CLE203 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

LECTURE NOTES

UNIT I: Stresses and Strains

Stress and strain - Hookes law -tension -compression and shear- composite bars- elastic
constants- principal stresses and strains, Mohrs circle, torsion, solid and hollow circular shaft
simple problems.

STRESS:

When an external force acts on a body, it tends to undergo some deformation. Due to molecular
interaction, it resists deformation. This resistance by which the material of the body opposes the
deformation is known as strength of material. Within elastic limit, the resistance offered by the
material is proportional to the deformation and also the resistance is equal to the externally
applied load. But beyond elastic stage (i.e., plastic stage), the resistance is less than external
force. At this stage, deformation continues and failure takes place.

The force of resistance offered by body per unit area against deformation is known as stress.

The body is in equilibrium when the resistance offered and deformation is equal.

P
Stress,
A

Where, = Stress, P = External load and A = cross-sectional area

The unit of stress depends on unit of load and unit of area.

Unit of load N or kN or MN or GN or TN; Unit of area mm2 or cm2 or m2 or km2

1 kN 1 kilo Newton (103 N); 1 MN 1 Mega Newton (106 N); 1 GN 1 Giga Newton (109 N)
and 1 TN = 1 Terra Newton (1012 N)

P( N )
Therefore, 2
= kN/m2 or N/mm2 or MN/m2, etc.
A(m )

Note: 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2

 1 m2 = ((10)3)2 mm2 = 106 mm2

1 MPa = 1 N/mm2

STRAIN:

When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body.
The ratio of change of dimension to the original dimension is known as strain. It has no unit.

Types:

Tensile strain If there is some increase in length due to external force, then the ratio of
increase in length to original length is known as tensile strain

Compressive strain - If there is some decrease in length due to external force, then the
ratio of decrease in length to original length is known as compressive strain

Volumetric strain Ratio of change of volume to original volume

Shear strain strain produced by shear stress.

Types of stress:

Tensile stress The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as
a result of which, there is increase in length.

Tensile stress = Resisting force / cross-sectional area = Tensile load (P) / Area (A)
 P
Tensile stress,
A

Where, = Stress (N/mm2), P = Pulling force (N) and A = cross-sectional area (mm2)

Similarly, Tensile strain, e = increase in length / original length

dl
et
l

Compressive stress - The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite
pushes as a result of which, there is decrease in length.

Compressive stress = Resisting force / cross-sectional area = Compressive load (P) / Area (A)

P
Compressive stress,
A

Where, = Stress (N/mm2), P = Pushing force (N) and A = cross-sectional area (mm2)

Similarly, Compressive strain, e = decrease in length / original length

dl
ec
l

Shear stress The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces
which are acting tangentially across the resisting sections, as a result of which the body tends to
shear off across the section. The shear stress is the stress which acts tangential to the area. The
corresponding strain is called shear strain.
 P
Shear stress = Shear resistance / shear area= = P / (L x 1)
A

Similarly, shear strain = Transversal displacement / distance AD

DD1 dl

AD h

ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT:

When an external force acts on a body, it tends to undergo some deformation. If the external
force is removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size, the body is known as
elastic body. The property by virtue of which certain materials return back to its original position
after removal of the external force is called elasticity. Upto certain limit, the body will regain its
shape and size is called elastic limit.
HOOKES LAW AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:

It states that, within elastic limit, when a material is loaded, the stress is directly proportional to
strain. The ratio of stress to strain is called modulus of elasticity (E) or modulus of rigidity (G).

E
e

G

Where, = Tensile stress or Compressive stress; e = Tensile strain or compressive strain; =

shear stress and = shear strain.

2D STRESS SYSTEM:

When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is increase in length of the body. But at
the same time, there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to the line of
action of the applied load. The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is
known as longitudinal strain or linear strain. Similarly, the ratio of decrease in dimension to
original dimension right angles to the applied load is knows as lateral strain.

dL
Longitudinal strain, elinear
L

dB dD
Lateral strain, elateral
B D

Where, P = Tensile force acting on the body; L = Length of the body; L = Increase in length of
the body acting in the direction of P; B =Decrease in breadth; D = Decrease in depth
Note: 1. if linear strain is tensile, lateral strains will be compressive and vice versa.

Poissons Ratio ():

When the material is stressed within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain is a constant, called Poissons ratio ().

elateral

elinear

elateral = x elinear

As lateral is opposite in sign to linear strain, hence algebraically, lateral strain is written as,

elateral = - x elinear

Relationship between stress and strain:

Let, 1 & 2 = Normal stress in x and y directions respectively

Considering the strain produced by 1,

1
In x-direction, longitudinal strain =
E

1
In y-direction, lateral strain =
E

Similarly, considering strain produced by 2,

2
In y-direction, longitudinal strain =
E
 2
In x-direction, lateral strain =
E

Therefore, total strain produced,

1 2
In X-direction, e1
E E

2 1
In Y-direction, e2
E E

3D STRESS SYSTEM:

Let, 1, 2 & 2= Normal stress in x, y and z directions respectively

Considering the strain produced by 1,

1
In X-direction, longitudinal strain =
E

1
In Y & Z-direction, lateral strain =
E

Similarly, considering strain produced by 2,

2
In Y-direction, longitudinal strain =
E

2
In X and Z-direction, lateral strain =
E

Considering strain produced by 3,

 3
In Z-direction, longitudinal strain =
E

3
In X and Y-direction, lateral strain =
E

Therefore, total strain produced,

1 2 3
In X-direction, e1
E E E

2 1 3
In Y-direction, e2
E E E

3 1 2
In Z-direction, e3
E E E

ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING CROSS-SECTIONS:

Let, P = axial force acting on the body; A1, A2 and A3 = cross-sectional area of the sections 1, 2 &
3 respectively; L1, L2 and L3 = Length of the section 1, 2 & 3 respectively & E = Youngs
modulus of the bar.

P
Stress for the section 1, 1
A1

P P
Similarly for the sections 2 & 3, 2 & 3
A2 A3

1 P
Strain of the section 1, e1
E A1 E
 1 L1 PL1
Therefore, change in length of the section 1, dL1
E A1E

PL2 PL
Similarly for other sections 2 & 3, dL2 & dL3 3
A2 E A3 E

Total change in the length of the bar,

PL1 PL2 PL3

dL
A1E A2 E A3 E

PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION:

When number forces are acting on a body, the resulting strain, according to principle of super
position, will be algebraic sum of strains caused by individual loads.

ELONGATION OF VARYING CROSS-SECTION:

1. Uniformly tapering circular rod:

4PL
dL
ED1D2

If the rod is of uniform diameter, D1 = D2 = D

4PL
dL
ED 2
2. Uniformly tapering rectangular rod:

PL a
dL log e
Et (a b) b

3. Elongation due to its self-weight:

Stress acting on the element = weight acting on the element / cross sectional area

wAx

A

Strain in the element = Stress / E

e
E
wx
e
E
 wx
Elongation of the element, dL = dx
A

wL
L
2E

ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE SECTION:

For the composite bar,

The extension or compression in each bar is equal. Hence deformation or strain in

each bar is also equal.

Total external load on the composite bar is equal to the sum of the loads carried
by each different material

Let, P = total load acting on the composite material; L = length of the bar; A1 & A2 = Area of
cross-section of materials 1 & 2 respectively; E1 & E2 = Youngs modulus of materials 1 & 2
respectively; P1 & P2 = load shared by material 1 & 2 respectively; 1 & 2 = stress induced in
materials 1 & 2 respectively.

P = P1 + P2
 P1
Stress in material 1, 1 or) P1 = 1A1
A1

P2
Similarly, stress in material 2, 2 or) P2 = 2A2
A2

Therefore, P = 1A1+ 2A2

Again, Strain in material 1 = strain in material 2

1 2
Therefore,
E1 E2

Note: The ratio of E1 to E2 is called modular ratio.

THERMAL STRESSES:

Every material - Expands when temperature rises

- Contracts when temperature falls

The change in length is directly proportional to length of member and temperature

L Lt

L = Lt

Where, co-efficient of thermal expansion which can be defined as change in unit length of
material due to unit change in temperature.
If the expansion of the member is freely permitted, no temperature stresses are induced in the
material.

If the free expansion is prevented fully or partially by the supports, stresses are induced in the
bar.

If free expansion is permitted, the material would have expanded by,

= Lt

Since support is not permitting it, the support force P develops to keep it at the original position.
Magnitude of this force is such that contraction is equal to free expansion,

PL
L t
AE

Stress, = Et

Consider the case in which free expansion is prevented partially,

In this case, free expansion = Lt

Therefore, expansion prevented, = Lt

THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOUND BARS:

Compound bars made of two different materials. Since these materials have two different co-
efficient of thermal expansion, when temperature rises, they both will experience different free
expansion. Since they are prevented from separating, the two bars will have common position.
This is possible only by extension of the bar which has less free expansion and contraction of the
bar which has more free expansion. Thus one bar develops tensile force and another develops the
compressive force.
Consider the compound bar. Let 1, 2 be coefficient of thermal expansion and E1, E2 be
modulus of elasticity of the two materials respectively. If rise in temperature ist,
Free expansion of bar 1 = 1 tL
Free expansion of bar 2 = 2 tL
Let 1 > 2. Hence the position of the two bars, if the free expansions are permitted is at AA and
BB,
Since the two bars are rigidly connected at the ends, the final position of the end will be
somewhere between AA and BB, say at CC. It means Bar1 will experience compressive force
P1which contracts it by 1 and Bar2 experience tensile force P2 which will expand it by 2.
The equilibrium of horizontal forces gives, P1 = P2, say P
From the Figure, it is clear, 1 tL 1 = 2 tL + 2
1 + 2 = 1 tL 2 tL = (1 2) tL.
If the cross-sectional areas of the bars are A1 and A2, we get
PL PL
(1 2 )tL
A1E1 A2 E2
From the above equation force P can be found and hence the stresses P1 and P2 can be
determined.
ELASTIC CONSTANTS:

Modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus are the three elastic constants.
Modulus of Elasticity: It is the ratio of linear stress to linear strain within the elastic limit
Modulus of Rigidity: It is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain within
elastic limit and is usually denoted by letter G or N. Thus

Where G = Modulus of rigidity; q = Shearing stress and = Shearing strain

Bulk Modulus: When a body is subjected to identical stresses p in three mutually
perpendicular directions, the body undergoes uniform changes in three directions without
undergoing distortion of shape. The ratio of change in volume to original volume has
been defined as volumetric strain (ev). Then the bulk modulus, K is defined as
 P
K
ev
Where, K = Bulk Modulus; P = identical pressure in three mutually perpendicular
v
directions; ev = volumetric strain = ; v = change in volume and v = original volume
v
Relationship between,
a) E & G E 2G(1 )
b) E & K E 3K (1 2 )
9 KG
c) E, G & K E
3K G
3D STRESS SYSTEM:

A structural member may be subjected to direct stresses in different directions and may be
subjected to shear stresses also. A beam is usually subjected to axial stresses due to bending and
also for shear stresses. A shaft is subjected to shear stresses due to torsion and axial stresses due
to bending/direct thrust. The stresses may vary from point to point in the member.

STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANE:

Forces normal to DE = 0 gives

px p y px p y
pn cos 2 q sin 2
2 2

Forces tangential to DE = 0 gives

px p y
pt sin 2 q cos 2
2

Resultant stress, R ( pn2 pt2 )

pn
Angle of resultant, tan
pt

PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND PLANES:

The planes on which shearing stresses are zero are called principal planes and the stresses
normal to principal planes are known as principal stresses.
To locate principal plane, pt = 0

2q
tan 2
px p y

px p y px p y
2

Major Principal Stress, p1 q

2

2 2
 px p y px p y
2

Minor Principal Stress, p2 q

2

2 2

Thus the principal planes are the planes of maximum/minimum normal stresses also.

Plane of maximum shear stress,

Plane of extreme shear stresses are at 45 degree to the principal planes.

p1 p2
qmax
2

MOHRS CIRCLE:

Mohrs circle is a graphical method of finding normal, tangential and resultant stresses on an
oblique plane. Mohrs circle will be drawn for the following cases;

i) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal tensile stresses of unequal

intensities.

ii) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal stresses which are unequal and
unlike. (one is tensile and other is compressive)

iii) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal tensile stresses accompanied
by a simple shear stress.

Note: Maximum shear stress by Mohrs circle method, is equal to the radius of the
Mohrs circle and the planes of maximum and minimum normal stresses are at an
angle of 90 degree to each other.
TORSION OF SHAFTS:

A shaft is said to be in torsion, when equal and opposite torques are applied at the two ends of
the shaft. The torque is equal to the product of the force applied (tangentially to the ends of a
shaft) and radius of the shaft. Due to the application of the torque at the end, the shaft is
subjected to a twisting moment. This causes the shear stresses and shear strains in the material of
the shaft.

G T

R L J

Where, = Shear stress; R = Radius of solid shaft; G = Modulus of Rigidity; T = Torsue applied
at the shaft and J = Polar Moment of Inertia

D4
For solid circular section, J
32

D3
Zp
16

( Do4 Di4 )
For Hollow circular section, J
32

( Do4 Di4 )
Zp
16 Do
Assumptions made in the derivation of shear stress produced in a circular shaft subjected to
torque:

1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.

2. The twist along the shaft is uniform.

3. The shaft is of uniform circular section throughout.

4. Cross-section of the shaft, which are plane before twist remain plane after twist.

5. All radiuses which are straight before twist remain twist after twist.

D3
Maximum torque transmitted by a circular solid shaft: T
16

( Do 4 Di4 )
Maximum torque transmitted by a hollow circular solid shaft: T
16 Do

2 NT
Power transmitted by shafts: Power watts = T x
60