWD Log While Drilling
MAASP Max Allowable Annular Surface Pressure
MD Measured Depth
MLH Mud Line Hanger
MLS Mud Line Suspension
MMS Magnetic Multi Shot
MODU Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit
MPI Magnetic Particle Inspection
MSL Mean Sea Level
MSS Magnetic Single Shot
MWD Measurement While Drilling
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NDT Non Destructive Test
NSG North Seeking Gyro
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
OBM Oil Base Mud
OD Outside Diameter
OIM Offshore Installation Manager
ORP Origin Reference Point
OWC Oil Water Contact
P&A Plugged & Abandoned
PBR Polished Bore Receptacle
PDC Polycrystalline Diamond Cutter
PDM Positive Displacement Motor
PGB Permanent Guide Base
PI Productivity Index
PLT Production Logging Tool
POB Personnel On Board
PPB Pounds per Barrel
ppg Pounds per Gallon
ppm Part Per Million
PVT Pressure Volume Temperature
Q Flow Rate
Q/AQ Quality Assurance, Quality Control
RFT Repeat Formation Test
RKB Rotary Kelly Bushing
ROE Radius of Exposure
ROP Rate Of Penetration
ROU Radios Of Uncertainty
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle
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RPM Revolutions Per Minute

RT Rotary Table
S/N Serial Number
SAFE Slapper Activated Firing Equipment
SBHP Static Bottom Hole Pressure
SBHT Static Bottom Hole Temperature
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SCSSV Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve
SDE Senior Drilling Engineer
SF Safety Factor
SG Specific Gravity
SICP Shut-in Casing Pressure
SIDPP Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
SPM Stroke per Minute
SSC Sulfide Stress Cracking
SSD Sliding Sleeve Door Valve
SSSV Sub Surface Safety Valve
STHP Static Tubing Head Pressure
STHT Static Tubing Head Temperature
TCP Tubing Conveyed Perforations
TD Total Depth
TOC Top of Cement
TOL Top of Liner
TRSV Tubing Retrievable Safety Valve
TVD True Vertical Depth
UHF Ultra High Frequency
VBR Variable Bore Rams (BOP)
VDL Variable Density Log
VHF Very High Frequency
VSP Velocity Seismic Profile
W/L Wire Line
WBM Water Base Mud
WC Water Cut
WHP Well Head Pressure
WHSIP Well Head Shut-in Pressure
WOB Weight On Bit
WOC Wait On Cement
WOW Wait On Weather
WP Working Pressure
YP Yield Point
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APPENDIX D - BIBLIOGRAPHY
Document: STAP Number
Drilling Design Manual STAP P-1-M-6100
Connection Procedures Manuals. STAP M-1-M 5006
Other References:
Ansari, A A Comprehensive Mechanistic Model For Multiphase Flow In Wells, MS Thesis,
The University Of Tulsa (1988)
API BUL 5C3 Sixth Edition: Formulas and Calculations for Casing Tubing Drill Pipe, and
Line Pipe Properties, October 1, 1994.
API RP 14E Recommended Practices For Design And Installation Of Offshore Production
rd
Platform Piping Systems, 3 edition (Dec 1981)
API RP 14E Fourth Edition: Recommended Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore
Production Platform Piping System, April 15, 1984.
Arthur Lubinsky: Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers, 36th Annual Fall Meeting of
SPE, Dallas, October 8-11, 1961.
Aziz, K, Covier, GW and Fogarasi, M : Pressure drop in wells producing oil and gas (July -
Sept 1972), 38-48
Beggs, H D and Brill, J P : A study of two-phase flow in inclined pipes (May 1973), 607-
617
Blount, E M, Jones, L G and Glaze, O H : Use of short term multirate flow tests to predict
performance of wells having turbulence (1976)
Brown, K E : The Technology Of Artificial Lift Methods, Vols 1 And 4, Ponwell Publishing
Company, Tulsa, OK, 1977
Bruist, E HY : Better performance of Gulf Coast wells( 1974)
D. J. Hammerlind: Basic Fluid and Pressure Forces on Oilwell Tubulars, 53th annual Fall
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, October 1-4, 1978.
D. J. Hammerlind: Movement, Forces and Stresses Associated With Combination Tubing
Strings Sealed in Packers, Journal of Petroleum Technology, February, 1977.
Duns, H JR and Ros, N C J : Vertical flow of gas and liquid mixtures in wells (1963), 451
Earlougher, R C JR and Kersch K M : Analysis of short-time transient test data by type-
curve matching (July 1974) 793
Eickmeier, J R : How To Accurately Predict Future Well Productivities ( May 1968) 99-106
Fetkovich, M J : The Isochronal Testing Oil Wells (1973)
Forcheimer, P ;P Wasserbewegung Durch Boden (1901) 45, 1781-1788 (in german)
Gilbert, W.E: Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance API Drill and Prod Pract (1954), 126
Golan, M and Whiston, C H: Well Performance, International Human Resource
Development Corporation, Boston, NY (1986)
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Gray, H E : Vertical Flow Correlation-Gas Wells API Man 14BM; API 14B, SSCSSV Sizing
Computer Program, 38-40
H. D. Beggs: Production Optimisation Using NODAL Analysis, OGCI, Tulsa, 1991.
Hagedoorn, A R and Brown, K E: Experimental study of pressure gradients occurring
during continuous two-phase flow in small diameter vertical conduits ( April 1965) 475-484
Hagedorn and Brown (1967)
Horner, D R : Pressure build up in wells (1951)
Hurst, W : Establishment of skin effect and its impediment to fluid flow into a wellbore
(Oct 1953)
King, G E, Anderson, A R and Bingham, M D A field study of underbalance pressure
necessary to obtain clean perforations using tubing-conveyed perforating ( June 1986) 662
Lea, J F JR and Tighe, R E : Gas Well Operations With Liquid Production ( 1983)
Milner, E E and Warren D A JR : Drill stem test analysis utilising McKinley system of after
flow dominated pressure build up (Oct. 1972)
Orkiszewski, J : Predicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops In Vertical Pipes (June 1967), 829-
838
Ramey, H J JR : Short-Time Well Test Data Interpretation In The Presence Of Skin Effect
And Wellbore Storage, (Jan 1970) 97
Rawlins, E L and Schellhardt, M A : Back-Pressure Data On Natural Gas Wells And Their
Application To Production Practices US Bureau Of Mines, (1936)
Reinicke, K M, Remer, R J and Hueni, G : Comparison Of Measured And Predicted
Pressure Drops In Tubing For High-Water-Cut Gas Wells (Aug 1987) 165-177
Saucier, R J : Gravel pack design consideration (Feb 1974)
Standing, M B : Concerning The Calculation Of Inflow Performance Of Wells Producing
From Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs (Sept 1971) 1141-1142
Texas Railroad Commission Rule 36
Turner, R G, Hubard, M G and Duckler, A E : Analysis And Predictions Of Minimum Flow
Rate For The Continuous Removal Of Liquid From Gas Wells (Nov 1969)
Van Everdingen, F : The Skin Effect And Its Influence On The Productive Capacity Of A
Well (Oct 1953)
Van Poollen, H K : Radius-Of-Drainage And Stabilisation Time Equations (Sept 1964) Vol
62. No 37
Vogel, J V : Inflow Performance Relationships For Solution Gas Drive Wells, (Jan 1968)
83-93
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APPENDIX E - TUBING MOVEMENT/STRESS COMPUTER PROGRAMMES

E.1. VERTUBING PROGRAMME
The need to fast computing to carry out tubing movement/stress calculations led AGIP to
produce the Vertubing programme in 1989. This application was based on a previous
version designed by a company named Tubmov which was run on Hewlett Packard 41CV
computers.
The Vertubing programme provided a calculation tool which significantly reduced times for
engineers involved in string calculations. The programme also enabled users to find an
optimal solution by means of the iterative process using a number of approximations and
producing results which were more reliable.
The programme is supported by VAX/VMS computer systems and is currently available at
Head Office and in the Districts on the Company computer network. The application carries
out all functions for tubing control in vertical or deviated wells, with a string and a high
number of packers as well (multiple zone completions) and takes into account the fact that
packer setting can be mechanical or hydraulic.
It is also possible to check stress tubings with varying diameters (tapered string) and to
consider materials with anisotropic characteristics. It is not, however, possible to take into
account the reduction in the performance of some CRA type steels, caused by temperature
increases.
The programme does not incorporate a library or collection of data on commonly used
tubing material, which would enable users to design the string starting from an existing
material.
The programmes architecture defines a rigid sequence for data entry, which results in
extremely accurate results. The application does not enable the user to independently
assess dynamic situations such as with production or injection operations. It is necessary to
calculate load losses during the relative operation and obtain the resulting fictitious
hydrostatic gradient which then lets the user obtain the correct pressures for the various
string sections.
Vertubing produces the results as numerical files, without any graphic display.
The programme is generally considered to be reliable because the results of three years
use have consistently matched actual well applications.
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E.2. WELLCAT PROGRAMME

Eni-Agip Division and Affiliates recently acquired Enertechs (1994) Wellcat programme
which is an application integrating the most specialised software, ranging from drilling, to
completion and other various well operations. The brief description below only describes the
parts of the application concerning tubing.
The need to use an in-house company programme which was more complex compared to
Vertubing, is due to this applications limitations in terms of obtaining the trend of
temperatures the string is subject to during various well operations, and the inability to
analyse dual completions. As Vertubing had to be integrated with software in ENI-Agip
Division and Affiliates expert system (Welcome) it seemed more appropriate to use a
modern design programme such as Wellcat.
The programme incorporates five modules. The WT-Drill module lets the user evaluate the
temperatures and pressures during drilling and the casing installation stages, while the
resulting stresses the casing is subject to are calculated using the WS-Casing module. The
WT-Circ and WT-Prod modules let the user evaluate the temperatures during standard
production and circulation operations and the WS-Tube module lets the user calculate
tubing movement and stress.
Wellcat can be used for single completions, selective completions with a maximum of five
packers, dual completions with a maximum of two packers and dual selective completions.
The programme also assesses the installation of a hanger in the completion as well as
hydraulic or mechanical packer setting. It is possible to evaluate the reduction in material
rating due to temperature and any anistropy of materials. The calculation of load losses and
the hydraulic conditions can be carried out using different correlations which are valid for
two-stage flow (Beggs & Brill, Orkiszewski, Gray, Hagedorn & Brown, Duns & Ross), while
the Govier-Aziz formula is used for single stage fluids.
The most interesting feature of the programme is its capability to evaluate temperatures
during and after well operations. During testing the results were compared to actual field
data and a good match was obtained. It is also possible to calibrate the average
coefficients for thermal exchange and specific heat, once the temperature profile and
lithology of the formations are known.
Wellcat produces results in ASCII format, which can be read, printed or exported as
graphic files. During processing it is also possible to display and print a simple drawing of
the well and the completion.
The Wellcat programme was initially tested with the most typical cases (discussed in
publications) and appropriate comparisons were made with data previously obtained using
the Vertubing programme with reasonable results. The programme is now used in the
company for completion string design and at present available in PC, VAX Mainframe and
UNIX versions.

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ARPO ORGANISING TYPE OF ISSUING DOC. REFER TO PAGE.

Agip Division OF 295

Eni - Agip Division Italian Districts

Date of issue: 28/06/99

REVISIONS PREP'D CHK'D APPR'D

3.5. WELL PRODUCTION TEST OBJECTIVES 83

5. WELL COMPLETION DESIGN 92

7. TUBING DESIGN 153

7.6. ANCHORED TUBING 170

8. SUB-SURFACE EQUIPMENT 206

8.3. CONTROL/INJECTION LINE SELECTION 225

10. ARTIFICIAL LIFT 250

11. USE OF UNDERBALANCE COMPLETION FLUIDS 274

APPENDIX A - REPORT FORMS 276

APPENDIX B - NOMENCLATURE FOR TUBING CALCULATIONS 287

APPENDIX C - ABBREVIATIONS 289

APPENDIX D - BIBLIOGRAPHY 292

APPENDIX E - TUBING MOVEMENT/STRESS COMPUTER PROGRAMMES 294

1.1. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL

Figure 1.A - Conceptual Completion Design Process

Figure 1.B - Detailed Completion Design Process

Figure 1.C - Procurement Process

Figure 1.D - Completion Design Versus Profitability

1.3. FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLETION

1.4. MANUAL UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION

2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

2.2.3. Relative Permeability

2.2.5. Fluid Distribution

Figure 2.A - Example Fluid Distribution in a Uniform Sand Reservoir

2.2.6. Fluid Flow In The Reservoir

Pressure Distribution Around the Wellbore

Figure 2.B - Pressure Distribution Near Wellbore In Radial Flow

Radial Flow Around The Wellbore

Figure 2.C- Units For Darcys Law Equation

Figure 2.D - Radial Flow In Parallel Combination of Beds

Varying permeabilities around the well in series can be averaged as follows:

Figure 2.E - Radial Flow In Series Combination Of Beds

Linear Flow Through Perforations

Figure 2.F - Pressure Drop Versus Flow Rate Through Perforation

Causes Of Low Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure

2.2.7. Effects Of Reservoir Characteristics

Most reservoirs in actuality produce by a combination of all three mechanisms.

Figure 2.G - Reservoir Pressure Trends For Various Drive Mechanisms

Figure 2.H - Gas-Oil Ratios Trends For Various Drive Mechanisms

With regard to drive mechanisms, some general statements can be made:

Dissolved gas drive reservoirs:

Gas cap drive reservoirs:

Water drive reservoirs:

2.2.8. Reservoir Homogeneity

Figure 2.I - Irregular Water Encroachment and Breakthrough

Figure 2.J - High GOR Production by Encroachment of Gas

2.3. HYDROCARBON DATA

2.3.1. Oil Property Correlation

2.4. RESERVOIR/PRODUCTION FORECAST

Figure 2.K - Process of Determining Optimum Well Performance

2.4.1. Inflow Perfomance

Oil Well - Straight Line IPR

Figure 2.L - Straight Line IPR or Productivity Index J

Figure 2.M- Effect of Damage And Fractures on a Wells PI

Oil Well - Vogels Two Phase Flow IPR

Figure 2.N - Typical IPR Curve for Saturated Reservoir

Figure 2.O - Vogels IPR Reference Curve

Figure 2.P - Combined Straight Line IPR and Vogel IPR