Exercise 4-2

Centrifugal Pumps

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Familiarize yourself with the basics of liquid pumps, specifically with the basics of
centrifugal pumps.

DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:

Pumps
Basic operation of a liquid pump
Types of liquid pumps
The centrifugal pump
Velocity head. Performance chart. Cavitation. NPSHR and NPSHA.

DISCUSSION Pumps

A pump creates the flow in most processes using a fluid as the medium. To
create flow, the pump converts the mechanical rotational energy supplied by a
prime mover into a force that pushes the fluid into the system. Most pumps
operate on the same basic principle, they draw fluid by increasing the space
inside the pump and they discharge the fluid by decreasing the space inside the
pump. Figure 4-18 illustrates this principle using a manual pump as an example.
When the handle is pulled out, the space inside the pump increases. This
reduces the pressure inside the pump and the fluid is drawn into the pump. When
the handle is pushed back in, the space inside the pump decreases. This
increases the pressure inside the pump and forces the fluid out of the pump.
Check valves prevent the fluid from flowing in the wrong direction.

Force

Force

Check valves Check valves

Figure 4-18. Basic pump operation.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

Basic operation of a liquid pump

Figure 4-19 shows the basic elements of a liquid pump. The housing contains a
rotating mechanism connected to a shaft. A drive, such as an electrical AC or DC
motor, turns the shaft to create flow. When the drive is in operation, the suction
line brings liquid from the vessel to the pump inlet and the discharge line forces
the liquid out of the pump outlet into the system.
Atmospheric
pressure Discharge line
Outlet
To system
Pump
Inlet

Suction line

Figure 4-19. Operation of a liquid pump.

The pump reduces the pressure at the inlet near to an absolute pressure
of 0 kPa (0 psia) which causes liquid from the vessel to flow to the inlet. Since
this pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure, the liquid moves through
the suction line and into the pump inlet port. The pump then forces the fluid out of
the outlet port and discharges it into the system. The displacement is the volume
of liquid that one complete revolution of the pump shaft discharges into the
system. The greater the pump displacement is, the greater the flow rate is, for
any given rotation speed.

Types of liquid pumps

There are two categories of liquid pumps: positive-displacement and dynamic.

Figure 4-20 shows a flow chart that gives the common variations between these
two categories.

For a positive-displacement pump, the displacement of the pump stays

approximately constant when the pump outlet pressure changes. Positive-
displacement pumps are either rotary or reciprocating. Rotary pumps produce a
smooth, constant flow, whereas reciprocating pumps produce a pulsating flow.
Systems that use a positive-displacement pump can develop very high pressure.
They must include a pressure relief valve to bypass the pump output flow directly
to the vessel if the system pressure becomes too high. Otherwise, the motor may
stall or components may burst if the pumped flow becomes blocked or severely
restricted.

For a dynamic pump, the displacement of the pump and, therefore, the pump
output flow-rate, are not constant. The displacement is greatest at low pump
outlet pressure, and it decreases as the pump outlet pressure increases. With
this type of pump, a pressure relief valve is not needed to protect the system
because the pumped liquid backslips within the pump if the pump outlet pressure
becomes too high. However, dynamic pumps should not be allowed to run for
prolonged periods with their output flow blocked, because the liquid backslipping
within the pump tends to overheat, which may damage the pump seals. Dynamic
pumps are either centrifugal, mixed flow, or axial. Most of the dynamic pumps in

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

the industry are centrifugal. Centrifugal pumps can generate very high flow rates
at moderately high pressure.

Positive-
displacement
pumps

Rotary Reciprocating

Piston Lobe Vane Gear Flexible Peristaltic Screw Piston Ram Diaphragm
Impeller

Radial Axial Internal External Helical Progressive Archimedean

Cavity

Dynamic pumps

Axial Mixed Flow Centrifugal

Single- Double- Multistage Submersible Sealed

suction suction Magdrive

Figure 4-20. Types of liquid pumps.

The centrifugal pump

The most common type of centrifugal pump is the single-suction centrifugal

pump. Figure 4-21 shows a typical single-suction centrifugal pump. Such a pump
consists of an impeller that rotates inside a stationary casing. The liquid enters
at the center (eye) of the impeller, where the impeller vanes collect it. The
impeller rotation accelerates the liquid at a high speed and expels it radially into
the volute chamber. As the discharged liquid leaves the impeller periphery, the
pressure reduces at the impeller eye, which forces new liquid to enter the pump.
This results in a constant flow of liquid through the impeller.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

Outlet

Impeller

Shaft

Inlet Vane

Impeller eye
Volute casing

Figure 4-21. Typical single-suction centrifugal pump.

Velocity head

A pump can create a liquid column at its outlet as a result of the kinetic energy
imparted to the discharged liquid. The velocity head of a centrifugal pump
corresponds to the vertical height of this column of liquid. The velocity head is
measured in meters (m) in SI units and in feet (ft) in the US customary units.

Manufacturers often use the velocity head instead of pressure to describe the
outlet performance of centrifugal pumps. The velocity head does not change if
liquids of different specific gravities are used, as Figure 4-22 (a) shows. On the
other hand, the maximum pressure the pump can develop at its outlet is
dependent on the specific gravity of the liquid. Thus, liquids of differing specific
gravities rise to different heights for the same pump outlet pressure, as
Figure 4-22 (b) shows.

The equation below is used to convert a velocity head into a gauge pressure:

(4-12)

where is the gauge pressure

is the velocity head
is the specific gravity of the fluid
is a conversion constant, 0.102 m/kPa (2.31 ft/psi)

The diameter of the impeller and the speed at which it rotates determines the
velocity head a centrifugal pump can develop. The higher the rotation speed, the
greater the velocity head. Similarly, the greater the diameter of the impeller, the
greater the velocity head.

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Be aware that some pump
performance charts show
the curve for different pump
speeds, but for a fixed im-
peller diameter.
Festo Didactic 86005-00
Outlet pressure Outlet pressure
400 kPa (58 psig) 333 kPa (48 psig)
(a) The specific gravity of the fluid has no influence on the velocity head.
Outlet pressure Outlet pressure
400 kPa (58 psig) 400 kPa (58 psig)
(b) Liquids of differing specific gravities rise to different heights.
Figure 4-22. The influence of the fluid specific gravity on a centrifugal pump.
Performance chart
In order to design a new process control system or to analyze the operation of an
existing one, it is important to know that the head a centrifugal pump develops at
its outlet varies with flow rate. Most pump manufacturers publish charts or tables
that show the relationship between the velocity head of the pump and a range of
flow rates. Figure 4-23 shows a typical performance chart for a centrifugal
pump, the chart has three sections: the upper-right corner, the upper part of the
chart, and the lower part of the chart.
The upper right-hand corner of the chart indicates the pump size, the pump
speed, and the maximum and minimum diameters of the pump impeller. In this
example, the chart describes a pump that has an inlet port of 20 cm (8 in), an
outlet port of 15 cm (6 in), and a maximum impeller diameter of 43 cm (17 in).
The chart is valid only for a pump speed of 1160 revolutions per minute. The
maximum and minimum diameters of the pump impeller are 43 cm
and 28 cm (17 in and 11 in), respectively.
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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

The upper part of the chart shows the head-versus-flow curve of the pump for
impellers of different sizes rotating at 1160 r/min. The chart shows that the head
is maximum when the flow rate is minimum (i.e., zero), that is, when the flow is
blocked. The head decreases as the flow rate increases. The chart also shows
that the head increases as the impeller diameter increases, for any given flow
rate. The choice of the impeller diameter for a particular application depends on
the maximum head and flow rate that the application requires. The liquid will not
flow in the system unless the pump develops a head higher than the sum of all
the pressure losses due to the components downstream. In other words, liquid
flow does not occur unless the pump is able to develop enough pressure to push
the liquid through the circuit piping and valves. If, for example, the application
requires a maximum head of 24 m (80 ft) at a flow rate of 3800 L/min
(1000 gal US/min), the pump must have an impeller with a diameter of at
least 36 cm (14 in), as Figure 4-23 shows. The flow rate can then be varied by
restricting the discharge flow (creating pressure loss) with a valve.

Finally, the lower part of the chart shows the break power (BP) curves associated
with each of the head-versus-flow curves. The top BP curve corresponds to the
top head-versus-flow curve, etc. A BP curve indicates the minimum amount of
power the motor of the pump must develop to operate at different points of the
head-versus-flow curve. The amount of power is determined from the scale in the
lower left-hand corner of the chart.

Operation point

Pump model: X
Size: 20 x 15 x 43 cm (8 x 6 x 17 in)
Speed: 1160 r/min
Impeller max. diam.: 43 cm (17 in)
Impeller min. diam.: 28 cm (11 in)

Velocity head,
m (ft)

NPSHR,
m (ft)

Break power, kW
(hp)

Flow rate, L/min (gal/min)

Figure 4-23. Typical performance chart for a centrifugal pump.

In our example, a 36 cm (14 in) diameter impeller generates a maximum head

of 24 m (80 ft) at a flow rate of 3800 L/min (1000 gal US/min). As Figure 4-24
illustrates, the corresponding BP curve shows that a motor of at least
24 kW (32 hp) is required.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion
Velocity head,
m (ft)
Break power, kW
(hp)
Figure 4-24. Determining the amount of power the drive must be capable of developing at operation point.
Figure 4-25. Liquid and
gaseous phase of a
liquid at equilibrium in a
closed container.
Festo Didactic 86005-00
Operation point
Pump model: X
Size: 20 x 15 x 43 cm (8 x 6 x 17 in)
Speed: 1160 r/min
Impeller max. diam.: 43 cm (17 in)
Impeller min. diam.: 28 cm (11 in)
NPSHR,
m (ft)
Flow rate, L/min (gal/min)
Cavitation
Liquids, as well as solids, tend to evaporate. When a liquid evaporates, some of
the molecules at its surface go from the liquid state to the gaseous state. In a
closed container, the liquid and gaseous phases of the substance come to
equilibrium when the number of molecules returning to the liquid equals the
number of molecules leaving the liquid by evaporation. The pressure that the
saturated vapor exerts on the container is called the vapor pressure, . The
vapor pressure of a substance changes with temperature. When the temperature
is higher, the molecules have more kinetic energy and escape more easily from
the liquid. When the vapor pressure of a substance equals the surrounding
pressure, the liquid starts to boil; that is, bubbles form in the substance as it
changes from the liquid state to the gaseous state. Even at low temperature, a
liquid can vaporize if the surrounding pressure falls under its vapor pressure. The
vapor pressure of a liquid plays an important role in the phenomenon of
cavitation.
When the velocity of a fluid in a pipe increases, the pressure decreases. This is
known as the Bernoulli effect. When the velocity of a liquid increases in a pump,
the pressure sometimes decreases enough to reach the vapor pressure of the
liquid. When this occurs, bubbles may form in the fluid. These bubbles are
cavities in the fluid, this is why this phenomenon is called cavitation. When these
bubbles go into a region where the pressure is higher, they collapse. If the
collapsing occurs far from a solid boundary the implosion of the cavity is
symmetrical and does not cause damage to the pump. It produces only less
spectacular undesirable effects such as loss in the pump capacity, pressure
head, and efficiency. However, if a cavity collapses close to a solid surface, such
as the pump impeller, it creates large pressure transients close to the implosion
and releases tremendous amounts of energy that can cause damage to the
pump, which may result in the eventual destruction of the pump Figure 4-26
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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

shows a cavitation bubble collapsing close to a solid surface. Figure 4-27

illustrates how the pressure varies in the pump along the path that the liquid
follows. If the pressure drops sufficiently to fall below the vapor pressure of the
liquid, cavitation is likely to occur and cause damage to the impeller. Figure 4-28
shows the areas on an impeller that are susceptible to cavitation damage.

Cavity Collapsing Liquid jet Liquid jet

cavity formation damage
Figure 4-26. Cavitation bubble collapsing.

Pump discharge

Pump
suction
Pressure

Suction

Vapor
Eye
pressure

Liquid path

Discharge

Figure 4-27. Pressure along the liquid path in a pump.

Areas subject to
cavitation

Rotation
direction

Figure 4-28. Areas of an impeller susceptible to cavitation.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

Figure 4-29. Actual cavitation in a typical centrifugal pump.

NPSHR and NPSHA

To avoid cavitation, the pressure at the pump inlet must be kept above a
minimum level called Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR). The
NPSHR is measured in meters (m) in SI units and in feet (ft) in US customary
units. The pump manufacturer determines the NPSHR and plots it as a function
of the flow rate on the performance chart.

Figure 4-31 shows an example. The NPSHR information appears as a single

curve, labeled NPSHR, plotted just below the head-versus-flow curves. The
NPSHR can be determined from this curve and the scale in the middle right of
the chart. For example, with an operation point of 24 m (80 ft) at a flow rate
of 3800 L/min (1000 gal US/min), the NPSHR would be about 1.2 m (4 ft).

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 Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Discussion

Operation point

Pump model: X
Size: 20 x 15 x 43 cm (8 x 6 x 17 in)
Speed: 1160 r/min
Impeller max. diam.: 43 cm (17 in)
Impeller min. diam.: 28 cm (11 in)

Velocity head,
m (ft)

NPSHR,
m (ft)

Break power, kW
(hp)

Atmospheric
pressure
Flow rate, L/min (gal/min)
Vapor pressure
Figure 4-31. Determining the NPSHR from the pump performance chart.

Figure 4-30. Vessel of liquid
placed above the centrifugal pump.
To determine whether the pressure at the pump inlet is above the NPSHR,
one must know the Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) at that
point. A formula that takes into account both the vapor pressure of the liquid
and the configuration of the system around the pump inlet is used to estimate
the NPSHA. Figure 4-30 shows a centrifugal pump installed below a vessel
open to atmosphere; this is the most common type of configuration for
centrifugal pumps.
With this configuration, the liquid flows to the pump inlet by gravity. To draw
liquid in, the pump does not need to reduce its inlet pressure as low as when
it is located above the vessel level, thus reducing the risk of cavitation. With
this configuration, the formula used to calculate the NPSHA is:

(4-13)

where is the Net Positive Suction Head Available (m or ft)

is the head equivalent to the absolute pressure on the surface
of the liquid in the vessel
is the height that the liquid in the vessel is above the pump
impeller eye
head equivalent to the total loss of absolute pressure in the
suction line
is the head equivalent to the absolute vapor pressure of the
liquid

To prevent cavitation, the NPSHA must be kept greater than or equal to the
NPSHR plus a 0.6 m (2 ft) safety margin. The higher the height of the vessel or
the pressure on the surface of the liquid are, the greater the NPSHA. On the
other hand, if the pressure losses in the suction line are high or if the vapor
pressure of the liquid is high, the NPSHA will be lower.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Procedure Outline

To convert absolute pressure into head, use the following formula:

(4-14)

where is the head

is the absolute pressure
is the specific gravity of the fluid
is a conversion constant, 0.102 m/kPa (2.31 ft/psi)

If the temperature of the process fluid increases, so does its vapor pressure.
From Figure 4-32, we can observe that cavitation is more likely to happen with a
warmer liquid. Therefore, if the process fluid temperature increases significantly,
it might be necessary to modify the pump installation to ensure that the NPSHA
always remains greater than the NPSHR.

Pump discharge

Pump
suction Vapor pressure
Pressure

of a warmer
liquid
Eye
Vapor pressure
of a cooler
liquid

Liquid path

Figure 4-32. Higher fluid temperature and cavitation.

PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:

Setup and connections

Pressure versus flow

PROCEDURE Setup and connections

1. Connect the equipment as the piping and instrumentation diagram in

Figure 4-33 shows and use Figure 4-34 to position the equipment correctly
on the frame of the training system. Use the basic setup presented in the
Familiarization with the Training System manual1. Table 4-7 lists the
equipment you must add to the basic setup to set up your system for this
exercise.

1
This exercise does not require the column.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Procedure

Table 4-7. Devices required for this exercise.

Name Model Identification

Digital Pressure Gauge 46761-B PI 1

Electrical Unit 46970

Pneumatic Unit 46971

Accessories 46993

Calibrator ----

Figure 4-33. P&ID.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Procedure

BACK VIEW

Figure 4-34. Setup.

2. Wire the emergency push-button so that you can cut power in case of an
emergency.

3. Do not power up the instrumentation workstation before your instructor has

validated your setup.

4. Configure the pressure gauge so that it gives readings in the desired units.

5. Before proceeding further, complete the following checklist to make sure you
have set up the system properly. The points on this checklist are crucial
elements for the proper completion of this exercise. This checklist is not
exhaustive, be sure to follow the instruction of the Familiarization with the
Training System manual as well.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Procedure

The hand valves are in the positions shown in the P&ID.

f The pressure gauge is installed properly.

6. Test your system for leaks. Repair all leaks.

7. Fill the pipes completely with water and bleed the pressure gauge.

8. Set the zero on the pressure gauge.

Pressure versus flow

This exercise is not de-

signed for a setup with two 9. Use the drive to make the pump run at its maximum speed to produce the
teams working at the same maximum flow rate the pumping unit can deliver.
time on the trainer. When
two teams use the same
pump, the flow is divided 10. Close HV2 to stop the flow.
between the two teams.

Do not let the pump run with the flow blocked for a long time. This may damage the pump.

11. Read the pressure delivered by the pump on the pressure gauge.

12. Record this value in Table 4-8.

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13. Adjust the opening of HV2 to read a flow rate of 6 L/min (1.5 gal/min) on the
rotameter. Read the pressure on the pressure gauge and record it in
Table 4-8.

Table 4-8. Pressure at the pump outlet as a function of the flow rate.

Flow rate Pressure

L/min (gal/min) kPa (psi)
0 (0.0)
6 (1.5)

14. Use the ball valve HV2 to increase the flow rate by steps of 6 L/min
(or 1.5 gal/min) until you reach 60 L/min (16 gal/min). For each flow rate,
record the pressure reading in Table 4-8.

15. When the drive output frequency is maximum (60 Hz), the pump rotates
at 3450 revolutions per minute (r/min). Change the drive output frequency so
that the pump rotates at 3000 r/min.

a Consider the pump rotation speed to be directly proportional to the drive output
frequency.

16. Again, measure the pressure at the outlet of the pump as a function of the
flow rate. Use HV2 to increase the flow rate by increments of 6 L/min
(1.5 gal/min). Record the pressure drop for each flow rate in Table 4-9. Take
measurements until you cannot increase the flow rate further.

17. Repeat this operation for a pump rotation-speed of 2500 r/min and
2000 r/min and fill the empty columns in Table 4-9. Since the pump rotation
speed is smaller than 3450 r/min, you may not be able to obtain the higher
flow rates listed in the table below.

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Conclusion

Table 4-9. Pressure at the pump outlet as a function of the flow rate.

Flow rate Pressure at 3000 Pressure at 2500 Pressure at 2000

L/min r/min r/min r/min
(gal/min) kPa (psi) kPa (psi) kPa (psi)
0 (0.0)
6 (1.5)

18. Use the data in Table 4-8 to plot a graph of the pressure developed at the
pump outlet as a function of the flow rate.

19. On the same graph, plot the data of Table 4-9.

CONCLUSION In this exercise, you have measured the pressure at the outlet of the pump for
various flows and for various pump rotation speeds.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is the basic working principle of most pumps?

2. What is the difference between positive-displacement pumps and dynamic

pumps?

3. To which of the liquid pumps categories do the centrifugal pumps belong?

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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Review Questions

4. What is the head of a pump?

5. Is cavitation more likely to occur in a pump if the pumped liquid is hot? Why?

6. Equation (4-13) gives the NPSHA for an installation where the liquid flows to
the centrifugal pump inlet by gravity. Find the equivalent equation for the
installation below where the pump is located above the vessel.

Figure 4-35.



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Ex. 4-2 Centrifugal Pumps Review Questions

7. Is the pump in the figure below able to force water out of the open vessel
under standard temperature and pressure conditions? Explain using the
formula found in question 6.

10.3 meters
(33.9 feet)

15 meters
(50 feet)

Figure 4-36.

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