Measuring earthquakes:

The size of earthquakes is commonly expressed in two ways- magnitude and intensity.

Magnitude
Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake. American seismologist Charles
F. Richter (19001985) noticed that (a) at the same distance, seismograms (records of earthquake ground
vibration) of larger earthquakes have bigger wave amplitude than those of smaller earthquakes; and (b)
for a given earthquake, seismograms at farther distances have smaller wave amplitude than those at close
distances. These prompted him to propose (in 1935) the now commonly used magnitude scale, the Richter
Scale. It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of waveform amplitude on
epicentral distance. This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale. There are other magnitude scales, like
the Body Wave Magnitude, Surface Wave Magnitude and Wave Energy Magnitude.
According to the magnitude, the Earthquakes are normally categorized as:

An increase in magnitude (M) by 1.0 implies 10 times higher waveform amplitude and about 31 times
higher energy released. For instance, energy released in a M7.7 earthquake is about 31 times that released
in a M6.7 earthquake, and is about 1000 (3131) times that released in a M5.7 earthquake.

A magnitude 8.7 earthquake is 794 times BIGGER on a seismogram than a magnitude 5.8 earthquake.
The magnitude scale is logarithmic, so

(10**8.7)/(10**5.8) = (5.01*10**9)/(6.31*10**6)
= .794*10**3
= 794
OR
= 10**(8.7-5.8)
= 10**2.9
= 794.328
Another way to get about the same answer without using a calculator is that since 1 unit of magnitude is
10 times the amplitude on a seismogram and 0.1 unit of magnitude is about 1.3 times the amplitude, we
can get,

10 * 10 * 10 / 1.3 = 769 times

[not exact, but a decent approximation]
The magnitude scale is really comparing amplitudes of waves on a seismogram, not the STRENGTH
(energy) of the quakes. So, a magnitude 8.7 is 794 times bigger than a 5.8 quake as measured on
seismograms, but the 8.7 quake is about 23,000 times STRONGER than the 5.8! Since it is really the
energy or strength that knocks down buildings, this is really the more important comparison. This means
that it would take about 23,000 quakes of magnitude 5.8 to equal the energy released by one magnitude
8.7 event. Here's how we get that number:
One whole unit of magnitude represents approximately 32 times (actually 10**1.5 times) the energy,
based on a long-standing empirical formula that says log(E) is proportional to 1.5M, where E is energy
and M is magnitude. This means that a change of 0.1 in magnitude is about 1.4 times the energy release.
Therefore, using the shortcut shown earlier for the amplitude calculation, the energy is,

32 * 32 * 32 / 1.4 = 23,405 or about 23,000

The actual formula would be:

((10**1.5)**8.7)/((10**1.5)**5.8) = 10**(1.5*(8.7-5.8))
= 10**(1.5*2.9)
= 22,387
The scales in the diagram above form a nomogram that allows you to do the mathematical
computation quickly by eye. The equation for Richter Magnitude is:

ML = log10A(mm) + (Distance correction factor)

Here A is the amplitude, in millimeters, measured directly from the photographic paper record of
the Wood-Anderson seismometer, a special type of instrument. The distance factor comes from
a table that can be found in Richter's (1958) book Elementary Seismology. The equation behind
this nomogram, used by Richter in Southern California, is:

Thus after you measure the wave amplitude you have to take its logarithm, and scale it
according to the distance of the seismometer from the earthquake, estimated by the S-P time
difference. The S-P time, in seconds, makes .
Seismologists have more recently developed a standard magnitude scale that is completely
independent of the type of instrument. It is called the moment magnitude, and it comes from the
seismic moment.

To get an idea of the seismic moment, we go back to the elementary physics concept of torque. A
torque is a force that changes the angular momentum of a system. It is defined as the force times
the distance from the center of rotation. Earthquakes are caused by internal torques, from the
interactions of different blocks of the earth on opposite sides of faults.

The formula above, for the moment of an earthquake, is fundamental to seismologists'

understanding of how dangerous faults of a certain size can be.
Now, let's imagine a chunk of rock on a lab bench, the rigidity, or resistance to shearing, of the
rock is a pressure in the neighborhood of a few hundred billion dynes per square centimeter.
(Scientific notation makes this easier to write.) The pressure acts over an area to produce a
force, and you can see that the cm-squared units cancel. Now if we guess that the distance the
two parts grind together before they fly apart is about a centimeter, then we can calculate the
moment, in dyne-cm:

Again it is helpful to use scientific notation, since a dyne-cm is really a puny amount of moment.

Now let's consider a second case, the Sept. 12, 1994 Double Spring Flat earthquake, which
occurred about 25 km southeast of Gardnerville. The first thing we have to do, since we're
working in centimeters, is figure out how to convert the 15 kilometer length and 10 km depth of
that fault to centimeters. We know that 100 thousand centimeters equal one kilometer, so we can
write that equation and divide both sides by "km" to get a factor equal to one.

Of course we can multiply anything by one without changing it, so we use it to cancel the
kilometer units and put in the right centimeter units:

Of course this result needs scientific notation even more desperately. We can see that this
earthquake, the largest in Nevada in 28 years, had two times ten raised to the twelfth power, or 2
trillion, times as much moment as breaking the rock on the lab table.

There is a standard way to convert a seismic moment to a magnitude. The equation is (Hanks
and Kamamori, 1979):

Now let's use this equation (meant for energies expressed in dyne-cm units) to estimate the
magnitude of the tiny earthquake we can make on a lab table:
Negative magnitudes are allowed on Richter's scale, although such earthquakes are certainly very
small.

Next let's take the energy we found for the Double Spring Flat earthquake and estimate its
magnitude:

The magnitude 6.1 value we get is about equal to the magnitude reported by the UNR
Seismological Lab, and by other observers.

Seismic Energy:

Both the magnitude and the seismic moment are related to the amount of energy that is radiated
by an earthquake. Richter, working with Dr. Beno Gutenberg, early on developed a relationship
between magnitude and energy. Their relationship is:

Log ES = 11.8 + 1.5M

giving the energy ES in ergs from the magnitude M. Note that ES is not the total ``intrinsic''
energy of the earthquake, transferred from sources such as gravitational energy or to sinks such
as heat energy. It is only the amount radiated from the earthquake as seismic waves, which ought
to be a small fraction of the total energy transferred during the earthquake process.
More recently, Dr. HirooKanamori came up with a relationship between seismic moment and
seismic wave energy. It gives:

Energy = (Moment)/20,000
For this moment is in units of dyne-cm, and energy is in units of ergs. dyne-cm and ergs are unit
equivalents, but have different physical meaning.

Intensity

Because magnitude does not describe the extent of the damage, its usefulness is limited to an
approximation of whether the earthquake is large, small, or medium-sized. The destructiveness of an
earthquake is a complex matter, related to the geology, population density, and cultural features of a
specific area at a specific distance from the epicenter. So, seismologists and geologists describe
earthquakes by their intensity also. Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location
during an earthquake. The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking perception by people
and animals, performance of buildings, and changes to natural surroundings. An earthquake of a
particular magnitude will produce different intensities at different places, according to geology,
population density, cultural features, and distance from the epicenter.

The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is shown graphically using
isoseismals, lines joining places with equal seismic intensity.
 Figure: The isoseismal map of great Indian earthquake of 1897.

The peak ground acceleration (PGA), i.e., maximum acceleration experienced by the ground during
shaking, is one way of quantifying the severity of the ground shaking. Approximate empirical correlations
are available between the MM intensities and the PGA that may be experienced.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI)
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale, developed by Italian seismologist Guiseppe Mercalli (1850
1914) in 1902 is the most widely used intensity scale. It is divided into 12 degrees, each identified by a
Roman numeral.

Summary Description of
MMI Full description shortened from
description shaking
value Elementary Seismology
used on maps severity

I Not mapped Not mapped Not felt.

Felt by people sitting or on upper

II Not mapped Not mapped
floors of buildings.

Felt by almost all indoors. Hanging

objects swing. Vibration like passing
III Not mapped Not mapped
of light trucks. May not be recognized
as an earthquake.

Vibration felt like passing of heavy

trucks. Stopped cars rock. Hanging
IV Not mapped Not mapped objects swing. Windows, dishes, doors
rattle. Glasses clink. In the upper range
of IV, wooden walls and frames creak.
 Felt outdoors. Sleepers wakened.
Liquids disturbed, some spilled. Small
V Light Pictures move unstable objects displaced or upset.
Doors swing. Pictures move.
Pendulum clocks stop.

Felt by all. People walk unsteadily.

Many frightened. Windows crack.
Dishes, glassware, knickknacks, and
books fall off shelves. Pictures off
VI Moderate Objects fall walls. Furniture moved or overturned.
Weak plaster, adobe buildings, and
some poorly built masonry buildings
cracked. Trees and bushes shake
visibly.
Difficult to stand or walk. Noticed by
drivers of cars. Furniture broken.
Damage to poorly built masonry
buildings. Weak chimneys broken at
Nonstructural
VII Strong roof line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks,
damage
stones, tiles, cornices, unbraced
parapets and porches. Some cracks in
better masonry buildings. Waves on
ponds.
Steering of cars affected. Extensive
damage to unreinforced masonry
buildings, including partial collapse.
Fall of some masonry walls. Twisting,
Moderate
VIII Very strong falling of chimneys and monuments.
damage
Wood-frame houses moved on
foundations if not bolted; loose
partition walls thrown out. Tree
branches broken.

General panic. Damage to masonry

buildings ranges from collapse to
serious damage unless modern design.
IX Violent Heavy damage
Wood-frame structures rack, and, if
not bolted, shifted off foundations.
Underground pipes broken.
 Poorly built structures destroyed with
their foundations. Even some well-
Extreme built wooden structures and bridges
X Very violent
damage heavily damaged and needing
replacement. Water thrown on banks
of canals, rivers, lakes, etc.

Not mapped because these

Rails bent greatly. Underground
XI intensities are typically limited
pipelines completely out of service.
to areas with ground failure.

Damage nearly total. Large rock

Not mapped because these
masses displaced. Lines of sight and
XII intensities are typically limited
level distorted. Objects thrown into the
to areas with ground failure.
air.

MSK64 Seismic Intensity Scale

The Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale of seismic intensity was widely used in Europe and India starting
in 1964. The MSK64 scale is based on typical masonry structures, many of which are very old. MSK64
was revised in 1981 (MSK81) and was superseded by the European Macroseismic Scale in 1998.
.
The MSK64 Scale
Degree Force Behavioral Structural effects Geologic effects
effects
I Imperceptible Not felt
II Very light Felt sporadically
III Light Felt only by
people at rest
IV Moderate Felt indoors, Windows vibrate
many awakened
V Fairly strong Widely felt Interior plaster cracks, hanging
outdoors objects swing, tables shift
VI Strong Fright Damage to chimneys and masonry Isolated cracks in soft
 ground
VII Very strong Many people flee Serious damage to buildings in poor Isolated landslides on
their dwellings condition, chimneys collapse steep slopes
VIII Damaging General fright Many old houses undergo partial Changes in wells,
collapse, breaks in canals rockfalls onto roads
IX Destructive Panic Large breaks in substandard Cracks in ground, sand
structures, damage to well- eruptions, widespread
constructed houses, underground landslides
pipe breakages
X Devastating General panic Brick buildings destroyed Rails twisted, landslides
on riverbanks, formation
of new lakes
XI Catastrophic Few buildings remain standing, Widespread ground
water thrown from canals disturbances, tsunamis
XII Very Surface and underground structures Upheaval of the
catastrophic completely destroyed landscape, tsunamis

The European Macroseismic Scale (EMS) of Earthquake Intensity

The standard used throughout Europe
The EMS, most recently updated in 1998, is the basis for evaluation of seismic intensity in European
countries. The European Macroseismic Scale has 12 divisions, as follows:
1. Not feltNot felt, even under the most favorable circumstances.
2. Scarcely feltVibration is felt only by individual people at rest in houses, especially on upper floors
of buildings.
3. WeakThe vibration is weak and is felt indoors by a few people. People at rest feel a swaying or light
trembling.
4. Largely observedThe earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by very few. A few
people are awakened. The level of vibration is not frightening. Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Hanging
objects swing.
5. StrongThe earthquake is felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. Many sleeping people awake. A few
run outdoors. Buildings tremble throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. China and glasses
clatter together. The vibration is strong. Top heavy objects topple over. Doors and windows swing open
or shut.
6. Slightly damagingFelt by most indoors and by many outdoors. Many people in buildings are
frightened and run outdoors. Small objects fall. Slight damage to many ordinary buildings; for example,
fine cracks in plaster and small pieces of plaster fall.
7. DamagingMost people are frightened and run outdoors. Furniture is shifted and objects fall from
shelves in large numbers. Many ordinary buildings suffer moderate damage: small cracks in walls; partial
collapse of chimneys.
8. Heavily damagingFurniture may be overturned. Many ordinary buildings suffer damage: chimneys
fall; large cracks appear in walls and a few buildings may partially collapse.
9. DestructiveMonuments and columns fall or are twisted. Many ordinary buildings partially collapse
and a few collapse completely.
10. Very destructiveMany ordinary buildings collapse.
11. DevastatingMost ordinary buildings collapse.
12. Completely devastatingPractically all structures above and below ground are heavily damaged or
destroyed.
Magnitude / Intensity Comparison and relation

Magnitude and Intensity measure different characteristics of earthquakes.

Magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its size. For instance, one can measure the size of an
earthquake by the amount of strain energy released by the fault rupture. This means that the magnitude of
the earthquake is a single value for a given earthquake. Magnitude is determined from measurements on
seismographs.

On the other hand, intensity is an indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given location.
Clearly, the severity of shaking is much higher near the epicenter than farther away. Thus, during the
same earthquake of a certain magnitude, different locations experience different levels of intensity.

Based on data from past earthquakes, scientists Gutenberg and Richter in 1956 provided an approximate
correlation between the Local Magnitude ML of an earthquake with the intensity I0 sustained in the
epicentral area as:

(For using this equation, the Roman numbers of intensity are replaced with the corresponding Arabic
numerals, e.g., intensity IX with 9.0).
The following table gives intensities that are typically observed at locations near the epicenter of
earthquakes of different magnitudes.
In 1935 Charles Richter defined the magnitude of an earthquake to be:

where I is the intensity of the earthquake (measured by the amplitude of a seismograph reading
taken 100 km from the epicenter of the earthquake) and S is the intensity of a ''standard
earthquake'' (whose amplitude is 1 micron =10 -4 cm). The magnitude of a standard earthquake is:
Example 1: Early in the century the earthquake in San Francisco registered 8.3 on the Richter
scale. In the same year, another earthquake was recorded in South America that was four time
stronger. What was the magnitude of the earthquake in South American?

Solution: Convert the first sentence to an equivalent mathematical sentence or equation.

Convert the second sentence to an equivalent mathematical sentence or equation.

Solve for MSA.

The intensity of the earthquake in South America was 8.9 on the Richter scale.

Example 2: A recent earthquake in San Francisco measured 7.1 on the Richter scale. How many
times more intense was the San Francisco earthquake described in Example 1?

Solution: The intensity (I) of each earthquake was different. Let I1 represent the intensity the
early earthquake and I2represent the latest earthquake.
What you are looking for is the ratio of the intensities: So our task is to isolate this ratio
from the above given information using the rules of logarithms.

Convert the logarithmic equation to an exponential equation.

The early earthquake was 16 times as intense as the later earthquake.