F.A; HOLLAND and F.S. CHAPMAN ae) Lever Brothers Company, New York, N.Y. mel M INN e Prey 2;<010 200) NOR REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION$15.00 LIQUID MIXING and PROCESSING in STIRRED TANKS By F. A. HOLLAND and F. S. CHAPMAN, both of the Engineering Development Section, Research and Development Divi- sion, Lever Brothers Company, New York, NY. Combining both theoretical and practical information on liquid mixing, this com- prehensive book presents in usable form the quantitative methods for design- ing and operating the most common liquid mixing systems. A_ substantial volume of hitherto unpublished data is included, and the content ranges from @ qualitative description of liquid mixing equipment to a theoretical treatment of non-Newtonian liquids. This latter treat- ment is unique in that shear in agitated vessels has been related to shear in pipe- lines and viscometers. The more familiar processing operations carried out in stirred tanks are thoroughly covered—purging, heat transfer, liquid- liquid extraction, and chemical reactions and scale-up. Helical screw agitation sys- tems are dealt with in a quantitative man- ner. Heat transfer correlations are given for agitated liquids in vessels containing helical coils and vessels having external jackets. In the chapter on stirred tank reactors the characteristics of continu- ous-flow reactors are compared with those of batch reactors. The final chapter contains information on auxiliary equip- ment such as drive units and heating systems, and also construction materials. The appendix gives a number of nomo- graphs to aid in design calculations. This volume will be a useful working guide to industrial technologists through- out the processing industries: chemical engineers in process design, applied re- search, development and plant operation; Continued on back tlap Continued from front flap mechanical engineers, concerned with equipment selection, design, and opera- tion; and chemists. The cement, organic and inorganic chemicals, food process- ing, textile, paper, petroleum, and plas- tics are among the industries that will greatly benefit from this book. 4 About the Authors of This Book F. A. HOLLAND holds degrees from the Universities of Oxford, London and Dur- ham. Both a trained physicist and a chemical engineer, Dr. Holland has 14 years experience in the chemical and allied industries holding various positions in applied research, development, proc- ess design, production and construction. He was formerly a plant manager with Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. at Wilton, England and is currently chief of the Engineering Development Section in the Research and Development Division of Lever Brothers Company. F. S. CHAPMAN is an assistant to Dr. Holland in the Engineering Development Section of the Research and Development Division of Lever Brothers Company. Dur- ing the last four years, he has devoted himself entirely to obtaining and correlat- ing experimental data in the fields of liquid mixing and heat transfer in stirred tanks.Liquid Mixing and Processing in Stirred Tanks F. A. HOLLAND and F. S. CHAPMAN Lever Brothers Company New York, N. Y. New York REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION Chapman & Hall, Lid., LondonCopyright © 1966 by REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION All rights reserved Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 66-20607 Printed in the United States of AmericaPreface Mixing is the most common operation in the chemical processing and allied industries, yet it probably has receiyed the Jeast amount of study. Since mixing is usually only a means to accomplish another operation such as blending, dispersion, extraction, heat transfer, or a chemical reaction, until recently interest has focused more on the final process result than on the operation of mixing per se. This book deals with the mixing and processing of liquids in stirred tanks. Although high viscosity liquids with viscosities over 100,000 ep are considered, pastes and solids are outside the scope of this text, since they do not automatically conform to the shape of the container. Liquid mixing in pipelines and in-line mixing units are likewise not within the scope of this book. In Chapters 1 through 4, an attempt has been made to systematize and present in usable form, data and quantitative methods for the design and operation of the most common liquid mixing systems. Chapters 5 through 9 deal with the more familiar processing operations carried out in stirred tanks. The treatment of non-Newtonian liquids has been left to Chapter 10, since it was felt, that a discussion of non-Newtonian liquids in the earlier chapters would tend to obscure the basic principles studied there. Chapter 11 contains information on auxiliary equipment such as drive units and heating systems, and also materials of construction. The Appen- dix gives a number of design aids such as nomographs for determining Reynolds numbers, Prandtl! numbers, agitator power requirements and tank volumes and areas. ‘The authors feel that if this compilation of material had been available ut the start of their careers, they would have been saved much time and offort. It is hoped that the book will be of direct use to technical people throughout the processing industries. The book contains a considerable umount of experimental data accumulated in Lever Bros. Co. to bridge the gaps existing in the published literature. ‘The authors are grateful to the numerous people who have helped with the production of this book, especially to Mrs. Vera R. Holland for typing nud checking the final manuscript, and also to Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson fur typing the original manuscript, to Mr. Michael Pesce for lettering the mn' PREFACE drawings and to Mr. Edward MaeMahon for calculating and drawing the nomographs. Thanks are also due to the companies who have supplivd photographs and data and to Mr. W. A. Kelly, Manager of the Process Improvement and Development Department, Research and Development ‘Division, Lever Bros. Co., Edgewater, N. J., for initiating w liquid mixing, studies program. The authors would also like to acknowledge the support and cooperation of the management of Lever Brothers Company. A special debt of gratitude is owed to Mrs. Alberta Gordon and Mrs. Florence Poillon of Reinhold Publishing Corporation for their hard work and patience in editing and processing this hook. A substantial portion of the material ineluded in Chapters $, 6, 7, 8 and 10 has previously appeared in CHEMICAL ENGINEERING and ix used here with permission, for which the authors are grateful. ‘The authors also wish to thank the Institution of Chemical Engineers, London, for per- mission to publish portions of previously published material in Chapters 4 and 7. F. A, Homann F. 8. Cuaraan Lever Bros. Co. Research Center Edgewater, N. JContents PREFACE. 2.00... 2 eee eas pede veresee ili 1. GENERAL CoNSIDERATIONS IN Liquip MIxING........... ae ML 2. Power RequirReMENTS IN Liquip Mrxtne........ arenes 2D 3. Tae Scane-ur or Liquip Mrxine Systems . - 50 4, Operatinc CHaracteristics of Liquip Mixine Systems.... 66 5. Tue Pureine or Stirrep TANK SYSTEMS...........--.05-- 109 6. Strrrep Tank Reactors... .. % 122 7. Hear Transver in Srirrep Tanxks.............. seazee 147 8. Te ScaLe-ur of Hear TRANSFER AND CHEMICAL REACTION Processes in Streep Tanks 187 9. Liquip-Liguip Exrraction in Stirrep Towers anv Tanks.. 207 10. Tae Acrration or Non-Newronian Liqutps in Strrrep TanKs 241 11. Auxrtary EquipMent AND MArTeRIALs oF CONSTRUCTION FOR Srinnep TANKS... brug 6 270 Appenpix. Design Arps......... Haypetinelcealaleaplacpts wale 298 FabOEsc geri is strtestsseraets x ? 315CHAPTER i General Considerations in Liquid Mixing Mixing is perhaps the most universal of all processing operations. Both heat and mass transfer are greatly influenced by mixing. In fact, mixing is an integral part of all chemical processing. In spite of this, inixing has proved intractable to a rigid theoretical analysis. Thus, in comparison with the more theoretically developed chemical engineering operations, mixing is still regarded as something of an art. Quillen® defines mixing as the “intermingling of two or more dissimilar portions of a material, resulting in the attainment of a desired level of uniformity, either physical or chemical, in the final product.” Gases, con- fined in a container, mix rapidly by natural molecular diffusion. In liquids, however, natural diffusion is usually a slow process. To hasten molecular diffusion within liquids, the mechanical energy from a rotating agitator is utilized. Much of this mechanical energy may be wasted if the wrong kind of agitator is used to accomplish the desired process result. Parker’ defines ngitation as “the creation of a state of activity such as flow or turbulence, part from any mixing accomplished.” ‘The rotation of an agitator in a confined liquid mass generates eddy currents. These are formed as a result of velocity gradients within the liquid, A rotating agitator produces high velocity liquid streams, which move through the vessel. As the high velocity streams come into contact will) stagnant or slower moving liquid, momentum transfer occurs. Low velocity liquid becomes entrained in faster moving streams, resulting in forced diffusion and liquid mixing."° Throughout this text, liquid mixing is regarded as forced diffusion in a confined liquid mass. 12 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS The Degree of Mixing The degree of mixing within a system is a function of two varinbles: (1) the magnitude of eddy currents or turbulence formed and (2) the forces lending to dampen this formation. The higher the ratio of applied to duumpening forces, the higher is the degree of mixing. This relationship may he expressed in the well-known rate equation: Driving Force Resistance = Flow or Rate (41) In this case, Driving force = the forces producing eddy currents or turbulence, Resistance = the forces tending to dampen the formation of eddy currents or turbulence, Flow or rate = the degree of mixing. A high degree of mixing occurs when the entire liquid mass, confined in a vessel, is under turbulent flow conditions. The quantity of mechanical energy required to extend turbulence throughout a liquid mass is dependent upon (1) vessel geometry, (2) agitator geometry, and (3) the physical properties of the liquid(s) being mixed. Mixing os a Function of Viscosity Liquid viscosity affects the flow created by a rotating agitator. Viscosity is the property of a liquid to resist flow or a change in shape through internal forces and molecular attraction. The more viscous a liquid, the greater is the quantity of energy required to produce a desired state of flow. Low viscosity liquids show little resistance to flow and therefore require relatively small amounts of energy per unit volume for a condition of mixing to occur. High viscosity liquids dampen the mechanical energy transmitted from a rotating agitator and require relatively large quantities of power per unit volume to reach a state of flow great enough for adequate mixing to occur. Dimensional Analysis ‘The interaction of any combination of system variables to produce a desired degree of mixing is not easily described in terms of fluid dynamics. It is possible, however, to relate the power required during mixing to the various parameters of a mixing system. This is accomplished by dimen- sional analysis, which is a technique for expressing the behavior of a physical system in terms of the minimum number of independent variables. Consider an agitator mixing 1 liquid in a tank, Assume that the powerGENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 3 input to the agitator depends only on the variables: rotational speed of the agitator N, diameter of the agitator D,, density p and viscosity u of the liquid, and the gravitational acceleration g. It is also assumed in this case that the other linear dimensions such as the height of the liquid in the tank, the diameter of the tank, the number, size and position of the baffles are all strictly related to the agitator diameter. The power required to mix the liquid may be expressed as a function of these variables in the following manner: P= F(N, Dy pu, 9) (1-2) Let P = ON'D,'o'p’g (13) where ( is a constant. The dimensions of each term may be expressed in terms of mass M, length L, and time 7 units. Equate the exponents for mass, length and time, respectively, to give Ca) CY RY ‘Therefore, ow sos l=ct+d 2=b—-—3e—ad+e 3 —a—d—2 ‘Therefore, =1-d —W-e a=3-d-% ce " [xpress the power P in terms of the exponents derived above to give P = CN Dp uly? ‘Vherefore, P = CpN'D,! (ica) (v5s) (1-4)4 LIQUID MDGNG AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Rearrange the terms to give safas~ (aime) (HD) as) Let x = —d and y = —e, and rewrite Equation (1-5) as Fen deOCH 9 : (« 9 Ne = £Nne Nr) (7) Therefore: where Np, Nu. and Ne; are the dimensionless Power, Reynolds and Froude numbers discussed in the next section. Dimensionless Groups In chemical engineering, dimensionless groups are extensively used as a convenient, way of correlating scientific and engineering data. Some of the most important and widely used dimensionless groups represent the ratio of the applied to the opposing forces in a system. In a fluid dynamic regime, the forces resisting the applied forces may arise from factors such as viscosity, surface tension or gravity, In addition, a viscosity controlled regime may be either streamlined or turbulent. In the design of liquid mixing systems, the following dimensionless groups are of importance. Power number, P/pN*D,°. Reynolds number, pN'D,°/x, which represents the ratio of applied to viscous drag forces. Froude number, N*D,/g, which represents the ratio of applied to gravitational forces. Weber number, pN?D,°/e, which represents the ratio of applied to surface tension forces. In the formulas for the dimensionless groups, p is density, » is viscosity, ¢ is surface tension, N is revolutions per unit time and D, is the diameter of the agitator in consistent units. In liquid mixing systems, vortexing can be suppressed by installing baffles, Since vortexing is a gravitational effect, the Froude number is not required to describe baffled systems.GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 5 EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION Numerous types of liquid mixing equipment are available for use in chemical processing. The theoretical development of liquid mixing has been slow, and in the absence of specific design information, equipment types quite needlessly multiplied during the years. All liquid mixing systems, however, have three factors in common: liquid(s) being mixed, a vessel to confine the liquid(s) and a mechanical device to generate turbulence within the system. The classification of mixing equipment is usually made on the basis of liquid viscosity, since viscosity is a prime contributor to the forces tending to dampen flow through « mixing system. Figure 1-1 shows the recom- mended viscosity ranges for a number of common agitator types. Turbines and Propellers For mixing low-to-medium viscosity liquids, the flat blade turbine or the marine type propeller is recommended. These are general purpose agitators and can be used under a variety of processing conditions. One of the most common turbines is the 6 blade flat blade, disk mounted type shown in 7 0 0% ge i d lls Zt H Hens é § = 3s 2 2 e 2||2/|8 WH » a g 2 2/ |e 2 Well el|s > s 5 wf ate aris &| | 3 0 5 AGITATOR TYPES Figure Is. Viscosity ranges for agitators.‘6 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Figure 1-2. A common marine propeller has 3 blades, with a blade pitch equal to the propeller diameter. The marine propeller is shown in Figure 1-3. Figure 1-2. 6 blade flat blade turbine with removable blades. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.) Figure 1-3. Marine propeller. (Courtesy Lever Bros, Co.)GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 7 A large variety of turbine agitators are available which are modifications of the flat blade design. The hub mounted curved blade turbine (Figure 1-4) and the disk mounted curved blade turbine (Figure 1-5) are useful Figure 14. Hub mounted curved blade turbine. (Courtesy Chemineer Inc.) Figure 1-5. Disk mounted curved blade turbine, (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.)a UQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Figure 1-6. Hub mounted pitched blade turbine. (Courtesy themineer Inc.) Figure 1-7. Split construction flat blade turbine. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.)GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING ° where the general characteristics of the flat blade type are desired but at a lower shear at the blade tip and reduced power consumption.'* Another modification of the flat blade design is the pitched blade hub mounted turbine (Figure 1-6) with straight blades set at less than 90° from the horizontal. This design provides reduced power requirements and is useful when mixing liquids having a high-gravity solids content, Turbine impellers are made either as single piece castings or in more than one piece. The latter are used for entry into vessels having narrow openings. A typical example of a 2 piece impeller is shown in Figure 1-7. Alternatively, units are made so that the blades can be removed as shown in Figure 1-2. The 6 blade flat blade turbine and the marine propeller may be mounted in a process vessel in various positions, For general processing service, it is recommended that these agitators be mounted 1 impeller diameter from. the tank bottom and have diameters 1/3 of the tank diameter.‘ Agitator Mountings and Supports ‘Turbine, paddle and other radial flow agitators are normally mounted ulong the center line of the vessel. A variety of mounting supports are ayailable but standard “I” beams are the most common. These are fre- quently required to support a variable speed unit in addition to the drive motor. A typical overhead, fixed-beam mounting is shown in Figure 1-8. Agitators on pressure vessels are flange mounted (Figure 1-9) and require mechanical seals or packing for the shaft. In unbaflled systems, axial flow propellers are frequently mounted off-center and at an angle to the axis of symmetry of the vessel. The off-centered position develops an unbalanced flow condition which dampens vortex formation. Side-entering propeller agitators (Figure 1-10) are commonly used in lurge vessels. These are useful for agitating liquids containing suspended solids having relatively slow settling rates. Since side entering agitators require seals or stuffing boxes which are in contact with the contents of the vessel, difficulties may arise when mixing liquids containing abrasive solids. Shaft seals used with side entering agitators do not resist abrasion to any great extent and a “leaky” seal is not uncommon. Side-entering agitators should be mounted so that the drive assembly juus the least possible overhang. The unit has to be supported by tie-rods or brackets of sufficient strength to accommodate the drive and motor. I is inadvisable to support outboard machinery with any structure anchored to the ground, since slight shifts in the process vessel's position10 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Figure 1-8. Fixed-beam vertically mounted agitator. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.) lead to incorrect alignment between the shaft and the seal. This results in excessive shaft vibration, wear and leakage of the stuffing gland or seal. A typical side-entering agitator installation is shown in Figure 1-11. Portable Agitators Various types of portable agitators are on the market for light-to- moderate service, These are normally used in open tanks, In addition to constant speed units, portable agitators with self-contained variable speed drives are also available. Portable agitators are equipped with adjustable clamping devices for attaching to the rim of the vessel. Most portable agitators are of the propeller type. These are normally mounted in unbaffled vessels in an off-centered position at an angle to the axis of symmetry of the vessel. This reduces the tendency to vortex and promotes top-to-bottom flow Portable agitator units are available from fractional to 3 hp models.GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING W Figure 1-9. Flange mounted agita- tor. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.) Flow Patterns Agitators are used to produce flow and, subsequently, turbulence in a liquid mass. Each type of agitator causes high velocity liquid to flow ‘hrough a vessel in a specific path, referred to as a flow pattern. Flat and curved blade turbines, mixing low or moderate viscosity liquids, produce dial flow patterns when used in a baffled vessel. Radial flow, shown in Vigure 1-12(A), is primarily perpendicular to the vessel wall. ‘The marine type propeller and pitched blade turbine produce axial flow paiterns when centered in a baffled vessel containing low or moderate viscosity liquids. Axial flow, shown in Figure 1-12(B), is primarily flow purallel to the tank wall. Standard Tank Configuration ‘The vessel configuration, shown in Figure 1-13 and known as the Sinndard ‘Tank Configuration,* provides adequate mixing for most proe- cssing requirements found in industry.12 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Figure 1-10. Belt driven side-entering agitator. (Courtesy Chemineer Inc.) However, it should be stressed that the Standard ‘Tank Configuration is an arbitrary standard which in some circumstances is not the best con- figuration to use. For special processing conditions such as mixing liquids with a high solids content, a high viscosity or a shear sensitive character, this configuration may be impractical. The Standard Tank Configuration has the following geometrical rela- tionships: (1) The agitator is a 6 blade flat blade turbine impeller. (2) Impeller diameter D; = 1/3 tank diameter D+. (3) Impeller height from the tank bottom H; = 1.0 impeller diameter. (4) Impeller blade width ¢ = 1/5 impeller diameter. (5) Impeller blade length r = 1/4 impeller diameter. (6) Length of impeller blade mounted on the central disk s = 7/2 =1/8 impeller diameter.GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 13 (7) Liquid height H, = 1.0 tank diameter. (8) Baffle number = 4, vertically mounted at the tank wall and extend- ing from the tank bottom to above the liquid surface. (9) Baffle width Wy, = 1/10 tank diameter. An analogous Standard Tank Configuration may be used with other agitator types. Other Geometrical Configurations In practice, wide deviations from the Standard Configuration are to be found. Some of these are unavoidable because of the need to add or dis- charge liquid from a tank during processing, For example, variations in liquid level during processing may require the agitator to be close to the bottom of the tank. Some of these geometrical variations will now be discussed with reference to turbines. A turbine impeller placed close to the tank bottom produces an axial flow pattern as shown in Figure 1-12(B). If the liquid height in a vessel is greater than 1.25 tank diameters, multiple impellers should be used. Equipment: of this type is commonly used in extraction and gas-liquid Figure 1-L1. Gear driven side-entering agitator installation. (Courtesy Mixing Equipment Co.)4 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING: IN STIRRED TANKS (A) Radial flow pattern Axial flow pattern Baffie Figure 1-12. Radial and axial flow patterns. aMGENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 15 contacting processes.‘ An example of a multiple impeller mixing column and the flow patterns obtained in such a system is shown in Figure 1-14, The number of turbine impellers to be used on an agitator shaft is determined with the formula of Weber:!* Number of turbines = WELH/Tank diameter (1-8) where WELH is the water-equivalent liquid height. WELH is the maximum liquid height multiplied by the average specific gravity of the contents of the vessel. Thus, if the actual liquid height is 10 ft and the specific gravity is 1.1, the WELH = 11 ft. If Equation (1-8) gives an answer which is not a whole number, the next highest whole number is used. The distanee between impellers should be 1,0-1.5 impeller diameters. If impellers are spaced too widely apart, unagitated areas may result between i = yfZ 4 Zlo ~ ANS acm o== = y= 7 eS SN || Figure 1-14. Multiple impeller mixing column. We = lo oN Spe oH As EDI == —= | ) a YD i16 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS the fields of action of the impellers, If impellers are too close together, the flow streams from the adjacent impellers interfere with each other and inadequate mixing results. Degree of Agitation ‘Agitator tip speed in ft/min is commonly used as a measure of the degree of agitation in a liquid mixing system. The tip speed of an agitator in ft/min TS = rD, X rpm (1-9) where D, is the diameter of the agitator in ft and rpm is the rotational speed of the agitator in revolutions per minute. Table 1-1 shows how the rotational speed of a turbine impeller varies with the size of the process vessel and the degree of agitation required. TABLE 1-1, Degrees of Agitation at Various Tip Speeds for Turbine Agitators "ae aes Meee asta Impeller ‘Tank Size, Diamoter, US. gal Speed Ranges (rpm) et 20,000 32 41 41 51 51 70 5it 10,000 41 52 52 64 64 88 4 ft 5,000 50 65 65 80 80 111 8 ft-2 in, 1,000 87 113 1s 139 139 191 1 ft-10 in. 500 109 142 142 175 175 240 «1 ft-6 in. 100 185 241 24 207 297 408 = 10.3 in. 50 234 304 304 374 374 514 Sin, 5 504 655 655 806 806 1109 3.8 in. 1 868 1128 1128 1388 1388 1909 2.2 in. Nore: D;/Dr = 1/3; height of liquid Hy = Dr; eylindrical tank. ‘The impeller diameter is taken to be 1/3 the diameter of the process vessel, and the height of the liquid to be agitated is taken as equal to the vessel diameter. The upper limit of agitation is attained at an impeller tip speed of 1100 ft/min. This is reached at an impeller speed of 70 rpm in a 20,000 gal process vessel. However, a rotational speed of 1909 rpm is required (o get the same tip speed in a 1 gal tank. Vortex Formation If either the marine propeller or any of the impeller agitators are used in-an unbaffled vessel containing low viscosity liquid(s), vortexing develops,GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING. 7 . Figure 1-15. Vortex formation in an unbaffled system. oe a9) The liquid swirls in the direction of the agitator rotation, causing a drop in liquid Jevel around the agitator shaft. This type of vortex flow is shown in Figure 1-15. Vortexing increases with impeller speed until eventually the vortex passes through the agitator. The mixing efficiency of vortexing systems is usually lower than for geometrically similar nonvortexing systems. Baffle Design ‘As liquid viscosity increases, the need for bafiles to reduce vortexing decreases. When high viscosity liquids are mixed, baffle widths may be reduced to 1/20 tank diameter. With viscous liquids, baffles are most effective when positioned away from the tank wall or at an angle to the axis of symmetry of the vessel. A space of 1.0 baffle width is sufficient to allow liquid to move along the tank wall, thus avoiding stagnant areas behind the baffle. When turbines and marine propellers ate used to mix liquids of viscosities greater than 20,000 cp, baffles are not required. The liquid’s natural resistance to flow becomes sclf-baffling and dampens yortexing due to liquid swirl, Several bafle arrangements are shown in Figure 1-16.18 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Baffles ot the wall for low viscosity liquids Baffles set awoy from wall for moderat viscosity liquids Batfles set awoy from wall af an ‘angle for high viscosity liqutds Figure 1-16. Bafille arrangements. In liquids having viscosities greater than 10,000 cp, the generation of turbulence, using turbines and propellers, becomes difficult. High velocity liquid streams dissipate their energy very rapidly in overcoming the viscous drag forces in “thick” liquids, Turbines and propellers are very inefficient when used to mix viscous liquids, as shown by the efficiency chart in Chapter 4. The inadequacy of turbines and propellers to efficiently mix viscous liquids has been repeatedly shown.”*5248 The high velocity liquid streams they produce do not penetrate throughout the system, resulting in stagnant areas.* Helical Screw Agitators ‘The helical screw agitator (Figure 1-17) is an effective device when used in high viscosity liquid(s), since it does not depend on high velocity liquid streams to accomplish mixing.GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 19 Helical screws may be obtained in numerous sizes and geometries. All screws, however, are classified on the basis of the following parameters: diameter, pitch, flight number, flight depth and serew length. The screw diameter D, is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder into which the screw would closely fit. A flight is one complete turn (360°) of the screw helix. The pitch P, is the linear distance between adjacent flights. The selection of the proper screw for any specific process application is a function of numerous system variables. The screw diameter to tank diameter ratio, the screw pitch to screw diameter ratio, the number of flights and the flight depth each contribute to the overall capabilities of the mixing configuration. The screw length is usually predetermined by processing conditions, since the screw should extend from the tank bottom to the liquid surface. ‘The screw normally functions by carrying liquid from the vessel bottom to the liquid surface. The liquid is then discharged and returns to the tank bottom to fill the void created when fresh liquid is carried to the surface. Alternatively, serews may be operated in the reverse direction to pull Parana Figure 1-17, Helical screw agitator. bs20 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS liquid to the bottom of the vessel. Less power is required in this ease. Flow patterns in helical screw agitated systems are, of course, a function of system geometry, In unbaffled screw systems, where the serew is centered in the tank, the liquid exhibits a mild swirling motion. Liquid velocity decreases toward the tank wall. At the walll the liquid is nearly motionless due to high frictional forces between the liquid and the vessel. For this reason, unbaffled, centered-screw systems are not recoramended.* The flow pattern obtained in an unbaffled vessel is shown in Figure 1-18(A). By placing baffles in a screw agitated vessel, turbulence is ereated. The baffles should be set away from the vessel wall, thus allowing the turbulence created to travel around the bafile and entrain the otherwise slowly moving liquid in contact with the vessel wall. An effective wall-to-baffie space is 1.0 baffle width.? The flow pattern created in a baffled, centered-serew agitated system is shown in Figure 1-18(B). ‘The use of bafiles in a screw agitated vessel may be avoided if the serew is placed in an off-centered position. When the screw is placed in close proximity to the vessel wall (space = less than 1/20 D,), the system be- comes self-bafiling. Figure 1-19 shows the flow pattern produced by an (A) (8) Flaw pattern im an unbattiad Flow pollern in a baffled Falicut seraw system helical screw system Figure I-18. Flow patterns in centered helical serew aystems.GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 2 Figure 1-19. Flow pattern in an off-centered helical serew system. (Courtesy Lever Bros. Co.) fl-eentered screw in a 69,500 ep corn syrup solution shortly after intro- ducing @ small amount of dyed solution of the same viscosity into the ystem. The use of off-centered screws, as opposed to bafiles, requires more power to aecomplish a comparable mixing job. Baffled vessels, therefore, ould be used whenever possible.” Paddle Agitators Paddles are low speed, large blade area agitators, which function by pushing or earrying liquid in a circular path around the vessel. No high pwed liquid streams are produced as with turbines, and very little top-to- holtom turnover takes place unless baffles are placed in the vessel and nultiple paddles are used. Unbafiled paddles operating in low viscosity liquids produce severe vortexing, even at moderate Reynolds numbers. his leads to inefficient mixing, Since paddles do not mix by producing high re well suit velocity streams, they 1 for high viscosity serviee.22 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Figure 1-20. Multi-paddle agitator. (Courtesy Charles Ross and Son Co.) Modified versions of the basic 2 blade paddle are available. The choice depends on the viseosity of the liquid and the degree of shear required. Figure 1-20 shows a multi-paddle mixer with horizontal baffles positioned between the agitator blades. The bafiles eause a disturbance in the normally circular flow pattern and dampen vortex formation. The blades of the paddles are pitched to promote top-to-bottom flow. Since the clearance between the blades and the baffles is comparatively large, this agitator does not produce high shear. To increase shear, the clearance between blades and baffles should he made small. Figure 1-21 is a high shear agitator used for viscous materials, Other modifications of the basic 2 blade paddle are anchor and gate agitators. Anchor Agitators Anchor agitators have been successfully used in the batch mixing of liquids having viseosities approaching 100,000 cp.t"¥ Uhl compared the relative effectiveness of an anchor to that of large paddles and turbines operating in viscous liquids, A( 40 rpm, the anchor adequately mixed 40,000 ep liquid, as compared to a maximum of 15,000 ep for the turbineGENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 23 Figure 1-21. High shear multi-paddle agitator. (Courtesy Charles Ross and ‘Son Co.) = nd paddle agitators. ‘The anchor agitator is generally a slow moving, large urface area device; in close proximity to the vessel wall, For heat transfer ypplications, wall scrapers are utilized, which prevent the build-up of a agnant film between the anchor and ‘the vessel wall. Vor liquids of low (100-1000 cp) the plain horseshoe type anchor [Figure 1-22(A)] provides adequate agitation. As viscosity increases, however, cros I oy -mem- [Figure 1-22(B)] or auxiliary paddles [Figure 1-22(C)] are required to come viscous drag forces and maintain motion in the core of the liquid inuss.! For very viscous liquids, double motion unchor-paddle combinatio ave useful. The same effect is obtained when the basic horseshoe anchor is \juipped with additional vertical members. This type of agitator is vommonly known as a gate type anchor and is shown in Figure 1-23. Double Helical Ribbon Agitators Kor extremely high viscosity applications (1,000,000 ep), specialized agitators must. be utilized to obtain any degree of top-to-bottom turnover.24 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS I (A) (B) C=, ,_ Horse shoe Horseshoe with cross-members © | (0) BA Horseshoe with paddles Double motion horseshoe-paddie Figure 1-22. Anchor agitators. Figure 1-23. Gate type anchor agitator.GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING 25 Figure 1-24. Helical ribbon agitator. (Courtesy Mizing Equipment Co.) = ‘The helical ribbon agitator (Figure 1-24) is well suited for ultra-high viscosity mixing, Mixing occurs through the forced downward action of the central helix and the subsequent bottom-to-top motion brought about by the outer helical ribbon.* The helical ribbon gives complete mixing with no stagnant areas. Since the outer ribbon is in close proximity to the vessel wall, the scraping action increases the heat transfer rate in jacketed tanks. Gray? compared the helical ribbon agitator to various screws, turbines and paddles. For the same power and liquid viscosity, the helical ribbon pro- duced a uniform mixture of dye and corn syrup in 1/60 of the time required for a turbine or a centered helical screw. An off-centered screw took only \wice as long to mix as the helical ribbon. High Shear Agitators High shear agitators are primarily used in liquid mixing systems where 1 particle size reduction or a breaking apart of agglomerated solids is ropellers and flat blade turbines are not classified as high shear ince a major part of the mechanical energy transmitted by the ator is used (o cireulate the liquid, Special agitators have been designed26 UQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Figure 1-25. Modified turbine high shear agitator. (Courtesy Chemineer Inc.) ImPACE AT VANE ‘chants bint “SKETCH SHOWS ACHION je AT omy OnE cart, ACTUALLY THE ACTION 18 (m8 RAPID REPEAT AT EACH Figure 1-26. Saw-tooth edge modified turbine high shear agitator. (Courtesy John H. Day Co.) to minimize liquid flow. These agitators have small blade areas and operate at high speeds. ‘This is the optimum combination for particle size reduction with low-to-moderate power consumption. For most efficient operation, agitator to tank diameter ratios D,/D+ should be in the range 1/9-1/3, depending on the agitator.If a choice must be made between a standard turbine and a propeller for high shear service, the propeller should be used. Propellers draw less power than standard turbines for the same operating conditions, For the same power consumption, propellers operate at higher speeds and produce more shear. Figure 1-25 shows a modified turbine agitator used for high shear work. The blades are tapered to give the maximum slip at the blade tip where GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LIQUID MIXING the speeds are highest. Another high shear agitator is shown in Figure 1-26. This is a modified turbine which breaks apart aggregates through the shearing action of saw-teeth positioned on the periphery of the agitator. Both agitators can be run at high speeds without producing a large amount of flow. Nee NOMENCLATURE exponent of the agitator speed N exponent of the agitator diameter Dy exponent of the liquid density » constant in Equation (1-3) (dimensionless) exponent of the liquid viscosity u agitator diameter, ft impeller diameter, ft screw diameter, ft tank diameter, ft exponent of the gravitational acceleration g flight depth of a helical screw agitator, it gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec? impeller aeight, ft liquid height, {t Jength of o helical screw, ft shaft diameter of a helical screw, ft impeller speed, rev/see Froude number (dimensionless) = N*D,/g Power number (dimensionless) = P/pN*D,° ‘Reynolds number (dimensionless) = pND,*/« Weber number (dimensionless) = pN*D,/o power required by an agitator, ft poundals/see piteh of a helical screw, ft blade width of a flat blade turbine impeller, ft blade length of a flat blade turbine impeller, ft revolutions per minute disk diameter of a disk mounted flat blade turbine impeller, ft tip speed, ft/min baflle width, ft28 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS WELH water equivalent height, ft 2 exponent of the Reynolds number group y exponent of the Froude number group “ viscosity of liquid, Ib/ft see p density of liquid, Ib/ou ft ° surface tension of liquid, poundals/ft REFERENCES 1. Brown, R. W., Scott, R., and Toyne, C., Trans. Inst. of Chem. Bng., 26, 181 (1947). 2. Chapman, F.S., and Holland, F. A., Trans. Inst, of Chem. Eng., 43, 131 (1965). 3. Gray, J. B., A.I.Ch.E. Symposium Series Reprint No. 18 (1962). 4. Holland, F. A., Chem. Eng., 68, No. 19 (1962). 5 6, . Metaner, A. B., and Otto, R. E., A...Ch.B. Journal 8, 3 (1957). , Nagata, S., Yokoyama, T., and Yanagimoto, M., Chem. Eng. (Japan), 21, 278 (1957). 7. Parker, N. H., Chem. Eng., 71, No. 12 (1964), 8. Quillen, C.S., Chem. Bng., 61, No. 6 (1954). 9. Rushton, J. H., Gallagher, J. B., and Oldshue, J. ¥., Chem. Eng. Progr., 62, 319 (1956). 10. Rushton, J. H., and Oldshue, J. Y., Chem. Eng. Progr., 49, 161 (1953). 1L. Rushton, J. H., and Oldshue, J. ¥., Chem. Eng. Progr., 49, 267 (1953), 12. Serner, H. K., Chem. Bng., 67, No. 4 (1950). 13. Uhl, V. W., and Vosnick, H. P., Chem. Eng. Progr., 68, 72 (1960). 14. Weber, A. P., Chem, Zng., 71, No, 25 (1964).CHAPTER 2 Power Requirements in Liquid Mixing ‘The power drawn by an agitator in a liquid mixing system is determined by its rotational speed and the environment in which it operates. Rushton, Costich and Everett® used dimensional analysis to derive the equation Np = O'Wne)*(Wve)"(Dx/Di)"(Ho/Ds)"(/Di)"(Pi Di)" (q/D:)"(r/Di) (W./Di)" (B/N) (R/N2)? (21) which gives the dimensionless Power number Np as a function of the dimensionless Reynolds number Nx., the dimensionless Froude number Ny, and a number of dimensionless shape factors. Equation (2-1) is the yeneral equation ielating the physical variables most often encountered in liquid mixing with a single impeller type agitator, centered in a cylindrical, vertical axis, flat bottom vessel. In Equation (2-1): B = number of baftles C’ = dimensionless constant i D, = impeller diameter Dy = tank diameter H, = impeller height Hi; = liquid height Nn = reference number for bafiles Ny = reference number for impellers P| = impeller blade piteh = impeller blade width ® = number of blades on the impeller impeller blade length. 230 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Nx and Ng are determined by convenient choice. For example, if the Standard Configuration discussed in Chapter 1 is used as a reference, Na = 4and Np = 6.2, y, a,b, ¢, d, ¢, f, h, i and j are exponents. Equation (2-1) may be made even more general with additional terms to account for other factors such as number and position of impellers and tank bottom shape. The last nine terms of Equation (2-1) are shape factors which define a particular geometrical configuration. If these shape factors remain fixed, Equation (2-1) simplifies to Ne = CWre)*(Wer)" (2-2) where C is an over-all shape factor which represents the geometry of the system, Equation (2-1) can be rewritten in the form ¢ = Np/Wr.) = C(New)* (2-3) which defines a power function ¢. For nonvortexing systems, gravitational forces have a negligible effect, the exponent y of the Froude number is zero, (Nr.) = 1 and Equation (2:3) becomes 6 =Np = Cn)" @-4) Engineers are often confused by the different units used in Equations (2-2), (2-8) and (2-4). An understanding of units is necessary before these equations can be applied correctly, Units ‘The two most common systems of units used in engineering work are the foot pound-mass second system and the foot pound-mass pound-weight second system. The foot pound-mass second system has a length L, mass M, time basis. The unit of force is the poundal defined as that force which will impart an acceleration of 1 ft/see/sec to a mass of 1 Ib. In this system, the Power number is expressed as where P is the power in ft poundals/see, p is the density in Ib/eu ft, Nis the rotational speed of the ugitator in rev/see, and D, is the agitator diameter in ft. One horsepower (hp) = 17,710 fl. poundals/see.POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 3 ‘The foot pound-mass pound-weight second system has a length L, mass M, force F, time 7’ basis. In this system, the Power number is expressed as Pye eN°D,* where g. is @ constant having the dimensions ML/FT? and is numerically almost equal to the gravitational acceleration, i.¢., 32.2. One horsepower (hp) = 550 ft Ib/sec where the pound refers to a force of 1 Ib weight. The latter is equal to 32.2 poundals. The two systems are often used simultancously. For example, the Power number is frequently written as Np = Pg./pN*D,°, and at the same time the Weber number is written as Ne= (26) ad Nwe = De o where p is in Ib/cu ft, N in rev/sec, D, in ft, and o the surface tension is in poundals/ft. Surface tension ¢ is almost always given in dynes/em where 1 dyne/em = 2.203 X 10~* poundals/ft ‘The dyne is the unit of force in the centimeter gram-mass second system of units which has a length L, mass M, time 7 basis, With Power numbers expressed by Equation (2-5) or (2-6), the Reynolds uiumber is given as ‘ Nn, = ONDE 7 Where p is in Ib/cu ft, N in rev/sec, D, in ft. and p the coefficient. of viscosity in lb/ft see. These units are only strictly correct in the foot pound-mass second system,! Viscosity data are usually given in centipoises, where 1 cp = 0.000672 Ib/ft sec. Similarly, with Power numbers expressed by Equation (2-5) or (2-6), the Vyoude number is given as Nee = where NV is in rey/sec, D, in ft and g the gravitational acceleration is 32.2 [1 /s00/se032 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS It is generally more convenient to do power calculations in the foot pound-mass second system of units, although power data are invariably reported in the literature as ft lb;/sec, Sometimes, for example in the case of heat transfer, it is more convenient to use hours instead of seconds. ‘This does not present any difficulties. Power Curves A plot of ¢ or Np vs Nae on log-log coordinates is commonly called a power curve. An individual power curve is only true for a particular geometrical configuration, but it is independent of vessel size. Thus a power curve can be used to correlate the power data in a 5 gal or a 5000 gal tank, provided that both tanks have the geometrical configuration for which the power curve holds. Numerous power curves are available in the literature, representing a wide variety of geometries. Figure 2-1 shows the power curve for the Standard Tank Configuration discussed in Chapter 1, This power curve will be used to illustrate some general principles. In Figure 2-1 it is seen that at low Reynolds numbers (Nx. < 10), the plot is linear. In this range (segment AB), the viscous forces exerted by the liquid control flow within the system. Gravitational forces are negligible and hence the Froude number is not required to describe the system. For this region Equation (2-4) may be written as logio Np = logio C + = login Nne (27) ‘The power curve for the Standard Geometrical Configuration has been experimentally determined by a number of people. The slope x in the viscous region has been found to be —1.0. Thus for the viscous region AB, Equation (2-4) can be further simplified, using Equation (2-5), to read: P = (eN'D,') C(gNDy'/u)"*” (28) which can be rearranged to P = w(C)(V'D,') 2-9) Equation (2-9) shows power to be directly proportional to viscosity at any fixed agitator speed, To make use of this equation, the constant C must be evaluated. Tn Equation (2-7): login Nv = logy C at a Reynolds number = 1.0 (2-10)POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 33 8 3 Viscous Transition range Turbulent 5 range range 2 5 0 oor HH Ss & B=Np= P/pNPOE tor Npg< io* é “ 2 = a constant = 61 tor Nag 2 10 8 ol gz Wo! 2 t 2 5 5 E & c = | & we Lt 10° 10! 10 to 108 oe REYNOLDS NUMBER Neg , dimensionless Figure 2-1. Power curve for standard tank configuration. Since in Figure 2-1 the power curve does not extend to a Reynolds number of 1.0, the constant may be conveniently evaluated at Nr. = 5.0 as follows: At Nx. = 5, Equation (2-7) reads logic N» = logis @ + (—1.0) logy 5 or logio Np + logio 5 = loge C (2-11) Therefore, at Nn» = 5, C = (5) Ne (212) The interpolated value of C in Figure 2-1 for the Standard Configuration is 71.0, ie., (6 X 14.2). Values of C for other common tank configurations are given in Tables 4-1, 4-2 and 4-3. As the Reynolds number increases, the flow changes from viscous to iurbulent. For the Standard Configuration the transition is gradual, covering @ range from Nee = 20 to Nae = 2000. The power and flow characteristics remain dependent only on the Reynolds number until Ne 300 (segment: BC, Figure 2-1), At this point enough energy is being34 QUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS transferred to the liquid for vortexing to begin. ‘The baffles, however, effectively suppress vortexing and the flow remains dependent upon the Reynolds number until Np. = 10,000, Equation (2-4) is valid over this entire Reynolds number range. When flow becomes fully turbulent, the power curve in Figure 2-1 becomes horizontal (segment DE). Here the flow is independent of both the Froude and Reynolds numbers. In this case: @ = Np = a constant In Figure 2-1, Ne = 6.3 at Na» > 10,000. In an unbaffled vessel, vortexing increases with the Reynolds number. ‘The Froude number becomes important and Equation (2-3) applies. o = Nol Nr)" (2-8) A power curve for an unbaffled vessel of an otherwise Standard Configura- tion is given in Figure 2-2. ‘The power curves for the baffled and unbaffled systems are identical up to Nne S300 when vortexing begins. As vortexing increases, the power 3 2 Viscous Transition range Turbulent s range range : 5 i ea eer {| = B= Np= P/pNPDE tor Nag 300 12 10Gg Nag] 3 i= suing) f at - | for Nag 2300 8 20 z I = ceo | g c 2 [i e | io 0 10" 1 10° 1° o° REYNOLDS NUMBER Np , dimensionless Figure 2-2, Power curve for un unbattled vesselPOWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 35 falls off sharply, and the power curve assumes # changing negative slope (segment CD) described by Equation (2-3). In fully developed turbulent, flow (Np. > 10,000) the slope of the power curve has a constant negative value (segment DE). At Reynolds numbers less than 300, ¢ = the Power number, Np. At Reynolds numbers greater than 300, ¢ = Np/(Nr,)”. If, instead of plotting logio @ vs logio Nine, logio Vp is plotted vs logic N., a family of curves results at Nxe > 300. Each of these curves has a constant Froude number, which is a function of agitator speed.” Since p = Np/(Nri)” Np = oN)” = CW re)" (Nrx)” and logio Np = y logio Nr + logis ¢ = y logio Nvr + logiolC(Nne)") A plot of log Np vs log Nr; is a straight line of slope y at a constant Reynolds number. A number of straight lines can be plotted, each corre- sponding to a different Reynolds number. If the line slope y is plotted against log Nne, a straight line results with a slope —1/8 and an intercept a/f at Na. = 1. Thus a2 [« _ Jog Nu] (2-13) and the power function can be written: = No/ (Nes) Wonton) (2-14) Values of a and 8, found by Rushton, Costich and Everett,” are given in "Table 4-4, Use of Power Curves If a power curve is available for a particular tank configuration, it may be used to calculate power for various agitator speeds, liquid viscosities and densi36 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS EXAMPLE Calculate the horsepower required for a 10 ft diameter, 6 blade flat blade turbine impeller running at 10 rpm in a 30 ft diameter tank, given the following additional data: impeller height = 10 ft, 4 baffles at the tank wall, baffle width = 3 ft, liquid level = 30 ft, viscosity = 1000 ep and density = 60 Ib/cu ft. The vessel geometry conforms to the Standard Tank Configuration, the power curve of which is given in Figure 2-1. (1) Calculate the Reynolds number Nae = pNDi/u — (60.tb/eu f)(10 rpm)(1 min/60 see) (10 ft)" (1000 ep) (0.000672 lb/ft sec/ep) Nae = 1490 (2) From Figure 2-1, obtain the Power number, Np = 4.5 at Nre = 1490. (3) Solve for the power in terms of Equation (2-5): P = (Ne)(eN"D:) _ (4.5)(60 Ib/eu ft)(10 rpm)*(1 min/60 sec)°(10 ft)’ = (17,710 ft poundals/sec/hp) =7.1hp The same result could have been obtained by using Equation (2-6), Power calculations for unbafiied vessels require the use of Equation (2-14), which accounts for gravitational forces and, hence, vortexing conditions. EXAMPLE Caloulate the horsepower required for a 20 inch diameter, centrally located, 6 blade flat blade turbine impeller running at 100 rpm in an unbaffled vessel of 60 inch diameter. The tank, which is a flat bottom, cylindrical type, contains a liquid with a density of 59 Ib/cu ft and viscosity of 200 cp. The height of the liquid in the vessel is 60 inches and the turbine is located 20 inches from the bottom of the vessel. Inspeetion of the system parameters show the curve in Figure 22 to be the appropriate power curve. (1) Calculate the Reynolds number Nue = pNDi/a (60 Th/eu ££)(100 rpm)(1 min/0 see) (20 in.)*/12 ft/in.)* = (200 ep) (0.000672 Ib/ft sec/ep) Naw Nice = 2000POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING a7 Since the Reynolds number is above 300, vortexing is present in this system. Equation (2-13), which includes the Froude number, should be used to calculate the power required in vortexing systems. (2) Calculate the power function 6 = Wp)/(N en)! tt10 Yast} (214) From Figure 2-3 obtain o= 20 In terms of Equation (2-5) $= (P/eN'DID/(N'Dy/g)' es 8 (8) Calculate the power P = o(N'D(N'D jg)! 'r0 Mao (218) ‘The constants (a, 8) in the Froude number exponent, for this system, are found in Table 44 to be =10 8 = 40.0 In Equation (2-15), the various terms are as follows: ¢pN"D;* = (2.0)(59 tb/cu ft)(100 rpm)*(1 min/60 sec)*(20 in.)°(1/12 ft/in.)* = 7000 N°D; _ (100 rpm)*(1_min/60 sec)"(20 in. (1/12 ftfin.) 9 32.2 ft/sec® = 0.144 ee leis Yas] = 1.0 = loge 2000 [== lpn ho = 0.0875 ‘Therefore, substitute these terms into Equation (2-15) to give: P = 7000 [(0.144)""™)] = 7840 ft poundals/sec 7840 ft poundals/sec " 77,710 ft poundals/sec/hp ~ °*4 P Only agitator power has been calculated in both these examples. Addi- tional power is required to overcome electrical and mechanical losses present in every mixing system.38 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS Power Reductions through Hysteresis Under equilibrium conditions, the power required by an agitator is a function only of the liquid mixed, the geometry of the system and the rotational speed of the agitator. Chapman, Urban and Holland? have shown that under metastable conditions, the power can have more than a single value for a particular geometry. Liquid mixing experiments in a cylindrical tank equipped with 4 vertical wall baffles and a 6 blade flat blade turbine impeller have demonstrated the existence of a hysteresis effect when the rotating impeller is slowly, raised from near the bottom of the tank, Under these conditions a metastable axial flow pattern characteristic of propeller agitation exists over a range of impeller heights. This was visually demonstrated with a suspension of small solid particles in the liquid. This axial flow pattern reverts to the normal radial flow pattern again when the impeller is raised above a certain height. When the rotating impeller is lowered below the standard height of % the diameter of the tank, the normal radial flow pattern and the power output persist over part of the range where the axial, propeller type of flow existed during the upward movement of the impeller. When the impeller is brought sufficiently close to the bottom of the tank, the flow pattern will shift to that of a propeller and the power output will drop. Figure 2-3 isa typical plot of power output vs impeller height. The existence of hysteresis, a range of impeller heights in which two outputs exist, is clearly shown. If the impeller is stopped and then started, the upper curve in Figure 2-3 is followed irrespective of the direction in which the impeller is moved. Hysteresis exists only during continuous impeller operation. This effect has been observed at mixing Reynolds numbers of from 20-1000 using a number of Newtonian oils. The mixing Power number at the low impeller height is 15-20 per cent below the Power number for the standard height. This hysteresis effect has little practical significance, since the height of an impeller in a tank is rarely, if ever, changed during a process. However, the impeller in a tank is often located near the bottom. ‘The design engineer must take into account the reduced power and altered flow pattern when the impeller is low, so that the equipment is designed to do a satisfactory mixing job. A reduced power output means reduced mixing, and the speed of the impeller should accordingly be increased to compensate. ‘A second type of hysteresis was observed when the liquid level was varied over a II;/Dz range of 0.6-1.0 with a fixed impeller height. As the liquid level increases, the power required by the turbine decreases. If the liquid in the tank is reduced to its initial level with a constantly rotatingPOWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING o 3 2 Impeller movin: — Stoble curve — towards tank bottom =-~Metastable curve ——- away from tank bottom IMPELLER HEIGHT H, ——» © impeller height increasing X Impeller height decreasing *Mobil"SAE 50-50 lubricating oil ino 10 inch siameter vessel where: Oj/Or=1/3,, Hy /Oys10 3 dato of Chapman, Urban and Holland zs of Chapman, }e00rpm Ngo 236 PS é ard beight + Standard hel POWER P, ft iby/sec 3 t t “Ee IMPELLER HEIGHT Hj , inches Figure 2-3. Hysteresis loops for a variable impeller height.40 UQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS impeller, the power remains at its reduced level. Several cycles of raising and lowering the liquid level can be carried out until no further decrease in power takes place. Figure 2-4 illustrates the power decrease due to liquid level changes, which is seen to be 17 per cent for the system investi- gated. Under constant operating conditions, the power gradually returns to its original value. Full tanks recover the power loss faster than partially full tanks. Viscous liquids recover the power loss faster than thin liquids, The original power is immediately recovered if the impeller is stopped and then re- started. ‘This second type of hysteresis has practical significance since liquid levels are frequently varied during batch processing. When changing the liquid level, it is recommended that the agitator be stopped to avoid substandard mixer performance and an inferior process result, 3B a —o— Filling tank Emptying tank Et a® I} & a = 0 | a & 29 S g 28 es Castor il in_a 1Oinch diometer vessel with a Sblade Tat blade turbine in constant operation af 800¢pm where: O\/Or=H/Dy=1/3 " L_,___| 4ale t Chopman, urban end Holland’ 26 6 7 8 2 10 LIQUID HEIGHT Hy , inches Figure 24. Power reduction duc to a variable liquid level.POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 41 Sparge tube Figure 2-5. Gas eparging in a liquid mixing system. Power Reductions through Gas Sparging Gasliquid contacting is often carried out using a vessel equipped with an agitator, The gas is introduced immediately below the rotating agitator and is dispersed throughout the vessel. A single gas sparge tube suitable for use with turbine agitators is shown in Figure 2-5. The introduction of gas reduces the density of the agitated mass and hence the power required. Michel and Miller® relate this reduced power Pou With gas sparging to the power Py without gas sparging by the em- pirical equation. ipa\ia Pras = K (mmire Pe ) (216) which was derived from experimental data obtained for the following geometries: (1) A 6 blade flat blade turbine agitator, (2) Impeller diameter to tank diameter ratios D\/Dr from 0.25-0.47,42 UQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS: (3) Impeller height to tank diameter ratios H/D+ from 0.25-0.62, (4) Liquid height to tank diameter ratios H,/Dz from 0.75-0.92, (5) 4 baffles of width Dz/10 adjacent to the wall and extending ver- tically from the bottom of the vessel to above the liquid level. In equation (2-16), Q is the volumetric gas flow rate in eu ft/min based on the static pressure and liquid temperature at the agitator. The geometry factor K was found to be 0.08 for the systems studied. "The Pyan/Po ratio was found to be as little as 0.25 for the same impeller rpm.* Michel and Miller* suggest that Equation (2-16) should only be used for systems having the approximate geometry and capacity of those studied, since scale-up to larger size vessels may not be strictly valid. A further limitation on the equation is that it should not be used at very low and very high gas rates. The value of Pex should approach that of Po when Q goes to zero. When Q becomes infinite, Pam should be small but finite. Neither is the case in Equation (2-16). Equation (2-16) can be used for both one and two phase liquid systems with about the same degree of accuracy. It is interesting to note that the smaller the impeller selected to deliver aspecified amount of power in a gas-free liquid, the greater is the reduction in power when gas is supplied to the system. POWER MEASUREMENT IN LIQUID MIXING Power measurements are necessary in liquid mixing to provide the data required to draw power curves. At a specific value of liquid density p, agitator speed N, and diameter D,, the power P must be measured in order to evaluate the Power number P Ne= DS Power measurements can be classified as either mechanical or electrical. Mechanical Methods of Measuring Power These methods depend on the measurement of torque produced by a rotating agitator. Torque measuring instruments are commonly called dynamometers. Newton's third principle, which states that. an action is opposed by an equal and opposite reaction, forms the basis of operation of these instruments.POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 43 A simple dynamometer is shown in Figure 2-6. The entire drive unit is mounted on a thrust bearing and supported above the agitated liquid in the vessel. The rotating agitator imparts a mechanical foree which is opposed by the liquid. The liquid in turn produces a torque on the agitator which is transmitted through the drive shaft to the motor. This reactive torque tends 8 cause the drive unit to rotate on the thrust bearing in the opposite direction to the agitator rotation, This enables the torque to be Figure 2-6. Bench scale dynamometer. (Courtesy Chemineer Inc.)“a LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS measured by transmitting the force through a mechanical linkage to a platform scale, From these measurements the power is obtained as follows: Power = Torque X Rate of Angular Displacement or P=Pxtxe (217) where F is foree in pounds force lby measured on the platform scale, d is the lever arm length in inches, w is the rate of angular displacement: in radians/sec, and P is the power in ft Ibs/see, Since there are 2r radians per revolution, w = 2nN = Bp Tadians/see (248) where N and rpm are the rotational speeds of the agitator in revolutions per second and revolutions per minute, respectively. Combine Equations (2-17) and (2-18) and put 1 hp = 550 ft Ib;/see to give the power in hp as = ad yrmpmy, 1 hp = F X 75 X “39 X & _ Fa xpm ‘ = 5025 (2-19) Tn practice, friction causes some of the reactive torque to be lost. Thus a correction factor must be applied to the power data obtained with this kind of equipment. The correction factor is found by measuring the force required to overcome the frictional bearing forces with the motor turned off and the impeller in air. If this force is f lb;, the corrected form of Equation (2-19) is _~ €+fdrpm hp = “93,025 (220) A more cluborate form of the equipment just deseribed is shown in Higure 2-7,POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 45 Figure 2-7. Pilot scale dynamometer. — (Courtesy Lever Bros. Co.) Figure 2-8(A) illustrates a thrust bearing dynamometer system in which the foree F in lbs from the end of the rigid arm of length d inches is trans- mitted along a flexible cable to a balance pan containing weights whieh can be adjusted to balance the force. Alternatively, a spring scale can be used in place of the balance pan. The length of the flexible cable does not affect the measured force. It is assumed in this system that the angle @, between the arm and the cable is 90°. This is not strietly true. However, if the displacement of the arm is kept to a minimum, sin 6, & 1.0 and the torque in ft Iby can be written as . diya 3 Fsin 9 35 = Fp (2-21) Figure 2-8(B) illustrates a thrust bearing dynamometer system in which rigid mechanical lever arms transmitting to a platform scale replace the flexible cable of Figure 2-8(A). In this system, the length and the angle of the lever arms are important.Direction of agitator rotation Agitator shaft (A) Direction of reactive torque "Frictioniess” pulley Flexible 7 wire Weight pan Motor Direction of reactive torque Direction of agitotor rotation t (B) Fignre 2-8. Torque measuring devices. Direction of agitator r a x Res Direction of reoctive torque ” SUNYL GRWUS NI ONISSIIONd ANY ONIXIW GINDIPOWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING a7 The equation for this system, assuming @, — 9 = 90°, is _ @+f)drpm (2) bp 63,025 4 72) where ¢, and ¢; are the lengths of the two additional lever arms. ‘All the systems discussed so far have the drive motor supported on a thrust bearing. Figure 2-8(C) illustrates an alternative system in which the mixing vessel is supported on a thrust bearing. In this case, the torque produced is measured as the reaction of the vessel to the rotating agitator, the liquid acting as a transmitting medium. Either a flexible cable linkage or rigid mechanical arms may be used. For the former, Equation (2-20) applies; for the latter, Equation (2-22). The simplest mechanical means of measuring power is the split shaft dynamometer. In this system, a calibrated spring or torsion bar is inserted between the drive and the agitator shaft. The force exerted by the rotating agitator causes the spring diameter to decrease or the bar to twist. This movement is indicated on a scale which is either calibrated in degrees or directly in power units. Rotational viscometers such as the “Brookfield” operate on the same principle as the split shaft dynamometer. For low power measurement, split shaft dynamometers are moderately expensive, but for high power measurement, the cost becomes prohibitive. Electrical Methods of Measuring Power In these methods, the electrical power input to the drive motor is measured directly with a wattmeter and changed to horsepower with the conversion 1 hp = 745.5 watts. A correction for power losses in the motor, bearings and gears should be made, since the agitator power is related to the electrical power input by the equation Agitator Power = Electrical Power Input — Electrical and Mechanical Power Losses (2-23) The motor efficiency __ Output Power ~~ Input Power Values for 9 are supplied by the motor manufacturer in the form of graphs for various load conditions. Direet, current: motors are recommended for accurate work. For small- scale work, the agitator shaft may be coupled directly to the motor shaft48 QUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS without any intermediate gearing and the agitator speed can be controlled with a rheostat. Electrical methods of power measurement are only recommended when mechanical power losses are small relative to agitator power, NOMENCLATURE exponent of the Dr/D, group exponent of the H./Dj group number of baffles exponent of the H:/Dj group constant in Equation (2-2) (dimensionless) constant in Equation (2-1) (dimensionless) exponent of the P,/D; group lever arm length, inches agitator diameter, ft impeller diameter, ft tank diameter, ft exponent of the W./Di group exponent of the L,/D group force, Iby force, Iby gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec* conversion factor, 32.174 ft Ibm/lby sec” exponent of the Wi/D; group impeller height, ft liquid height, ft exponent of the B/Np group exponent of the B/N» group constant in Equation (2-16) impeller blade length, ft length of lever arm impeller speed, rev/sec reference number for baffles reference number for impellers Froude number (dimensionless) = N*D,/g Power number (dimensionless) = P/pN*D,° Reynolds number (dimensionless) = pND,?/p power required to mix a liquid, in appropriate unite SSR Qac eR 5 ROS RE eS Ss She Gg VBEREEE OE Pex power required by an agitator in gae-sparged vessels P, pitch of the impeller blades, ft Py power required to mix in nonsparged vessels Q mus sparge rate, cu ft/min R number of blades on an impeller rpm. revolutions per minuteWe er RE seeR POWER REQUIREMENTS IN LIQUID MIXING 49 baffle width, ft impeller blade width, ft exponent: of the Reynolds number group exponent of the Froude number group constant in the Froude number exponent constant in the Froude number exponent motor efficiency viscosity of fluid, Ib/ft see density of fluid, Ib/cu ft power funetion (dimensionless) REFERENCES: Bates, R. L., Fondy, P. L., and Corpstein, R. R., Ind. Eng. Chem., 2, 310 (1963). 2. Chapman, F, 8., Urban, W. J., and Holland, F. A., A.J.Ch.£. Journal, 10, 274 (1964). . Chapman, F.§., Urban, W. J., and Holland, F. A., Chem. and Proc. Eng., 48, 305 (1965). |. Cooper, C. M., Fernstrom, G. A., and Miller, 8. A., Ind. Eng. Chem., 36, 504 (1944). . Johnstone, R. E., and Thring, M. W., “Pilot Plants, Models and Scale-up Methods in Chemical Engineering,” p. 30, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co, Inc., 1957. . Michel, B. J., and Miller, 8. A., A..Ch.E. Journal, 8, 262 (1962). . Rushton, J. H., Costich, B. W., and Everett, H.J., Chem. Eng. Progr., 48, 395 (1950). . Rushton, J. H., Costich, E. W., and Everett, H.J., Chem. Eng. Progr., 48, 487 (1950).CHAPTER 3 The Scale-up of Liquid Mixing Systems The scale-up of liquid mixing systems falls into two categories: the scale-up of power data and the scalc-up of process result. The Principle of Similarity!* The most important tool used in scale-up is the principle of similarity, first proposed by Newton. In liquid mixing, it is necessary to consider three types of similarity: geometric, kinematic and dynamic. Two systems are said to be geometrically similar when the ratios of corresponding dimensions in one system are equal to those of the other system, Hence geometrical similarity exists between two pieces of equip- ment of different sizes when they both have the same shape. Kinematic similarity exists between two systems of different sizes when not only are they geometrically similar, but the ratios of velocities between corresponding points in each system are the same. Dynamic similarity exists between two systems when, in addition to being geometrically and kinematically similar, the ratios of forces between corresponding points in each system are equal. ‘The classical principle of similarity can be expressed by equations of the form Q = F(R,S, ++ +) @-1) where a dimensionless group Q is a function of other dimensionless groups R, S, ete. This equation is derived for a particular case by dimensional analysis, Some of the most, important and widely used dimensionless groups represent the ratio of the applied to the opposing forces in a system. In a fluid dynamic regime, the forces resisting the applied forces may arise from $0THE SCALE-UP OF LIQUID MIXING SYSTEMS 3Y factors such as viscosity, surface tension or gravity. In addition, a viscosity controlled regime may be either streamlined or turbulent. Two conditions are necessary in order to effect reliable scale-up. First, the regime must be a relatively pure one. For example, even within a fluid dynamic regime, the opposing forces should be largely due to viscosity, or surface tension, or gravity, but not a combination of all three. Thus scale-up on dynamic similarity should depend chiefly upon a single dimen- sionless group that represents the ratio of the applied to the opposing forces. Second, the regime should not change as vessel size goes from the small to the lange scale. Every dimensionless group represents a rule for scale-up. Frequently these individual scale-up rules conflict. Hence, in order to scale up with accuracy, it is usually necessary to design the pilot plant equipment so that the effects of certain dimensionless groups are deliberately suppressed in favor of a particular dimensionless group. In Chapter 1, the equation Ne = F(Nnw Nv) (1-7) was obtained by dimensional analysis for an agitator mixing a liquid in a tank. Np, Ne and Ny, are the dimensionless Power, Reynolds and Froude numbers, respectively. When separate physical phases are present in a liquid mixing system, the Weber number Nwe is also of importance and the similarity equation becomes Ne = F(Nnw Nes, Nwe) (3-2) The dimensionless groups Ne, Nr; and Nw, represent the ratio of the applied to the opposing forces which may arise in a liquid mixing system. The Reynolds, Froude and Weber numbers are the ratios of the applied to the resisting viscous, gravitational and surface forces, respectively. _ aND? a # Nn where V and D, are the rotational speed and diameter of the agitator, respectively, and p, «and « are the density, viscosity and surface tension of the liquid, respectively; q is the gravitational acceleration.52 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS The Reynolds, Froude and Weber numbers are proportional to ND,*, N?D, and N*D,, respectively. If one of these groups is used for scale-up, the scale-up rules represented by the remaining dimensionless groups are automatically violated if the physical properties of the fluid remain the same. The groups could, of course, be made compatible by using fluids having different physical properties on the large and small scales. In liquid mixing systems, baffles can be used to suppress vortexing. Since this eliminates the gravitational effects, the Froude number is no longer required to describe the system. The Weber number is of importance only when separate physical phases are present in the liquid mixing system. Frequently, it is not possible to achieve dynamic similarity between the small- and large-scale units. In this case, the results obtained on the small-scale unit haye to be extrapolated to dynamically dissimilar con- ditions on the large scale. In order to extrapolate, we can use equations of the “extended principle of similarity” in the form: Q = O(R)*(S)’- + + (3-3) where the dimensionless group Q is proportional to the dimensionless group R to the zth power and the dimensionless group S to the yth power, ete. The constant C depends on the geometry of the system and is consequently a shape factor, which in the majority of cases must be determined by experiment. The standard rate equations for heat, mass and momentum transfer are all in the above form. These equations are formulated with the aid of dimensional analysis, but the constants are empirically determined, The liquid mixing equation Ne = C(Nne)"(Nrr)” (2-2) discussed in Chapter 2 is in the same form as Equation (3-3). The principle of similarity forms the basis of pilot plant and model studies. Pilot Plants and Models In chemical engineering, scale-down is frequently as important as scale-up. When a small unit is built before the larger or production unit, it is called a pilot plant. When the small unit is built after the production. unit, it is called a model. Pilot plants are used as a means of providing design data for production plants, while models are used for process studies that may be impracticable or uneconomical in the production plant. While the use of pilot plants has diminished somewhat in recent years, the use of models has tended to increase, especially in processes where insufficient pilot plant work had previously been done,‘THE SCALE-UP OF LIQUID MIXING SYSTEMS 53 The Scale-up of Power Data Power curves (discussed in Chapter 2) depend only on the geometry of fa particular liquid mixing system and not on its size. Thus power data taken in a small tank, eg., 5 gal capacity, can be used to obtain a power curve which holds true for a large tank, e.g., 5000 gal capacity—provided that geometrical similarity exists between the two systems. Geometrically similar small-scale models of production size liquid mixing systems have proved very useful for providing both power and flow pattern data. Tt is only in recent years that a systematic engineering approach has been applied to the subject of liquid mixing. The majority of the production size mixing systems existing in most companies were put in at a time when very little attention was paid to theoretical considerations. The design basis for these installations was a mixture of past experience and hopeful guessing. Thus a vast, number of existing geometrical configurations have no power curves. Unfortunately, most of this proliferation of equipment was unnecessary. In many cases the desired process result could have been obtained in 2 mixing system conforming to the Standard Tank Con- figuration. Frequently, mixing systems with no power curves are required for other applications. A trial and error procedure may result in a burnt-out motor with considerable inconvenience. Small-scale, geometrically similar models of production systems can readily be made and power data obtained as described in Chapter 2. EXAMPLE Obtain the horsepower required to process a liquid detergent of approximately 400 op viscosity in a premix tank (which had previously been used for something else) of approximately 5000 U.S. gal capacity. The tank has turbine impeller that is 4 ft in diameter with 6 curved blades. The impeller rotates at 84 pm with a tip speed of 1056 ft/min. Pilot experiments have already shown that this tip epeed will give approximately the desired agitation for the liquid detergent. The remaining question is whether the 15 hp agitator motor on the premix tank will be sufficiently powerful. (1) Construct a small-scale model, e.g., 5 gal in capacity, of the premix tank shown in Figure 3-1. (2) Experimentally determine power data on this small-scale model and draw the power curve for this particular geometric configuration by plotting the dimen- sionless Power number against the dimensionless Reynolds number. Figure 3-2 shows the power curves for the premix tank, with the liquid levels in the tank et 1 tank diameter and 34 tank diameter, respectively. These curves were plotted from data experimentally determined on the small-scale model using a number of liquida having different viscosities.54 LIQUID MIXING AND PROCESSING IN STIRRED TANKS fai 4 slanted att baffles Figure 3-1. Details of premix tank aft diometer sblade curved blade tu impeller ‘tonk full onk 1/2 full dimensionless data_of Holland! POWER FUNCTION @, % 10 10 A 3 REYNOLDS NUMBER Np, , dimensioniess Figure 3-2. Power curves for premix tank. (3) Calculate the horsepower at various viscosities and plot Figure 3-3 from the information given in Figure 3-2. Figure 3-3 refers specifically to the premix tank that has an impeller diameter of 4 ft and a rotational speed of 84 rpm. In order to get the curves in Figure 3-3, liquids of different viscosities—but all having a specific gravity of 1—are considered, The procedure is as follows: Calculate the Reynolds number for the 4 ft diameter impeller rotating at 84 rpm in liquid of a particular viscosity, ¢.g., 400 ep. Read the Power number, correspond- ing Wo this value of the Reynolds number, from the power curves in Figure 3-2.THE SCALE-UP OF LIQUID MIXING SYSTEMS. 55 Calculate the horsepower required to rotate the impeller under the given conditions from the Power number Np = P/pN*D;*. Calculate the other points in Figure 3-3 in the same manner. ‘Figure 3-3 shows that if the liquid detergent with a viscosity of 400 cp is proc essed in the premix tank, the agitator motor will be overloaded and will be in danger of burning out. It appears contrary to common sense that the horsepower requirements of the agitator motor should decrease as the viscosity of the liquid to be agitated increases. Nevertheless, as the viscosity increases, the mixing becomes more localized and the amount of flow is reduced. (However, in the laminar flow region, power is directly proportional to viscosity.) The Scole-up of Process Result Pilot plant experiments are carried out in order to ascertain the best type of agitator and vessel geometry required to achieve a particular process result, The desired process result may be the suspension of solids in a liquid, the dispersion or emulsification of immiscible liquids, the completion of a chemical reaction or any one of a number of other processes —some of which may involve heat or mass transfer. After the process result has been satisfactorily achieved on the pilot seale, the problem remains of accurately predicting the agitator speed required to obtain the same result in a geometrically similar system on the production scale. It is also necessary to know the rotational speed of the production scale agitator before its power requirements can be calculated. In addition to geometrical similarity between the pilot and production size units, a number of other possible scale-up criteria are the following: Constant Reynolds number Nine «ND? Constant Froude number Vs; «N*D, Constant Weber number Vwe a N*D,* Constant tip speed TS x ND, Constant power per unit volume 2 « wpe «ND! « NDS Constant volumetric flow per velocity head oe Fi a N’D,"