USN Flight Test Manual

USNTPS-FTM-No.
103
U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL

FLIGHT TEST MANUAL
FIXED WING STABILITY AND CONTROL

Theory and Flight Test Techniques
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
NAVAL AIR WARFARE CENTER

AIRCRAFT DIVISION
PATUXENT RIVER, MARYLAND
Revised January 1997

U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL
FLIGHT TEST MANUAL
USNTPS-FTM-No. 103

This Flight Test Manual, published under the authority of the Commanding Officer, U.S.
Naval Test Pilot School, is intended primarily as a text for the pilots, engineers and flight
officers attending the school. Additionally, it is intended to serve as a reference document
for those engaged in flight testing. Corrections and update recommendations to this manual
are welcome and may be submitted to:
Commanding Officer
U.S. Naval Test Pilot School
22783 Cedar Point Road
Patuxent River, MD 20670-5304
January 1997
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 STALLS 2
3 SPINS 3
4 LONGITUDINAL FLYING QUALITIES 4
5 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES 5
6 ASYMMETRIC POWER FLYING QUALITIES 6
7 TRANSONIC -SUPERSONIC FLYING QUALITIES 7
APPENDIX
I GLOSSARY I
II REFERENCES II
III FIGURES III
IV EQUATIONS IV
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
This manual is primarily a guide for pilots and engineers attending the U.S. Naval
Test Pilot School. However, it may be used as a guide in any fixed wing flying qualities
investigation. The text presents basic fixed wing stability and control theory, qualitative
and quantitative test and evaluation techniques, and data presentation methods. In most
sections, more than one technique is described for each test. Generally, the best technique
for a particular investigation will depend on the purpose of the investigation, the amount of
instrumentation available, and the personal preference of the individual test pilot. The
approach of the qualitative stability and control testing presented herein is an attempt to
associate all flying qualities tests with particular pilot tasks required in the performance of
the total mission of the airplane. The pilot's opinion of a particular flying quality will
consequently depend primarily on the pilot workload while performing the desired task.
Quantitative evaluation techniques presented may be used to substantiate pilot opinion or
gather data for documentation of airplane characteristics. The performance of both
qualitative testing and quantitative evaluation is considered essential for any successful
flying qualities investigation.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
PAGE
1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF FLYING QUALITIES TESTING 1.1
1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEST PILOT AND ENGINEER 1.3

1.2.1 The Test Pilot 1.3
1.2.2 The Project Engineer 1.5
1.3 CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY 1.6

1.3.1 Stability 1.6
1.3.2 Controllability 1.8
1.4 MECHANICS OF DYNAMICS 1.10

1.4.1 The Spring-Mass-Damper System 1.10
1.4.2 Response of a Second Order System to a Disturbance 1.15
1.4.3 Analysis of Second Order Responses 1.17
1.4.4 Airplane Motion 1.22
1.5 INFLUENCE OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM ON FLYING

QUALITIES 1.23
1.6 THE U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL DEMONSTRATION

AND PROGRESS CHECK FLIGHTS 1.25
1.6.1 The Demonstration Flight 1.25
1.i
CHAPTER ONE
FIGURES
PAGE
1.1 Control Movement Required in Changing from One Steady State Flight
Condition to Another 1.9
1.2 Typical Patterns of Pilot Attention and Expenditure of Energy Required

as Functions of Airplane Stability and Control Characteristics 1.10
1.3 An Airplane in Flight is Similar to a Spring-Mass-Damper System 1.11
1.4 The Complex Plane 1.12
1.5 Effect of Increasing Spring Constant 1.13
1.6 Relationship of Position of Roots on Complex Plane to Motion

Characteristics 1.15
1.7 Time Response of a Second Order System to a Step Input 1.16
1.8 Typical First Order Response 1.16
1.9 Determination of Damping Ratio for Lightly Damped System 1.18
1.10 Determination of Second Order Response Characteristics for Heavily

Damped Systems 1.19
1.11 Determination of C1 and C1 from Half-Cycle Amplitude Ratio 1.21

1 1
2 10
1.12 Graphical Method for Determining T 1 and C 1 1.22

2 2
1.ii
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
EQUATIONS
PAGE
M
+ C + K = 0 eq 1.1 1.11
C K
2 + + = 0 eq 1.2 1.12
M M
C + C 2 K
1,2 = 1.12
2M
eq 1.3
2M M
CCRIT = 2M K/ M eq 1.4 1.13
K
n = eq 1.5 1.14
M
C
= eq 1.6 1.14
C CRIT
2 + 2 n + n2 = 0 eq 1.7 1.14
1,2 = n i n 1 2 eq 1.8 1.14

n = eq 1.9 1.17
T1 1 2
1.iii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF FLYING QUALITIES TESTING

The flying qualities of a particular airplane cannot be discussed unless the total
mission of the airplane and the multitude of individual tasks associated with that total
mission are defined. The definition of flying qualities leaves no other choice: Flying
qualities are defined as those stability and control characteristics which influence the ease of
safely flying an airplane during steady and maneuvering flight in the execution of the total
mission. The total mission will be initially determined when the need for a new airplane
is realized. However, the mission may be diminished, magnified, or completely changed
during the service life of the airplane. Therefore, in the formulation of a test and evaluation
program for any airplane, the total mission must be defined and clearly understood by all
test pilots and engineers involved in the program.
The individual tasks associated with the accomplishment of a total mission must
also be determined before the test and evaluation program can be formulated. Although the
individual tasks may be further subdivided, a military mission will normally require the
pilot to perform the following tasks:
1. Preflight ground or deck operations.

2. Take-off and climb.
3. Navigation to a predetermined point.
4. Strategic or tactical maneuvering.
5. Navigation to a landing point.
6. Approach and landing.
7. Postflight ground or deck operation.
Because this manual is strictly concerned with flying qualities, many ground, deck,
or in-flight tasks necessary for mission accomplishment will not be discussed. These tasks
include attachment of payloads, maintenance, servicing, engine start and operation of
navigation and weapon systems. Under severe emergency conditions, the pilot tasks may
1.1
involve engine airstart, fire extinguishment, jettison of equipment, or simply abandoning

the airplane without serious injury. These areas must be investigated on every military
airplane and their importance cannot be overemphasized.
The tasks for which the most favorable flying qualities are required are the
essential or critical tasks required by the total mission. For an aircraft which must
perform air-to-air, air-to-ground, and/or reconnaissance functions (and training for those
functions), the greatest emphasis must be placed on the flying qualities exhibited while
performing the maneuvers required to accomplish these critical tasks. These tasks will, of
course, vary greatly with the total mission of the airplane. In any case, adequate flying
qualities must be provided so that take-off, approach, wave-off, and landing maneuvers
can be consistently accomplished safely and precisely.
The prime reason for conducting flying qualities investigations, then, is to

determine if the pilot-airplane combination can safely and precisely perform the various
tasks of the total mission of the airplane. This determination can generally be made by the
pure qualitative approach to stability and control testing. However, this is only part of the
complete test program. Quantitative testing must also be performed in order to:
1. Substantiate, if possible, the pilot's qualitative opinion.

2. Document those characteristics of the airplane which particularly enhance or
derogate some flying quality.
3. Provide data for comparing airplane characteristics and for formulating future
design changes.
4. Provide base data for determination of future expansion of flight and CG
envelope or future expansion of total mission.
5. Determine conformance or nonconformance with appropriate test specifications.
A balance between qualitative and quantitative testing must be achieved in any

stability and control test and evaluation program.
1.2
INTRODUCTION
1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEST PILOT AND ENGINEER

Almost every flight test and evaluation team will be composed of one or
more test pilots and one or more project engineers. The team concept provides the
necessary balance between qualitative testing (the pilot's opinion) and quantitative
evaluation (the engineer's knowledge of theory, instrumentation, and specifications). The
team concept does not imply, however, that the test pilot should be only a driver. To
perform the necessary tests and evaluations, the test pilot must also have at least
conversational knowledge of theory, instrumentation, and specifications. Furthermore, the
engineer must possess a thorough knowledge of the pilot tasks required in performing a
total mission in order to participate fully in formulation and conduct of the test and
evaluation program.
1.2.1 The Test Pilot

The competent, productive test pilot must be highly proficient with the stick and
throttle if he is to obtain accurate data. He must be trained and have well-developed
observation and perception powers if he is to recognize problems and adverse
characteristics. He must have a keen ability to professionally analyze test results if he is to
understand and explain the significance of his findings. To fulfill these expectations, he
must possess a superior knowledge of:
1. The airplane undergoing evaluation and airplanes in general.

2. The total mission of the airplane and the individual pilot tasks required to
accomplish the mission.
3. Test techniques and associated theory required for qualitative testing and
quantitative evaluation.
4. Specifications relevant to the evaluation program.
5. Technical report writing.
The test pilot's knowledge of the airplane must exceed the knowledge
required just to mechanically operate the engine-airframe combination. The test pilot
must also consider the effects of internal and external configuration on flying qualities.
1.3
In particular, a thorough knowledge of the flight control system is essential if the

test pilot is to do a creditable job of stability and control testing. Many of the characteristics
which shape the pilot's opinion of the airplane in performing a particular task are the direct
result of the flight control system.
The successful test pilot must possess more than a superior knowledge of the
particular test vehicle. He also needs flight experience in many different types of aircraft.
Only by seeing in person the widely varying characteristics exhibited by different design
and mission concepts can he prepare himself for accurate and precise assessments of
particular design and mission concepts. Further, by flying many different types, he
develops the quality of adaptability - he can easily and quickly adapt himself to the
characteristics of a new airplane. When flight test time is severely limited by monetary and
time considerations, this quality or trait is invaluable.
The total mission of the airplane must be perfectly clear in the test pilot's mind. To
obtain this clear concept of the total mission, the test pilot must review and study the
specific operational requirements on which the design was based, the detail specification
under which the design was developed, and other planning documents. Knowledge of the
individual pilot tasks required for total mission accomplishment is derived most easily from
recent operational experience. (Recent operational experience in missions similar to the
design mission of the airplane under evaluation is particularly advantageous.) If the test
pilot does not have the advantage of the recent operational experience, he can gain
knowledge of the individual pilot tasks from talking with other pilots, studying operational
and tactical manuals, and/or visiting replacement pilot training squadrons.
The test pilot's knowledge of theory, test techniques, relevant specifications, and
technical report writing may be gained through formal education or practical experience.
The most beneficial, rewarding, and easiest road to knowledge in these areas is through
formal study with practicable application at an established test pilot school. This education
allows the pilot to converse with the engineer in technical terms which are necessary to
describe flying qualities phenomena.
1.4
INTRODUCTION
1.2.2 The Project Engineer

The successful project engineer must have at least general knowledge of the same
items for which the test pilot is mainly responsible. Additionally, he must possess superior
knowledge of:
1. Instrumentation requirements.
2. Formulation and coordination aspects of the test and evaluation program.
3. Data acquisition, reduction, and presentation.
4. Technical report writing.
The project engineer will normally be responsible for the determination of

instruments required to carry out the investigation. This also involves determination of the
ranges and sensitivities required and formulation of an instrumentation specification or
planning document. His responsibilities also include witnessing or conducting weight and
balance tests, engine calibrations, and fuel quantity system calibrations.
Because the engineer does not normally fly in the test airplane, and therefore is
usually available in the project office, he is in the best position to coordinate all aspects of
the program. This involves aiding in preparation and, if necessary, revision of the test
plan and coordinating the order in which flights will be conducted. Additionally, the
project engineer will normally prepare all test flight cards and be present to assist in all
flight briefings and debriefings.
A great deal of the engineer's time will be spent in working with flight and ground
test data. He must review preliminary data from contractor wind tunnel studies and flights.
From this data, critical areas may be determined prior to actual military flight tests. During
the actual flight tests, the engineer may monitor and aid in the acquisition of data through
telemetry facilities and radio, or by flying in the test airplane. Following completion of
flight tests, the engineer coordinates data reduction, data analysis, and data presentation.
The engineer's knowledge of technical report writing allows him to participate fully
in the preparation of the report. He will write many parts of the report which do not require
pilot opinion information. The engineer usually is given the arduous tasks of proofreading
the entire manuscript and approving (for distribution) the first printed copy of the technical
report.
1.5
1.3 CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY

In order to exhibit satisfactory flying qualities, the airplane must possess a certain
measure of both stability and controllability. The optimum blend depends on the total
mission of the airplane. A certain degree of stability is necessary if the airplane is to be
easily controlled by a human pilot. However, too much stability can severely derogate the
pilot's ability to perform maneuvering tasks. The attainment of an optimum blend of
stability and controllability should be the goal of the airplane designer. When the optimum
blend is attained, flying qualities greatly enhance the ability of the pilot to perform the
intended mission.
1.3.1 Stability
The airplane is a dynamic system, i.e., it is a body in motion under the influence of
forces and moments producing or changing that motion. In order to investigate the motion
of the airplane, it is necessary to establish first that it can be brought into a condition of
equilibrium, i.e., a condition of balance between opposing forces and moments (not
necessarily a force time condition from the pilot's standpoint). Then the stability
characteristics of the equilibrium condition can be determined. The airplane is statically
stable if restoring forces and moments are created which tend to restore it to equilibrium
when disturbed from equilibrium. Thus, static stability characteristics must be investigated
from equilibrium flight conditions, in which all forces and moments are in balance. The
direct in-flight measurement of certain static stability parameters is not feasible in many
instances. Therefore, the flight test team must be content with measuring parameters which
only give indications of static stability. However, these indications are usually adequate to
establish conclusively the mission effectiveness of the airplane and are more meaningful to
the pilot than the numerical value of the stability derivities.
The pilot makes changes from one equilibrium flight condition to another through
one or more of the airplane's modes of motion. These changes are initiated by excitation of
the modes by the pilot and terminated by suppression of the modes by the pilot. These
modes of motion may also be excited by external perturbations. The study of the
characteristics of these modes of motion is the study of dynamic stability. Dynamic
stability may be classically defined as the ability of the airplane to eventually regain original
1.6
INTRODUCTION
flight conditions after being disturbed. Dynamic stability characteristics are measured from
nonequilibrium flight conditions during which the forces and moments acting on the
airplane are not in balance.
Static and dynamic stability determine the pilot's ability to control the airplane.
While static instability about any axis is generally undesirable, if not completely
unacceptable, excessively strong static stability about any axis may derogate controllability
to an unacceptable degree. For some pilot tasks, neutral static stability may actually be
desirable because of the increased controllability which results. Obviously, the optimum
level of static stability depends on the mission of the airplane.
Here the characteristics of the modes of motion of the airplane determine its
dynamic stability characteristics. The most important characteristics are the frequency and
damping of the motion. The frequency of the motion is defined as the number of cycles
per unit time and is a measure of the quickness of the motion. The term undamped
natural frequency is often used in describing airplane motion. It is the frequency of the
motion if the motion exhibited zero damping.
Damping of the motion is defined as a progressive diminishing of its amplitudes

and is a measure of the subsidence of the motion. The term damping ratio is often used in
describing airplane motion. It is the ratio of the damping which exists to critical damping.
The damping ratio of the airplane modes of motion has a profound affect on flying
qualities. If it is too low, the airplane motion is too easily excited by inadvertent pilot
control inputs or by atmospheric turbulence. If it is too high, the airplane motion following
a control input is slow to develop and the pilot may describe the airplane as sluggish. The
mission of the airplane again determines the optimum dynamic stability characteristics.
However, the pilot always desires some level of positive damping of all the airplane's
modes of motion.
Static and dynamic stability prevent unintentional excursions into dangerous ranges
(with regard to airplane strength) of dynamic pressure, normal acceleration, and sideforce.
The stable airplane is resistant to deviations in angle of attack, sideslip, and bank angle
without action by the pilot. These characteristics not only improve flight safety, but allow
the pilot to perform maneuvering tasks with smoothness, precision, and a minimum of
effort.
1.7
1.3.2 Controllability
Controllability may be defined as the capability of the airplane to perform, at the
pilot's wish, any maneuvering required in total mission accomplishment. The
characteristics of the airplane should be such that these maneuvers can be performed
precisely and simply with a minimum of pilot effort.
The pilot's opinion of controllability is shaped by several factors. The most

apparent of these factors are the initial response of the airplane to a control input and the
total attitude change which results. In addition, the cockpit control forces and deflections
required to accomplish necessary pilot tasks are extremely important. These factors depend
on the static and dynamic stability of the airplane and the characteristics of the flight control
system. The complexity or degree of difficulty which the pilot encounters during
maneuvering tasks is directly dependent on the stability characteristics of the airplane
(Figure 1.1).
The reversed-transitional control movements shown in (d) are never required when
the airplane possesses adequate stability; therefore, the nature of the control movements
required while maneuvering the stable airplane are greatly simplified. (Although Figure 1.1
uses the longitudinal or lateral cockpit controller as an example, the same analysis would,
of course, apply to the directional cockpit control.) The simplicity of control movements
required in maneuvering the stable airplane significantly reduces the pilot expenditure of
effort devoted to directly flying the airplane. Thus, he can devote more of his attention to
mission tasks, which may involve placing weapons precisely on a target, or merely
navigating from point to point in space (Figure 1.2).
1.8
INTRODUCTION
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Initial Position
Initial Movement
Final Position
Figure 1.1
Control Movement Required in Changing from One Steady
State Flight Condition to Another
(A) Stable Airplane

(B) Weakly Stable Airplane
(C) Neutrally Stable Airplane
(D) Unstable Aircraft
1.9
(A) Optimized Stability and Control Characteristics
(B) Poor Stability and Control Characteristics

(May Be Caused by Lack of Stabilty, Too Much
Stability, or Poor Control System Characteristics).
(C) Unstable Airplane
Pilot Attention Devoted to Maintaining a Required Flight

Condition (i.e. Just "Flying the Airplane")
Pilot Attention which can be Devoted to Other Duties

Required in Mission Fulfillment
Figure 1.2
Typical Patterns of Pilot Attention and Expenditure
of Energy Required as Functions of Airplane
Stability and Control Characteristics
1.4 MECHANICS OF DYNAMICS

This section is designed to introduce the language of and provide some background
for the dynamic stability discussions presented later.
1.4.1 The Spring-Mass-Damper System

An airplane in flight displays motion similar to the motion of a spring-mass-damper
system (Figure 1.3). The static stability of the airplane is analogous to the spring; airflow
interaction with the airplane components provides damping and the moment of inertia of the
airplane is analogous to the mass of the spring-mass-damper system.
1.10
INTRODUCTION
Spring K Spring Static Damper Airflow

Stability Interaction
Moment
Mass M of
Mass Inertia
Static Airflow
Damper C Spring Damper
Stability Interaction
Figure 1.3
An Airplane in Flight is Similar
to a Spring-Mass-Damper System
Of course, the motions of the airplane are much more complicated than the motion of the
simple spring-mass-damper system. However, the solution of the equation of motion for
the spring-mass-damper system provides a useful analogy to the solution of the equations
of motion of the airplane.
The homogeneous form of the second order linear differential equation of motion
of the spring-mass-damper system may be written:
M
+ C + K = 0 eq 1.1
Where:
M = mass of the body
C = damping constant, a measure of the strength of the viscous damper
K = spring constant, a measure of the stiffness of the spring
= displacement of the mass from an equilibrium position.
= velocity of the mass.

= acceleration of the mass.
1.11
The characteristics equation is of the following form (a trivial solution has been
neglected):
C K
2 + + = 0 eq 1.2
M M
This characteristic equation yields two roots which may be written as follows:
C + C 2 K
1,2 =
2M
eq 1.3
2M M
It is interesting to study the characteristics of these roots as the value of the spring
constant, K, is increased from zero. The movement of these roots may be graphically
shown on the complex plane. The significance of the positions of the roots is shown in
Figure 1.4.
Imaginary
Axis
X
Stable Unstable
Motion Motion
X
X X Real Axis
Real Roots Indicate
Non-Oscillatary Motion
X Imaginary Roots X
Indicate Oscillatory
Motion
Figure 1.4
The Complex Plane
1.12
INTRODUCTION
As the spring constant is increased from zero, the movement of the roots is shown
in Figure 1.5. As long as the damping of the system is predominant, i.e.,
(C/2M ) 2 > K /M , the roots will lie along the real axis and the motion of the system is
described as aperiodic or deadbeat subsidence (the system is overdamped). When
K / M = ( C/2M )2 , the roots meet at point A on the real axis. The value of the damping
of the system at this point is called critical damping, CCRIT .
CCRIT = 2M K/ M eq 1.4
Imaginary
Axis
X X Real Axis
C

M
Figure 1.5
Effect of Increasing Spring Constant
When the roots are positioned at point A, the motion of the system is still described as
aperiodic or deadbeat subsidence. However,, it is on the verge of becoming oscillatory,
i.e, it is critically damped.
If the spring constant is increased further such that K / M > (C/2M )2 , the
solutions to the equation of motion are composed of real and imaginary parts. The roots
split at point A; the real part remains constant and as K increases, the imaginary part
1.13
becomes larger. The motion of the system is now oscillatory and the frequency increases
as K increases. However, for all values of K, the motion is damped after the disturbing
force is removed.
The spring-mass-damper system is a second-order system since its describing

differential equation contains the dependent variable ( ) and the first and second
derivatives of the variable. The measure of the strength of the system to seek an
equilibrium condition is called the system stiffness, and is the square of the system
frequency when damping is not present. This frequency is called the undamped natural
frequency n , of the system. ( It is usually a computed number since most systems have
damping and the measured system frequency will be the damped natural frequency, d .)
The undamped natural frequency for the spring-mass-damper system may be expressed as
follows:
K
n = eq 1.5
M
The degree of dynamic stability of a second order system is generally expressed in

terms of the system damping ratio, . It is the ratio of the real system damping constant to
the damping constant which would make the system critically damped.
C
= eq 1.6
C CRIT
The characteristic equation for the spring-mass-damper system may be written in

terms of undamped natural frequency and damping ratio as follows:
2 + 2 n + n2 = 0 eq 1.7
The two roots of the equation then may be written:
1,2 = n i n 1 2 eq 1.8
These roots plotted on the complex plane are shown in Figure 1.6. Several
important relationships are also presented.
1.14
INTRODUCTION
Imaginary
Axis
-
E d = Damping Angle
SIN E d = Ed 2
1 = d = Damped Frequency

2
COS Ed = 1
Real Axis
Figure 1.6
Relationship of Position of Roots on Complex
Plane to Motion Characteristics
1.4.2 Response of a Second Order System to a

Disturbance
The response of a second order system to a disturbing force which is
instantaneously applied (step input) is shown in Figure 1.7. In this case, the motion is
convergent to a steady state or equilibrium condition. The quickness of the response
depends mainly on the undamped natural frequency of the system and the oscillatory nature
of the response depends on the damping ratio. The amplitude of the steady state value of
the response is quite dependent on the square of the undamped natural frequency or the
system stiffness. The greater the system stiffness, the smaller is the steady state value of
the response, if other factors remain constant.
The response of the second order system shown in Figure 1.7 is commonly called
a second order response, i.e., the response exhibits some oscillatory motion before
reaching an equilibrium condition. If the damping ratio of a second order system is
increased to a sufficient level, the response of a second order system may appear to be a
first order response, i.e., the response builds up smoothly to a steady state with no
oscillatory motion (Figure 1.8). The time required to reach 63.2 percent of a steady state
first order response is called the motion time constant, .
1.15
Figure 1.7
Time Response of a Second Order
System to a Step Input
Figure 1.8
Typical First Order Response
1.16
INTRODUCTION
1.4.3 Analysis of Second Order Responses

There are various methods for determining the characteristics of second order
responses. The graphical methods presented herein are fairly simple and are
considered to be of sufficient accuracy for most flight test work.
If the system exhibits a damping ratio less than about 0.5, the oscillatory motion
will be significant enough to measure a half-cycle amplitude ratio and determine the
damping ratio as shown in Figure 1.9. The undamped natural frequency may then be
computed as follows:

n = eq 1.9
T1 1 2
Where:
T1 = time between the first two peaks, i.e., the time required for the
first half-cycle.
If the system is heavily damped, determination of the motion parameters is more

difficult. From a practical flight test standpoint, the pilot will probably not be able to detect
visually any oscillatory tendency if the damping ratio is greater than 0.5. Therefore, it may
suffice to call the motion essentially deadbeat in that case. However, if sufficient
instrumentation is installed, the method shown in Figure 1.10 may be used to determine
approximate values for damping ratio and undamped natural frequency. One of the most
frustrating problems in the analysis of very heavily damped responses is the detection and
selection of the proper peaks of the response curve. For the analysis shown in Figure
1.10, the first two response peaks after the control input has reached steady state should be
used.
1.17
Full Cycle
Amplitude
x1 x2
Time
x3
Half Cycle
0.5
0.4
Damping Factor,
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Half Cycle Amplitude Ratio, xn
xn + 1
For Oscillatory Divergence ( < 0) ,
Merely Change Horizontal Scale to ( Xn + 1

Xn )
and Change Vertical Scale to Negative Sign.
Figure 1.9
Determination of Damping Ratio
for Lightly Damped System
1.18
INTRODUCTION
Maximum Slope Tangent

X3
Amplitude, X
1 Draw Max. Slope Tangent
X1 2 Draw Horizontal Lines at

Half-Cycle Peak
T2 3 Intersection of Max. Slope
t1 t2 Tangent Line and Horizontal
Lines at Half-Cycle Peaks
Time Defines T2
4 Intersection of Vertical Line

4.8 at t 2 and the Response
2.0
Curve Defines X3
4.4
1.8
X3
5 Compute
4.0 X1
1.6
3.6
1.4 6 Using Second Plot Find
n T2
3.2 and n T2
1.2
2.8 1.0 7 Compute n :

( n T2 )

2.4 0.
8 n =
0.
0.
6 T2
0. 4
2.0 2
0
0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32

X3
X1
Figure 1.10
Determination of Second Order Response
Characteristics for Heavily Damped Systems
1.19
Other parameters used to describe the characteristics of second order responses

include the following:
T1 = time in seconds for the motion to subside to half its amplitude.

2
T2 = time in seconds for the motion to double its amplitude.

C1 = cycles required for the motion to subside to half its amplitude.
2
C2 = cycles required for the motion to double its amplitude.
These parameters may be determined by the method shown in Figure 1.11 or

Figure 1.12. (In determining certain flying qualities specification requirements, the
parameters C1 and C 1 are often utilized.)
1 10
2
1.20
INTRODUCTION
x1
1.5 x3 6.0
x2
5.0
1.0 4.0
1 1
C1 C1
10 3.0 2
0.5 2.0
1.0
0 0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Xn
Half Cycle Amplitude Ratio,
Xn + 1
For Oscillatory Divergence ( < 0) ,
Merely Change Horizontal Scale to ( Xn + 1

Xn )
and Change Vertical Scales to C1 and C1
2 10
Figure 1.11
Determination of C and C1 from Half-Cycle Amplitude Ratio
1
1 1
2 10
1.21
Period, P
Amplitude, X
X0
T1
2 1X
2 0
Time, T
Sec
C1 = T 1 P
2 2
Figure 1.12
Graphical Method for Determining T 1 and C 1
2 2
1.4.4 Airplane Motion

The airplane in flight is a complicated dynamic system with six degrees of
freedom, or possible components of motion. However, for the simplified study of
airplane dynamics, the motion of the airplane is considered to be restricted to a plane of
symmetry and a plane of asymmetry with no interaction or cross-coupling between
the planes of motion. Motion in the plane of symmetry is, of course, longitudinal motion;
motion in the plane of asymmetry is lateral-directional motion. By separating the study of
airplane dynamics in this manner, the analysis is greatly simplified and yields quite accurate
results for most flight conditions. The effects of cross-coupling can be studied separately
for special flight conditions.
The characteristic equations of motion for the longitudinal and lateral-directional

cases are fourth order linear differential equations. At present, let if suffice to say that the
difficulty in solving these equations by normal procedures is considerable. However, by
use of an operational calculus technique called Laplace Transformations, the solution can
be determined quite easily. The equations of motion will not be derived in this text; nor
will a great deal of the mathematical manipulations required to solve the equations be
1.22
INTRODUCTION
presented. These derivations and mathematical manipulations can be found in appropriate

literature and will be presented in the academic syllabus of the U.S. Naval Test Pilot
School.
The classical solution of the longitudinal characteristic equation for the airplane
yields four roots having real and imaginary parts. Normally, these roots form complex
pairs which describe two second order modes of motion - the airplane short period mode
and the long period or phugoid mode.
The lateral-directional characteristic equation also yields four roots for the classical
case. Two of the roots have real and imaginary parts and form a complex pair which
describe a second order mode of motion commonly called the Dutch roll mode. Two of
the roots have only real parts. One of the real roots describes an essentially first order,
heavily damped motion - the roll mode. The second of the real roots describes another
first order motion which may be convergent, divergent, or neutral. This mode of motion is
called the spiral mode.
1.5 INFLUENCE OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
ON FLYING QUALITIES
A rigorous discussion of the numerous flight control system design concepts is
beyond the scope of this text. However, some brief discussion of control system influence
on the pilot's opinion of the airplane is appropriate.
All airplane flight control systems may be placed into one the following three
categories:
1. Manual Control System: The pilot deflects the appropriate control surface
through direct mechanical connections between the cockpit control and the
aerodynamic control surface. The pilot force required is a function only of
control surface hinge moments developed and pure mechanical design of the
control system. No hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical power boosting is
employed. For control systems of this type, extensive use is made of
aerodynamic and mass balancing and geared, spring, and servo tabs. Other
control system gadgetry such as springs and bob weights may also be
employed to improve basic airplane characteristics.
1.23
2. Power-Assisted Control Systems: The pilot deflects the appropriate control

surface by direct mechanical connections between the cockpit control and the
aerodynamic control surface. However, a suitable power unit (usually
hydraulic) is appropriately placed in the control system to assist the pilot in
moving the control surface. The pilot force required is thus a function of the
ratio of power assist provided or boost as well as control surface hinge
moments developed. Again, extensive use may be made of aerodynamic and
mass balancing geared, spring, servo tabs, and other control system
gadgetry.
3. Fully Power-Operated Control Systems: Through cockpit control deflections,

the pilot positions a valve of a power unit; the power unit in turn positions the
control surface proportional to the pilot's cockpit control input. The pilot force
required is purely a function of cockpit control deflection and does not depend
on control surface hinge moments. It is apparent then that an artificial feel
system must be provided to give the pilot the normal control force variations.
Extensive use is made of springs, bob weights, dynamic pressure sensors,
dashpots, and other electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic devices in order to
provide satisfactory stability and control characteristics.
The manual and power-assisted control systems are reversible control systems; i.e.,
the pilot receives some control force feel by virtue of the hinge moments developed when
the aerodynamic control surface is deflected. The fully power-operated control system is
an irreversible control system; i.e., the pilot receives no control force feel from the
development of control surface hinge moments.
No matter what type of flight control system is utilized, the requirements placed on
the flight control system remain the same. The control system must give the pilot the ability
to make simple and unhindered control deflections in any direction. Control deflections
and forces required for maneuvering the airplane must be commensurate with the mission
of the airplane, the structural limits of the airplane, and pilot strength limitations. The
controls must exhibit good centering when released and must exhibit no tendency toward
lightly damped or undamped free oscillatory motions. There should be no noticeable lag
between the deflections of the cockpit controls and the movement of the corresponding
control surface.
1.24
INTRODUCTION
Since the flight control system is the implement by which the pilot is mated to the
airplane, the importance of good control system characteristics cannot be overemphasized.
The control system must be suitably matched to the stability, control, and inertial
characteristics of the basic airplane, and to the requirements of the human pilot. Proper
flight control system and basic airplane matching provide the pilot with the opportunity to
fully utilized the maneuvering capabilities of the airplane for maximum mission
performance.
1.6 THE U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL DEMONSTRATION
AND PROGRESS CHECK FLIGHTS

The U.S. Naval Test Pilot School utilizes actual flight instruction in the techniques
of stability and control testing. At the beginning of each new phase of study, students are
exposed to actual flight test techniques and methods through Demonstration Flights. At the
completion of each phase, students demonstrate their proficiency in that phase of flight
testing during Progress Check Flights. The purpose of the Demonstration Flight is to
provide instruction in stability and control test techniques in a realistic environment;
whereas the purpose of the Progress Check Flight is to evaluate the student's progress
and render additional instruction in troublesome areas.
1.6.1 The Demonstration Flight

The Demonstration Flight will be preceded by thorough briefings which will
present background theory, test techniques, analysis of test results in terms of mission
accomplishment and specification requirements, and data presentation methods. It is the
student's responsibility to prepare for the Demonstration Flight by thorough review of
briefing notes, appropriate technical literature, and relevant specifications. Thorough
preparation is essential for derivation of maximum benefits from this flight.
The performance and maneuvering longitudinal stability demonstration flights are

flown in any of the school's jet fleet. The Lateral-Directional and Nonmaneuvering
Longitudinal Stability demonstration flights are usually flown in an airplane with side-by-
side seating. One or more students and one instructor comprise a normal flight crew with
the students sharing equally in airborne instructional time. Since the students may not be
qualified in the demonstration airplane, the instructor pilot usually handles all normal pre-
flights, ground operations, takeoffs, and landings. The students are not required to know
1.25
the demonstration airplane from an operational standpoint. During the actual instructional
phase of the flight, the instructor will demonstrate both qualitative and quantitative test
techniques, use of special instrumentation, and data recording procedures. After the
student has observed and understands each technique, he is given an opportunity to practice
until attaining a reasonable level of proficiency. Throughout the Demonstration Flight, the
instructor will discuss the significance of each test, implications of certain characteristics
exhibited, and slight variations in the test techniques which would be appropriate in other
type airplanes. The student is encouraged to ask questions during the progress of the flight.
Many points are made perfectly clear in only a few seconds in flight; to accomplish the
same on the ground would probably require several minutes. A thorough postflight
discussion between instructor and students completes the Demonstration Flight. During the
debrief, the data which were obtained on the flight is plotted, discussed, and analyzed.
The student is required to plan the flight completely, giving due consideration to a
real or simulated mission of the airplane and appropriate specification requirements. The
student conducts the flight briefing, which must include a definition of the mission and a
brief description of the flight control system, as well as discussions of test techniques and
specification requirements.
As the student demonstrates his knowledge of qualitative and quantitative test

techniques in flight, he is expected to comment on the importance and meaning of the tests
with respect to the real or simulated mission. The instructor will comment on validity of
the results obtained, errors or omissions in test procedures, and may demonstrate variations
in test techniques which have not been previously introduced. The student will be expected
to investigate qualitatively the pilot effort required in the performance of a typical mission
task. This task may be a tracking maneuver or ground controlled approach; i.e., some task
which requires precise control of the airplane. The student will be asked to rationalize the
reasons for the simplicity or difficulty of the maneuver during the debrief following the
flight.
The debrief consists of the student discussing and analyzing the results of the in-
flight tests. The analysis must be oriented toward the influence of the characteristics
exhibited on the mission effectiveness of the airplane.
1.26
CHAPTER TWO
STALLS
PAGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1
2.2 THEORY 2.3

2.2.1 Wing Design 2.3
2.2.1.1 Wing Section Characteristics 2.3
2.2.1.2 Wing Planform Characteristics 2.5
2.2.1.3 Effects of High Lift Devices 2.9
2.2.2 Horizontal Tail Design and Location 2.11
2.2.3 Acceleration 2.14
2.2.4 Power 2.16
2.2.5 Stability and Control Augmentation 2.16
2.2.6 Miscellaneous Factors 2.20
2.2.7 Characteristics Which May Limit Minimum Steady Airspeed 2.21
2.2.7.1 Loss of Control Without Reduction of Lift 2.21
2.2.7.2 Lack of Longitudinal Control Effectiveness 2.22
2.2.7.3 Zero Rate of Climb Speed 2.22
2.2.8 Stall Warning and Stall Prevention Devices 2.24
2.2.8.1 Artificial Stall Warning 2.24
2.2.8.2 Artificial or Automatic Stall Prevention 2.25
2.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES 2.26

2.3.1 Preflight Procedures 2.26
2.3.2 Flight Test Techniques 2.30
2.3.2.1 The Controlled Stall Test Technique 2.30
2.3.2.2 Approach to the Stall 2.30
2.3.2.3 Fully Developed Stall 2.32
2.3.2.4 Stall Recovery 2.33
2.3.2.5 Profile of the Controlled Stall Test Technique 2.34
2.3.2.6 Alternate Technique for Accelerated Stall Investigations 2.37
2.3.2.7 Simulated Inadvertent Stalls 2.37
2.i
2.3.3 Postflight Procedures 2.38
2.4 SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS 2.39
2.5 GLOSSARY 2.41
2.6 REFERENCES 2.43
2.ii
STALLS
CHAPTER TWO
FIGURES
PAGE
2.1 Types of Section Stall 2.4
2.2 Influence of Shape of Lift Curve on Stall Characteristics 2.5
2.3 Typical Influence of Aspect Ratio and Sweepback on Lift Curve Slope 2.6
2.4 Downwash Influence on Section Angle of Attack 2.7
2.5 Typical Influence of Wing Taper on Stall 2.8
2.6 Effect of Boundary Layer Control on Lift Curve 2.10
2.7 Typical Flow Patterns About the Low-Mounted Horizontal Tail 2.12
2.8 Typical Flow Patterns About the T-Tail 2.13
2.9 Aft-Fuselage Mounted Engines Complicate the T-Tail Airflow
Disturbance at High Angles of Attack 2.14
2.10 Accelerated Stall Time History 2.18
2.11 Normal Stall Time History 2.19
2.12 Typical Flow Pattern Around the Vertical Tail at High Angle of Attack 2.21
2.13 Typical Variations of Lift and Drag Coefficient for the Low Aspect
Ratio Airplane 2.23
2.14 Typical Stall Data Card 2.29
2.15 General Profile of the Controlled Stall Investigation 2.34
2.16 Typical Stall Data Table 2.39
2.iii
CHAPTER TWO
TABLES
PAGE
2.I Summary of Stall Warning Devices 2.25
2.iv
STALLS
CHAPTER TWO
EQUATIONS
PAGE
2nW
VS = eq 2.1 2.14
C L max S
2.v
CHAPTER TWO
STALLS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
All airplanes are subjected to stall investigations for the following reasons:
1. Safety and operational considerations.
2. Actual flight tests are the only means of precisely determining stall
characteristics.
3. Expansion of the operational flight envelope.
4. Determination of trim airspeeds for future tests.
The investigation of stall characteristics is a phase of flying qualities which is

difficult to associate with particular pilot tasks. There are no total missions in which stalls
are required for mission accomplishment, although pilot training and familiarization in stall
characteristics are considered an essential phase of the training mission. However, all
airplanes will be stalled at one time or another in operational use if sufficient longitudinal
control is available and if no stall prevention device is installed. Therefore, stall tests are an
integral part of any flying qualities program.
The emphasis placed on the stall investigation depends on the total mission of the
airplane. If mission accomplishment involves a great deal of maneuvering, the pilot is very
likely to inadvertently stall; therefore, a thorough stall investigation must be carried out. If
mission accomplishment involves a minimum of maneuvering, the pilot is not likely to
inadvertently stall; therefore, the stall investigation may be less stringent.
Stall investigations encompass both normal and accelerated stalls. The normal stall
is defined as a stall which occurs while the airplane is in an unaccelerated flight condition.
The accelerated stall is defined as a stall which occurs while the airplane is in an accelerated
2.1
flight condition, such as a pull-up or a level turn. Accelerated stalls usually exhibit more
violent characteristics than normal stalls; therefore, normal stalls should be investigated
thoroughly before commencement of accelerated stall tests. The total mission of the
airplane dictates where the primary emphasis is placed during the stall investigation. For
the airplane which will be maneuvered extensively, primary emphasis must be placed on
accelerated stalls which could result from mission tasks. If mission accomplishment
involves a minimum of maneuvering, primary emphasis should be placed on normal stall
characteristics. The large passenger, transport, or heavy bomber type airplane will most
likely be inadvertently stalled in unaccelerated flight during transitions associated with
instrument departures or approaches.
Normal and accelerated stalls may be further classified as positive g or negative

g stalls. This discussion of stall characteristics will be concerned only with positive g
normal and accelerated stalls because:
1. Normal negative g stalls are difficult to obtain in most operational airplanes

due to insufficient longitudinal control effectiveness.
2. Precise pilot technique is required to perform negative g accelerated stalls

(stalls entered at less than -1.0g).
3. Pilot discomfort discourages entry into negative g normal or accelerated stalls.
Negative g normal and accelerated stalls maybe investigated in a build-up

program for spin testing, which will be discussed in a subsequent section.
Normal and accelerated stall characteristics indirectly affect mission performance of

the pilot - airplane combination. Satisfactory stall characteristics greatly increase pilot
confidence in his airplane. When assurance can be provided that violent departures into
uncontrolled flight will not result from inadvertent stalls, the pilot will utilize fully the
maneuvering capabilities of the airplane for maximum mission effectiveness.
2.2
STALLS
2.2 THEORY
The classical stall may be defined as a condition in which the airplane wing is
subjected to an angle of attack greater than the angle for maximum lift coefficient. Stall
speed can be defined as the minimum steady airspeed attainable in unaccelerated flight or
the minimum usable airspeed. However, characteristics exhibited by many airplanes in the
region of the stall preclude attainment of the classic aerodynamic stall. These characteristics
vary widely among different airplanes and are greatly affected by a multitude of factors.
The major factors affecting stall characteristics are discussed herein. A resum of stall
warning and stall prevention devices is also presented.
2.2.1 Wing Design
2.2.1.1 WING SECTION CHARACTERISTICS

Wing section design determines the value of the maximum lift coefficient, the angle
of attack at which it is achieved, and the rate of change of lift coefficient with angle of
attack in the region of the stall. The most influential wing section parameters are the wing
thickness and position of maximum thickness, the amount of camber, and the leading edge
radius.
The influence of airfoil thickness and camber on maximum lift coefficient is quite
pronounced. A thin symmetrical airfoil (thickness ratio less than .08) has such a small
leading edge radius that large adverse pressure gradients induce leading edge flow
separations at low angles of attack. The thick (thickness ratio greater than .12) or highly
cambered airfoil creates large adverse pressure gradients near the upper surface trailing
edge which causes separation near the trailing edge at low angles of attack. An airfoil of
moderate thickness (thickness ratio from .08 to .12) and camber may exhibit a tendency for
separation to occur simultaneously at both leading edge and trailing edge (Figure 2.1).
(Note: Positive cambering of a thin symmetrical airfoil generally reduces the tendency for
early separation and increases maximum lift coefficient. However, too much cambering of
thick sections can produce the adverse characteristics discussed above.)
2.3
Leading Edge Separation

Spreading AFT
Thin Symmetrical
Section
Trailing Edge Separation

Spreading Forward
Thick or Highly Cambered

Section
Separation Spreading AFT

and Forward
Section of Moderate
Thickness and Camber
Figure 2.1
Types of Section Stall
The type of section stall has a great deal of influence on stall characteristics. If
separation occurs first near the trailing edge of the airfoil, the spread of separation forward
is fairly slow and gradual until the maximum lift coefficient is attained. This type of
separation progression indicates that the lift curve would exhibit a smooth, gradual change
in slope near the stall, although the stall would be rather well-defined. An airplane having
this type of lift coefficient - angle of attack relationship would probably exhibit satisfactory
stall warning and a well-defined aerodynamic stall (Figure 2.2).
The second lift curve of Figure 2.2 also exhibits a well-defined peak, however, the
peak is followed by a very rapid, even discontinuous, decrease in lift coefficient for a small
increase in angle of attack. This type of lift curve can result from leading edge flow
separation spreading rapidly aft on the airfoil or simultaneous leading edge-trailing edge
separation. The airplane with this type of lift curve would exhibit little or no aerodynamic
stall warning and a sudden, abrupt stall. This stall may be quite violent because the
sharpness and discontinuity of the lift curve indicate that one wing can easily stall prior to
2.4
STALLS
the other generating rolling motion at the stall. This asymmetric stall can be caused by
small difference in wing sections along the span or small differences in local flow direction
due to vertical gusts or yawing motion. In any case, the downgoing wing experiences an
increase in angle of attack, while the upgoing wing experiences a decrease. This situation
may result in autorotation, a motion in which the rolling is self-sustaining and which may
result in the airplane entering a spin. The abrupt, asymmetric stall tendency may be
overcome by increasing the radius of the leading edge of the wing and/or by cambering the
wing judiciously. If this approach is not practical, some improvement in stall
characteristics may be realized by installing devices on the wing leading edge to introduce
turbulence into the boundary layer. However, this correction is usually a trial and error
process.
+ +
Stall Warning Stall Warning
Lift Coefficient
Lift Coefficient
CL
CL
Stall Stall
Angle of Attack + Angle of Attack +

Gradual, Well Defined Stall Abrupt Stall
Initial Separation at Trailing Edge Initial Separation at Leading Edge
or
Simultaneous Separation at Leading
and Trailing Edges
Figure 2.2
Influence of Shape of Lift Curve on Stall Characteristics
2.2.1.2 WING PLANFORM CHARACTERISTICS

Wing planform design influences the slope of the lift curve - angle of attack
relationship, downwash pattern, and the portion of the wing span which stalls first. The
most influential planform parameters are aspect ratio, sweep, and taper.
2.5
The slope of the lift curve at airspeeds near stall is determined primarily by aspect
ratio and sweep angle. An increase in aspect ratio1 increases the slope of the lift curve,
while an increase in sweepback decreases the slope (Figure 2.3).
The slope of the lift curve influences the angle of attack and pitch attitude at which
the aerodynamic stall is encountered. If the slope of the lift curve is shallow, the angle of
attack for the stall may be attained only at a very high airplane nose attitude and with a very
large rate of descent. Furthermore, adverse stability and control characteristics may be
encountered before the attainment of the maximum lift coefficient. Therefore, airplanes
with low aspect ratio and highly swept wings generally do not exhibit a true aerodynamic
stall and a minimum flying speed would be determined based on other criteria.
+ + Increasing
Sweepback
Lift Coefficient
Lift Coefficient
CL
CL
Increasing
Aspect Ratio
Angle of Attack + Angle of Attack +

Figure 2.3
Typical Influence of Aspect Ratio and Sweepback on Lift Curve Slope
Downwash is the unavoidable result of lift production by a real wing. It reduces

the angle of attack at which individual wing sections operate (Figure 2.4).
1 Aspect ratios of 3 to 6 are considered medium, above 6 are considered high, less than 3 are considered
low.
2.6
STALLS
= Wing Angle of Attack

o o = Section Angle of Attack
Velocity at Win
g i = Induced Angle of Attack

i
Velocity of Free Stream
Figure 2.4
Downwash Influence on Section Angle of Attack
The spanwise distribution of downwash dictates the section angle of attack and
hence the section lift-coefficient distribution along the span. This distribution is extremely
important because of its influence on the part of the span to first reach a stalled condition.
The spanwise downwash distribution depends on wing taper and sweep, if the wing has
zero twist and the same section from root to tip. As the degree of taper increases, the area
of first stall on the span moves from root to tip (Figure 2.5). An increase in sweepback has
a similar effect as the increase in taper. The tendency of the wing to stall first at the tips
seriously derogates stall characteristics. While the root stall is generally preceded by
buffeting of the fuselage and tail caused by turbulent air shed from the root section, the tip
stall generally occurs with little or no stall warning. Since the lateral control surfaces are
usually positioned near the wing-tips, loss of roll control is often experienced when the
stall occurs first at the tips.
The swept wing has an inherent tendency toward tip stall because sweep back
changes the spanwise downwash distribution such that the wing area near the tip operates
at larger section angles of attack than other wing areas. This generates a pressure gradient
along the span of the wing with pressure decreasing from root to tip. As a consequence,
considerable spanwise flow of the boundary layer occurs. This spanwise flow from root to
tip may be considered a form of natural boundary-layer control for the inboard area of the
wing and increases the already inherent tendency toward tip stall. (Note: It should be
remembered that spanwise flow occurs on any wing planform. However, the swept wing
is particularly prone to spanwise flow).
Tip stalling of the swept wing results in an additional factor which tends to derogate
stall characteristics. Since sweepback places the tips aft of inboard sections, tip stalling
precipitates a forward shift of the wing center of pressure. This cases the wing to become
2.7
more longitudinally destabilizing; if the destabilizing influence is greater than the stabilizing
influence of the horizontal tail, the airplane tends to pitch nose-up at the stall. This
characteristic makes the airplane prone to inadvertent stalling and deep stall penetrations.
Rectangular
Stall Moves from Root Outboard
Elliptical Wing has Constant Downwash and

Elliptical Section Lift Coefficient Along the Span,
Therefore Stalls Evenly Across the Span
Stall Moves from Tip Inboard
Pointed
Figure 2.5
Typical Influence of Wing Taper on Stall
2.8
STALLS
There are several means by which tip stalling tendencies may be decreased or
eliminated. The most common are listed below. They may be used singly or in
combination.
1. Twist: The wing is gradually twisted from root to tip so that outboard sections
are always at a lower angle of attack than inboard sections (sometime called
washout).
2. Incorporation in the wing tip area of an airfoil section of higher maximum lift
coefficient than inboard sections.
3. Wing tip slots or slats: Spanwise passages near the leading edge to delay
separation at high angles of attack.
4. Wing tip vortex generators: Small spanwise airfoils which introduce a higher
energy level in the boundary layer.
5. Inboard stall strips: Spanwise leading edge protrusions which cause flow
separation at the wing root at high angles of attack.
6. Fences: Thin chordwise strips which inhibit spanwise flow.
7. Leading edge discontinuities: A device which creates a vortex just above the
wing surface to inhibit spanwise flow.
2.2.1.3 EFFECTS OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES

High lift devices are used to increase the maximum lift coefficient of the wing,
allowing stall-free flight at slower airspeeds. Their main influence on stall characteristics is
indirect. With high lift devices operating, the airplane stalls at slower speeds; therefore, the
effectiveness of the aerodynamic control surfaces for controlling airplane attitude in the stall
region is weakened. In addition to this indirect effect common to all high lift devices, some
direct effects of particular devices are discussed below.
Flap deflection changes the spanwise distribution of downwash and hence the
section angles of attack. This change in section angles of attack may cause significantly
different stall characteristics when flaps are deflected.
2.9
Boundary layer control (BLC) tends to change the shape of the lift curve near
stalling angles of attack (Figure 2.6). The sharper peaks of the lift curve, when boundary
layer control is used, make the stall more abrupt and also create the tendency for an abrupt
roll at the stall. In addition, a very large reduction in angle of attack may be necessary to
effect stall recovery.
+
High BLC
Low BLC
Lift Coefficient
CL
Basic Section
Angle of Attack +

Figure 2.6
Effect of Boundary Layer Control on Lift Curve
Slots or slats may be used to improve airflow conditions at high angles of attack.
One means of utilizing these high lift devices is through use of the automatic slot. The
automatic slot is a slot in the leading edge of the wing created by the movement of a slat
which is retained in the leading-edge contour of the wing at low angles of attack, but
extends to create the slot as the stalling angle of attack is approached. The slats operate
without action by the pilot and, unless design precautions are taken, have an inherent
tendency to extend and retract asymmetrically. Leading edge slats have exhibited an
annoying propensity toward asymmetric extension during approaches to accelerated stalls.
In this flight regime, their asymmetric extension may generate violent, uncontrollable
rolling motion. Asymmetric extension can be eliminated by incorporation of slat
interconnects or a hydraulic device to hold the slats on the leading edge of the wing until the
landing gear or flaps are extended.
2.10
STALLS
2.2.2 Horizontal Tail Design and Location

Horizontal tail design and location have a major influence on stall characteristics.
Since the contributions of the fuselage and wing to longitudinal stability are generally
destabilizing in the stall region, the horizontal tail must provide the necessary stabilizing
pitching moments if the airplane is to remain longitudinally controllable. The vertical
location of the horizontal tail with respect to the wing is of extreme importance for this
dictates the airflow characteristics at the horizontal tail at high angles of attack. A rigorous
discussion of all possible vertical tail locations and associated influences on stall
characteristics is beyond the scope of this text. However, two examples are presented to
demonstrate the problems which exist.
First, consider an airplane design which incorporates a horizontal stabilizer

mounted low on the empennage. At low angles of attack, this tailplane is immersed in
airflow which has been altered by the wing (Figure 2.7). However, at low angles of
attack, there is little loss of stream velocity behind the wing, although the stream is
deflected downward by the downwash angle. The horizontal tail, therefore, maintains its
effectiveness at low angles of attack since the flow field is not too greatly disturbed. As the
angle of attack is increased, airflow begins to breakdown on the wing and loading
distribution and associated changes in downwash occur. The wake behind the wing
becomes more and more nonstreamlined and turbulent. Very low values of dynamic
pressure may exist over an extensive region aft of the wing. If the angle of attack is
increased sufficiently, a complete breakdown of flow spreads over the entire wing and the
stall occurs. However, if the horizontal stabilizer is mounted low on the empennage, the
stabilizer emerges from the wing wake at high angles of attack (Figure 2.7). This causes
the horizontal tail to maintain a strong longitudinally stabilizing influence at the stall,
generating large nose-down pitching moments. In addition, the longitudinal control surface
maintains a high degree of effectiveness throughout the stall, allowing the pilot close
control over pitch attitude.
The placement of the horizontal stabilizer high up on the vertical fin (T-tail) has
become increasingly popular in recent years, particularly for passenger and transport
airplanes. With the appearance of aft fuselage mounted engines (which allowed a
structurally simple and aerodynamically clean wing), the horizontal stabilizer was placed
higher to avoid interference flow and structural fatigue from engine exhaust. The T-tail
also realizes other advantages such as an increase in effectiveness at low angles of attack
since, in that flight regime, it does not operate in the wake of the wing. In addition, it has
2.11
an endplate effect on the vertical tail, and thereby increases the effectiveness of that
surface. Unfortunately, the T-tail design causes severe problems at high angles of attack,
particularly at stalling angles of attack.
Low Angle of Attack
High Angle of Attack
Figure 2.7
Typical Flow Patterns About
the Low-Mounted Horizontal Tail
Insight into the T-tail stall problem can be gained by a study of Figure 2.8. At low
angles of attack, the T-tail receives little or no influence from the downwash caused by lift
production of the wing. However, as the airplane is rotated to higher and higher angles of
attack, the high mounted horizontal stabilizer is moved closer and closer to the now
nonstreamlined, turbulent wake from the wing. In the region of stall, the T-tail may be
engulfed in the wing wake; this results in a drastic reduction in horizontal tail and
longitudinal control effectiveness. The reduction in stabilizing effect from the horizontal
tail causes a severe pitch-up tendency which the pilot may not be able to counteract even by
applying full nose-down longitudinal control. This stall, from which recovery is
impossible without an unconventional recovery technique or a recovery augmentor, such
as a tail parachute, is referred to as a super stall or deep stall and has been experienced
by T-tail aircraft flying at an aft center of gravity position.
2.12
STALLS
Low Angle of Attack
High Angle of Attack
Figure 2.8
Typical Flow Patterns About the T-Tail
The problem of the T-tail entering disturbed airflow at high angles of attack can be
complicated by aft mounted engine nacelles (Figure 2.9). The associated increase in
airflow disturbance may increase the severity of the loss in horizontal tail effectiveness or
cause the loss in effectiveness to occur at lower angles of attack.
2.13
Figure 2.9
Aft-Fuselage Mounted Engines Complicate the T-Tail
Airflow Disturbance at High Angles of Attack
If an airplane experiences a deep-stall or super-stall problem, it may be

necessary to incorporate a stall prevention device, such as a stick-pusher. Such systems
must be reliable and must not cause dangerous flight conditions if accidentally activated
during take-off or landing. In stall testing an airplane which may experience the super-
stall, it may be necessary to install recovery augmentation devices, such as tail
parachutes or rockets mounted in the nose or tail. The incorporation of an angle of attack
indicator is absolutely essential for these stall tests.
2.2.3 Acceleration
Maneuvering produces an effect on stall speed which is similar to the effect of
weight. As an example, an airplane in a steady level turn requires a higher lift coefficient,
thus increased angle of attack, for a given airspeed; therefore, stall speed is higher in level
turning flight.
2nW
VS = eq 2.1
C L max S
Where:
VS = true stall airspeed in feet/seconds
n = normal acceleration in g
W = airplane gross weight in pounds
2.14
STALLS
= air density in slugs/ft 3
S = wing area in square feet
C L max = maximum lift coefficient, dimensionless
Since the maximum lift coefficient is dependent only on angle of attack for a given
configuration, the angle of attack at stall is the same for any value of normal acceleration.
Note: The effects of Reynolds number and Mach number on maximum lift coefficient are
neglected here to simplify the discussion.
Accelerated stall characteristics are more violent than normal stall characteristics for
a given configuration because the accelerated stall always occurs at a higher airspeed and
may occur at a much higher rate of entry. Adverse characteristics noted during normal
stalls are magnified by the increased airspeed at the accelerated stall. Therefore, accelerated
stalls should be investigated with caution. Rigorous normal stall tests must precede any
accelerated stall evaluation.
Accelerated stall warning may vary with rate of entry into the stall. Rapid rotations
generating rapid increases in acceleration (greater than one g per second) may result in
virtually no aerodynamic stall warning. Rapid rotations may also result in abrupt
accelerated stalls at indicated angles of attack less than actual angles of attack due to lag in
the angle of attack indicator.
If operational considerations require that the airplane be flown well into the buffet
regime to obtain optimum turning performance, airframe buffet may lose significance as
accelerated stall warning unless there is a noticeable increase in buffet intensity just prior to
the stall. This situation may result in other pilot cues being used for accelerated stall
warning.
Poststall gyrations may be induced by intentionally maintaining an accelerated stall

condition. The pattern and severity of the motions are generally dependent upon the energy
level (airspeed and altitude) at entry. The investigation of poststall gyrations is usually
performed in a build-up program for a spin investigation. However, these gyrations may
be experienced during intentional or inadvertent accelerated stalls.
2.15
2.2.4 Power
The influence of power on stall characteristics depends upon the type, number,
location, and rating of the engine or engines installed.
If the airplane is equipped with a jet power plant (or power plants), the only major
effect of power will be that stall airspeed will be less with increased power for a given
configuration. Stall characteristics will be indirectly influenced in this situation in that the
airplane response to pilot control inputs will be lessened at lower airspeeds.
The stall characteristics of airplanes equipped with reciprocating or turboprop

engines may be greatly influenced by the power setting existing at the stall.
If the wing is partially or completely immersed in the propeller slipstream, stall

speed will vary markedly with power setting. Full power stalls may occur at extremely low
airspeeds and the weakened effectiveness of the control surfaces at these low speeds may
severely degrade stall recovery characteristics. Full power stalls in airplanes of this type
must be approached with due caution. If the control surfaces are immersed in slipstream,
the effectiveness of the surfaces will vary with the amount of power output.
The high powered, single-engine, single-rotation propeller airplane may exhibit a

severe torque-roll tendency if power is applied rapidly at low airspeeds in the region of
the stall. This characteristic may dictate a stall recovery procedure which involves
maintaining a fairly low power setting until airspeed increases to a predetermined value.
2.2.5 Stability and Control Augmentation

Stability and control augmentation systems may introduce large control inputs
(independent of the pilot) at or near stalling angles of attack which may be detrimental to
stall characteristics. This will be most apparent if the augmentation system possesses a
high degree of sensitivity and control authority. For illustrative purposes, two examples
are presented which emphasize the possible influence of these systems on stall
characteristics.
2.16
STALLS
The first example is extracted from accelerated stall tests of a light jet attack airplane
equipped with longitudinal and lateral control augmentation and directional stability
augmentation. The time history of an accelerated stall which was aggravated by the roll
damper mode of the control augmentation system is shown in Figure 2.10. The stall was
entered from a left turn with 2g normal acceleration; approach to the stall was characterized
by increasing airframe buffet. Just prior to the stall (at 8 seconds on the time history), note
that the pilot was required to hold right aileron position to keep the airplane from entering a
tighter left turn. The stall was marked by a directional slice to the left, at which time the
pilot neutralized the controls (at 10 seconds on the time history). At this time, the roll
damper portion of the control augmentation mode, sensing a left roll rate without a pilot
control input, applied a large right lateral control input. Note that the cockpit control stick
was essentially neutral at this time. The aileron input of the roll damper was in the pro-spin
direction and the airplane entered a left spin. After approximately two turns of the spin, the
pilot deactivated control augmentation and effected recovery by applying aileron into the
spin, rudder against the spin, and full aft longitudinal control.
The second example is extracted from normal stall tests of a twin-engine turboprop
transport airplane equipped with directional stability augmentation. This augmentation
system was composed of yaw damping, directional trim follow-up, and a turn coordination
feature. The time history of a normal stall (Power approach configuration) which was
aggravated by the turn coordination feature of the stability augmentation system is shown in
Figure 2.11. Power approach configuration stalls in this airplane were characterized by
abrupt rolls (note the bank angle change at the stall). The turn coordination feature of the
stability augmentation sensed the rolling motion and attempted to coordinate with a large
left rudder input. Note that about 10 degrees of left rudder deflection was introduced by
the stability augmentation system while the pilot was holding right rudder pedal deflection.
The large left rudder input increased the left bank angle and sideslip excursions and the
airplane entered a series of uncontrollable snaprolls. Recovery was initiated by deactivating
stability augmentation. During the recovery, airspeed and normal acceleration limitation of
the airframe were exceeded.
2.17
+3
+2
ACCELERATION
+1
Stall
NORMAL
0
g
-1
ND DEG NU
50
ATTITUDE
0
PITCH
50
100
RT
10
LFT DEG
0
POSITION
DEG LATERAL
10
STICK
20
TEU
Input by Roll Damper

20
0
POISTION
AILERON
TED
LEFT
20
Control Aug Off
RWD
200
100
ATTITUDE
DEG
ROLL
0
100
LWD
200
DEG RUDDERDEGRT
20
0
POSITIONPOSITION
TEL LFT
PEDAL
20
20
RUDDER
0
TER
20
RT
10
DEG/SEC
YAW RATE
0
10
20
LFT
30
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
TIME ~ SEC
Figure 2.10
Accelerated Stall Time History
Configuration: Power (Mil Thrust) CG: 26.5% MAC

Loading: Normal Attack Gross Wt: 28,490 LB
Altitude at Stall: 28,000 FT Yaw Stab: On
Airspeed at Stall: 200 KIAS Control Aug: On
2.18
STALLS
+4
+2
ACCELERATION
0
NORMAL
-2
g
ANU
30
ANGLE OF ANGLE OF
DEG
PITCH
0
AND
30
+40
DEG
ATTACK
0
-40
RT
RUDDER PEDAL
2
INCH
POSITION
0
2
LFT
4
TER
Stab Aug Introduces Left Rudder Input

20
10
POSITION
RUDDER
0
TEL
10
20
Stab Aug Off
SIDESLIP
DEG RT
25
0
LFT
25
DEG RT
20
0
POSITION
LATERAL
LFT
WHEEL
20
RT
80
BANK ANGLE
Stall
40
DEG
0
40
LFT
80
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
TIME ~ SEC
Figure 2.11
Normal Stall Time History
Configuration: Power Approach CG: 33.6% MAC

Altitude at Stall: 10,000 FT Gross Wt: 45,900 LB
Airspeed at Stall: 80 KIAS Stab Aug: On
2.19
It should be emphasized that stability and control augmentation systems do not

always degrade stall characteristics. Some systems may have no influence; other systems
may have significant influence on airplane behavior in the region of the stall. Knowledge
of the various modes and functions and the control authority of the augmentation system in
the airplane being tested is essential if the stall investigation is to be conducted rigorously
and safely.
2.2.6 Miscellaneous Factors

Additional factors influencing the behavior of the airplane in the region of the stall
are listed below.
1. Location of Control Surfaces - If the control surfaces are immersed in low

energy separated airflow at the stall, the controllability of the airplane will be
decreased. The lateral control surfaces are particularly susceptible to immersion
in separated flow.
2. Configuration. The extension of wing flaps, wing leading edge slats, speed
brakes, landing gear, etc., will have some influence on stall characteristics.
This influence may be estimated by consideration of the location of various
devices in relation to control surfaces and stabilizers. Some configuration
changes, such as flap extension, may result in airframe buffet which masks the
prestall aerodynamic buffett, decreasing its value as a stall warning.
3. External Stores. Stall characteristics may be altered by various combinations of

external stores. Asymmetric store loadings may severely degrade stall
characteristics, particularly during accelerated entries. The investigation of stall
characteristics under asymmetric loading conditions should be accomplished on
any airplane which may carry asymmetric loads in operational use.
4. Center of Gravity. Stall characteristics may be markedly influenced by airplane

center of gravity (CG) if the airplane exhibits a deficiency in longitudinal control
effectiveness. At forward CG positions in some airplanes, nose-up longitudinal
control effectiveness may not be sufficient to attain maximum lift coefficient.
The minimum attainable airspeeds for these airplanes would be marked by
steady flight with full nose-up longitudinal control; minimum attainable speed
2.20
STALLS
would, of course, vary with CG position, decreasing as the CG moves aft. At

aft CG positions in other airplanes, nose-down longitudinal control
effectiveness may not be sufficient to quickly reduce angle of attack after
attaining the stall. This situation would seriously compromise, and might
preclude, stall recovery.
5. Shock-Induced Separation. Shock-induced separation or a shock stall may

cause the stall to occur at a lower angle of attack than might be predicted
through incompressible flow considerations. Tendencies toward shock-induced
separation would, of course, increase with increasing subsonic airplane Mach
number; however, shock stalls can occur at Mach numbers well below the
normal transonic region. The phenomenon of shock-induced separation may
be particularly evident during accelerated stalls.
2.2.7 Characteristics Which May Limit Minimum Steady

Airspeed
For some airplanes, the attainment of maximum lift coefficient may not be possible
or feasible. This may be caused by a loss of directional control without a reduction of lift,
lack of longitudinal control effectiveness, or an extremely large increase in drag coefficient.
2.2.7.1 LOSS OF CONTROL WITHOUT REDUCTION OF LIFT

During approaches to normal or accelerated stalls, directional stability may be
reduced significantly through the deterioration of airflow around the vertical stabilizer. At
high angles of attack, the vertical tail may become immersed in nonstreamlined, low energy
flow generated by flow separation on the wing and interference effects from aft-fuselage
mounted engines, speedbrakes, or other protrusions (Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12
Typical Flow Pattern Around the Vertical Tail
at High Angle of Attack
2.21
The deterioration in effectiveness of the vertical tail generally results in increasing

yaw excursions with increases in angle of attack. The airplane may diverge directionally
prior to attaining maximum lift coefficient if the destabilizing action progresses sufficiently.
Directional divergence can be triggered or aggravated by lateral control inputs if these
control inputs generate significant yawing moments. High angle of attack directional
divergence is sometimes referred to as slicing and would limit minimum steady airspeed
and preclude attainment of the maximum lift coefficient.
2.2.7.2 LACK OF LONGITUDINAL CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS

The longitudinal control surfaces on some airplanes may not be sufficiently
effective to rotate the airplane to the angle of attack corresponding to maximum lift
coefficient. These airplanes are sometimes referred to as elevator-limited airplanes.
Minimum steady airspeed or maximum angle of attack in this situation is that which is
attained with full nose-up longitudinal control. Since elevator effectiveness is a function of
center of gravity (CG) position, stalling airspeed and angle of attack for these airplanes will
vary with CG position.
2.2.7.3 ZERO RATE OF CLIMB SPEED

The very low aspect ratio (less than two) airplane exhibits practically no
aerodynamic stall; however, its minimum practical airspeed will be limited by performance
considerations, if not by adverse stability and control characteristics. The variation of lift
and drag coefficients for the low aspect ratio or slender delta design gives insight into the
problem which may exist (Figure 2.13).
2.22
STALLS
+
+
Drag Coefficient
Lift Coefficient
CL
CD
CL
CD
+
Angle of Attack

Figure 2.13
Typical Variations of Lift and Drag Coefficient
for the Low Aspect Ratio Airplane
While the lift curve exhibits no definite peak which would define maximum lift
coefficient, the drag curve may exhibit a tendency to slope upward sharply at high angles of
attack. An angle of attack, corresponding to an airspeed, would be attained at which the
airplane could not maintain a rate of climb with maximum engine power. This airspeed is
defined as the zero rate of climb speed (ZRCS). Of course, it will change with
configuration, altitude, engine output, and gross weight. The only hazard directly
associated with flight at airspeeds less than ZRCS is loss of performance. For example, if
an airplane decelerates below ZRCS during the approach, a sacrifice in altitude (possibly a
significant one) must be made in order to execute a wave-off. A disturbing feature of an
airplane capable of steady flight at airspeeds below that at which it has sufficient power to
maintain level flight is the long settling time needed to establish a final flight path. For
instance, it may be possible to fly at speeds slightly below ZRCS with a slight rate of climb
for periods as long as 1 minute. The slight rate of climb is caused by the inertia of the
airplane as is settles down on its final flight path. The pilot might deduce that he is above
ZRCS due to this phenomenon. However, he eventually finds that the airplane begins a
shallow descent. Increasing angle of attack at this stage only increases the rate of descent
and some height must be sacrificed for recovery. Recovery from airspeeds below ZRCS
can only be accomplished by pushing the nose over to decrease angle of attack, then
reestablishing a climb at an airspeed above ZRCS.
2.23
For some airplanes, zero rate of climb speed may constitute the extreme limit of
safe flight, and operational speeds must be chosen which provide adequate margins against
accidental exposure to irrecoverable situations.
NOTE: It must be emphasized the ZRCS is expected to limit minimum airspeed

only for airplanes with very low aspect ratio and very slender wing designs. During stall
investigations of any airplane, certain flight conditions will be encountered where the
airplane will be descending at significant rates, such as landing configuration with idle
power or power on stalls at high altitude. However, the high rate of descent does not
necessarily indicate a minimum airspeed limit above aerodynamic stalling airspeed and
should not be reported as such. Whenever safety considerations/risk management permit,
the stall investigation should probe into the stall region as deeply as possible.
2.2.8 Stall Warning and Stall Prevention Devices
2.2.8.1 ARTIFICIAL STALL WARNING

Airplanes which do not exhibit adequate aerodynamic stall warning, such as
airframe buffet, are frequently equipped with devices which detect the approach of the stall
and transmit a warning to the pilot. Artificial stall warning is, at best, a poor substitute for
aerodynamic stall warning since the detection device is never absolutely reliable.
Any artificial stall warning system should satisfy the following requirements:
1. The system should be capable of stall warning for any airplane configuration,
airspeed, altitude, normal accelerations, sideslip, bank angle, and power
setting. In addition, the system should not be susceptible to atmospheric
influence, such as temperature and pressure variations, precipitation, and icing.
2. The warning provided the pilot should be unmistakable and sufficiently in

advance of the stall to allow avoidance of the stall without undue pilot effort.
3. The system should be easy to maintain and easy to calibrate on the ground.
2.24
STALLS
Some of the devices used to detect approach of the stall and their principle of
operation are listed below.
Table 2.I
Summary of Stall Warning Devices
Device Principle of Operation
Free Floating Probe or Vane Airflow direction (angle of attack)

Drag Sensing Probe Airflow direction (angle of attack)
Differential Pressure Head Airflow direction (quantity proportional to
angle of attack)
Null Pressure Probe Airflow direction (angle of attack)
Leading Edge Tab Wing dynamic pressure
Trailing Edge Tab Wing dynamic pressure
Trailing Edge Pitot Tube Wing dynamic pressure
Pitot Tube with Local Spoiler Wing dynamic pressure
Flush-Mounted Wing Port Static pressure at wing surface
Trailing Edge Blister Static pressure at wing surface
Boundary Layer Pitot Tube Boundary layer pressure fluctuation
The means by which the pilot is warned of the approaching stall may be visual
(warning light), oral (sound in earphones), or physical (shaking or vibrating of rudder
pedals or control stick). The most suitable artificial forms of cockpit warning are probably
the stick shaker and vibrating stick grip; these warning signals are similar to aerodynamic
buffeting of the controls and are difficult to misinterpret.
2.2.8.2 ARTIFICIAL OR AUTOMATIC STALL PREVENTION

For some airplanes, particularly large transport and passenger types, stalling
maneuvers may be structurally or aerodynamically unsafe. In order to guarantee adequate
flight safety even under abnormal flight conditions, such as strong, sudden pull-ups or
abrupt longitudinal attitude changes caused by gusts, these airplanes may be equipped with
a stall prevention system. Stall prevention systems are used quite commonly in T-tail
airplanes.
2.25
Any artificial stall prevention system should satisfy the following requirements:
1. The system should be capable of stall prevention for any airplane configuration,
airspeed, altitude, normal acceleration, sideslip, bank angle, and power setting.
The system should not be susceptible to atmospheric influence, such as
temperature or pressure variations, precipitation, and icing.
2. The system should provide a large nose-down pitching moment at the stall or
just after the stall; however, the pilot should be able to override the system if
he desires. The override force should be large enough to discourage
inadvertent override and associated deep-stall penetration.
3. Inadvertent operation of the system should not lead to dangerous flight

conditions. This is particularly applicable to the take-off and landing
evolutions.
4. The system should be easy to maintain and easy to calibrate on the ground.
A commonly used stall prevention device is a stick pusher arrangement which is

activated through a signal from an angle of attack or pressure sensor.
No matter how well-designed and how reliable it may be, a stall prevention system
represents added complexity in the airplane. Unless safety or overriding design
considerations dictate otherwise, stall prevention systems should be avoided.
2.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
2.3.1 Preflight Procedures

Successful stall investigations can be accomplished only after thorough preflight
planning. During preflight planing, the purpose and scope of the tests must be clearly
defined. After purpose and scope are clearly understood, a plan of attack or test method
can be formulated.
2.26
STALLS
Preflight planing should start with research. This includes a study of the airplane -
many stall characteristics can be predicated by studying various design parameters of the
airplane. All available information on stall characteristics should be reviewed. Much
useful information may be gained by conversations with pilots and engineers familiar with
the airplane.
The test conditions - altitude, configuration, center of gravity, and trim airspeeds -
must be determined. Test conditions should be commensurate, as much as possible, with
the mission environment of the airplane. However, safety considerations/risk management
dictate that investigations of stall characteristics be performed in such a manner that the
most critical conditions are tested only after a reasonable build-up program. Altitude at stall
entry should never be lower than 10,000 feet above ground level; however, a higher
minimum altitude may be used if unusual characteristics are expected. Although center of
gravity (CG) position may affect both the stall and the recovery, tests at the most forward
and most aft operational CG positions are generally adequate. However, if a lack of nose-
down longitudinal control or pitch-up at high angles of attack are suspected, forward CG
positions should be used for initial investigations. Because of possible adverse stall
characteristics resulting from high power settings and extension or activation of high-lift
devices, a clean airplane configuration with low engine power settings should be chosen
for initial stall tests. Appropriate trim airspeeds should be chosen for each configuration to
be evaluated. For example, appropriate trim conditions for an investigation of power
approach configuration stalls would be those corresponding to normal approach airspeed
and angle of attack. Of course, the effects of trimming into the stall and out of trim
entries into the stall should be determined also.
The amount and sophistication of instrumentation required will depend on the

purpose and scope of the evaluation. A pure qualitative investigation can be accomplished
with only cockpit and hand-held instruments. A portable tape recorder for pilot comments
is especially useful. If accurate quantitative information is needed, or if preliminary studies
indicate very adverse stall characteristics, automatic recording devices, such as
oscillograph, photopanel, and telemetry, should be utilized. The parameters to be recorded
and ranges and sensitivity of test instrumentation will vary somewhat with each test
program.
2.27
The final step in preflight planning is the preparation of pilot data cards. An
example of a stall data card is presented in Figure 2.14. However, most test pilots desire to
modify data cards to their own needs or construct data cards for each test. At any rate, the
data cards should list all quantitative information desired and should be easy to interpret in
flight. For stall investigations in particular, several data cards with adequate space for pilot
comments should be provided.
2.28
STALLS
WEATHER CARD NO.
PIR RIS
AIRPLANE TYPE BU NO TIME T. O. DATE
TIME LAND
PILOT TOCG
GEAR DOWN % UP %
CONDITION T. O. GROS WT.
EXTERNAL CONFIGURATION
TEST TEST
CONFIGURATION ALTITUDE
TRIM SPEED
TRIM TABS
POWER
FUEL QUANTITY
APPROACH
WRN
BUFFET
CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS
CONTROL FORCES
LONG STICK POSITION
BUFFET
ROLL
STALL
PITCH
CONTROL FORCES
ALT. LOST
RECOVERY
CONTROL FORCES
PROGRESSIVE STALL TENDENCIES
STALL DATA PRNC-NATC-3900/4 GPO 929-452
Figure 2.14
Typical Stall Data Card
2.29
2.3.2 Flight Test Techniques

Stall characteristics must be evaluated in relation to their influence on mission
accomplishment. Thus, both normal and accelerated stalls must be performed under entry
conditions which could result from various mission tasks. However, prior to evaluating
stalls entered from these conditions, a more controlled testing approach should be
employed. This approach allows lower deceleration rates into the stall and lower pitch
attitudes at the stall, thereby reducing changes for deep-stall penetration without adequate
buildup. After the controlled stall investigation, if stall characteristics permit, simulated
inadvertent stalls should be investigated under conditions representative of operational
procedures.
2.3.2.1 THE CONTROLLED STALL TEST TECHNIQUE

The easiest and safest approach to controlled stall testing is to divide the
investigation into three distinct parts:
1. Approach to the stall
2. Fully developed stall
3. Stall recovery
2.3.2.2 APPROACH TO THE STALL

During this phase of the investigation, adequacy of stall warning and retention of
reasonable airplane controllability are the primary items of interest. Assessment of stall
warning requires subjective judgment by the pilot. Only the pilot can decide when he has
been adequately warned. Warning must occur sufficiently in advance of the stall to allow
prevention of the stall by normal control applications after a reasonable pilot reaction time.
However, stall warning should not occur too far in advance of the stall. For example, it is
essential that stall warning for approach configuration occur below normal approach speed.
Stall warning which occurs too early is not only annoying to the pilot but is meaningless as
an indication of proximity to the stall.
2.30
STALLS
The type of stall warning is very important. Primary stall warning is generally in
the form of airframe buffet, control shaking, or small amplitude airplane oscillations in roll,
yaw, or pitch. Other secondary cues to the approach to the stall may be high pitch attitude,
large longitudinal control pull forces (of course, this cue can be destroyed by trimming
into the stall), large control deflections, or sluggish control response. In any case, stall
warning, whether natural or artificial, should be unmistakable, even under conditions of
high pilot workload and stress and under conditions of atmospheric turbulence. If an
artificial stall warning device is installed, approach to the stall should be evaluated with the
device operative and inoperative to determine if the device is really required for normal
operations.
During this phase of the evaluation, the test pilot must evaluate stall warning with
the intended use and operational environment in mind. He must remember that he is
specifically looking for the stall warning under controlled conditions. The operational pilot
probably will not be. This question must be answered: will the operational pilot,
preoccupied by other tasks and not concentrating on stalls, recognize approach of the stall
and be able to prevent the stall?
The general flying qualities of the airplane should be investigated during the
approach to the stall as well as stall warning characteristics. Longitudinal, lateral, and
directional control effectiveness for maintaining a desired attitude may deteriorate
significantly during the approach to the stall. Loss of control about any axis such as
uncontrollable pitch-up or pitch-down, wing drop, or directional slicing may define the
actual stall. During the approach to the stall, the test pilot should be particularly aware of
the amount of longitudinal nose-down control available because of the obvious influence of
this characteristic on the ability to break the stalled condition and make a successful
recovery.
This phase of stall investigation usually begins with onset of stall warning and ends
at the stall; therefore, the test pilot will certainly be concerned with the manner in which the
airplane stalls and the ease of recovery. However, primary emphasis is placed on obtaining
an accurate assessment of stall warning and general flying qualities during the approach to
the stall. During initial investigations, it may be prudent to terminate the approach short of
the actual stall, penetrating deeper and deeper with each succeeding approach until limiting
conditions or the actual stall are reached. In addition, the rate of approach should be low
initially, less than 1 knot per second for normal stalls. Investigations of accelerated stalls
2.31
should be made by using the constant normal acceleration technique or the constant
airspeed technique. The constant normal acceleration technique is performed by selecting
and holding a desired g level while allowing the airplane to decelerate until the stall is
encountered. Slow deceleration rates (typically 2 knots/second) are used for initial
investigations. As experience is gained, faster deceleration rates should be performed
unless safety considerations dictate otherwise. The constant airspeed technique will be
discussed in the STALL TEST TECHNIQUES section.
The test pilot should record at least the following cockpit data during the approach
to the stall:
1. Airspeed and angle of attack at stall warning.
2. Type and adequacy of stall warning.
3. Longitudinal control force at stall warning (either measured or estimated).
4. Qualitative comments regarding controllability and control effectiveness.
2.3.2.3 FULLY DEVELOPED STALL

During this phase of the investigation, the primary objective is to accurately define
the stall and the associated airplane behavior. The stall should be well-marked by some
characteristic, such as pitch-up or pitch-down or lateral or directional divergence. In
general, any pitch-up or directional divergence at the stall is undesirable because pitch-up
may precipitate a deep stall penetration and directional divergence may lead to a spin.
Pitch-down at the stall and lateral divergence may be acceptable; however, severe rolling,
pitching, or yawing or any combination of the three are obviously poor characteristics.
Control effectiveness as evidenced by the pilot's ability to control or induce roll,

pitch, or yaw should be evaluated in the stall, if airplane behavior permits this to be done
safely. Obviously, control effectiveness should be evaluated with a suitable build-up
program. Initially, control inputs only large enough to effect an immediate coordinated
recovery should be used. As experience is gained, the airplane should be maintained in the
stalled condition for longer and longer periods of time, and the effectiveness of all controls
evaluated with larger and larger control deflections.
2.32
STALLS
The test pilot should record at least the following cockpit data regarding the stall:
1. Airspeed and angle of attack at stall.
2. Load factor (accelerated stalls only).
3. Characteristic which defines the stall.
4. Longitudinal control force at the stall (either measured or estimated). The ratio
of longitudinal control forces at stall and stall warning is a rough indication of
longitudinal stability in the high angle of attack region and an indication of the
ease of inadvertent stalling.
5. Qualitative descriptive comments.
2.3.2.4 STALL RECOVERY

During this phase of the investigation, primary items of interest are the ease of
recovery (the pilot's task), general flying qualities during the recovery, altitude required for
recovery, and the determination of an optimum recovery technique. The definition of stall
recovery may vary with the configuration under investigation. For example, the goal of
recovery for configurations commensurate with combat maneuvering may be to regain
sufficient control effectiveness about all three axes to perform offensive or defensive
maneuvering tasks; the attainment of level flight may not be critical in these configurations.
The goal of recovery for take-off and approach configurations should be the attainment of
level flight with a minimum loss of altitude and the regaining of sufficient control
effectiveness to safely maintain stall-free conditions. In each case, the test pilot must
clearly define stall recovery.
During initial investigation, the stall recovery procedures specified in pertinent

publications should be utilized and the ease of effecting recovery evaluated. If no
procedure has been developed, initial recovery must be accomplished with a preliminary
technique formulated from all available technical information. As experience is gained,
various modifications to the recovery procedure should be made until an optimum
procedure is determined. In arriving at an optimum procedure for use by the operational
2.33
pilot, the test pilot must not only consider the effectiveness of the technique (in terms of
altitude loss or maneuverability regained) but must also consider the simplicity of the
technique.
The test pilot should record at least the following data regarding stall recovery:
1. Qualitative comments on ease of recovery
2. Optimum recovery technique
3. Altitude loss in recovery
4. Qualitative comments on control effectiveness
2.3.2.5 PROFILE OF THE CONTROLLED STALL TEST

TECHNIQUE
The general flight profile of the controlled stall investigation is presented in Figure
2.15. Points along the profile are further explained on the following page. It should be
remembered that until familiarity with stall behavior of the airplane is gained, the profile
may be broken off at any point.
Entry
B
Approach
C
Trim
Test Altitude D Stall
A
F
E
C Situation Review
B Approach Recovery
Entry
Figure 2.15
General Profile of the Controlled Stall Investigation
2.34
STALLS
A. Trim Point. The configuration under investigation should be established.

At least the following items should be recorded in the cockpit:
1. Trim speed
2. Trim tab setting
3. Power setting
4. Fuel quantity
If automatic recording devices are installed, a trim shot should be made.
B. Entry Point. Decide on an entry point which will result in the stall occurring
near the test altitude (+1000 feet). The entry procedures will be different for normal and
accelerated stall investigations.
Normal Stalls. Slow the airplane rapidly to about 20 KIAS above the estimated
stall warning speed. Power reduction or speed brake extension may be utilized.
Reestablish trim configuration at this new airspeed. Make a slight pitch increase to start the
deceleration toward the stall. Using the visual horizon as a primary cue and airspeed
indicator as a crosscheck, establish the desired deceleration rate. Deceleration rate should
be one knot per second or less initially, but may be increased as experience is gained.
Accelerated Stalls. For initial investigations, the constant normal acceleration

technique is normally used. Select an entry normal acceleration commensurate with
configuration, flight conditions, and familiarity with the accelerated stall characteristics. If
appropriate and feasible, slow the airplane to about 40 KIAS above the estimated stall
warning speed for the selected load factor. Entry normal acceleration should be increased
to maximum allowable or attainable as familiarity is gained. Establish a roughly level turn
at entry normal acceleration. Maintaining normal acceleration constant, establish the
desired deceleration rate. The primary reference should be the visual horizon, although the
normal accelerometer, angle of attack indicator, and airspeed indicator will have to be
crosschecked frequently. Deceleration rate should be approximately 2 knots per second or
less initially, but may be increased as experience is gained.
2.35
C. Approach to the Stall. If automatic recording devices are utilized, they

should be activated at some convenient point prior to stall warning. The event marker may
be used to mark stall warning on the recording traces. In order to aid in remembering data,
the pilot should call out the airspeed and angle of attack at stall warning onset and mentally
note the type and adequacy of the warning. For approaches to normal stalls, utilize pitch
control to maintain 1.0 g normal acceleration and the predetermined deceleration rate.
During approaches to accelerated stalls, a combination of bank angle and pitch attitude are
used to maintain normal acceleration and deceleration rates at predetermined values. An
increase in bank angle will slow the deceleration rate and a decrease in bank angle will
speed it up, providing the normal acceleration is maintained constant.
D. The Stall. There is a natural tendency to relax nose-up longitudinal control

as the stall is approached in unaccelerated or accelerated entries. This tendency should be
overcome by maintaining deceleration rate and normal acceleration into the stall with
positive pitch attitude control. If the stall is marked by pitch-down, pitch attitude and
normal acceleration should be closely monitored for accurate detection of the stall. At the
stall, actuate the event marker if automatic recording devices are used and call out the
airspeed, angle of attack, and altitude at the stall. Mentally note the airplane behavior at the
stall and initiate recovery control inputs and configuration changes.
E. The Recovery. Follow the predetermined recovery procedure and effect

recovery. Qualitatively evaluate recovery characteristics. Call out final recovery altitude
and actuate the event marker if utilized. The automatic recording devices should be
deactivated when convenient.
F. The Situation Review. As the airplane is started toward the next stall test
point, the pilot should record at least the following cockpit data from the last stall:
1. Stall warning speed and angle of attack
2. Type and adequacy of stall warning
3. Stall speed and angle of attack
4. Stall characteristics
2.36
STALLS
5. Recovery characteristics
6. Altitude lost and airspeed buildup during recovery
2.3.2.6 ALTERNATE TECHNIQUE FOR ACCELERATED STALL

INVESTIGATIONS
It is recommended that initial accelerated stall tests be performed utilizing the
constant normal acceleration technique described above; this technique allows a gradual
build-up to accelerated stalls at high levels of normal acceleration. After experience is
gained in the accelerated stall characteristics of the airplane, the wind-up turn or constant
airspeed technique may be utilized; this technique is more expeditious and somewhat
simulates inadvertent stalls in operational use. The technique merely involves gradually
increasing angle of attack or normal acceleration at constant airspeed or Mach number in a
wind-up turn until the airplane stalls. The difference between the angle of attack or normal
acceleration at stall warning onset and at stall is an additional measure of the adequacy of
the stall warning.
2.3.2.7 SIMULATED INADVERTENT STALLS

If the results of the controlled stall investigation indicate that inadvertent stalls will
produce no dangerous flight conditions, simulated inadvertent stalls should be investigated
from entry conditions which could result from various operational procedures. These entry
conditions will generally involve more rapid deceleration rates during normal stalls and
more rapid increases in normal acceleration during accelerated stalls.
The mission tasks most likely to result in inadvertent stalls should be used as entry
conditions. These mission tasks may be those required in air combat maneuvering,
gunnery exercises, missile attacks and reattacks, and conventional and nuclear weapons
deliveries. Other tasks peculiar to take-off and approach conditions must also be used as
entry conditions; these may include simulated catapult launches, field take-offs, wave-offs,
or bolters, and field or carrier approaches. Of course, the mission tasks will vary widely
in all test programs; these are presented as examples for illustration. No matter what tasks
are selected, all stalls should be performed at a safe altitude (at least 10,000 feet).
2.37
By performing simulated inadvertent stalls under conditions representative of

operational procedure, more complete knowledge is gained of the adequacy of stall
warning, the characteristics of the actual stall, and the ease of recovery from the stall. No
rigorous stall investigation would be complete without this type of evaluation.
2.3.3 Postflight Procedures

As soon as possible after returning from the flight, the test pilot should write a
brief, rough qualitative report of the airplane behavior in the region of the stall. This report
should be written while the events of the flight are fresh in his mind. The qualitative
opinion will be the most important part of the final report of the stall characteristics.
Appropriate data should be selected to substantiate the pilot's opinion. If automatic

recording devices have been utilized, stall time histories will be presented in the stall report.
The time histories should be of particularly well flown stalls, or of stalls during which
some unusual characteristics were observed. Examples of stall time histories are presented
earlier in this section (Figure 2.10 and 2.11). Stall data also may be effectively presented
in tabular form. An example is presented in Figure 2.16.
2.38
STALLS
Longitudinal
Cont. Forces ALT. LOST
TRIM CG ALT IAS VW AOA Nz (LBS) IN
CONF RECOVERY
(%MAG)
VS (FT)
M IAS (FT) Warn Stall Warn Stall Warn Stall Warn Stall
Figure 2.16
Typical Stall Data Table
2.4 SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Requirements for stall characteristics are contained in Section 3.4.2 of Military
Specification MIL-F-8785C of 5 November 1980, hereafter referred to as the Specification.
The requirements of Section 3.4.2 may be modified by the applicable airplane Detail
Specification. Comments concerning individual paragraphs are presented below.
3.4.2 Flight at High Angles of Attack. The requirements of 3.4.2 through

3.4.2.2 are intended to assure safety and the absence of any compromise in
the performance of any mission task due to stall warning, stall, and stall
recovery characteristics.
3.4.2.1 Stalls. The stall may be defined by either airflow separation with
increasing angle of attack causing loss of lift, control difficulty, or
excessive buffet/vibration (see 6.2.2 and 6.2.5) or by a minimum
2.39
permissible airspeed for safe execution of a specific mission task

(see 3.1.9.2.1). The maximum obtainable angle of attack may be
control limited; i.e., full aft stick applied, in which case the
maximum obtainable angle of attack defines the stall (see 6.2.5 a).
The stall may be defined in terms of airspeed or angle of attack,
but the definition must clearly state which of the above conditions
exist.
3.4.2.1.1 Stall Approach. For normal stalls, deceleration rates of

up to 1 knot per second should be used to determine
compliance with the Specification requirements. For
accelerated stalls, the approach rate should be a
function of angle of attack rather than airspeed. Rates
of increase of wing incidence angle of attack of 2
degrees per second or less should be used to determine
Specification compliance. For both normal and
accelerated stalls, greater deceleration or angle of attack
rates could be utilized during simulated inadvertent
stalls under conditions representative of operational
procedures.
3.4.2.1.1.2 Warning Range for Accelerated

Stalls. Conflict could arise here
between the defined Operational
Flight Envelope and the minimum
angle of attack values at which onset
of stall warning is permitted. For
TPS purposes, this requirement will
be considered met if onset of stall
warning occurs within the angle of
attack limits stated.
2.40
STALLS
The value of o may be determined in flight by recording over a range of normal

load factors from -1 to +3g and plotting the results. The intercept of the curve with
the axis at zero load factor gives o . In most cases, oscillograph data will be
required to obtain accurate results. Ships service AOA gauges will probably give a
fair approximation but may contain nonlinearities.
3.4.2.1.3 Stall Prevention and Recovery. The requirement here

which needs particular attention is that stall recovery
technique shall be simple and easy to apply and that
there shall be no excessive altitude loss.
3.4.2.2 Post-Stall Gyrations and Spins
3.4.2.2.1 Resistance of Loss of Control
3.4.2.2.2 Recovery from Post-Stall Gyrations and Spins. Tests

to determine compliance with these requirements will
only be conducted at TPS if specifically briefed. Tests
of this nature require a cautious and progressive
approach which is time-consuming and requires special
safety precautions. An indication of the probability of
meeting the intent of these requirements may possibly
be obtained without investigating the entries and
control applications specified.
2.5 GLOSSARY
Camber The curvature of the mean line of an airfoil section from
leading edge to trailing edge.
Thickness Ratio The ratio of the maximum thickness of an airfoil section to

its chord length.
Autorotation Uncontrolled rolling or rotating, as in a spin.
Aspect Ratio The ratio of the span of the wing to the mean chord.
2.41
Taper A gradual reduction in chord length from wing root to wing

tip.
Deep Stall A flight condition in which the airplane has attained an angle
of attack far higher than the angle of maximum lift
coefficient.
Slat Any of certain long narrow vanes or auxiliary airfoils. The

vane used in an automatic slot.
Slot A long and narrow opening, as between a wing and a

deflected Fowler flap. A long and narrow spanwise passage
in a wing, usually near the leading edge, for improvement of
airflow conditions at high angles of attack.
Endplate A plate or surface at the end of an airfoil attached in a plane

normal to the airfoil that inhibits the formation of tip vortex,
thus producing an effect similar to that of increased aspect
ratio.
Reynolds Number A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the

momentum forces to the viscous forces about a body in
motion. Reynolds number decreases with increase in
altitude and increases with increase in true velocity, if the
dimensions of the body remain constant.
Post-Stall Gyrations Random oscillations of the airplane about all axes following
departure from controlled flight.
Shock Stall A stall brought on by compressibility burble; i.e., by

separation aft of a shock wave.
2.42
STALLS
2.6 REFERENCES
1. Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development, Conference

Proceedings No. 17, Stability and Control, September 1966.
2. Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development, Flight Test

Manual, Volume II, Stability and Control, by Courtland D. Perfins, Professor,
Aeronautical Engineering Department, Princeton University.
3. Flight Testing of Aircraft, by M.G. Kotick, et al., NASA Technical

Translation F-442, April 1967.
4. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Techniques, Empire Test Pilots'

School, Flying Department Notes.
5. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-8785C,

of 5 November 1980.
6. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Aeronautical Dictionary, by

Frank D. Adams, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, 1959.
7. A Piloted Simulation Study of Operational Aspects of the Stall Pitch-Up, by

Maurice D. White and George E. Cooper, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field,
California, NASA Technical Note D-4071, July 1967.
8. Principles of Aerodynamics, by James H. Dwinnell, Boeing Airplane

Company, Seattle, Washington. Publisher: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, New York, 1949.
9. A Review of the Stall Characteristics of Swept Wings, by Charles W.

Harper and Ralph L. Maki, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, NASA
Technical Note D-2373, July 1964.
2.43
10. Stability and Control, Empire Test Pilots' School Ground School Notes,
Book C.
11. Stability and Control, USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, Edwards
Air Force Base, California, AFFTC-TIH-77-1, revised February 1977.
12. Supersonic and Subsonic Airplane Design, by Gerald Corning, Professor,

Aeronautical Engineering Department, University of Maryland. Publisher: Edwards
Brothers, inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1953.
13. Zero Rate of Climb Speed as a Low Speed Limitation for the Stall-Free
Aircraft, by W.J.G. Pinsker, British Ministry of Technology Current Paper No. 931, May
1966.
2.44
CHAPTER THREE
SPINS
PAGE
3.2 THEORY 3.1

3.2.1 General 3.1
3.2.2 Stalls 3.2
3.2.3 Post-Stall Gyrations 3.2
3.2.4 Spin Definition 3.3
3.2.5 Factors Causing Spins 3.3

3.3.1 Preliminary Data 3.6
3.3.2 Test Instrumentation 3.6
3.3.3 Chase Plane Requirements 3.9
3.3.4 Anti-Spin Devices 3.9
3.3.5 Spin Flight Testing 3.9
3.3.6 Miscellaneous Tests 3.11
3.3.6.1 Power Effects and Engine Operation 3.11
3.3.6.2 Configuration Changes and Nonoptimum Recoveries 3.12
3.3.6.3 Degraded Systems Operations 3.12
3.3.7 Required Data 3.12
3.3.8 Safety Considerations/Risk Management in Spin Programs 3.13
3.4 THE INVERTED SPIN 3.14

3.4.1 Introduction 3.14
3.4.2 Inverted Spin Entry Techniques 3.16
3.4.2.1 Conventional Entry 3.16
3.4.2.2 Roll Coupling Entry 3.17
3.5 REFERENCES 3.19
3.i
3.6 PILOT CHECKLIST OF SIGNIFICANT SPIN DATA 3.19
3.ii
SPINS
CHAPTER THREE
FIGURES
PAGE
3.1 Typical Lift Slope Curve 3.4
3.2 Balance of Aerodynamic and Inertia Pitching Moments in a Spin 3.4
3.3 Typical Test Instrumentation 3.8
3.4 Airflow Disturbance in Erect/Inverted Spins 3.17
3.iii
CHAPTER THREE
SPINS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to obtain the maximum capability from tactical airplanes, it is necessary to
fly them near the limit of their flight envelopes. This includes lift boundaries, structural
limits, and minimum and maximum airspeed limits. This type of flying will often result in
inadvertent stalls and occasionally in inadvertent spins. If the tactical pilot has confidence
in his capability to successfully recover from any uncontrolled flight maneuver which may
be inadvertently entered, he will not hesitate to fly the airplane near the limits of its flight
envelope. If, however, the pilot does not have this confidence, and does not know
whether or not he can recover his airplane from a spin, he will probably allow himself a
greater margin of safety and not fly his airplane to the extreme edges of the tactical
envelope. On the other hand, any airplane which cannot be consistently recovered from a
spin or a departure after an accelerated stall will also not be flown to its utmost tactical
advantage. In both cases, a significant and extremely important portion of the airplane's
tactical capability will be negated. It is of primary importance, therefore, that all U.S.
Navy tactical and training airplanes be evaluated by Navy pilots in comprehensive spin
programs. In this manner, spin recovery techniques and optimum spin avoidance
maneuvers can be determined, thus providing the fleet pilot with the information he needs
to gain confidence in his airplane's tactical capabilities. Even if an airplane is never cleared
for intentional spins, the results of a good spin investigation will provide important data to
the fleet and to flight handbooks which will show tactical pilots that the airplane has been
spun and recovered successfully.
3.2 THEORY
3.2.1 General
There is probably no other aerodynamic maneuver about which exists more
misinformation and confusion than the spin. While the interaction of aerodynamic and
inertia forces in a spin involves long and complex equations of motion, the factors which
3.1
cause spins are in themselves relatively simple. It would be well at the start of this
discussion to dispel any confusion by defining clearly those terms which will be used in
this discussion of stalls and spins.
3.2.2 Stalls
An aerodynamic stall is defined as a condition in which the wing attains an angle of
attack greater than the angle of attack for maximum lift, resulting in a loss of lift and an
increase in drag. Stalls may be either erect, inverted, normal, or accelerated. For purposes
of this discussion, normal erect stalls are those stalls entered in positive angle of attack
flight at a load factor of one g or less by decreasing airspeed (including both slow and rapid
deceleration). Normal inverted stalls are similar with the exception that the angle of attack
and load factor have negative values. Erect accelerated stalls are those stalls entered at load
factors greater than 1.0 g and inverted accelerated stalls are those entered at less than -1.0
g. Inverted accelerated stalls are rarely seen due to difficulties in pilot technique, pilot
discomfort, and control effectiveness limitations which usually restrict or prevent these
maneuvers.
3.2.3 Post-Stall Gyrations

Post-stall gyrations are maneuvers entered after stalls which are different from
spins. These gyrations are often extremely violent and result in random pitch, roll, and
yaw oscillations. In many cases, the characteristics of post-stall gyrations are determined
by the steady state spin speed of an airplane. The steady state spin speed is that speed
attained by the airplane in a steady state spin (defined below). Post-stall gyrations which
occur at airspeeds faster than steady state spin speeds are those which normally occur after
accelerated stalls. In these entries, the post-stall gyrations acts to dissipate the kinetic
energy prior to the airplane entering an incipient spin. Post-stall gyrations occurring below
steady state spin speeds are normally associated with nose high, low airspeed conditions
during which inertia forces become more powerful than aerodynamic forces. Low speed
post-stall gyrations are usually more unpredictable and cause the pilot the most concern due
to the fact that his aerodynamic controls are less powerful than the inertia forces acting on
the airplane. Erratic angle of attack and random, unpredictable airplane motion are the most
pronounced characteristics of a post-stall gyration.
3.2
SPINS
3.2.4 Spin Definition

The spin is a maneuver during which the airplane descends rapidly toward the earth
in a helical movement about a vertical axis (called the spin axis) at an angle of attack
between the stall and 90 degrees. The steady state spin is always characterized by
autorotation (defined below). Spins are of two distinct types, erect and inverted. Erect
spins differ from inverted spins in the sign of the angle of attack and load factor; that is, in
an erect spin, there is a positive angle of attack and load factor, whereas in an inverted spin,
there is a negative angle of attack and negative load factor.
Each spin is divided into two phases; incipient and steady state. The incipient phase
of the spin is that portion of a spin occurring after post-stall gyrations, if any, have ceased
and the airplane commences a spin-like motion; however, the aerodynamic and inertia
forces have not yet achieved a balance. In a steady state, or fully developed spin, the
aerodynamic and inertia forces have reached a balance. The pitch attitude, angle of attack,
vertical velocity, and yaw rate reach constant, average values, or changes in any of these
parameters are uniformly repetitive. Some airplanes never reach true steady state or fully
developed spins, but attain only partially developed spins. The difference is that in the
partially developed spins, stabilization is lacked in one of the parameters listed above. For
example, pitch attitude or yaw rate might fluctuate in a random, nonrepetitive fashion.
3.2.5 Factors Causing Spins

Spins are caused by a combination of two primary factors: exceeding stall angle of
attack and sideslip. These two factors result in a phenomena known as autorotation.
Autorotation is defined as rotation which occurs without lateral control input. It is a result
of unequal angle of attack distribution between the wings of the airplane. Figure 3.1
shows a lift coefficient (C L ) angle of attack ( ) curve for a typical airplane.
At angles of attack lower than the stall (Point A), any change in angle of attack
between the wings due to sideslip tends to raise the lower wing. This is called dihedral
effect or lateral stability. Once the stall angle of attack is exceeded (Point B), any sideslip
which induces an apparent change in angle of attack between the wings results in the
opposite restoring moments and causes the airplane to rotate in the direction of the low
wing. This rotation in turn increases the angle of attack difference between the two wings
and the maneuver becomes self-sustaining. The drag on the downgoing wing also
becomes greater due to the increased angle of attack and in turn causes yawing moments in
3.3
the direction of rotation. The motions in roll, yaw, and pitch are opposed by, or coupled
with, inertia moments until eventually a balance of forces and equilibrium is achieved.
Figure 3.2 shows an example of this sort of aerodynamic and inertia balance.
Stall
Coefficient of Lift
B
A
CL
Angle of Attack

Figure 3.1
Typical Lift Slope Curve
Aerodynamic Moments Inertia Moments

Spin Spin
Axis Axis
Aerodynamic Inertia
Pitching Pitching
Moment Moment
Nose Down Nose Up
Airflow
Figure 3.2
Balance of Aerodynamic and Inertia
Pitching Moments in a Spin
3.4
SPINS
The airplane mass may be illustrated by fly balls or a series of weights. As this
series of weights rotate about the spin axis, a nose-up inertia pitching moment is caused.
This moment balances out the aerodynamic nose-down pitching moment. The other axes
of motion contain corresponding balances of aerodynamic and inertia moments. A
discussion of spin tunnel research on this subject is found in Reference 1.
It is important to realize that the airplane mass distribution has an extremely strong
effect on the spin and spin recovery characteristics. This mass distribution is normally
discussed in terms of the inertia yawing moment parameter, IYMP. This term is equal to
I x Iy mb 2 , I x and I y being the moments of inertia about the x and y body axis,
respectively; m, the mass of the airplane; and b, the wing span. Present trends in modern
aircraft usually result in large negative values of inertia yawing moment parameter (i.e.,
fuselage-heavy airplanes). This is the result of thin wings, high density jet engines, and
fuel cells in the fuselage of the airplane. Inertia yawing moment parameters will change
greatly in many airplanes by fuel consumption, addition or release of external stores, etc.,
The effects of mass distribution should be determined prior to actual spin testing and initial
tests should be performed in those loadings considered least critical from the inertia yawing
moment parameter standpoint. There may well be some loadings in which spin recovery
will be impossible. For example, spin recovery in the A-1 was impossible or unacceptable
with heavy wing loadings. However, recovery could be accomplished easily when wing
stores were jettisoned.
Sufficient spin tunnel data has been accumulated to show strong trends in the
capability of various control combinations to recover airplanes versus the magnitude of the
inertia yawing moment parameter. In general, airplanes with fuselage-heavy loadings will
require use of lateral, as well as directional and longitudinal control, for spin recovery. In
airplanes of this type, lateral control often becomes a more powerful spin recovery control
than the rudder. Additional information on this theory may be found in References 2
and 3.
3.5
3.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
3.3.1 Preliminary Data

Navy spin programs occur only after the contractor has demonstrated satisfactory
spin recovery characteristics of the particular airplane involved. During the spin
demonstrations, a wealth of important information is obtained which should be fully
exploited and utilized by the Navy test pilots. In addition, any areas which are not clear or
need further amplification should be discussed with the contractor pilot who flew the spin
demonstration. A great deal of information is obtained in spin tunnel evaluations which are
performed on scale models of nearly all new airplanes prior to the contractor's spin work.
The spin tunnel reports are available to the project pilot and should be studied thoroughly.
It is extremely important for the project pilot to pay particular attention to any
changes that are made to the test airplane configuration between the demonstration by the
contractor and the Navy spin evaluation. Changes to the demonstration configuration are
often made as a result of deficiencies found during NPE and BIS trials. These changes
may appear to be entirely unrelated to the spin evaluation but may nevertheless seriously
affect the airplane spin characteristics. If, in the opinion of the project pilot, these changes
are significant, the contractor should be required to conduct additional spin demonstrations
in the most recent configuration. Examples of these may be changes in canopy design,
speed brake extension limits, addition of various stores, modification of high lift devices,
revision of CG limits, and other obvious changes which would affect the stability and mass
distribution of the airplane. Unless the project pilot is positive that the changes are
inconsequential, additional demonstrations in the modified configurations should be
required.
3.3.2 Test Instrumentation

Having a properly instrumented airplane is of maximum importance in spin testing
due to the rapidity with which parameters change. External and internal photography will
also be extremely useful in both analyzing the spin characteristics and in subsequent
training of squadron pilots.
3.6
SPINS
Primary internal instrumentation may include magnetic tape, oscillograph, and

photopanel. Pertinent parameters include control positions and forces, angle of attack,
sideslip, airplane attitudes, rates, and so one. One unique parameter for spin tests is turn
count or azimuth angle. Measurement of this parameter requires installation of a turn count
gyro or photoelectric cell. A list of typical spin test instrumentation parameters is presented
in Figure 3.3.
The test airplane cockpit should be instrumented to provide the pilot with controls
for activation of data records and primary and secondary emergency antispin device
actuation. In addition, there are several devices which may be installed to provide the pilot
with orientation cues and warning signals. These devices include oversized, centered, turn
needle (or roll and yaw lights), single pointer altimeter (such as a glare shield mounted
cabin pressure altimeter hooked to the regular static source), low altitude warning lights and
aural warnings, and direct readouts of any parameters considered critical. The pilot should
be provided with a kneeboard or cockpit mounted tape recorder or telemetry voice recorder
channel. The recording device permits the pilot to make a running commentary of the spin
as it progresses through its various phases. Because so much is happening in a short
period of time, the pilot is not usually able to write down all his observations and
comments. The recorder is particularly valuable for mission suitability observations.
Internal motion picture or pilot's-eye cameras and externally mounted cameras

should record the relative motion of the outside world. These films are useful in
reconstructing airplane motions and the relative violence of the maneuvers in the cockpit.
External instrumentation usually includes telemetry, photo theodolite, and chase

plane film/TV coverage. Real-time telemetry will permit a project engineer to monitor
various critical parameters such as angle of attack, engine operation, altitude, turn direction,
control position, etc. A ground-based safety pilot may usefully be employed in the
telemetry receiving station, linked to the test pilot by duplex (two-way) continuous voice
radio communications.
Motion picture films are, of course, very useful in showing the real life sequence of
the spin and provide the capability of slow motion analysis of airplane motions. The films
may subsequently be used along with cockpit films for spin training films and other
presentations.
3.7
Quantities Measured
Mag Tape/ Photo Pilots
Oscillograph Panel Panel
Film Frame Counter X X X
Oscillograph Burst Counter X X X
Pilot Signal X X
Running Time X
Longitudinal Stick Force X
Lateral Stick Force X
Left and Right Rudder Pedal Force X
Longitudinal Stick Position X
Lateral Stick Position X
Rudder Pedal Position X
Left Elevator Position X
Left Aileron Position X
Rudder Position X
Left and Right Elevator
Trim Tab Positions X
Rudder Trim Tab Position X
Normal Acceleration X
Pilots Seat Acceleration X
Angle of Attack X
Angle of Pitch X
Angle of Bank X
Angle of Sideslip X
Rate of Pitch X
Rate of Roll X
Rate of Yaw X
Spin Turn Count X
Left and Right Engine Oil Pressure X
Left and Right Engine Fuel Used X X
Noseboom Airspeed X X
Noseboom Altitude X X
Production Airspeed X
Production Altitude X
Critical Structural Loads X
Figure 3.3
Typical Test Instrumentation
3.8
SPINS
3.3.3 Chase Plane Requirements

A chase plane is mandatory on all spin flights in a Navy spin program.
Consideration should be given to assure that the chase plane is compatible with the test
airplane. Using a chase airplane that has large disparities in performance with the test
airplane can result in unnecessary flight delays waiting for the chase plane to get in
position. On the other hand, a chase airplane with inferior low speed handling qualities (to
the test airplane) may result in inability to closely monitor the test airplane in slow speed
flight and in the spin. The chase pilot is used to maintain surveillance of the test area, count
spin turns, and act as a safety backup by monitoring altitude and inspecting the test airplane
at frequent intervals for any external signs of damage or stress.
3.3.4 Anti-Spin Devices

Each airplane to be utilized in a Navy spin program must be fitted with an
appropriate anti-spin device. This is an emergency device utilized by the pilot when
aerodynamic controls are ineffective in recovering the airplane from the spin. Most
commonly used is an anti-spin parachute which is deployed behind the airplane to slow the
yaw rate, lower angle of attack, and thereby recover from the spin. Anti-spin parachutes
are of many types and sizes and the requirements for a particular chute are usually predicted
on spin tunnel research. Chutes may be deployed and opened ballistically in certain cases.
Other devices utilized are anti-spin rockets which can be used either as anti-yaw devices or
as pitch devices to lower the angle of attack and subsequently stop a spin. Another
possible consideration is use of vectored thrust as a method of lowering angle of attack and
breaking a spin. In any event, the anti-spin device decided upon should be demonstrated
by the contractor during the spin demonstration. The device should be tested on the ground
in flight prior to the commencement of the spin tests.
3.3.5 Spin Flight Testing

The evaluation of deep normal and accelerated stall characteristics should be the
start of the spin program. In some cases, this will be the initial Navy evaluation of deep
stalls. This will occur whenever an initial investigation of stall characteristics indicates that
the airplane has strong pro-spin tendencies in deep stall penetrations. In any spin program,
however, the buildup program for the spins should start with a thorough investigation of
deep stall characteristics. It is important for the test pilot to remember that various criteria
other than the actual aerodynamic stall may have been used in previous evaluations to
define stall speeds. In these cases, the criterion will be some limiting factor based on the
3.9
flying qualities, performance stall speeds, or carrier suitability minimum usable speeds. It
is quite possible that true aerodynamic stalls may not have been fully investigated in
previous tests. The deep stall penetrations should, therefore, proceed in a logical buildup
sequence starting with normal stalls at high altitude using low power settings.
It is important to keep the power settings low initially so that the nose of the
airplane will be as low as possible at the stall. Thus, when the airplane stalls, the best
possible conditions for regaining flying speed will exist because the nose will already be
low. The pilot should build up to full control deflection in the stall with both lateral and
directional controls. In many cases, these large control inputs will induce post-stall
gyrations or incipient phase spins. The gyrations and spins produced in this fashion
should not be permitted to build up to steady state conditions but should be recovered from
immediately.
The incipient phase spin testing should be commenced from one g, power off stalls,
in the loading which has been predicted to be the least critical insofar as center of gravity
and IYMP are concerned. Intentional spins are usually entered by application of full pro-
spin control deflections at or after the stall. Specific entry procedures are described in the
military spin specification, Reference 4. Entries and types of spins may be modified by the
detail specification for the airplane. It is important to emphasize that the majority of testing
should be concerned with recovering from post-stall gyrations and the incipient phase spin
characteristics. These regions of uncontrolled flight are those which the fleet pilot will see
most frequently in tactical use.
The test pilot should build up to steady state spins very slowly. A good schedule
for a buildup would be to initially look at spins for 1/2 turn, 1 turn, 1 1/2 turns, and so on,
until steady state spins have been attained. Once the steady state spin has been attained and
the pilot has ascertained that he can recover consistently from the spin, the evaluation
should proceed to investigate the variables of configuration and control changes. Included
here are the effects of control positions and configuration variations such as speed brakes,
power, and flaps - both in the spin and for recovery. Since lateral control position may be
a powerful variant, the inputs should be made in an incremental buildup.
3.10
SPINS
After a thorough and complete one g entry evaluation in the least critical loading, the
evaluation should move on to entries from accelerated stalls, then into vertical entries. A
gradual buildup in load factor and pitch attitude, respectively, is again warranted.
Occasionally, inverted spins may result from nose high entries. The pilot should be aware
of this. This point in the evaluation may, in fact, be the optimum place to evaluate inverted
spins. Following this buildup, tactical entries such as from high g reversals, improper
nose high recoveries, and improperly executed aerobatics should be investigated. Again,
the emphasis should be placed on defining the capability and requirements to recover the
airplane in post-stall gyrations and incipient phase maneuvers. Finally, the effects of inertia
coupling at low speeds should be investigated. These maneuvers will probably present the
most violent post-stall gyrations and often result in inverted spins even though erect pro-
spin controls are utilized. Low speed inertia coupled maneuvers are entered by applying
abrupt pro-spin control deflections during low speed rolling maneuvers.
Once the complete spectrum of entries, control positions, and tests have been
completed in the least critical loading, the data should be spot-checked in a buildup program
at the other loadings concentrating on normal service utilization. It is important to
remember that changing the external loading of the airplane may well change the spin and
spin recovery characteristics radically. A logical buildup for each new loading is again
warranted, especially in the area of asymmetric loads.
3.3.6 Miscellaneous Tests

A complete spin evaluation will require the investigation of several miscellaneous
areas. Some of these areas will be unique to only one airplane and the project pilot will be
required to use his imagination to insure that he has considered all logical conditions.
Some examples are discussed below.
3.3.6.1 POWER EFFECTS AND ENGINE OPERATION

Power effects may be negligible or extensive and engine operation may vary
drastically between various power settings. Pro and anti-spin asymmetric power should be
investigated on multiengine airplanes. Asymmetric power may be an aid or hindrance to
spin recovery. The various combinations of tests and possible ramifications should be
obvious. In many cases, high angle of attack and/or sideslip will cause erratic engine
performance, stalls, chugs, and flameouts.
3.11
3.3.6.2 CONFIGURATION CHANGES AND NONOPTIMUM

RECOVERIES
The project pilot should evaluate the effects of various configuration changes on
spin and recovery characteristics. Items here include effects of flaps, speed brakes, and so
on. Past experience has shown that actuation of these items may either prevent or produce
spin recovery. In many cases, they will have little or no effect. In any event, it is
important to know these effects and the evaluation should not overlook this important area
of investigation.
Nonoptimum recovery variations should also be investigated in detail. This will

assist in determining critical recovery parameters. Nonoptimum recovery variations include
utilizing less than full recovery control deflections, various combinations of recovery
controls, control releases, control neutralization, etc. The timing of anti-spin control
application should also be investigated. For example, application of steady state spin
recovery controls in a post-stall gyration or incipient phase spin may actually act as pro-
spin controls. These data are obviously of importance to the fleet pilot.
3.3.6.3 DEGRADED SYSTEMS OPERATIONS

Insofar as logical and feasible, the project pilot should investigate spin recoveries
under conditions of degraded systems operations. Loss of flight control boost, stability
augmentation, and so on, could produce significant variations in spin recovery capability.
Spin maneuvers may have side effects on systems operations and it is appropriate for the
project pilot to comment on the mission suitability aspects involved. Examples include
tumbling of attitude gyros, illumination of various warning lights, loss of fuel through
venting, adequacy of pilot restraint system, and so on.
3.3.7 Required Data

There is myriad of data pertinent to any spin program. These data are normally
presented in the report as time histories of various important rates, positions, control
deflections and forces, altitude, etc. Qualitative data presented by the pilot, however, are
the most important data presented. The description of how it feels in the cockpit, the ability
of the pilot to stay orientated in the spin recovery, and so on, are the most important
portions of the evaluation from the pilot's point of view. For example, use of angle of
attack for dive pull out following spin recovery may be extremely critical. If this is true, it
3.12
SPINS
is important for the project pilot to define the limitation in terms of cues available. Use of a
cockpit tape recorder with which the pilot can make a running commentary of his spin is
invaluable for this purpose. Nose position, turn needle position, altitude loss per turn, yaw
rate, various recovery techniques, and so one, can be discussed as they occur.
Occasionally, various engine parameters may not be instrumented and it will be important
for the pilot to observe engine operating characteristics during the spin. It is up to the
project pilot to insure that his important cockpit observations are not lost in a maze of
quantitative data. A pilot-oriented, qualitative assessment of the spin entry characteristics,
the spin characteristics, and the spin recovery characteristics must be foremost. A checklist
of some of the important data to obtain in spin testing is presented at the end of this section.
3.3.8 Safety Considerations/Risk Management in Spin

Programs
There is probably no other type of flight testing which requires a more
comprehensive and logical buildup program than spin evaluations. This buildup program
should begin by a complete pilot study of all previous spin data on the plane he will be
evaluating, as well as a look at earlier spin reports to observe and look for various problem
areas which occurred in these previous evaluations. The project pilot should provide
himself with several spin familiarization flights in airplanes cleared for intentional spins.
As stated earlier, prior to commencing a spin, it is necessary for the pilot to do stall
work which logically and reasonably proceeds in a planned buildup to a complete spin
evaluation of the airplane in the least critical loading. Following this initial series of tests,
additional loadings may be evaluated in a reasonable buildup program.
Prior to commencement of actual spin tests, the project pilot should devote some
flights to dive pull-out data at various airspeeds, angles of attack, and power settings with
and without speed brake. A dive pull-out table should then be prepared and utilized by the
project pilots. From this dive pull-out table, decision altitudes should be established.
Decision altitudes should include: altitude at which to stop other than optimum recovery
tests, altitude for anti-spin device deployment, ejection or bailout altitude. It is important
for the pilot to have these altitudes fixed firmly in his mind prior to doing any spin testing.
If a certain critical altitude is reached, the pilot will have a preplanned course of action to
follow and will not delay in making the proper decision as to emergency spin recovery
actuation or ejection, if necessary.
3.13
In many cases, unusual or erratic engine operation may occur during spin testing.
It is not unreasonable to expect this because of the extreme high angles of attack, high yaw
rates, and sideslip angles associated with spin flights. The pilot must, therefore, be very
familiar with procedures for clearing compressor stalls, airstarts, flame-out landing pattern,
etc. In some cases, it may be necessary to fit the airplane with some auxiliary power
devices. For example, an air driven ram air turbine for emergency electrical power may not
operate if deployed in a spin. Therefore, it may be necessary to install a battery to provide
for ignition, critical electrical demands, or possibly even run auxiliary hydraulic pumps to
provide adequate flight control. If the airplane is prone to engine flameouts in a spin, it
may be valuable to fit it with a continuous ignition circuit. In any event, these factors
should be considered. The pilot should practice flameout landing procedures, air starts,
and various forms of degraded systems flight. It is logical to assume, therefore, that the
spin testing should be done near a field to which an emergency or flameout landing can be
made quickly.
Use of the chase plane for data and safety purposes was discussed previously. It
also serves as a very important extra pair of eyes to maintain surveillance of the spin area
and warn the spin pilot of any possible intruders. Additionally, radar coverage may be
used to assist in keeping the area clear.
Finally, project pilots of spin airplanes should have a reasonable amount of time in
the test airplane prior to commencing any spin test.
3.4 THE INVERTED SPIN
3.4.1 Introduction
Inverted spins have always provided an interesting and frequently spectacular realm
of flight; however, it is also a realm of relative unfamiliarity to most pilots. It has been well
documented that spins cannot be prevented by a handbook entry that intentional spins are
prohibited. Also, inverted spins cannot be prevented by handbook entries that the
airplane resists inverted spins. Someone will always find a way to end up inverted in
uncontrolled flight. Because of this, spin testing, including inverted spins, will always
remain an important part of the tests programs for new tactical airplanes.
3.14
SPINS
The same general rules that apply for upright spins also apply when flight testing
inverted spins. However, a few other considerations should be taken into account. The
first area to consider is the disorientation that occurs to most pilots when initially exposed
to inverted spins. In some airplanes it may be difficult to tell whether the spin is upright or
inverted, particularly if significant pitch oscillations are superimposed on the spin (yaw)
motion. The direction of the spin may also be difficult to determine. Specifically, this may
be caused by the fact that the airplane rolls in the opposite direction from the spin; i.e., the
airplane rolls left when in a right inverted spin. In an erect spin, if the roll rate is not
oscillatory, the spin direction and roll direction are the same.
This problem of disorientation can be reduced or eliminated by several means. A

solid buildup program in a spin trainer is essential before spinning a new airplane. The
number of flights required to become acclimated to the spinning flight regime, and the
inverted regime in particular, will vary with the experience and ability of the test pilot. The
cockpit instrumentation of the tests airplane is also important and should include a turn or
turn rate indicator. This instrument is similar in function to the turn needle in the turn and
slip indicator. In every case, whether erect or inverted, the direction of the spin is indicated
by the turn needle. Additionally, the pilot should be able, after the proper buildup, to
determine the spin direction by the movement of the nose across the ground. The airplane
should also be equipped with an angle of attack indicator. In the standard Navy AOA
systems, the indicator will be pegged at zero during an inverted spin. In an upright spin,
the indicator will be pegged at 30 units. If the airplane is equipped with a flight test
sensitive angle of attack indicator, the readings will vary, depending upon the measurable
range of the system.
The standard pilot restraint systems in most Navy airplanes are totally inadequate in
the inverted flight/spin regimes. Additional means must be supplied to hold the pilot in the
seat during negative g flight conditions. Besides being uncomfortable when not properly
restrained, full rudder throw can be denied the pilot if he is not held in his seat and is
allowed to float to the top of the cockpit. The usual method to provide adequate restraint is
to install an additional lap belt or negative g strap which is attached either to the seat or to
the seat pan.
3.15
Under negative or zero g conditions, many aircraft systems become degraded or are
severely limited and this must be taken into account during inverted spin testing. Typically,
oil pressure on many jet engines goes to zero during inverted spins. In addition, most
airplanes have negative and zero g time limits due to the limited fuel tank capacity. During
violent maneuvers sometimes encountered during spins, gyros may tumble and present
misleading information to the pilot and the negative g structural limits of many airplanes can
be easily exceeded. These limitations should be taken into account and approached
cautiously through an appropriate buildup program.
3.4.2 Inverted Spin Entry Techniques
3.4.2.1 CONVENTIONAL ENTRY

The conventional method of entering an inverted spin consists of stalling the
airplane inverted and applying pro-spin controls. If the inverted stall cannot be achieved
due to inadequate elevator effectiveness, pro-spin controls are applied as the nose begins to
fall through with full forward stick. Pulsing the rudders back and forth during deceleration
may be somewhat effective in aggravating the yaw at spin entry. This conventional entry
involves primarily the use of aerodynamic forces to enter the spin, although some inertial
effects may also be present. In the case of the elevator-limited airplane, an inverted spiral
vice the inverted spin may result and some airplanes simply will not spin inverted using this
entry technique.
Recovery controls will vary for different airplanes but will always include full
rudder opposite to the spin direction (opposite to turn needle deflection). Unlike erect
spins in many of our current airplanes in which the rudder is only marginally effective in
spin recovery, the rudder in an inverted spin will (except possible for a few T-tail types) be
highly effective since it is in clean airflow; i.e., undisturbed by the wing, fuselage, and
horizontal tail. This is illustrated in Figure 3.4. However, this should not be
misinterpreted to infer that any airplane can be recovered from an inverted spin by use of
opposite rudder only. Anti-spin aileron is required in many high inertia types.
3.16
SPINS
Disturbed
Airflow
Undisturbed
Airflow
Erect Spins Inverted Spins
Airflow
Figure 3.4
Airflow Disturbance in Erect/Inverted Spins
3.4.2.2 ROLL COUPLING ENTRY

Some airplanes are elevator limited in inverted flight and attempts to spin them
inverted using conventional entry techniques often meet with failure; i.e., inverted spiral
vice the inverted spin. However, the same airplane might spin inverted very readily using a
rolling entry executed in a manner to take advantage of inertial coupling moments in pitch.
Use of inertia characteristics for spin recovery in high performance jet airplanes has
been commonplace for years. In fact, most supersonic and many subsonic airplanes will
not recover from a steady state spin unless recovery inertia moments are generated in yaw
to augment weak aerodynamic yawing moments produced by the rudder. It logically
follows that inertia coupling can be used for spin entry. For elevator-limited airplanes, the
desired coupling moment is usually in pitch to compensate for limited inverted flight
elevator effectiveness. The simplified equation of motion in pitch is:
M (I I x)
q = + pr z
Iy Iy ( )
3.17
Where:
q = pitch acceleration
p = roll rate
r = yaw rate
q = pitch rate
M = aerodynamic pitching moment
Ix = moment of inertia in roll
Iy = moment of inertia in pitch
Iz = moment of inertia in yaw
(I z I x)
(I y )
Analysis of the inertia term, pr , in the equation reveals that roll rate
opposite to yaw rate (opposite signs) produces a negative or nose down pitching moment
since I z I x is always positive. This pitching moment then is in the desired direction
for an inverted spin entry. Now it can readily be seen that if the spin is entered with some
roll momentum opposite to the direction of yaw, or spin direction, nose down (negative)
aerodynamic pitching moments, as viewed from the cockpit, are augmented with inertial
coupling effects.
It is important that the roll be made opposite to the direction of the intended spin;
i.e., right roll for a left spin and left roll for a right spin. Roll in the direction of spin will
have the opposite effect and produce pitching moments in the wrong direction.
The roll-coupled entry can be exaggerated by increasing the roll rate and creating as
much roll inertia as possible. This roll inertia will then be dissipated in the post-stall
gyrations. These post-stall gyrations may be quite mild or they can be totally spectacular
and include pitching, rolling, and yawing to such a degree as to be indescribable. Needless
3.18
SPINS
to say, a suitable buildup program must be accomplished prior to any roll-coupled entries.
If the controls are maintained in the pro-spin positions, the airplane will probably enter an
inverted spin; however, experience has shown that it also might enter an upright spin with
the same controls applied.
In summary, spin testing is one of the most interesting and challenging fields of test
flying. In order to safely and effectively accomplish the objectives of any spin program,
total preparation and a thorough understanding of the principles and test techniques
involved is a necessity.
3.5 REFERENCES
1. AGARD Flight Test Manual, Volume II, Chapter 8, Parts I and II.
2. MIL-S-25015(ASG), Military Specification; Spinning Requirements for

Airplanes.
3. NACA TN 1045, Tail-Design Requirements for Satisfactory Spin

Recovery, of April 1946.
4. NASA Langley Research Center Paper Airplane Spinning by James S.

Bowman.
5. NASA TR R-57, 1960, Status of Spin Research for Recent Airplane

Designs.
6. NASA TT F 422, Flight Testing of Aircraft, Chapter 9.
7. Spin Testing United States Navy High Performance Airplanes by John A.

Nial, NAWCAD Patuxent River, Maryland.
8. U. S. Air Force Flight Test Center Stability and Control Techniques,

Section 4.
3.19
3.6 PILOT CHECKLIST OF SIGNIFICANT SPIN DATA

I. Stall Characteristics
A. Normal Stalls
1. Stall warning
2. Configuration effects
3. Power effects
4. Angle of attack trends
5. Control effects
6. Deep penetration effects
7. Stall recovery (include optimum recovery)
B. Accelerated Stalls (as above)
C. Inverted Stalls (as above)
D. Validity of NATOPS Manual Stall Information
II. Post-Stall Gyrations
A. High Speed (Accelerated Stall) Entries

1. Description of maneuvers
2. Do maneuvers progress to incipient spins or are they
non-spin?
3. Pilot orientation
4. Recovery and avoidance maneuvers
III. Erect Spins
A. Entries
B. Incipient Phase
3.20
SPINS
1. Description
a. Turns (duration)
b. Yaw rates
c. Alt lost
d. Recovery
e. Orientation
f. Control forces, positions, and effectiveness
g. angle of attack and turn needle indications
2. Recovery from incipient phase

a. Recover by letting go?
b. Recover by neutralizing?
c. Optimum recovery
C. Steady State Phase

1. Data as above
D. Recovery Phase
1. Recovery Variations
a. Varying positions of longitudinal, lateral, and rudder
controls
b. Varying power and auxiliary aerodynamic devices
c. Optimum recovery procedure
(1) Critical recovery parameters (if any)
(2) Progressive stall/spin tendencies
d. Spin recovery capability under simulated IFR
conditions
IV. Inverted Spins
A. Data as for Erect Spins and Recoveries
3.21
V. Inertial Coupled Maneuvers
A. Susceptibility of Entering
B. Techniques for Entering
C. Recovery and Avoidance Procedures
VI. Spin Avoidance
A. In Normal Stalls
B. In Accelerated Stalls
C. Inverted
D. Nose High Attitudes
VII. Miscellaneous Parameters
A. Power Effects
B. Engine Operation
C. Configuration Effects
1. Speed brakes
2. Flaps
3. Slats
4. Spoilers
5. Etc.
D. Artificial Stabilizer or Damper Effects
E. Structural Integrity
3.22
SPINS
F. Pilot Restraint Provisions
G. Side Effects
1. On attitude gyro
2. On warning and caution systems
3. On radio/ICS fidelity
4. On fuel/vent system
3.23
CHAPTER FOUR
LONGITUDINAL FLYING QUALITIES
PAGE
4.2 THEORY - NONMANEUVERING TASKS 4.5
4.2.1 Static Longitudinal Stability and Control in Unaccelerated Flight 4.5

4.2.1.1 Stick-Fixed or Elevator-Fixed Longitudinal Stability 4.5
4.2.1.2 Longitudinal Control 4.11
4.2.1.3 Elevator Position Stability or Longitudinal Control
Position Stability 4.15
4.2.1.4 Stick-Free or Elevator-Free Longitudinal Stability 4.17
4.2.1.5 Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability - Reversible
Control System 4.18
4.2.1.6 Stick-Force or Longitudinal Control Force Stability 4.22
4.2.1.7 Minimizing Longitudinal Control Surface Float
in the Reversible Control System 4.26
4.2.1.8 Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability - Irreversible
Control System 4.28
4.2.1.9 Power Effects on Static Longitudinal Stability 4.30
4.2.2 Dynamic Longitudinal Stability and Control in Unaccelerated
Flight 4.32
4.2.2.1 Origin of the Phugoid Mode of Longitudinal Motion 4.35
4.2.2.2 Characteristics of the Phugoid Mode 4.38
4.2.2.3 Additional Parameters Affecting the Phugoid Mode
of Motion 4.39
4.2.3 Longitudinal Control System Influence on Longitudinal Flying
Qualities During Nonmanuevering Tasks 4.46
4.2.3.1 Gadgetry Used in Both Reversible and Irreversible
Longitudinal Control Systems 4.46
4.2.3.2 Gadgetry Used Only in Reversible Longitudinal
Control Systems 4.48
4.i
4.2.3.3 Gadgetry Used Only in Irreversible Longitudinal

Control Systems 4.50
4.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES - NONMANUEVERING

TASKS 4.51
4.3.2.1 The Qualitative Phase of the Evaluation 4.54
4.3.2.2 Measurement of the Mechanical Characteristics
of the Longitudinal Control System 4.55
4.3.2.2.1 Breakout Forces, Including Friction 4.55
4.3.2.2.2 Freeplay 4.59
4.3.2.2.3 Centering 4.60
4.3.2.2.4 Control System Oscillations 4.60
4.3.2.3 Measurement of Longitudinal Control Force Stability,
Elevator Position Stability, and Flight Path Stability 4.61
4.3.2.4 Measurement of Long Period or Phugoid

4.3.2.5 Measurement of Longitudinal Trimmability 4.68
4.3.3.1 Mechanical Characteristics of the Longitudinal
Control System 4.70
4.3.3.2 Static Longitudinal Stability Characteristics 4.71
4.3.3.3 Dynamic Longitudinal Stability Characteristics -
Long Period Oscillations 4.74
4.3.3.4 Longitudinal Trimmability 4.76
4.3.3.5 Determination of the Elevator Position
and Longitudinal Control Force Neutral Points 4.76
4.5 NONMANUEVERING TASKS - GLOSSARY 4.81

4.5.1 Terms 4.81
4.ii
4.6 NONMANUEVERING TASKS - REFERENCES 4.83
4.7 THEORY - MANEUVERING TASKS 4.85

4.7.1 Static Longitudinal Stability and Control in Accelerated Flight 4.85
4.7.1.1 Steady Pull-Ups 4.86
4.7.1.2 Elevator Position Maneuvering Longitudinal Stability 4.88
4.7.1.3 Longitudinal Control Force Maneuvering Stability 4.97
4.7.1.4 Stick Forces in Maneuvering Flight - Reversible
Control System 4.97
4.7.1.5 Stick Forces in Maneuvering Flight - Irreversible
Control System 4.105
4.7.1.6 Effects of Compressibility on Maneuvering Stability 4.107
4.7.1.7 Effects of Longitudinal Control System Gadgetry
on Control Forces in Maneuvering Flight 4.108
4.7.1.8 Effects of Rapid Maneuvers on Maneuvering
Stability 4.110
4.7.2 Dynamic Longitudinal Stability and Control as Related
to Maneuvering Tasks 4.115
4.7.2.1 Origin of the Short Period Mode of Longitudinal
Motion 4.116
4.7.2.2 Characteristics of the Short Period Mode 4.121
4.7.2.3 Effects of Various Parameters on Short Period
Mode of Motion 4.122
4.8 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES-MANEUVERING TASKS 4.126

of the Longitudinal Control System 4.131
4.8.2.2.1 Breakout Forces Including Friction 4.131
4.8.2.2.2 Freeplay 4.133
4.8.2.2.3 Centering 4.133
4.8.2.2.5 Measurement of Longitudinal
Maneuvering Stability 4.133
4.iii
4.8.2.2.6 Stick Force per g 4.134

4.8.2.2.7 Transient Control Forces 4.136
4.8.2.2.8 Elevator Position per g 4.137
4.8.2.2.9 Stick Position per g 4.137
4.8.2.2.10 Steady Pull-Ups 4.138
4.8.2.2.11 Steady Pushovers 4.140
4.8.2.2.12 Steady Turns 4.140
4.8.2.2.13 Wind-Up Turns 4.143
4.8.2.2.14 Sinusoidal Stick Pumping, Out of Trim
Releases and Sudden Pull-Ups 4.143
4.8.2.3 Measurement of Longitudinal Short Period
4.8.2.3.1 Short Period Frequency 4.146
4.8.2.3.2 Short Period Damping 4.149
4.8.2.3.3 The Short Period Thumbprint 4.150
4.8.2.3.4 Residual Oscillation 4.152
4.8.2.3.5 Additional Short Period Criteria 4.152
4.8.2.3.6 The Doublet, Pulse and 2g Pull-Ups 4.156
4.8.3 Pilot-Induced Oscillations 4.160
4.8.4.1 Mechanical Characteristics of the Longitudinal
4.8.4.2 Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Characteristics 4.163
4.8.4.3 Airplane Short Period Characteristics 4.170
4.8.4.4 Pilot-Induced Oscillations 4.173
4.10 MANEUVERING TASKS - GLOSSARY 4.175
4.11 MANEUVERING TASKS - REFERENCES 4.176
4.iv
4.12 MISCELLANEOUS LONGITUDINAL TESTS 4.179

4.12.2 Longitudinal Trim Changes 4.179
4.12.3 Longitudinal Trimming Device Irreversibility 4.181
4.12.4 Ground Effect Hold-Off 4.181
4.12.4.1 Method of Test 4.183
4.12.4.2 Alternate Method of Test (Geometry Limited) 4.183
4.12.5 Nosewheel Touchdowns 4.184
4.12.6 Nosewheel Lift-Off 4.184
4.12.7 Thrustline Level 4.187
4.12.8 Speed Brake Effectiveness 4.188
4.12.9 Longitudinal Control Forces in Dives 4.188
4.12.10 Longitudinal Trim System Effectiveness and Failures 4.189
4.v
CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURES
PAGE
4.1 Airplane Axis System and Plane of Symmetry 4.1
4.2 Relationship of Wing and Tail Angles of Attack 4.7
4.3 Classical Longitudinal Stability Relationships 4.8
4.4 Relationship of Wing Aerodynamic Center to Airplane Center of Gravity 4.9
4.5 Center of Gravity Effects on Static Longitudinal Stability 4.10
4.6 Typical Variations of C mCG Versus C L 4.12
4.7 Classical Variation of C mCG Versus C L for Various Elevator Angles 4.15
4.8 Elevator Position for Zero Pitching Moment Versus Airplane Lift Coefficient 4.16
4.9 Classical CG Effects on Elevator Position Stability 4.17
4.10 Hinge Moment Variation with Angle of Attack 4.19
4.11 Hinge Moment Variation with Control Deflection 4.19
4.12 Effect of Elevator Float on Stabilizing Influence of Horizontal Tail 4.21
4.13 Typical Reduction of Static Longitudinal Stability Due to Freeing Elevator 4.22
4.14 Stick-Fixed and Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability 4.23
4.15 Generation of Longitudinal Control Forces - Reversible Control System 4.24
4.16 Classical CG Effects on Longitudinal Control Force Stability 4.26
4.17 Methods of Aerodynamic Balance 4.27
4.18 Typical Means of Providing Artificial Longitudinal Control Force Stability 4.29
4.19 Devices in the Irreversible Control System Can Provide Longitudinal
Control Force Stability Even When Elevator Position Instability Exists 4.29
4.20 Forces Created by the Running Propeller 4.30
4.21 Forces Created by the Jet Engine 4.32
4.22 Typical Airplane Response to Longitudinal Control Input 4.33
4.23 The Longitudinal Determinant 4.34
4.24 Typical Phugoid Flight Path (Stationary Viewing Point) 4.38
4.25 Typical Phugoid Motion (Moving Viewing Point) 4.39
4.vi
FIGURES
PAGE
4.26 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Phugoid and Short Period Modes
of Motion 4.40
4.27 Effect of Aft CG Movement on Phugoid Mode 4.41
4.28 Degeneration of Phugoid Mode into Aperiodic Modes 4.42
4.29 Generation of the Third Longitudinal Oscillatory Mode 4.43
4.30 Effect of Increasing Angle of Attack Stability, M 4.44
4.31 Influence of Reducing Speed Stability, M u 4.45
4.32 Possible Effect of Increasing Speed Stability, M u 4.46
4.33 Simple Spring Arrangement and Influence on Static Longitudinal Stability
4.34 Pre-Loaded Downspring Arrangement and Influence on Static Longitudinal
Stability Characteristics 4.47
4.35 Bobweight Arrangement and Influence on Static Longitudinal Stability
4.36 Blow-Down Tab Arrangement and Effect on Static Longitudinal Stability
4.37 Leading and Lagging Tabs 4.49
4.38 Longitudinal Servo Tab Arrangement 4.49
4.39 Pre-Loaded Spring Tab Arrangement 4.50
4.40 Irreversible Longitudinal Control System with Extendable Link 4.50
4.41 Extendable Link Can Provide Artificial Control Force Stability 4.51
4.42 Longitudinal Stability and Control Record for Non-Maneuvering Tasks 4.53
4.43 Longitudinal Control Friction Masking Control Force Stability 4.56
4.44 Addition of Breakout Force to the Longitudinal Control System 4.57
4.45 Poor Matching of Static Longitudinal Stability and Breakout Forces 4.57
4.46 Use of Automatic Recording Trace for Determination of Longitudinal
Breakout Forces, Including Friction 4.59
4.47 Means of Presenting Flight Path Stability Data 4.62
4.48 Flight Path Stability Data in Configuration PA 4.63
4.49 Typical Longitudinal Control Force Stability Data from a Slow
Acceleration - Deceleration 4.65
4.50 The Trim Speed Band 4.70
4.vii
FIGURES
PAGE
4.51 Suggested Table for Presenting Control System Mechanical Characteristics 4.71
4.52 Longitudinal Control Surface Damping Presentation 4.71
4.53 Static Longitudinal Stability Characteristics 4.72
4.54 Static Longitudinal Stability Table 4.74
4.55 Long Period Characteristics 4.75
4.56 Graphical Determination of the Elevator Position Neutral Point 4.78
4.57 Graphical Determination of Longitudinal Control Force Neutral Point 4.79
4.58 Relationships of Unaccelerated and Accelerated Flight 4.86
4.59 The Horizontal Tail Angle of Attack Changes with Pitch Rate 4.88
4.60 Classical Variation of Elevator Position in Maneuvering Flight 4.92
4.61 Relationship of Maneuvering Stability Characteristics in Steady Turns
and Pull-Ups 4.92
CG Movement Effects on dne

d
4.62 4.93
Altitude Effects on dne at Constant Ve

d
4.63 4.94
Altitude Effects on dne at Constant Mach

d
4.64 4.95
Effect of Varying Equivalent Airspeed on dne

d
4.65 4.96
4.66 Effect of Poor Airspeed Control on Maneuvering Stability Data 4.96

4.67 Classical Variation of Longitudinal Control Force in Maneuvering Flight 4.99
and Pull-Ups 4.100
4.69
dF
( )
CG Movement Effects on dne or dns
d
4.100
4.70 ( )
dF
Altitude Effects on dns at Constant Ve for the Reversible Control
System 4.101
4.71 ( )
dF
Altitude Effects on dns at Constant Mach for the Reversible Control
System 4.102
4.viii
FIGURES
PAGE
4.72 For the Reversible Control System Stick Force per g is not Affected
by Changes in Trim Airspeed 4.103
4.73 Affect of Speed Variation from Trim Airspeed on Stick Force per g 4.104
4.75 Effect of Varying Trim Airspeed on Stick Force per g for the Irreversible
Control System Where Fs = K 1 e 4.106
4.76 Compressibility Influence on Maneuvering Stability 4.108
4.77 Bobweight Arrangement and Influence on Longitudinal Control Forces
During Maneuvering Flight 4.109
4.78 Influence of Pre-Loaded Spring Tab on Maneuvering Control Forces 4.110
4.79 Relationship Between Maneuvering Control Forces for Steady and Sudden
Maneuvers for the Reversible Control System 4.112
4.80 Typical Stick Force per g Characteristics for the Closely Balanced or
Overbalanced Elevator-Reversible Control System 4.113
4.81 Bobweight Arrangement Utilizing Bobweights For and Aft of the Airplane
Center of Gravity 4.114
4.84 Typical Short Period Flight Path 4.122
4.85 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Short Period and Phugoid Modes
of Motion 4.123
4.87 Influence of Increasing Airspeed on Longitudinal Short Period and Phugoid
4.89 Effect of Increasing M 4.126
4.90 Longitudinal Stability and Control Record for Maneuvering Tasks 4.129
4.91 Longitudinal Control Friction Effects on Maneuvering Force Gradient 4.131
4.92 Poor Matching of Longitudinal Maneuvering Force Gradient and Breakout
Forces 4.132
4.93 Graphical Explanation of Local Gradients and Average Gradients of Stick
Force per g 4.136
4.ix
FIGURES
PAGE
4.94 Typical Data from Sinusoidal Stick Pumping 4.145
4.95 The Short Period Thumbprint 4.151
4.96a MIL-F-8785B 4.153
4.96b MIL-F-8785B 4.154
4.96c MIL-F-8785B 4.155
4.97 Doublet Input and Airplane Short Period Response 4.158
4.98 Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Characteristics 4.164
4.101 Possible Means of Presenting Stick Force per g Data from a Wind-Up
Turn 4.167
4.102 Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Characteristics in Configuration Cruise 4.168
4.103 Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Table 4.169
4.104 Variation of Stick Forces per g with Altitude and Mach Number 4.170
4.105 Airplane Short Period Characteristics 4.171
4.106 Variation of Airplane Short Period Characteristics with Mach Number 4.172
4.107 MIL-F-8785B 4.174
4.108 Ground Effect 4.182
4.x
CHAPTER FOUR
EQUATIONS
PAGE
S t lt
V = tail volume coefficient = eq 4.1 4.5
Sw c
qt
t = tail efficiency factor = eq 4.2 4.6
q
dC L t
= at eq 4.3 4.6
dt
dC mCG Xa dC m a d
= + t Vt 1 eq 4.4 4.8
dC L c dCL aw d
Airplane Fuselage
Nacelle
dC mCG X CG
= N0 eq 4.5 4.10
dC L Airplane c
Xa
C mCG = C m ac + C L + C m CG a t t t V eq 4.6 4.12
c Fus
Nac
dC mCG dC L
"Slab Tail" C m i = = t V = a t t V eq. 4.7 4.13
t di t dt
dC mCG dCL dt EFF

Elevator C m = = Vt = a t t V
e d e d t de
eq 4.8 4.13
t = w i w + i t + e eq 4.9 4.14
4.xi
Xa
C mCG = C m ac + C L + C m CG a t ( w i w + i t + e ) V t
c Fus
Nac
eq 4.10 4.14
dC m

dC L x
e = e C CL eq 4.11 4.15
L = 0 Cm
e
dC
m
d e dC L x
= eq 4.12 4.16
dC L Cm
e
C he = C h t + C h e eq 4.13 4.20
t e
C ht
e Float = t eq 4.14 4.20
C h
e
dC mCG dCm CG d e
= + C m Float eq 4.15 4.20
dC L dC L e dCL
Free Fixed
dC mCG
= X CG N0 eq 4.16 4.21
dC L
Free
dFs W Ch e dCm Ve
= 2K eq 4.17 4.24
dVe S Cm dCL Ve2Trim
e Free
C ht
e Float = t eq 4.18 4.26
C h
e
4.xii
C m
dC m
dCL = C L eq 4.19 4.35

S + Du g
= 0 eq 4.20 4.36
L u /u 0 S
L
S2 + D uS + g u u = 0 eq 4.21 4.37
0
g
n p = undamped phugoid frequency = 2 eq 4.22 4.37
u0
1 CD
p = phugoid damping ratio = eq 4.23 4.37
2 CL
g
p = damped natural frequency 2 eq 4.24 4.37
u0
pp (sec) = .138 u 0 (where u0 is in feet per sec.) eq 4.25 4.37
.707
p L eq 4.26 4.37
D
g (n 1)
pullup = eq 4.27 4.87
V
g
n
1
steady level turn = eq 4.28 4.87
V n
lt 2
MCG = at q t St eq 4.29 4.88
Due to V
4.xiii
Cm CG l
Cm = = 2a t t V t eq 4.30 4.89
c
c

2V
1 W dC Cm gc
e PullUps = e 0 S
2 m
n +
( n 1)
1
2 SSL Ve dCL Fixed
C m 4 WS
e
eq 4.31 4.89
de 1 W dC gc
= S m
+ C
dn PullUps 1 2 m
2 SSL Ve dCL Fixed
Cm 4 WS
e
eq 4.32 4.90
1 W dC C m gc 1
eSteadyTurns = e0 S
m
+ n
1 2 dC
W
2 SSL e
C m V L Fixed 4 S n
e
eq 4.33 4.90
de 1 W dC Cm gc 1
= S m
+ n + 2

dn Steady Turns Cm 1
SSL Ve
2 dC
L 4 W
S n
e 2 Fixed
eq 4.34 4.90
W C h e dC m V 2 Ch
e
FsPull Up = K 2 e n + K 12 l tg (n 1)Ch
S Cm dCL Free VeTrim t
e
eq 4.35 4.97
W Ch e dCm V 2 1 Ch
e
FsSteady Turns = K 2 e n + K 12 l tg n C h
S Cm dCL Free Ve Trim n t
e
eq 4.36 4.98
4.xiv
dFs W C h e dC m Ch
= K + K 12 l t g ht
C e

dn Pull-Up S C m dC L Free
e
eq 4.37 4.98
dFs W C h e dCm 1 Ch
= K + K 12 l tg 1 + 2 C h e

dn Steady Turn S Cm dCL Free n t
e
eq 4.38 4.98
Fs = K 1e eq 4.39 4.105
dFs K1 W dC C m gc 1
= S m + 1
dn Steady Turns Cm 1 V e2Trim dCL Fixed 4 WS n2
e 2 SSL
eq 4.40 4.106
Fs = K 2q e eq 4.41 4.107
dFs K2 WS dCm C m gc 1
= +
1
dn Steady Turns 4WS n2
Cm
e dCL Fixed
eq 4.42 4.107
L
S + u 1
0
= 0 eq 4.43 4.118
M S M S M
L L
S2 + M M S M + M = 0 eq 4.44 4.118
u0 u0
n sp = undamped short period frequency
1 Pa M 2 X
= 2 S c C L CG N M
I yy c
eq 4.45 4.119
4.xv
M = 0
L eq 4.46 4.119
u0 = M
sp = M eq 4.47 4.120
S
C
2 L Cm c2
C m c 2
sp =
c XCG w/g 2I yy 2I yy
2
c N M
C
I yy L
eq 4.48 4.121
Fs
= ( )( )
Fs
n
n
eq 4.49 4.135
4.xvi
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The investigation of longitudinal stability and control involves the study of
characteristics exhibited in the airplanes plane of symmetry. This plane of symmetry
divides the airplane into two essentially symmetrical halves and contains components of
motion only along the X and Z axes and about the Y axis (see Figure 4.1).
X
y
ymmetr
Plan e of S
Z
Figure 4.1
Airplane Axis System and Plane of Symmetry
Airplane motion in the plane of symmetry, i.e., longitudinal motion, generally

results in insignificant motion in the plane of asymmetry, i.e., lateral and directional
motion. (There are important exceptions to the last statement which will be discussed in a
subsequent section on coupled motions.) Therefore, longitudinal stability and control can
be investigated apart form lateral-directional stability and control.
4.xvii
Longitudinal flying qualities must be investigated from equilibrium and

nonequilibrium flight conditions. From equilibrium flight conditions, the static longitudinal
stability characteristics may be determined. These characteristics are:
1. Variation of longitudinal control forces and elevator positions with airspeed

variations from trim in unaccelerated flight (longitudinal control force and
elevator position stability).
2. Variation of longitudinal control forces and elevator positions with normal

acceleration at a constant airspeed (longitudinal maneuvering stability, or stick
force per g and elevator position per g).
3. Variation of normal acceleration with angle of attack at a constant speed.
In order to change from one equilibrium flight condition to another, the pilot excites
two longitudinal modes of motion which are suppressed in equilibrium flight. The
characteristics of these modes of motion greatly influence the dynamic longitudinal stability
characteristics of the airplane; these characteristics are determined from nonequilibrium
flight conditions. The longitudinal modes of motion are called the airplane short period
and the long period or phugoid motions. The characteristics of these motions to be
investigated are:
1. Frequency or period of the motions.
2. Damping of the motions or lack of it.
The pilots opinion of longitudinal flying qualities depends on all the static and
dynamic longitudinal stability characteristics mentioned above plus the characteristics of the
longitudinal control system. Therefore, it is not possible to state conclusively that one or
two of the characteristics are overwhelmingly dominant in a particular flight condition.
However, it is possible to rationalize that certain characteristics will affect flying qualities
more than others in certain circumstances. Therefore, the investigation of longitudinal
flying qualities divides nicely into the study of Nonmaneuvering Tasks and
Maneuvering Tasks.
4.xviii
Nonmaneuvering tasks are defined as those tasks during which the transition from
one equilibrium flight condition to another is accomplished smoothly and gradually.
Nonmaneuvering tasks result in essentially unaccelerated flight conditions. Tasks which
can be classified as nonmaneuvering are:
1. Take-off
2. Climb
3. Cruise
4. Loiter
5. Glide
6. Descent
7. Approach
8. Wave-off
In general, the pilots opinion of longitudinal flying qualities during

nonmaneuvering tasks is most affected by the characteristics of the longitudinal control
system, longitudinal control force and elevator position stability, and the frequency and
damping of the long period or phugoid mode of motion. (The initial response of the
airplane to a longitudinal control input is greatly dependent on the characteristics of the
airplane short period motion. However, during the study of the nonmaneuvering tasks, the
initial response characteristics may be temporarily ignored. The main areas of concern
during nonmaneuvering tasks are the long term stability of the airplane and associated
airspeed changes between equilibrium flight conditions.)
4.xix
Maneuvering tasks are defined as those tasks which result in accelerated flight
conditions; during maneuvering tasks, transitions from one equilibrium flight condition to
another are made quickly, and possibly, somewhat roughly. Tasks which may be included
in this category are:
1. Air-to-air combat
2. Ground attack
3. Reconnaissance
4. Low altitude terrain-following and avoidance
5. In-flight refueling
In general, the pilots opinion of longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering

tasks is most affected by the characteristics of the longitudinal control system, longitudinal
maneuvering stability, variation of normal acceleration with angle of attack, and frequency
and damping of the airplane short period motion. The main areas of concern during
maneuvering tasks are the initial response of the airplane to a longitudinal control input
(short term characteristics) and associated normal acceleration changes between equilibrium
flight conditions.
The total mission of any airplane will require the pilot to perform some combination
of maneuvering and nonmaneuvering tasks. The various tasks required for mission
accomplishment must be determined in order to establish the scope of the longitudinal
flying qualities investigation. Since mission accomplishment for all airplanes requires
numerous nonmaneuvering tasks, the investigation of the longitudinal flying qualities
during these tasks will comprise a large part of any test program. Maneuvering tasks are
not so universally required in all missions; therefore, the longitudinal flying qualities during
these tasks will be rigorously investigated in some airplanes and less stringently
investigated in others.
4.xx
The provision of satisfactory longitudinal stability and control characteristic is

probably the single most important duty of the stability and control design engineer. The
pilot exerts a majority of his effort to controlling the longitudinal modes of motion. When
an optimum blend of longitudinal stability and controllability is provided, the pilot finds the
airplane easy and pleasant to fly. This allows the performance of mission tasks with
simplicity and precision, thus enhancing overall mission effectiveness.
4.2 THEORY - NONMANEUVERING TASKS
4.2.1 Static Longitudinal Stability and Control in

Unaccelerated Flight
For simplicity, the concepts of static longitudinal stability will first be presented for
an airplane in gliding flight (power off) with no propeller and with the longitudinal control
surface rigidly restrained in one position. Later, the effects of power and freedom of
movement of the longitudinal control surface will be introduced.
4.2.1.1 STICK-FIXED OR ELEVATOR-FIXED LONGITUDINAL

STABILITY
The variation of static pitching moments about the airplanes center of gravity with
lift coefficient is the principal measure of the airplanes static longitudinal stability. The
manner in which the total pitching moment varies with lift coefficient depends on
contributions from the wing, fuselage, and nacelles, and the horizontal tail for a given
configuration and flight condition. Generally, the contributions of the wing, fuselage, and
nacelles is destabilizing; together these components generate nonrestoring pitching
moments when changes in lift coefficient occur. If the airplane is to possess static
longitudinal stability, the horizontal tail must be designed to overcome the destabilizing
influence of the remainder of the airplanes components. The contribution of the horizontal
tail to static longitudinal stability is powerful and almost always strongly stabilizing. The
design and location of the horizontal tail determine the magnitude of the contribution which
is normally expressed through the following nondimensional parameters:
S t lt
V = tail volume coefficient = eq 4.1
Sw c
4.xxi
Where:
St = area of horizontal tail in square feet
Sw = area of wing in square feet
lt = distance from airplane center of gravity to the aerodynamic center of the
tail, or tail arm length, in feet
c = average chord length of wing in feet
Tail Volume Coefficient is a measure of the size and location of the horizontal tail in
relation to the size of the wing and center of gravity, respectively.
qt
t = tail efficiency factor = eq 4.2
q
Where:
qt = dynamic pressure at horizontal tail in pounds per square foot
q = dynamic pressure of free stream prior to encountering the wing and
fuselage of the airplane in pounds per square foot
Tail Efficiency Factor is a measure of the change in energy level of the airflow. The
dynamic pressure of the airflow at the horizontal tail is reduced because the airflow must
first encounter the wing, fuselage, nacelles, and other protrusions prior to reaching the
horizontal tail. Lift curve slope of the horizontal tail is denoted as follows:
dC L t
= at eq 4. 3
dt
The angle of attack at the horizontal tail will not be the same as the wing angle of attack
because of differences in wing and tail incidence, the downwash created by the wing lift
production (Figure 4.2).
4.xxii
it Horizontal Tail
Wing t
iw
w
RWt Airplane
Longitudinal
RWw Axis
t = w + (i t i w )
Figure 4.2
Relationship of Wing and Tail Angles of Attack
t = angle of attack at horizontal tail

w = angle of attack at wing
= downwash angle
it = incidence of horizontal tail
iw = incidence of wing
RWw = relative wind at wing
RWt = relative wind at tail
Classical relationships of pitching moment coefficient with lift coefficient are shown
in Figure 4.3. Several interesting observations may be drawn from a study of this figure.
(The sign convention used here is arbitrary; i.e., nose-up pitching moments are assigned
positive sign, nose-down pitching moments are negative. Static stability is thus indicated
by a negative slope of the C mCG C L relationship.)
As previously mentioned, the wing and fuselage contribution to static longitudinal

stability is usually destabilizing, while the horizontal tail contribution is usually strongly
stabilizing. As shown in Figure 4.3, the complete airplane possesses some degree of static
longitudinal stability. The airplane is in trim, i.e., the pitching moments all add up to zero,
at the point where the complete airplane curve crosses the horizontal axis. It can be seen
that in order to exhibit both static longitudinal stability (negative slope) and a trim condition
(cross the horizontal axis), the complete airplane curve must intersect the vertical axis at a
positive value of C mCG . (It should perhaps be pointed out that although the intercept at
C L = 0 is a useful reference point, it does not correspond to a condition that can be
achieved in equilibrium flight.)
4.xxiii
Nose Up
.10
Pitching Moment Coefficient About

the Airplane Center of Gravity
Wing & Fuselage
.05 Wing Alone
CG
Cm
0
.5 1.0 1.5
Complete
Airplane
-.05
+V
Airplane Lift Coeficient

-.10 CL Tail Alone
Figure 4.3
Classical Longitudinal Stability Relationships
The longitudinal stability equation which defines the slope of the pitching moment
coefficient-lift coefficient relationship may be written as follows for the airplane in gliding
flight with fixed controls and no propeller:
dC mCG Xa dC m at d
= + Vt 1 eq 4.4
dC L c dCL aw d
Airplane Fuselage
Nacelle
Where:
Xa
= Wing contribution, a measure of the location
c
of the aerodynamic center of the wing in relation to
the center of gravity of the airplane (Figure 4.4)
dC m
= Fuselage and nacelle contribution
dC L
Fuselage
Nacelle
4.xxiv
at d
Vt 1 = Horizontal tail contribution
aw d
at = Lift slope curve of horizontal tail
aw = Lift curve slope of wing
V = Tail volume coefficient
t = Tail efficiency factor
d
= Change in downwash angle with change in wing
d
angle of attack
C = Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Wingac
Airplane CG
X ac Xa
X a = XCG Xac
X CG
Figure 4.4
Relationship of Wing Aerodynamic Center
to Airplane Center of Gravity
For any given airplane configuration, the longitudinal stability equation is fixed
except for the wing contribution, which can be changed markedly by movement of the
airplane center of gravity (CG). A shift of CG has a very small influence on the tail
contribution (through the tail volume coefficient, V ) and negligible influence on the
fuselage and nacelle contribution. However, for every percent of the mean aerodynamic
chord that the CG is moved aft, ( )

dCm
dCL Wing increases positively (destabilizing) one
percent. Center of gravity movement, therefore, has a powerful influence on the airplanes
static longitudinal stability and is probably the single most important variable in static
longitudinal stability. The effect of CG shift on the pitching moment coefficient-lift
coefficient curve is shown in Figure 4.5. It should be noted that all the curves rotate about
a constant pitching moment coefficient at a lift coefficient of zero.
4.xxv
dC mCG
Nose Up CG = 30% MAC = 0
.10 dC L

.05 dC mCG
CG = 23% MAC = -.07
CG Moving dC
Forward
C mCG
0
.5 1.0 1.5
dC m CG
-.05 CG = 19% MAC = -.11
dC L
+V
Airplane Lift Coefficient
CL
-.10
Figure 4.5
Center of Gravity Effects on Static Longitudinal Stability
An examination of Figure 4.5 shows that as the CG is moved aft, the slope of the
pitching moment curve becomes more positive; i.e., less stable. A CG position will be
reached at which the slope becomes zero. This CG position, at which the airplane exhibits
neutral static longitudinal stability with the cockpit control stick or longitudinal control
surface fixed, is called the stick-fixed or elevator-fixed neutral point and is denoted by the
symbol ( N 0 ). Once the neutral point is known, the slope of the pitching moment curve,
i.e., the index of the longitudinal stability of the airplane, can be obtained for any airplane
CG position with good accuracy from the following relationship:
dC mCG X CG
= N0 eq 4.5
dC L Airplane c
4.xxvi
The distance between the actual CG and the neutral point of the airplane, expressed
in percentage of mean aerodynamic chord, is called the static margin. (For the case just
presented., i.e., the stick-fixed case, the distance would be called the stick-fixed static
margin.)
4.2.1.2 LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

The static longitudinal stability presentation has not, to this point, included
discussions of the effects for providing a means of longitudinal control nor the effects of
power. The scope of the presentation will now be expanded to include longitudinal control;
however, power effects will still be neglected for the time being.
For a typical airplane, the curve of pitching moment coefficient versus lift
coefficient is shown in Figure 4.6. This airplane, in the condition shown, possesses static
longitudinal stability.
However, it is in equilibrium at only one value of lift coefficient (point A). It the
pilot wishes to decelerate and fly at a lift coefficient of 1.0 (point B), the airplane must be
(
equipped with some means of overcoming the nose-down pitching C mCG = .05 . The )
problem then is to find a means of changing the lift coefficient for zero pitching moment
from point A to point C. The best means of doing so is to merely shift the curve up
without changing its slope. (If the slope is changed, the stability of the airplane is
changed.)
Obviously, the more stability the airplane possesses, the more powerful must be the
means of overcoming the restoring pitching moments. This situation may place a limit on
the amount of stability permissible in any airplane.
4.xxvii
Nose Up
.15

.10
.05
CG
A C
Cm
0
.5 1.0 C mCG = .05 1.5
-.05
+V B
-.10
-.15 CL
Figure 4.6
Typical Variations of C mCG Versus CL
To find a means for overcoming the restoring pitching moments, the equilibrium
equation of static longitudinal stability is presented (propeller off and power off for
simplicity).
Xa
C mCG = C m ac + C L + C m CG a t t t V eq 4.6
c Fus
Nac
The three terms of this equation which might be used to change the lift coefficient
X
for zero pitching moment at C mac , ca , and t . The wing pitching moment about its
( )
aerodynamic center C mac is a function of wing camber and aerodynamic twist of the
wing. This moment can be controlled by a flap at the wing trailing edge, a common control
used by airplanes without horizontal tails. For several reasons, it is not a practical
longitudinal control for airplanes with horizontal tails.
X
The term ca is purely a function of CG position, and the mechanical complexity
and change of stability associated with shifting CG positions rules out CG shifting as a
means of longitudinal control.
4.xxviii
The final term to consider is the tail angle of attack, t . Tail angle of attack can be
changed by utilizing a moveable horizontal tail (sometime called a slab tail) or by
providing a moveable flap on the trailing edge of a fixed horizontal stabilizer. Changing the
angle of attack of the horizontal tail can produce large changes in pitching moment without
significant changes in longitudinal stability. It is the most powerful and most commonly
used means of longitudinal control.
The magnitude of the pitching moment coefficient obtained per degree deflection of
the longitudinal control surface is called the longitudinal control power and is written as
follows for the slab tail and the conventional elevator:
dCmCG dCL
"Slab Tail" C mi = = V = a t t V eq 4.7
t di t d t t
dC mCG dCL dt EFF

Elevator C m = = Vt = a t t V eq 4.8
e d e d t de
Where:
e = elevator deflection from neutral, in degrees, trailing edge up
considered negative
d t EFF
= rate of change of effective tail angle of attack with elevator deflection,
d e
sometimes given the symbol . It is a function of the ratio of the area
of the elevator to the area of the entire horizontal tail; for the slab
tail, = 1.0
Elevator control power, C m e will be used for the remainder of the discussion of
static longitudinal stability. The change in equilibrium lift coefficient due to deflecting the
elevator may be studied by again referring to the equilibrium equation of static longitudinal
4.xxix
stability. The only term affected by the elevator deflection is the tail angle of attack, t ,
which can be broken down in terms of wing angle of attack, downwash angle, tail and
wing incidence angle, and change in angle of attack due to elevator deflection:
t = w i w + i t + e eq 4.9
Thus, power off, propeller off equilibrium equation can be rewritten:
Xa
c Fus
Nac
eq 4.10
The control of the equilibrium lift coefficient is obtained through the influence of the
term e of the equilibrium equation. It is important to note that a change in elevator
dCm
deflection does not change the slope of the pitching moment curve dCCG .
L
An example of the curves of pitching moment coefficient versus lift coefficient for
several elevator angles is shown in Figure 4.7. The airplane can now be flown in
equilibrium flight at any lift coefficient in the unstalled range by merely changing the
elevator position. It should also be noted that, at least for the power off case, elevator
deflection has no effect on static longitudinal stability.
The in-flight measurement of pitching moments about the airplane CG for different
values of lift coefficient (or airspeed) would be a tedious, if not impossible, undertaking.
This measurement can be made to some degree of accuracy in a wind tunnel. However, an
in-flight method is needed to determine or estimate the static longitudinal stability of the real
airplane. Using the principles already presented, a method can now be developed.
4.xxx
Nose Up
-10

.15 -7.5 Negative Sign Indicates
e = -5 Trailing Edge Up
The Airplane Center of Gravity

.10 -2.5
0 Positivve Sign Indicates
+2.5
.05 Trailing Edge Down
CG
Cm
0
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-.05
+V
-.10
-.15 CL
Figure 4.7
Classical Variation of C mCG Versus C L for Various Elevator Angles
4.2.1.3 ELEVATOR POSITION STABILITY OR LONGITUDINAL

CONTROL POSITION STABILITY
First, a cross-plot is made of the elevator angle required for equilibrium versus
equilibrium lift coefficient (from Figure 4.7). The cross-plot is presented as Figure 4.8. It
must be emphasized that equilibrium conditions, i.e., zero pitching moments about the
airplane CG, is represented by every point on the curve of Figure 4.8. (Equilibrium
conditions do not necessarily imply, of course, that the airplane is force trimmed from the
pilots standpoint.) The elevator position versus lift coefficient curve can be analytically
represented by:
dC m

dC L x
e = e C CL eq. 4.11
L = 0 Cm
e
where e C is the elevator angle required for zero lift coefficient, and is a constant.
L =0
Although zero airplane lift coefficient cannot be attained in equilibrium flight, the fact that
eC is a constant is an important aid in the analysis of flight test data, as will be seen
L =0
later.
4.xxxi
10 eC = 0
TED L
Elevator Position
+V 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Degrees
-5
e
TEU Airplane Lift Coefficient
-10 CL
Figure 4.8
Elevator Position for Zero Pitching Moment Versus
Airplane Lift Coefficent
The slope of the curve of Figure 4.8 is obtained by differentiating the last equation
with respect to lift coefficient:
dC
m
d e dC L x
= eq. 4.12
dC L Cm
e
The elevator position required to vary the equilibrium lift coefficient (or equilibrium
airspeed) varies directly with the stick-fixed (or elevator-fixed) static longitudinal stability,
dC mCG
dC L , and inversely with the elevator control power, C m . This relationship of
e
elevator position versus lift coefficient or airspeed in equilibrium flight is often termed
elevator position stability or longitudinal control position stability. By measuring this
relationship in equilibrium flight, a determination of the sign, but not the degree, of the
stick-fixed static longitudinal stability may be made. The degree of stability cannot be
determined unless the numerical value of the elevator control power is known. From the
dC m
last equation, it is seen that, if dCCG = 0 , i.e., the CG is at the stick-fixed neutral point,
L
the slope of the elevator position versus lift coefficient curve will also be zero (Figure 4.9).
This fact will be used later to estimate the airplanes stick-fixed or elevator-fixed neutral
point. The neutral point determined from elevator position versus lift coefficient plots is
often, more correctly, called the elevator position neutral point or longitudinal control
position neutral point.
4.xxxii
10 CG Moving AFT
TED
CG at Elevator Position Neutral Point
5
e
Elevator Position
0
+V 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Degrees
-5
TEU Airplane Lift Coefficient
-10 CL
Figure 4.9
Classical CG Effects on Elevator Position Stability
4.2.1.4 STICK-FREE OR ELEVATOR-FREE LONGITUDINAL

STABILITY
In the previous discussion, static longitudinal stability was related to the variation of
elevator position or longitudinal control position with lift coefficient or airspeed. This
dC mCG
variation was shown to be a function of the stability criterion, dC L , with the
longitudinal control rigidly restrained in a fixed position. The discussion will now be
expanded to include the effects of allowing the longitudinal control surface to float in
response to some variable in flight conditions. The classical definition of control surface
float is to ride freely in the airstream, changing position in response to pressure
distribution over the surface. The classical definition would apply only to a reversible
control system, since the irreversible control system incorporates no control surface
response to surface pressure distribution. However, many irreversible control systems
incorporate features (stability augmentors) which move a control surface, independent of
pilot action, in response to dynamic pressure, normal acceleration, angular rates, or various
other flight variables. This movement of control surfaces in irreversible systems can also
be thought of as control surface float. At any rate, freeing the longitudinal control
surface, i.e., allowing it to respond to some flight variable, may have profound effects on
the static longitudinal stability of airplanes equipped with either reversible or irreversible
longitudinal control systems.
4.xxxiii
4.2.1.5 STICK-FREE STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY -

REVERSIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM
If the airplane is equipped with a reversible longitudinal control system, the
longitudinal control surface may float with or against the relative wind at the horizontal tail.
The direction and degree of float will depend upon the pressure distribution over the control
surface and the hinge moments created at the control surface hinge line by the pressure
distribution. The pressure distribution, and therefore the hinge moments, are governed by
two major variables - the angle of attack of the horizontal tail and the deflection of the
elevator with respect to the horizontal tail.
If the elevator is uncambered and hinged at its leading edge, the variation of hinge
moment with horizontal tail angle of attack for zero elevator deflection will be as shown in
Figure 4.10. As angle of attack is increased positively, the pressure distribution creates a
hinge moment which tends to make the elevator float up.
Now, if horizontal tail angle of attack is maintained at zero and the elevator is
deflected, hinge moments will be created as shown in Figure 4.11. As elevator deflection
is changed from neutral, the pressure distribution generates a hinge moment which tends to
restore the original elevator position.
4.xxxiv
+
+t -HM
Moment at Elevator Hinge Line

Relative Wind
- +
LB-FT
HM
-
Angle of Attack of Horizontal Tail
t
Degrees
Figure 4.10
Hinge Moment Variation with Angle of Attack
+ -HM e
Relative Wind
Moment at Elevator Hinge Line
- +
LB-FT
HM
-
Elevator Deflection
e
Degrees
Figure 4.11
Hinge Moment Variation with Control Deflection
4.xxxv
The total hinge moment, HM, is obtained by the addition of the two effects noted
above. In coefficient form, this relationship may be expressed as follows:
C he = C h t + C h e eq. 4.13
t e
Where:
C he = total hinge moment coefficient, elevator
C h = hinge moment coefficient variation with angle of attack at zero elevator
t
deflection, normally carries a negative sign

C h = hinge moment coefficient variation with elevator deflection at zero angle
e
of attack, almost invariably carries a negative sign
When the total hinge moment coefficient is zero, an equilibrium condition is attained
where the floating tendency, C h , is just opposed by the restoring tendency, C h .
t e
When this equilibrium condition is attained, the elevator angle is called the float angle and
may be expressed analytically as follows:
C h
e Float = t
t eq. 4.14
C h
e
If C h and C h both have negative signs, the elevator will float up as angle of
t e
attack increases positively and float down as angle of attack increases negatively. This
effect reduces the static longitudinal stability of the airplane (Figure 4.12). Analytically, the
relationship between static longitudinal stability with stick- or elevator-free and stick- or
elevator-fixed may be expressed as follows:
dC mCG dCm CG d e
= + C m Float eq. 4.15
dC L dC L e dCL
Free Fixed
4.xxxvi
t (Decrease in C L, Increase in V)
+ t (Increase in CL, Decrease in V)
RW
RW e FLOAT
e FLOAT
When the elevator is unrestrained, and floats so as to align itself with the
relative wind, the float phenomenon reduces the stabilizing pitching
moments generated by the horizontal tail. This effect reduces the static
longitudinal stability of the airplane, i.e., stick-free stability is less than
stick-fixed stability.
Figure 4.12
Effect of Elevator Float on Stabilizing Influence of Horizontal Tail
If the elevator control power coefficient Cm and change in elevator float angle
e
d eFloat
with change in lift coefficient dC assume their normal sign (negative), it can
L
readily be seen that stick-free static longitudinal stability will be less than stick-fixed static
longitudinal stability (Figure 4.13).
Center-of-gravity movement has the same profound effect on stick-free stability as

it had on stick-fixed stability. As the CG is moved aft, stick-free stability is reduced. If the
CG is moved far enough aft, the slope of the pitching moment-lift coefficient curve
becomes zero with the stick or elevator free. This CG position, at which the airplane
exhibits neutral static longitudinal stability with the elevator free to float, is called the stick-
free or elevator-free neutral point, and is denoted by the symbol ( N 0 ). Because the effect
of elevator float on static longitudinal stability is generally destabilizing, the stick-free
neutral point is usually forward of the stick-fixed neutral point. Once the stick-free neutral
point is known, the stick-free static longitudinal stability can be obtained for any airplane
CG position with good accuracy from the following relationship:
dC mCG
= X CG N0 eq 4.16
dC L
Free
4.xxxvii
The distance between the actual CG of the airplane and the stick-free neutral point is
called the stick-free static margin.
It is obvious that an in-flight method of measuring or estimating the stick-free static

longitudinal stability is needed. A method can now be developed to estimate this important
characteristic.
.15

.10

Stick or Elevator
.05 Free
CG
0
Cm
0.5 1.0 1.5

-.05 Stick or Elevator
Fixed
-.10
-.15 CL
Figure 4.13
Typical Reduction of Static Longitudinal
Stability Due to Freeing Elevator
4.2.1.6 STICK-FORCE OR LONGITUDINAL CONTROL FORCE

STABILITY
It is convenient again to study curves of stick-fixed and stick-free static longitudinal
stability (Figure 4.14).
4.xxxviii
.15

.10 Stick-Fixed -.025
Stick-Free -.05
.05
CG
Cm
0
0.5 1.5
-.05 A
B
-.10 Trim
Longitudinal Control Force = 0
-.15
CL
Figure 4.14
Stick-Fixed and Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability
In this case, assume that the airplane is trimmed for zero longitudinal control forces
for both the stick-fixed and stick-free cases at the same lift coefficient or airspeed (point A).
If the pilot now wishes to decelerate and fly at a lift coefficient of 1.0 (point B), he must
overcome the stabilizing pitching moment represented by the distance between the stick-
fixed curve at point B and the horizontal axis (C m CG )
= .05 . Now, if the elevator is
free to float, the pilot will only have to overcome the stabilizing pitching moment
represented by the distance between the stick-free curve and the horizontal axis
(C mCG )
= .025 . The pilot must overcome the stick-free stability with a change in
elevator position from the float position to the position for zero pitching moments
C L = 1.0 . If he does not change the longitudinal trim setting, stick-free stability will be
indicated by the longitudinal control force required to move the elevator from its float
position to the position for zero pitching moment (Figure 4.15).
4.xxxix
e Pilot e Equilibrium
v1 e Float
v2
v2 < v1
Longitudinal control forces are generated by the requirement to

move the elevator from its float position to the position for zero
pitching moments for V2 airspeed. The float angle, e Float ,
cannot be determined in flight. However, the longitudinal
control force required to move the elevator from float to
equilibrium is an index of elevator float, thus it is an index of
stick-free stability.
Figure 4.15
Generation of Longitudinal Control Forces - Reversible Control System
Thus, the variation of longitudinal control forces with airspeed about a force trim
airspeed is indicative of the stick-free static longitudinal stability. This relationship can be
expressed analytically as follows:
dFs W Ch e dCm Ve
= 2K eq. 4.17
e Free
Where:
dFs
dVe = longitudinal control force variation with equivalent airspeed about a
force trim airspeed, Ve Trim

K = a constant dependent on gearing ratio between the elevator and
cockpit control stick, size of the elevator, and horizontal tail
efficiency factor (K = GSe c e t )
4.xl
C h = elevator hinge moment coefficient variation with elevator

e
deflection
W
S = wing loading, ratio of gross weight of the airplane to the
total planform area of its wing
dC mCG
= stick-free stability
dC L Free
C m = elevator control power
e
From a study of this equation, it is obvious that the variation of longitudinal control
force about a trim airspeed will at least indicate whether the static longitudinal stability of
the airplane with the elevator free to float is positive, neutral, or negative. However, this
variation will not indicate the degree of stability unless the numerical values of
C m , W
S , K, and C h e are known. The relationship of longitudinal control force
e
versus airspeed in equilibrium flight about a trim airspeed is often termed stick force
dCm CG
stability or longitudinal control force stability. It is obvious that if dCL Free = 0 ,
i.e., the CG is at the stick-free neutral point, the slope of the longitudinal control force
versus airspeed curve will also be zero (Figure 4.16). This fact will be used later to
estimate the airplanes stick-free neutral point.
The neutral point determined from longitudinal control force versus airspeed plots
will be the stick-free neutral point if, and only if, the longitudinal control system
incorporates no force feel gadgetry, such as springs or bob weights.
The neutral point determined from longitudinal control force versus airspeed plots is
often, more correctly, called the stick force neutral point or the longitudinal control force
neutral point.
4.xli
15
Pull CG at Longitudinal Control Force Neutral
10 Point
dFs
= 0 CG Moving Aft
5 dVe
Longitudinal Control Force

0
230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270
5
Ve TRIM
Lbs
Fs
10
Push
15 Equivalent Airspeed
Ve
KEAS
Figure 4.16
Classical CG Effects on Longitudinal Control Force Stability
4.2.1.7 MINIMIZING LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SURFACE

FLOAT IN THE REVERSIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM
The floating characteristics of the longitudinal control surface depend on the
magnitudes of the parameters C h and C h . It is important to reduce the floating
t e
tendency of the control surface as much as possible in order to minimize the variation in
static longitudinal stability between the stick-fixed and stick-free cases. This means the
Ch
ratio of C t should be as small as possible.
h e
Ch
e Float = C t t eq 4.18
h e
Also, C h must not be too large or the longitudinal control forces will be
e
excessive. Methods of controlling the magnitude of the hinge moment parameters are
referred to as methods of aerodynamic balancing.
4.xlii
Common methods of aerodynamic balancing are shown in Figure 4.17. These

methods all result in reducing the hinged moments created at the elevator hinge line when
changes in angle of attack and elevator position occur. Aerodynamic balancing not only
reduces the floating tendency but reduces longitudinal control forces required to deflect the
surface.
Elevator
Hinge
Line
(A) Set-Back Hinge
Horn
(B) Horn Balance
Vent
Seal
(C) Internal Seal
Bevel
(D) Beveled Trailing Edge
Figure 4.17
Methods of Aerodynamic Balance
4.xliii
4.2.1.8 STICK-FREE STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY -

IRREVERSIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM
For airplanes equipped with irreversible longitudinal control systems, freeing the
longitudinal control surface, i.e., allowing it to respond to some flight variable, may have
profound effects on static longitudinal stability. The nature of the irreversible control
system, however, does not allow a control surface to move directly in response to a flight
variable, in comparison to the reversible longitudinal control which may respond directly to
surface pressure distribution by floating with or against the relative wind. The movement
of the control surface in the irreversible system must be programmed within the control
system. This is accomplished by providing sensors in the airplane to measure flight
parameters, then feeding signals to the irreversible power control cylinders to move the
control surface independent of the pilots actions. This artificial float or static stability
augmentation is almost always incorporated to attempt to correct stick-fixed static
longitudinal instability, i.e.; an unstable elevator position - airspeed relationship. The
acceptability of such a device must be determined in view of its reliability, the improvement
in flying qualities which results, and the increase in mission effectiveness which can be
realized. Generally, the use of such devices adds a marked degree of complexity to the
control system.
For illustrative purposes, the following example is presented of an irreversible

control system incorporating a device to provide artificial longitudinal control force
stability. Assume that the airplane in some flight condition exhibits the unstable elevator
position-airspeed relationship shown by the solid line of Figure 4.19. It is obvious that the
elevator position instability would precipitate longitudinal control force instability for a
classical irreversible control system in which longitudinal control force is a direct
function of elevator position. However, devices can be incorporated in the longitudinal
control system to change the elevator position, independent of pilot action, to an artificial
float position as airspeed is varied about trim. One means of providing the artificial
float is to incorporate an airspeed and altitude sensor with an extendible link in the
longitudinal control system. These devices, then, can program artificial elevator float as
airspeed is varied about trim - shown by the dashed line Figure 4.18. Since an extendible
link in the control system is utilized, the artificial elevator float does not result in cockpit
control stick motion. Longitudinal control forces are generated by the requirement for the
pilot to move the elevator from the artificial float position to the position required for
4.xliv
equilibrium. As shown in Figure 4.18, this movement is now in the direction which
results in a positive or stable longitudinal control force-airspeed variation about trim (Figure
4.19). For a further discussion of the use of extendible links on irreversible control
system, see pages 4.50 through 4.51.
Trailing Edge
Elevator Positions from Trim

Up
Artificial Elevator "Float"
Caused by Extendable Link
Degrees
e
Increasing
Elevator Position
Required for Trim Airspeed
Trailing Edge
Equilibrium
Down
Airspeed
KIAS
Figure 4.18
Typical Means of Providing Artificial Longitudinal Control Force Stability
Pull

Lbs
Increasing
Airspeed
Trim
Push
Airspeed
KIAS
Figure 4.19
Devices in the Irreversible Control System Can Provide Longitudinal
Control Force Stability Even When Elevator Position Instability Exists
4.xlv
4.2.1.9 POWER EFFECTS ON STATIC LONGITUDINAL

STABILITY
The effects of engine operation on static longitudinal stability may be very
significant. Propeller power effects will be considered first; these effects may be direct or
indirect.
The direct propeller contribution arises as a result of the forces created by the
propeller itself. The components of the force created by the running propeller at some
angle to the relative wind are the thrust force, Tp , and the normal force, N p (Figure 4.20).
The generation of the thrust force is obvious. The normal force is generated as a result of
the airflow being turned more perpendicular to the propeller disc as it passes through the
disc. This effect is sometimes referred to as the propeller fin effect.
Airplane CG
Np
Tp hp
RW
lp
Figure 4.20
Forces Created by the Running Propeller
From a study of Figure 4.20, it may be rationalized that the effect of propeller
power on static longitudinal stability depends on the location of the propeller with respect to
the airplane center of gravity (CG). If the propeller is positioned ahead of and below the
CG, direct propeller effects are destabilizing.
4.xlvi
The indirect propeller effects are a result of slipstream interaction with the wing and
horizontal tail and are composed of the following major contributions:
1. Effect of slipstream on wing-fuselage moments.
2. Effect of slipstream on wing lift coefficient.
3. Effect of slipstream downwash at the horizontal tail.
4. Effect of increased slipstream dynamic pressure on the tail.
Indirect propeller effects are difficult to predict. Their contribution to static longitudinal
stability may be stabilizing or destabilizing, depending largely on whether the lift from the
horizontal tail is acting up or down.
Direct and indirect propeller effects on static longitudinal stability are generally
significant. For conventional propeller airplanes (propeller ahead of CG), the combined
effects are usually destabilizing.
The effects of power on the static longitudinal stability of the jet propelled airplane
are somewhat simpler to analyze. The turbojet unit generates three major contributions.
These are the direct thrust effect, the direct normal force effect at the air inlet, and the effect
of the induced flow at the horizontal tail due to inflow toward the jet exhaust.
The direct effects of thrust and normal force are the same as previously discussed
for the propeller driven airplane (Figure 4.21). Whether the direct effects are stabilizing or
destabilizing depends entirely on the vertical and horizontal position of the airplane center
of gravity.
4.xlvii
Airplane CG
NJ
TJ
RW IJ hJ
Figure 4.21
Forces Created by the Jet Engine
The indirect jet effect on static longitudinal stability is due to the jet exhaust creating
an inclined flow pattern around itself. If the horizontal tail is located in this area of
exhaust inclined flow, its angle of attack will be changed, thereby creating moments that
influence the static longitudinal stability of the airplane. This indirect effect, sometimes
called the entrainment effect, is usually slightly destabilizing. The total influence of direct
and indirect jet effects on static longitudinal stability is usually destabilizing.
4.2.2 Dynamic Longitudinal Stability and Control in

Unaccelerated Flight
The previous discussion of longitudinal stability has been concerned only with
equilibrium flight conditions. The discussion will not be expanded to study the means by
which one equilibrium flight condition is changed to another equilibrium flight condition.
This study of dynamic longitudinal stability and control characteristics will require the
investigation of nonequilibrium longitudinal flight conditions.
The means by which the airplane may be stabilized at various lift coefficients and
airspeeds has been previously developed. A typical response of the airplane in angle of
attack and airspeed to a longitudinal control input through the two longitudinal modes of
motion is shown in Figure 4.22. The control input (nose-up in this case) generates
pitching moments which initially cause only changes in angle of attack. This is in response
of the airplane through its short period mode of motion - airspeed is essentially constant for
this response because the short time interval does not allow speed changes. This mode of
motion affects both maneuvering and nonmaneuvering tasks because of its bearing on the
4.xlviii
initial response of the airplane. However, its characteristics are most critical for
maneuvering tasks; therefore, the short period mode will be investigated in the subsequent
section of longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks.
Change in Angle of Attack

Final Equilibrium Conditions
3
(Degrees)
Phugoid or Long Period Response

1 Short Period Response
0
0 4 8 Time 12 16 20
(Seconds)
350
300
Airspeed
KIAS
250
200
0 4 8 12 16 20
Time
(Seconds)
Figure 4.22
Typical Airplane Response to Longitudinal Control Input
The long period response of the airplane occurs after the short period motion has
diminished to a near steady state condition. This typical long period motion is seen to be a
second order response composed of airspeed variations at an essentially constant angle of
attack. Of course, altitude and attitude will vary.
In normal flying of the airplane, the pilot would not allow the long period motion to
cause the airspeed oscillation presented in Figure 4.22. If the pilot desired to restabilize at
260 KIAS, he would apply a small longitudinal control input to suppress the long period
motion at about 10 seconds. However, it should now be apparent that the long period or
phugoid1 mode of motion is utilized by the pilot to make airspeed changes. Since a great
1 The long period of motion was first described and named by F.W. Lanchester. Phugoid is from the Greek
root for flee. It is believed Lanchester really wanted the Greek root for fly.
4.xlix
Drag
S + Du D g g
Characteristics
Lift L
Lu S + -S
=0
Characteristics u0 u0
S 2 M S
Pitching Moments M M S M
u
Characteristics
Terms Generated by Terms Generated by

Changes in Horizontal Velocity Changes in Pitch Attitude
Terms Generated by
Changes in Angle of Attack
S = Laplace Operator
g = acceleration due to gravity
u = horizontal velocity ( u 0 = initial horizontal velocity)
D/ u
Du = = change in drag with change in horizontal velocity divided by the mass of the
m
airplane.
D/
D = = change in drag with change in angle of attack divided by the mass of the
m
airplane.
L/ u
Lu = = change in lift with change in horizontal velocity divided by the mass of
m
the airplane.
L/
L = = change in lift with change in angle of attack divided by the mass of the
m
airplane.
M/ u
Mu = = change in pitching moment with horizontal velocity divided by the moment
I yy
of inertia in pitch, a speed stability term.
M/
M = = change in pitching moment with angle of attack divided by the
Iyy
moment of inertia in pitch, an angle of attack stability term.
M/

M = = change in pitching moment with rate of change of angle of attack divided
Iyy
by the moment of inertia in pitch, a downwash lag term.
M/
M = = change in pitching moment with rate of change of pitch divided by the
Iyy
moment of inertia in pitch, a pitch rate damping term.
Figure 4.23
The Longitudinal Determinant
4.l
deal of the pilots effort during nonmaneuvering tasks will be directed toward making
airspeed changes in level flight, the pilot will devote much of his attention during these
tasks to controlling the long period mode of motion.
The remainder of this discussion will be directed toward describing the origin,
characteristics, and parameters affecting the long period mode of motion.
4.2.2.1 ORIGIN OF THE PHUGOID MODE OF LONGITUDINAL

MOTION
Without derivation, which can be found in appropriate literature, the determinant of
the transformed longitudinal characteristic equation of motion for small disturbances may
be written as shown in Figure 4.23.
Before proceeding, a few comments are in order concerning angle of attack stability
and speed stability. These terms will be used extensively in discussions of longitudinal
c
dynamics. Angle of attack stability may be expressed in coefficient form as m or C m ;
i.e., the change in pitching moment coefficient with change in angle of attack at a constant
speed. Angle of attack stability normally carries a negative sign; i.e., positive increase in
(nose-up) generates a negative (nose-down) pitching moment. Under restricted conditions
(power-off gliding flight at a low Mach number) where C L is a unique function of ,
dC
angle of attack stability can be related directly to the familiar static stability criteria dCm as
L
follows:
C m
dC m
dCL = C L eq 4.19

Thus, for these conditions, static longitudinal stability ( dCm

dCL < 0 ) guarantees
angle of attack stability m < 0 .

C
4.li
C m
Speed stability may be expressed in coefficient form as or C mu ; i.e., the
U
change in pitching moment coefficient with change in horizontal velocity at a constant angle
of attack. The C mu term is normally very small for the moderate and low subsonic Mach
numbers. In the high subsonic regime, C mu is normally negative and in many instances
large enough to make the airplane statically unstable.
The solutions of the longitudinal determinant will provide useful information about
the longitudinal modes of motion. The classic long period or phugoid approximation is
of concern at present. In order to make this approximation, several assumptions must be
made. These assumptions, based on flight experience and logical reasoning, are as
follows:
1. The angle of attack stability, M , is large enough so that very small changes
(i.e. near zero) of angle of attack are required to counter pitching moments
generated by pitch rates, pitch accelerations, and velocity changes. This implies
M u is quite small and that the frequency of the phugoid is quite low.
2. The previous argument justifies the assumption that the angle of attack is a
constant during the phugoid oscillation.
3. The assumption that little compressibility effects occur enhances the

approximation.
If the above assumptions are valid, the lift and drag portions of the longitudinal
determinant are the controlling factors for the long period motion. The classic long period
approximation or phugoid minor may then be written as follows:
S + Du g
= 0 eq 4.20
L u /u 0 S
4.lii
Solving the determinant yields the following second order characteristic equation:
L
S2 + D uS + g u u = 0 eq 4.21
0
Therefore, the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio of the phugoid mode
of motion may be developed as follows:
g
n p = undamped phugoid frequency = 2 eq 4.22
u0
1 CD
p = phugoid damping ratio = eq 4.23
2 CL
For a lightly damped oscillation, the damped natural frequency is approximately

equal to the undamped natural frequency, so:
g
p = damped natural frequency 2 eq 4.24
u0
The period of the long period motion is thus approximated by:
pp (sec) = .138 u 0 (where u0 is in feet per sec.) eq 4.25
Thus, the period of the phugoid is seen to be a function of horizontal velocity (u 0 )

or airspeed (V), about which the motion oscillates. This is a reasonable approximation for
the phugoid period. It is readily seen that the period of the phugoid motion is very long.
The damping ratio of the phugoid motion may be approximated by the following
relationship:
.707
p L eq 4.26
D
Several mathematical manipulations have been omitted.
4.liii
This approximation for phugoid damping ratio is not as accurate as the

approximation for the phugoid period. However, it does point out that phugoid damping
varies inversely with the ratio L/D. The phugoid mode of motion, if allowed to persist,
therefore exhibits a prolonged oscillation that damps very slowly.
4.2.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHUGOID MODE OF

LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Additional insight into the long period or phugoid mode of motion may be gained
by studying the flight path of an airplane during a phugoid motion which is allowed to
persist. The actual motion involves alternate climbing and diving and airspeed variations
between an excess at the bottom of a cycle and a deficiency at the top. During these
oscillations, the airplane trades kinetic for potential energy and vice versa - corresponding
to airspeed and altitude variations. To an observer with a stationary viewing point, the
airplane motion during a longitudinal phugoid would appear as shown in Figure 4.24.
Altitude ~ Thousand Feet
21
20
19
18
Airspeed Decreasing Airspeed Increasing
17
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Horizontal Distance ~ Thousand Feet
Figure 4.24
Typical Phugoid Flight Path (Stationary Viewing Point)
If the observer were flying alongside at constant airspeed, the airplane long period
motion would appear as in Figure 4.25.
4.liv
If Oscillation Exhibits Zero

Damping, Path of Motion
will be Elliptical
Observer's Position
If Oscillation is Damped, Path

of Motion will be a Spiral
Toward the Center
Figure 4.25
Typical Phugoid Motion (Moving Viewing Point)
From the moving viewing point, the airplane will appear to rise and fall like a mass
suspended on a spring. For a constant angle of attack, the excess airspeed on the
downswing produces excess lift; the deficiency of airspeed on the upswing results in less
lift. These variations in lift result in net downward forces at the top of the oscillation and
net upward forces at the bottom. These forces may be thought of as the effective spring
constant in the system.
Drag forces vary also as the airplane oscillates in the long period motion. At the top
of the cycle, where airspeed is reduced, drag is reduced. This results in a net forward
force. Conversely, a net backward force is generated by the increase in drag at the bottom
of the cycle. It is easily seen that these changes of drag would tend to damp the forward
and backward components of motion. This would cause the elliptical path to degenerate
into a spiral path toward the center opposite the observers position (Figure 4.25).
4.2.2.3 ADDITIONAL PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE PHUGOID

MODE OF MOTION
The discussion of longitudinal long period motion to this point has included no
consideration of varying CG, angle of attack stability (M ) , or speed stability (M u ) or
the effects of power. The effect of varying these parameters will now be shown by
4.lv
utilization of the convenient root locus plots. The classic phugoid roots with the
characteristics previously developed are shown in Figure 4.26. The classic short period
roots are shown for completeness; however, the main concern here is the long period
motion.
The long period mode of Figure 4.26 is typically stable, oscillatory, and lightly
damped. The CG is somewhere forward of the stick-fixed neutral point. (Note: The stick-
free case could be used; however, the influence of the free elevator on phugoid
characteristics is usually negligible. The stick-fixed case was chosen arbitrarily for this
discussion.)
Imaginary
Axis
x
Short Period
Roots
x
Real Axis
x
Long Period
Roots
Figure 4.26
Complex Plane Representation of Classic
Phugoid and Short Period Modes of Motion
Now, if the CG is moved progressively further aft toward the neutral point, the
frequency of the phugoid mode decreases (period becomes longer) and the damping
remains essentially constant (Figure 4.27).
4.lvi
Imaginary
x Axis
x
Real
Axis
x
Figure 4.27
Effect of Aft CG Movement on Phugoid Mode
If the CG is moved far enough aft, the oscillatory phugoid mode degenerates into a
pair of aperiodic modes represented by the branches AB and AC of Figure 4.28. The CG
position at which the phugoid becomes aperiodic (Point A) is generally just slightly
forward of the neutral point. When the CG is moved aft of the neutral point, the branch of
the aperiodic mode AC crosses the imaginary axis representing a divergence mode - i.e.,
the airplane is statically unstable when the CG is aft of the neutral point. This situation is
easy to visualize - any change of airspeed from a trimmed condition for a statically unstable
airplane results in a further pure divergence in airspeed.
4.lvii
Imaginary
Axis
x
x
B A C Real
0 Axis
x
Figure 4.28
Degeneration of Phugoid Mode into Aperiodic Modes
If the CG is moved further aft past the neutral point, the branches of the phugoid
mode and short period mode meet. At this point, a new oscillatory mode arises
corresponding to the branches DE and DF of Figure 4.29. This is a stable oscillation
whose damping and period both lie somewhere between those of the short period and
phugoid. This mode of motion is of academic interest only since this far aft CG position is
seldom encountered due to the strong static instability which would exist.
4.lviii
Imaginary
x Axis
E
x
D Real
Axis
F x
Figure 4.29
Generation of the Third Longitudinal Oscillatory Mode
The effect of varying angle of attack stability, M , can be studied by first

assuming the M u is zero, then allowing M to increase negatively from zero. (This is the
normal sign of M , since, for stability, positive (nose-up) increases in angle of attack
must generate negative (nose-down) pitching moments.) The effect of increasing angle of
attack stability is shown in Figure 4.30, and is seen to be exactly the same effect as moving
the CG forward from the stick-fixed neutral point.
4.lix
Imaginary
Axis
x Real
x x
Axis
[ Mu = 0]
Figure 4.30
Effect of Increasing Angle of Attack Stability, M
The influence of changing speed stability, M u on long period characteristics is

mainly to change the frequency (or period) of the motion. If the roots are initially
positioned according to the classic approximation, and M u is reduced (decreasing speed
stability), the effect will be shown in Figure 4.31. If the product M uL becomes greater
than M L u , a branch of the long period mode crosses the imaginary axis and the motion
becomes a nonoscillatory pure divergence. This phenomenon is easy to visualize - an
increase in airspeed would generate nose-down pitching moments. The airplane
possessing speed instability may be difficult to fly. This depends on the rate of divergence.
Speed instability is quite often encountered in the transonic flight regime.
4.lx
Imaginary
Axis
M Lu MuL = 0
x
Real
Axis
x
M (Stable)
Figure 4.31
Influence of Reducing Speed Stability, M u
If the roots are again initially positioned according to the classic approximation
and M u is increased positively, the effect may be as shown in Figure 4.32. If M u is
increased positively a sufficient amount, and if M is not too large, the long period motion
may become an oscillatory divergence. If the motion is very divergent, flying qualities may
be seriously degraded, although usually not as much as the condition of nonoscillatory pure
divergence.
For the propeller driven airplane, engine operation may have a large effect on
damping of the long period motion. For a constant brake horsepower, thrust increases at
decreased airspeed adding a net forward force at the top of the cycle and vice versa. This
phenomenon increases the damping of the phugoid oscillation. Jet engine operation has
negligible influence on phugoid characteristics.
4.lxi
Imaginary
x Axis
x Real
x Axis
Figure 4.32
Possible Effect of Increasing Speed Stability, M u
4.2.3 Longitudinal Control System Influence on

Longitudinal Flying Qualities During Nonmaneuvering Tasks
Longitudinal control system design will have a profound effect on longitudinal
flying qualities during nonmaneuvering tasks. A thorough understanding of the effects of
control system gadgetry on longitudinal flying qualities is essential for the flight test
engineer and test pilot.
4.2.3.1 GADGETRY USED IN BOTH REVERSIBLE AND

IRREVERSIBLE LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
The simple spring is often used to provide a steeper gradient of longitudinal
control force versus airspeed and to provide good control stick centering. A simple spring
arrangement and its effect on longitudinal control force stability is shown in Figure 4.33.
The preloaded downspring arrangement has a similar effect on longitudinal control

forces as can be seen from Figure 4.34. When utilized in a reversible control system, the
downspring has a tendency to drive the long period or phugoid motion divergent with
controls free.
4.lxii
This is due to the steady unbalancing force which is always applied to the
longitudinal control system. This unbalancing force is trimmed out by the pilot at the
control force trim speed; however, the force becomes a factor as airspeed varies in the long
period oscillation and may precipitate elevator inputs sufficient to destabilize the oscillation.
Although the bobweight is normally used to influence maneuvering characteristics,

it has some effect on longitudinal control force stability as shown in Figure 4.35.
Pull Without Simple Spring

Fs (Pull)
Long. Control Force

Ks
With Simple Spring
(Spring Constant) Ks
Fs
0
Ve
Ve
To Elevator Trim
Push
Equivalent Airspeed, KEAS
Figure 4.33
Simple Spring Arrangement and Influence on Static
Longitudinal Stability Characteristics
Pull
Fs (Pull) Without Pre-Loaded Downspring
Long. Control Force
Ps = Constant With Pre-Loaded Downspring

Fs
0
+Ve
Ve
To Elevator Trim
Push Equivalent Airspeed, KEAS
Figure 4.34
Pre-Loaded Downspring Arrangement and Influence on Static
4.lxiii
Fs (Pull) Pull With Positive Bobweight
Long. Control Force

No Bobweight
Positive Bobweight Negative Bobweight With Negative Bobweight
Fs
0
+Ve
Ve
Wb Wb Trim
To Elevator
Figure 4.35
Bobweight Arrangement and Influence
on Static Longitudinal Stability Characteristics
4.2.3.2 GADGETRY USED ONLY IN REVERSIBLE

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
The blow-down tab may be used to increase the gradient of longitudinal control
force versus airspeed. As shown in Figure 4.36, the blow-down tab remains on the stop
until the airplane has accelerated to a speed where the spring force is overcome. This speed
must be slower than take-off speed or the pilot will be confronted with serious longitudinal
control force nonlinearities at flying airspeeds. Long. Control Force
Ks Pull Tab Comes Off Stop

With Blow-Down Tab
Without Blow-Down Tab
0
Blow-Down Tab
Forward Stick +Ve
Elevator
To Cockpit Push Equivalent Airspeed, KEAS
Figure 4.36
Blow-Down Tab Arrangement and Effect on Static
Another means of modifying longitudinal stability and control characteristics is

through the use of lagging and leading tabs. These arrangements have a dual effect in that
they modify elevator float characteristics as well as changing longitudinal control force
requirements (Figure 4.37).
4.lxiv
To Cockpit Leading Arrangement

Back Stick Basic Elevator
Long. Control Force

Elevator Pull
Leading Tab Added
Fs
0
Lagging Tab Adding +Ve
Ve Trim
Lagging Arrangement
Push
dFs
Leading Tab Arrangement: Increases dVe , Reduces e FLOAT
dFs
Lagging Tab Arrangement: Decreases dVe , Increases e FLOAT
Figure 4.37
Leading and Lagging Tabs
The longitudinal servo tab is frequently used in very large airplanes or medium-
sized airplanes capable of high subsonic airspeeds. With a servo tab arrangement, the pilot
moves the servo tab through control stick motion. Movement of the servo tab generates
forces and moments which cause the elevator to move (Figure 4.38). By use of the servo
tab, longitudinal control forces required of the pilot are very greatly reduced.
Pull
Long. Control Forces
Without Servo Tab

Free to Rotate
With Servo Tab
0
Fs
Elevator
+Ve
Forward Stick Ve
Trim

To Cockpit
Figure 4.38
Longitudinal Servo Tab Arrangement
Another arrangement used to modify longitudinal stability and control

characteristics is the preloaded spring tab, which is a modification of the servo tab
described above. The preloaded spring tab does not modify longitudinal control forces
about the trim airspeed until the preloaded force is exceeded (Figure 4.39). Once
longitudinal control forces are greater than the preload of the spring, the servo action of the
tab reduces the longitudinal control force-airspeed gradient.
4.lxv
Without Servo Action (Ks = )

Pull
Long. Control Forces

Free to Rotate Preload
Band
Preloaded Springs
With Servo
0
Fs
+Ve
Forward Stick
To Cockpit Ve Trim
Push
Figure 4.39
Pre-Loaded Spring Tab Arrangement
4.2.3.3 GADGETRY USED ONLY IN IRREVERSIBLE

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Fully irreversible longitudinal control systems generally incorporate simple springs,
bob weights, and viscous dampers to provide the pilot with longitudinal control feet. In
addition, other control system gadgetry may be utilized to improve longitudinal stability and
control characteristics. Some of these arrangements are discussed below.
The extendable link may be utilized to provide longitudinal control force stability
even though the airplane exhibits elevator position instability. A typical extendable link
arrangement is shown in Figure 4.40.
Simple Springs
Viscous Damper
Positive Bobweight
Servo-Mechanism
Extendable Link
To
Elevator
Signal to Extendable Link
Airspeed & Alt.
Sensor
Figure 4.40
Irreversible Longitudinal Control System with Extendable Link
4.lxvi
The extendable link mechanism may be used to program an artificial float into the
longitudinal control system as airspeed is varied about trim (Figure 4.41). Since the pilot
moves the elevator from the float position to the position required for equilibrium,
longitudinal control forces are in the correct direction.
Elevator Position from Trim
TEU Airplane Exhibits Pilot Action Pull
Long. Control Force

Elevator Position Instability
+V
Degrees
e
0 0
+
V
Artificial "Float" Introduced
With Extendable Link
TED Push
Indicated Airspeed, KIAS Indicated Airspeed, KIAS
Figure 4.41
Extendable Link Can Provide Artificial Control Force Stability
Other devices sometimes used in irreversible longitudinal control systems are the
mechanical advantage changer and the q - bellows. Both these devices are used to cope
with poor basic airplane characteristics, such as neutral or negative elevator position
gradients or nonlinearities in relationship of elevator position with airspeed about trim. One
of the characteristics usually generated by the action of both these devices is cockpit stick
motion. However, this motion is usually so slight that it is not objectionable and usually is
not noticeable. Certain types of q - bellows systems have demonstrated a propensity
toward failure through atmospheric icing.
4.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES NONMANEUVERING

TASKS

A rigorous investigation of longitudinal flying qualities during nonmaneuvering
tasks must begin with thorough preflight planning. The purpose and scope of the
investigation must be clearly defined, then a plan of attack or method of test can be
formulated.
4.lxvii
Preflight planning must start with research. This includes a study of the airplane
and a thorough study of the longitudinal control system - including stability and control
augmentation if installed. All available information on longitudinal stability and control
characteristics should be reviewed. Much useful information can be gained by conferences
with pilots and engineers familiar with the airplane.
The particular nonmaneuvering tasks to be investigated must be determined and

clearly understood by the flight test team. These tasks, of course, depend on the mission
of the airplane. It is particularly important during the investigation of nonmaneuvering
tasks to determine if these tasks will be performed in instrument flight (IFR) conditions or
merely visual flight (VFR) conditions in operational use. Certain undesirable
characteristics can be accepted for VFR missions, but are not acceptable for IRF missions.
The test conditions - configuration, altitude, center of gravity, trim airspeeds, and
gross weight - must be determined. Test conditions should be commensurate with the
mission environment of the airplane. Center of gravity position is extremely critical for
longitudinal stability tests. If flight test time permits, tests at the most aft and most forward
operational CG positions should be performed after adequate build up. If flight test time is
limited, tests should be performed at the most aft operational CG position (aft critical
loading). Note: If the test program is aimed at determining forward and aft CG limits for
operational use, appropriate CG limits will be promulgated or recommended by the test
activity or higher authority.
The amount and sophistication of instrumentation will depend on the purpose and
scope of the evaluation. A good, meaningful qualitative investigation can be performed
with only production cockpit instruments and portable instrumentation - hand-held force
gauge, stopwatch, and tape measure. Automatic recording devices, such as oscillograph,
magnetic tape, and telemetry, are very helpful in rapid data acquisition and may be essential
in a long test program of quantitative nature. Special sensitive cockpit instruments are also
very useful, not only aiding in data acquisition but also aiding in stabilization for
equilibrium test points.
4.lxviii
example of a longitudinal stability and control data card for the investigation of
nonmaneuvering tasks is shown in Figure 4.42. Many test pilots desire to modify data
cards to their own requirements or construct data cards for each test. At any rate, the data
cards should list all quantitative information desired and should be easy to interpret in
flight. Blank cards should be utilized for appropriate qualitative pilot comments.
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY AND CONTROL RECORD CARD NUMBER

NON-MANEUVERING TASKS
AIRPLANE TYPE PILOT PTR-BIS
BUREAU NUMBER T.O. GROSS WEIGHT DATE
T.O. CG
GEAR DOWN %MAC GEAR UP %MAC T.O. TIME LAND TIME
EXTERNAL LOADING CONFIGURATION

TRIM AIRSPEED MACH POWER ALT. LONG. TRIM
BREAKOUT & CONTROL SYSTEM MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS FREEPLAY
FRICTION
CN
CONTROL SYSTEM OSCILLATIONS CENTERING
CN
AIRSPEED Vo STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
RATE OF CLIMB
LONG. CONTROL FORCEELEVATOR POSITION e
MACH NO. IMN CN RATE OF DESCENT
Fs STICK POSITION, s
TRIM FUEL
TRIM FUEL ACCELERATION - DECELERATION MAX MIN

DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
SLOW START PHUGOID FUEL FAST START PHUGOID FUEL
ELAPSED TIME, SEC AIRSPEED, Vo ELAPSED TIME, SEC AIRSPEED, Vo

0 0
TRIM TRIM
TRIM TRIM
TRIM TRIM
TRIM TRIM
ELEVATOR FLOAT DURING PHUGOID

EASE OF TRIM TO TRIMMABILITY TRIM RATE
Fs = 0 TRIM SENSITIVITY
LONG TERM TRIM HOLDING TRIM SPEED BAND LOCATION OF TRIM DEVICE
Figure 4.42
Longitudinal Stability and Control Record
for Non-Maneuvering Tasks
4.lxix
4.3.2.1 THE QUALITATIVE PHASE OF THE EVALUATION

Longitudinal stability and control characteristics must be evaluated in relation to
their influence on various nonmaneuvering mission tasks. Therefore, the test pilot must
devote a portion of the evaluation to performing or simulating the nonmaneuvering tasks
which have been selected. While performing these tasks, the test pilot gains the essential
qualitative opinion of the longitudinal flying qualities and should assign handling qualities
ratings. Without recording a single item of data, the test pilot should be able to form a
good opinion of the mission effectiveness of the airplane, at least for the particular task
being evaluated. This opinion will be based on the amount of attention and effort the pilot
must devote to just flying the airplane. Due consideration must be given during this
phase of the test to the following factors:
1. Whether the mission task will be performed in VFR and IFR weather, or
strictly in VFR conditions.
2. The availability of an autopilot or automatic flight control system for pilot

relief.
3. If stability or control augmentation systems are installed, the consequences

of their failure.
The test pilot's qualitative opinion of the airplane's longitudinal flying qualities in
relation to the selected mission task is the most important information to be obtained.
Therefore, this phase of the test must not be overlooked. The test pilot probably will have
some ideas as to the particular characteristics which make the airplane easy or hard to fly
even before proceeding to the quantitative phase of the testing. Use of the quantitative test
techniques to be discussed below hopefully allows the test pilot to substantiate his
qualitative opinion.
4.lxx
4.3.2.2 MEASUREMENT OF THE MECHANICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics of the longitudinal flight control systems have a major
influence on longitudinal flying qualities. The mechanical characteristics to be evaluated are
defined as follows:
1. Breakout forces including friction: The longitudinal cockpit control force

from the trim position required to initiate movement of the longitudinal control
surface.
2. Friction: Forces in the longitudinal control system resisting the pilot's effort
to change the control position.
3. Freeplay: The longitudinal cockpit control motion from the trim position
that does not initiate movement of the longitudinal control surface.
4. Centering: The ability of the longitudinal cockpit control and the

longitudinal control surface to return to and maintain the original trimmed
position when released from any other position.
5. Control System Oscillations: Oscillations in the longitudinal control system

(elevator and cockpit control stick) resulting from external or internal
disturbances.
4.3.2.2.1 Breakout Forces, Including Friction

Friction in the longitudinal control system is unavoidable, however, it should be
kept as low as possible. The effect of friction (without breakout) on longitudinal flying
qualities can be rationalized by a study of Figure 4.43. The true variation of longitudinal
control force versus airspeed is represented by the solid line and the superimposed friction
4.lxxi
is represented by the dashed lines. In this case, the combination of a shallow control force
gradient and significant longitudinal friction ((+) 1.5 pounds) create poor control
characteristics about trim airspeed. These characteristics would be as follows:
1. Poor longitudinal control feel about trim in that the friction masks the
longitudinal control force stability from 150 to 190 KIAS.
2. Poor trimmability in that the airplane will stabilize at any speed from 150 to
190 KIAS with the same longitudinal trim setting. This band of airspeed is
called the trim speed band.
By judiciously adding some breakout force to the longitudinal control system, the
undesirable effects of friction in the control system may be eliminated. This effect may be
rationalized by a study of Figure 4.44, which is the same plot as Figure 4.43 except for the
addition of a breakout force and is a typical plot of longitudinal control force variation with
airspeed for a real airplane. In this case, the addition of a breakout force equal to the
friction force reduces the poor control feel about trim and reduces the trim speed band to
zero. There are other advantages to having some breakout in the longitudinal control
system. Breakout forces allow the pilot to rest his hand on the control stick without
introducing inadvertent longitudinal control inputs.
Longitudinal Control
Force Stability Masked
Pull by Friction
Long. Control Force
0
Lbs
130 150 170 190 210

5
Push Airspeed, KIAS
Figure 4.43
Longitudinal Control Friction Masking
Control Force Stability
4.lxxii
Pull
Friction = 1.5 lbs
10
Long. Control Force

5 Breakout, Including Friction = 3 lbs
} 190 210
0
Lbs
130 150 {
Push
5
Trim
10 Airspeed, KIAS
Figure 4.44
Addition of Breakout Force to the Longitudinal Control System
However, breakout forces must not be excessive or longitudinal flying qualities will
again be degraded. For example, breakout forces must be suitably matched to the
longitudinal control force stability. A combination of high breakout and very shallow
longitudinal control force variation with airspeed (Figure 4.45) results in a noticeable
control force nonlinearity about trim airspeed. This results in poor control feel about the
trim airspeed. Since the pilot trims the airplane through stick force feel, the high
breakout force may result in poor trimmability. This is because the pilot has difficulty in
determining when his applied stick force is equal to the breakout force (a criterion for trim)
if the breakout is large.
Friction = 1.5 lbs

Pull
Breakout, Including Friction = 6.5 lbs

10
}
Long. Control Force
{
0
Lbs
130 150 170 190 210

Push
5
10 Airspeed, KIAS
Figure 4.45
Poor Matching of Static Longitudinal Stability and Breakout Forces
In general, friction should be as small as possible in the longitudinal control system;

some breakout is generally beneficial, but too much results in undesirable characteristics.
Breakout forces, including friction may vary with atmospheric conditions, such as
4.lxxiii
temperature and humidity, as well as trim conditions, such as longitudinal stick position.
However, this variance is usually very small. For the irreversible longitudinal control
system, breakout forces, including friction, usually do not vary from static condition (on
the ground) through the airplane's entire flight envelope.
In should be obvious from studying Figures 4.44 and 4.45 that breakout force can
never be measured alone, unless there is zero friction force. Therefore, breakout forces,
including friction, are measured at the trim airspeed of the test, and friction alone is
measured at stabilized airspeeds above or below trim airspeed. Breakout forces, including
friction, are measured in flight with the hand-held force gauge by carefully stabilizing at the
trim airspeed, then applying slow and smooth forward and aft longitudinal control forces in
turn until movement of the elevator is detected. Movement of the elevator can be detected
by visually observing elevator movement, use of an elevator position indicator, or by
observing airplane pitch attitude changes. If the latter method must be used, extremely
slow and smooth control force inputs should be made in small increments until pitch
attitude response is noted. Caution must be exercised because the airplane will require a
finite time interval to respond in pitch attitude to the elevator movement. This becomes
particularly critical in large, slow responding, transport and patrol airplanes; therefore, for
such airplanes, incremental force increases of approximately 1/2 pound are recommended.
If automatic recording devices are utilized, breakout forces, including friction may be
measured from the recording traces as shown in Figure 4.46. More rapid longitudinal
force inputs will allow trace breakaways from the trimmed condition to be more easily
identified but will aggravate the effect of time delays in the control system (for example,
hydraulic actuator response lag) causing an increase in the apparent breakout (including
friction) force.
Friction forces may be measured by stabilizing at airspeeds above or below trim

airspeed (outside of the influence of breakout). After stabilizing at an airspeed above or
below trim, the pilot slowly varies stick force until he observes elevator movement or
airplane pitch attitude change. Longitudinal friction will be measured as the difference
between maximum and minimum longitudinal control forces required to maintain the
stabilized airspeed (see Figures 4.44 and 4.45).
4.lxxiv
Elevator Position Trace
Trace Breakaways
Longitudinal Control Force Trace Longitudinal Breakout

Including Friction
0 0.5 1.0
Time, Tenths of Seconds
Figure 4.46
Use of Automatic Recording Trace for Determination
of Longitudinal Breakout Forces, Including Friction
Breakout, including friction, may be measured on the ground for airplanes

equipped with irreversible longitudinal control systems where longitudinal control force is
merely a function of longitudinal control deflection. However, ground measurements
should be checked with an in-flight measurement. It is obvious that in-flight measurement
at various airspeeds is the only means of accurately determining these characteristics for the
reversible control system.
4.3.2.2.2 Freeplay
Freeplay in the longitudinal control system should be as small as possible.
Excessive freeplay will cause difficulty in performing precise maneuvers such as level
accelerations or decelerations and tracking. The pilot will generally resort to flying the
airplane out of trim during precise maneuvers to avoid the necessity to continually move
the longitudinal control stick through excessive freeplay. Freeplay, expressed in inches or
degrees of longitudinal cockpit control movement, is measured in flight at the trim airspeed
much the same as breakout, including friction, was measured. Ground measurements may
also be made for irreversible control systems.
4.lxxv
4.3.2.2.3 Centering
Positive centering of the longitudinal control system is shown by an initial tendency
of the cockpit control to return towards the trimmed position when released from a
displaced position. If the control returns exactly to the trimmed position, then absolute
centering is displayed. The longitudinal control system should exhibit positive centering in
flight at any stabilized trim airspeed. Poor centering generally results in objectionable
tracking characteristics or large departures in airspeed without constant pilot attention to the
control of the airplane. Centering is qualitatively evaluated in flight at the trim airspeed by
displacing the longitudinal cockpit control smoothly to various positions and observing its
motion upon release. If poor centering is apparent, measurements of the difference
between the trim position and the position attained after release may be made with automatic
recording devices or hand-held cockpit instruments, such as a tape measure. Irreversible
control system centering characteristics may be evaluated on the ground.
4.3.2.2.4 Control System Oscillations

Oscillations in the elevator control surface and the entire longitudinal control
system, initiated by either external perturbations or pilot action, should be well-damped or
deadbeat. Lightly damped or undamped motion can result in annoying and dangerous
oscillations in normal acceleration, particularly during flight in turbulent air. Damping of
the control system is measured in flight by abruptly deflecting and releasing the longitudinal
cockpit control (sometime called a rap input) and observing the resulting motion in the
control surface and/or the cockpit control stick. Use of automatic recording devices or a
cockpit mounted elevator position indicator aides in data acquisition. If these are not
available, the test pilot must resort to observing the motion of the cockpit control stick. It
must be remembered, however, that motion of the control stick may or may not be the same
as motion of the elevator, depending on the amount of freeplay in the longitudinal control
system. Irreversible control system oscillation characteristics may be checked on the
ground; however, these characteristics should be evaluated in flight to insure there is no
coupling between airplane motion and control system dynamics.
4.lxxvi
4.3.2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

FORCE STABILITY, ELEVATOR POSITION STABILITY, AND
FLIGHT PATH STABILITY
It should be apparent that some degree of longitudinal control force and elevator
position stability is desirable. These static longitudinal stability characteristics contribute to
good longitudinal trimmability and maintenance of the trimmed condition. In addition, the
longitudinal cockpit control forces and motions required in changing flight conditions are
simple and natural if longitudinal control force and elevator position stability are present.
However, if too much stability is present, the airplane may be very difficult to control in
that large longitudinal control forces and position changes may be required to change
airspeed in unaccelerated flight. The degree of longitudinal control force and elevator
position stability which is desirable or acceptable in any airplane depends on the mission of
the airplane and the multitude of pilot tasks required to accomplish that mission. However,
it can be rationalized that for the nonmaneuvering tasks under evaluation, some degree of
static longitudinal stability is desirable for pleasant longitudinal flying qualities. In
addition, plots of longitudinal control force and elevator position versus airspeed should be
smooth and their local gradients stable within a reasonable airspeed band about trim
airspeed.
It is desirable that when the pilot changes airspeed by use of the elevator control
alone, increases in airspeed are accompanied by decreases in flight path angle ( ) (i.e., less
climb or more dive) and decreases in airspeed are accompanied by increases in flight path
angle (i.e., more climb or less dive). This characteristic is referred to as flight path stability
and is really a performance characteristic; i.e., it is dependent on whether the airplane is
operating on the front side, back side, or flat portion of the power required curve.
However, it may have a major influence on pilot workload, particularly in approach
configuration where back side or flat portion operation may require continuous throttle
and longitudinal control inputs to maintain desired airspeed and rate of descent. Flight path
stability may be conveniently measured during static longitudinal stability tests by noting
rate of climb or rate of descent at each test point. A plot of change in rate of climb or
descent versus airspeed indicates flight path stability or instability (Figure 4.47).
4.lxxvii
+400
+300 (Decreasing R/D)
Flight Path Stability
Change in Rate of Decent R/D

+200
Flight Path Instability
+100
Ft/Min
0
90 110 130 150 170
-100
-200
Trim
-300 (Increasing R/D)
-400 Indicated Airspeed, KIAS
Figure 4.47
Means of Presenting Flight Path Stability Data
In analyzing flight path stability in the landing approach phase, a plot of flight-path
angle versus true airspeed is used to determine specification compliance. The requirement
is that the flight-path angle versus true-airspeed curve shall have a local slope at the
( )
minimum operational approach speed V0 min which is negative or less positive than:
a. Level 1 - 0.06 degrees/knot
b. Level 2 - 0.15 degrees/knot
c. Level 3 - 0.24 degrees/knot
The thrust setting shall be that required for the normal approach glide path at V0 min .
The slope of the flight-path angle versus airspeed curve at 5 knots slower than V0 min shall
not be more than 0.05 degrees per knot more positive than the slope at V0 min , as illustrated
by Figure 4.48.
4.lxxviii
+
( V0 MIN 5) V0 MIN
V (TAS), KT
Flight-Path Angle (PA)

PA
1 Vertical
Speed
PA = SIN True Airspeed

Region Region
of Positive of Negative
Difference in Slopes Slopes Slopes
not to Exceed .05 Deg/KT
-
Figure 4.48
Flight Path Stability Data in Configuration PA
Several methods have been utilized for obtaining static longitudinal stability data in
flight. Three will be presented here. The first method is called the stabilized point
technique. It involves measuring data at a constant power setting and constant trim setting
while varying airspeed about trim by varying altitude (or rate of climb or descent) with
elevator position. The technique is performed as follows:
1. Stabilize and trim carefully in the desired configuration at the desired flight
condition. If using automatic recording devices, a trim shot should be taken.
Record appropriate data such as power, longitudinal trim setting, elevator or
stick position, and fuel quantity. If a true airspeed indicator is not installed in
the test airplane, OAT should be noted to determine true airspeed.
2. Without changing power or trim settings, vary airspeed to predetermined points

about trim airspeed by varying altitude. The off-trim speeds used should cover
a range of at least + 15 percent of the trim speed or + 50 KEAS whichever is
less (except, of course, where limited by the service flight envelope). For
power approach or land configuration, the range of airspeeds should extend to
the stall speed. (A reversal or shallowing of the gradient of longitudinal control
4.lxxix
force versus airspeed could precipitate a tendency toward inadvertent stall in

these configurations.) It is recommended that at least three equally spaced
points (preferably four) be selected at speeds both faster and slower than trim in
order to adequately define the relationships to be plotted. At each selected
point, airspeed must be carefully and precisely stabilized. After stabilization, a
short automatic recording burst should be taken, and/or the following cockpit
observations recorded on the data card:
a. Longitudinal control force (maximum and minimum, if friction is

measurable, in order to aid in airing the data). Measurements may be made
with the hand-held force gauge.
b. Elevator position or longitudinal cockpit control position. Longitudinal

cockpit control position may be measured with a tape measure.
c. Rate of climb or rate of descent.
Altitude variance during these tests should not exceed + 1000 feet from the base
altitude. For configurations requiring power for level flight, acquiring data at first fast and
then slow test airspeeds, etc., will facilitate remaining near the base altitude.
The second method is called the Slow Acceleration-Deceleration Technique and can
be utilized only with automatic recording devices. However, it allows rapid data
acquisition, particularly if the airspeed range is large. This method is not as accurate as the
stabilized point method since true equilibrium conditions are never attained except at the
trim airspeed. Nevertheless, if the acceleration and deceleration are performed slowly and
smoothly (approximately 2 knots/second or less), the data obtained will be adequate for
most flight test programs. The technique is performed as follows:
condition. Record appropriate cockpit data - power, longitudinal trim setting,
and fuel quantity.
4.lxxx
2. Start the automatic recording device and activate the event marker to denote a
trim shot. Leave the recording device running and initiate a slow acceleration
or deceleration by applying a smooth longitudinal control force input. Power
and trim settings should remain at the trim conditions. Adjust the acceleration
or deceleration rate and actuate the event marker at predetermined airspeeds to
simplify data reduction. The visual horizon should be used to maintain a
constant acceleration or deceleration with frequent reference to the airspeed
indicator. (If the process is done very slowly, or if the airspeed range is large,
the pilot may desire to turn off the automatic recording devices between
predetermined points.) Continue the acceleration or deceleration to one end of
the airspeed range, then reverse longitudinal control force and proceed to the
other extreme. The process should always terminate at the trim airspeed.
Data obtained by the Slow Acceleration-Deceleration Technique may be presented

as shown in Figure 4.49. This particular method of data presentation, where every point
on the plot is a data point, is sometime called shot gunning data. Plots like this are easy
to derive if automatic data reduction facilities are available; it is apparent that obtaining the
same plot by manual data reduction would be extremely laborious.
Pull
15
10
5
Lbs
0
300 310 320 330 340 0 380 390 400
5
10
Push
15 Indicated Airspeed, KIAS
Figure 4.49
Typical Longitudinal Control Force Stability Data
from a Slow Acceleration - Deceleration
4.lxxxi
The third method is called the Power Acceleration-Deceleration Technique and can
be utilized only with automatic recording devices. This method is not as accurate as the
stabilized point method since true equilibrium conditions are never obtained and power
effects are not constant. Power effects can be observed in the data, however, since the data
is obtained with maximum and minimum power. The technique is performed as follows:
condition. Record appropriate cockpit data - power, longitudinal trim setting,
and fuel quantity. Start the automatic recording device and activate the event
marker to denote a trim shot.
2. Retard the throttle slowly and smoothly to idle allowing the airplane to slow
down. Leave the recording device running and actuate the event marker at
predetermined airspeeds to simplify data reduction. A zero rate of climb is
desired but a slight rate of climb or descent is acceptable if it is constant. If the
airplane controls are moved back and forth between climbs and descents,
additional errors will be introduced into the elevator position and stick force
readings. A rapid crosscheck between the visual horizon and the rate of climb
indicator will assist in maintaining the proper airplane rotation rate.
3. At predetermined minimum speed slowly and smoothly advance the throttles to

full military power (maximum power if desired). As the airplane accelerates
again activate the event marker at the predetermined airspeeds. When the
maximum desired velocity is reached again slowly and smoothly retard the
throttles to idle and transverse the speed range back to trim airspeed.
4. If the airspeed range is large and the acceleration/deceleration rates slow, the
pilot may desire to turn off the automatic recording devices between the
predetermined points.
4.lxxxii
4.3.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF LONG PERIOD OR PHUGOID

CHARACTERISTICS
Damping and frequency (or period) of the long period longitudinal mode of motion
have been shown to have little effect on longitudinal flying qualities in visual flight. 2
Under flight conditions where the pilot maintains close control over pitch attitude, he
effectively damps the long period motion before it has a change to cause airspeed or altitude
variations.
Unfortunately, pilot opinion of instrument flight characteristics is considerably

affected by phugoid damping. Typical adverse effects on instrument flight of decreasing
phugoid damping are:
1. Deterioration in the pilot's ability to trim at a precise desired airspeed.
2. Deviations from equilibrium trim conditions (altitude and airspeed) become

more frequent and annoying.
3. The pilot's instrument flying technique may change. He may be required to

monitor with increasing frequency the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and rate of
climb indicator. With extreme negative damping, the pilot may find it
necessary to monitor very closely the horizon bar of the attitude gyro.
One study of the influence of phugoid damping on instrument flight characteristics

revealed that the pilot utilized ten times more elevator inputs when the phugoid damping
was negative (- 0.23) than when it was positive (+ 0.50). This reflects the increased pilot
workload associated with poor long period characteristics.
The test technique for measuring phugoid characteristics (period and damping ratio)
is very simple. The airplane is first stabilized and trimmed in the desired configuration at
the desired flight condition. The elevator control alone is then used to stabilize at an
airspeed approximately 15 KIAS slower or faster than the trim airspeed. Phugoids should
2 However, if the period of the phugoid is low and the period of the airplane short period motion is high -
such that PP < P SP, the pilot is likely to continually excite the phugoid in normal manuevering flight. This
is generally not the case for most airplanes.
4.lxxxiii
be initiated from airspeeds both slower and faster than trim for each trim airspeed being
evaluated. Trim tab settings and power are maintained at the trim condition. The elevator
control is then smoothly returned to the trim position and released to initiate the controls
free oscillation; the 60-second sweep stopwatch is started simultaneously. The pilot then
merely records a time history of airspeed (and altitude, if desired) until enough cycles are
completed to define completely the characteristics of the oscillation (at least two cycles).
Elapsed time and airspeed should be recorded at minimum airspeed, maximum airspeed,
and trim airspeed points. Airspeed changes occur very slowly at minimum and maximum
airspeed points; therefore, pitch attitude should be monitored to aid in recording the correct
elapsed time at these points. Minimum and maximum airspeeds will occur at the point
where pitch attitude is approximately the same as the initial trimmed pitch attitude (refer to
Figure 4.24 in the Theory Section).
The pilot must keep the wings of the airplane completely level during the phugoid
measurements without introducing any longitudinal control inputs. This may be
accomplished by use of rudder inputs, lateral trim inputs, or side pressure on the cockpit
control stick.
If the elevator is observed to float during the controls free oscillation, the phugoid
characteristics should also be measured with the longitudinal cockpit control rigidly
restrained in the trim position. (Instead of releasing the cockpit control stick after it is
returned to the trim position, it is returned smoothly to the trim position and restrained
there.) The effect of elevator float can be seen as the difference between the phugoids
performed with controls free and controls fixed.
Automatic recording devices may be utilized to record phugoid characteristics.

However, the long period and low damping of the phugoid require continuous operation of
the automatic devices for a long time interval. Careful manual data acquisition yields
results of useable accuracy.
4.3.2.5 MEASUREMENT OF LONGITUDINAL TRIMMABILITY

Longitudinal trimmability, as related to nonmaneuvering tasks, is indicated by the
ease with which the pilot can reduce longitudinal control forces to zero at a precise airspeed
and the ability of the airplane to maintain that trimmed condition without pilot attention.
4.lxxxiv
Trimmability depends on all the characteristics previously discussed. In addition, it

depends on the rate of operation3 and sensitivity4 of the longitudinal trim device as well as
the physical location and ease of operation of the trim device in the cockpit.
Trimmability determination is mainly a qualitative assessment by the pilot.

However, measurement of the trim speed band is quantitative and requires some
explanation.
The trim speed band is bounded by the maximum and minimum airspeeds at
which the airplane will stabilize at a given trim setting without pilot applied forces. The
technique for determining the trim speed band for a given trim airspeed, configuration,
and altitude is rather difficult to explain on the round but easy to understand in flight. The
airplane is first very carefully trimmed at the desired trim airspeed, configuration, and flight
condition. Power and trim tab settings are maintained at the trimmed conditions. A very
small longitudinal control force input is then applied in the nose-down direction and the
airplane restabilized at an airspeed about 2 KIAS greater than trim speed. The longitudinal
control is then released and the pitch attitude response and airspeed response of the airplane
noted. If pitch attitude and airspeed remain at the new stabilized conditions, the limits of
the trim speed band have not been exceeded. If pitch attitude and airspeed start to return to
trim immediately upon releasing the longitudinal control, the limits of the trim speed band
have been exceeded. The trim speed band is thus determined by both increasing and
decreasing airspeed from trim until the limits are reached. The speed band below and
above trim airspeed may not be the same since the trim airspeed may be anywhere in the
trim speed band (Figure 4.50).
3 Movement of the trim tab per unit time. This characteristic is independent of the flight conditions.
4 Response of the trim device to a pilot trim input as indicated by the degree of longitudinal control force
response to the trim input. This characteristic is a function of flight condition (dynamic pressure) as well
as design of the trim system.
4.lxxxv
Pull
15

10 6 KIAS Trim Speed Band
Lbs
155 160 165
0
135 140 145
5
10 True Trim Airspeed

Push
150
15
The Trim Airspeed at which the airplane stabilizes initially may be 148 KIAS.
The Trim Speed Band measurement would then yield -1 KIAS and +5 KIAS as the
limits. However, the same Trim Speed Band of 6 KIAS would be reported.
Figure 4.50
The Trim Speed Band

As soon as possible after returning from the flight, the pilot should write a brief,
rough qualitative report of the longitudinal flying qualities exhibited during the mission
tasks under evaluation. This report should be written while the events of the flight are
fresh in his mind. The qualitative opinion of the test pilot, appropriately related to the
mission tasks under evaluation, will be the most important part of the final report of the
longitudinal flying qualities.
Appropriate data should be selected to substantiate the pilot's opinion. Methods of

data presentation are as numerous as flight test activities. No matter what method is used,
the presentation should be clear, concise, and complete. The data presentation to be
discussed here is only suggested and may be modified as desired by the test activity.
4.3.3.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics are effectively presented in tabular form as shown in
Figure 4.51. Longitudinal control surface damping is also effectively presented on a time
history if automatic recording devices are utilized (Figure 4.52).
4.lxxxvi
Breakout, Including Friction

Lbs
Damping
Specification Limits Freeplay Damping Ratio
Mil. Spec._______ (Fwd & Aft) Centering
Measured Inches
(Forward & Aft) Cockpit
Min Max Elevator Control
Stick
5 12 1
2 3
1
2 Deadbeat .45 Positive
Figure 4.51
Suggested Table for Presenting Control Mechanical Characteristics
20
TEU
Rap Input
Elevator Position
Elevator Position
10 Trace
DEG
Deadbeat Damping
0
0.5 1.0
TED
Time (Sec)
10
Figure 4.52
Longitudinal Control Surface Damping Presentation
4.3.3.2 STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS
Static longitudinal stability characteristics may be presented as plots of longitudinal
control force stability, elevator position stability, and flight path stability. (Flight path
stability need not be presented in all cases. It should be presented for all Power approach
configuration tests, however, as previously described in Figure 4.48.) Longitudinal
cockpit control position variation with airspeed or Mach number about trim may also be
presented. Typical plots are shown in Figure 4.53.
4.lxxxvii
Pull
10
Breakout, Including Friction = 1 Lb
Long. Control Force

5 Friction Negligible
Lb
5
Push
10
Aft
15
Long. Control Position

10
Deg
0
Fwd
5
TEU
15
Elevator Position
10
5
Deg
0
TED
5
Climb
1000
Vertical Velocity
500
Ft/Min
0
Descent
500
1000
170 185 200 215 230 245
Trim
Indicated Airspeed, KIAS
Configuration: Cruise Gross Weight: 35,500 Lbs.

Loading: Normal Fighter Stab Aug: On
CG: 36% MAC Altitude: 3,000 Ft
Figure 4.53
Static Longitudinal Stability Characteristics
The effectiveness of longitudinal stability plots depends a great deal on the scales
chosen. The gradients may be made to appear steep or shallow merely by changing the
scale relationship of horizontal and vertical axes. Scales should be chosen so that the plots
are compatible with the pilot's qualitative opinion; i.e., if the longitudinal control force
variation with airspeed felt light or shallow to the pilot, scales should be chosen so that
the relationship appears shallow.
4.lxxxviii
Discussion of static longitudinal stability characteristics in the report of the test must
be worded with care. The report must not imply that some characteristic was measured,
where, in actuality, flight test data only indicated the characteristic. For example, in flight
test work, the parameters recorded, such as longitudinal control force and elevator position
variations with airspeed about trim, are only indications of stick-free and stick-fixed static
longitudinal stability, respectively. In general, the use of the terms stick-fixed, elevator-
fixed, stick-free and elevator-free is not recommended for the reporting of static
longitudinal stability characteristics determined from flight tests. The terms are used
extensively, of course, in text books, classroom work, and wind tunnel investigations.
The language of the report should reflect the parameters which were actually measured. As
an example, the following introductory sentence might be used in the report: Static
longitudinal stability, as indicated by the variation of longitudinal control force and elevator
position about the trim airspeed, was slightly positive in all configurations tested.
Caution must also be exercised when discussing the gradient changes which
commonly occur at airspeeds below and above trim airspeed. As an example, the
longitudinal control force stability plot of Figure 4.53 shows a reversal in the gradient at
approximately 145 KIAS. This gradient reversal should most emphatically not be reported
as static longitudinal instability, longitudinal control force instability, etc. If the author
desires to discuss the reversal in gradient, it should be reported exactly as its exists; i.e.,
The variation of longitudinal control force with airspeed exhibited a slightly stable gradient
through trim airspeed; however, the gradient reversed smoothly at 15 KIAS faster than trim
and push forces decreased to one pound at 30 KIAS faster than trim.
Static longitudinal stability data is sometimes presented in tabular form when many
loadings, configurations, altitudes, trim airspeeds, and CG positions have been utilized.
An example is represented in Figure 4.54. Expression of longitudinal control force
gradients in pounds per knot has particular merit for comparing the static stability
characteristics for various configurations and CG positions.
4.lxxxix
Loading Configuration Altitude Trim Airspeed CG Position Gradient (1)

(ft) (KCAS/M) (% MAC) (lb/kt)
A CR 40,000 .77 21.6 (3) .18
A P 40,000 .86 24.7 0
A P 35,000 .91 18.1 -.15 >trim
0 < trim
C CR 30,000 .67 23.3 .12
C CR 30,000 .77 22.9 .09
A CR 20,000 277/.60 25.2 (3) 0 > trim
.20 < trim
A G 20,000 211 22.9 0 > trim
.19 < trim
A D(2) 20,000 212 24.2 .16
A CR 10,000 261 15.5 (3) .03 > trim
.13 < trim
A CR 10,000 289 25.5 (3) .0 > trim
.09 < trim
A P 10,000 454/.83 21.0 0
A P 10,000 461/.83 16.8 0 > trim
.23 < trim
A P 10,000 524/.94 24.1 (3) -.24 > trim
.07 < trim
C CR 10,000 291 25.3 .04
C CR 10,000 297 20.5 .13
C P 10,000 445/.80 23.2 .09
A TO 10,000 139 26.5 (3) -.13 > trim
.15 < trim
C TO 10,000 166 25.4 (3) .13
A PA 10,000 147 21.7 .06
C PA 10,000 135 21.5 .20
A WO 10,000 116 22.2 .14
C WO 10,000 124 24.1 .24
(1) Longitudinal Control Force Gradient Through Trim Airspeed. Stable Gradients Carry a Positive Sign;
Unstable Gradients Carry a Negative Sign.
(2) IDLE Thrust.
(3) See CG-Gross Weight Relationship Shown in Appendix IV, Figure 1.
Figure 4.54
Static Longitudinal Stability Table
4.3.3.3 DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS - LONG PERIOD OSCILLATIONS
The phugoid or long period data are presented as time histories of airspeed for the
controls free and controls fixed (if applicable) oscillations. Altitude may also be plotted on
the time histories if desired. An example of long period data presentation is shown in
Figure 4.55. Characteristics of the oscillation (period, damping ratio, time-to-half
4.xc
amplitude or time-to-double amplitude, cycles-to-half amplitude or cycles-to-double) may

be presented on the time history if desired. The altitude or airspeed variation on the time
history may be used to measure the characteristics; in Figure 4.55, the airspeed trace was
arbitrarily chosen. Note that the phugoid motion oscillated about airspeed and altitude
different than the assumed trim conditions. This could be caused by a large trim speed
band or poor longitudinal control centering. However, the data is stall usable.
22
21
Trim Altitude
20
Altitude - Thousand Ft
450
19
400
Calibrated Airspeed - KT
18
Trim Airspeed
350
2 ( XN +1 )
17 2XN
300
16
Altitude
Airspeed
250 Period = 85 Sec
Damping Ratio = -.12
15 Time to Double Amplitude = 85 Sec
Cycles to Double Amplitude = 1
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time-Sec
Model______Airplane
BuNo______
Configuration: CR CG: 35.2% Mac

Loading: C Gross Weight: 35,500 Lb
Stab. Aug: On
Method: Controls Free
Figure 4.55
Long Period Characteristics
4.xci
4.3.3.4 LONGITUDINAL TRIMMABILITY

The determination of trimmability as presented herein is based on the test pilot's
qualitative opinion. Therefore, a qualitative discussion of trimmability in the technical
report is appropriate. The trim airspeed band may be shown on the plots of longitudinal
control force stability, if the author desires (refer again to Figure 4.50).
4.3.3.5 DETERMINATION OF THE ELEVATOR POSITION AND

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL FORCE NEUTRAL POINTS
If plots of longitudinal control force and elevator position stability have been
obtained at more than one CG position for one configuration, altitude, trim airspeed, and
power setting, neutral points may be computed. In order to obtain the most accurate neutral
points, the following points should be remembered in the conduct of the static longitudinal
stability tests:
1. Although tests at only two CG's are theoretically sufficient to obtain neutral
points, the flight test engineer should insist that the airplane is tested with the
CG in at least three widely separated locations. if it is feasible to place the most
aft CG behind the neutral point, the neutral point can be determined by
interpolation vice extrapolation, which should improve the overall accuracy.
2. The CG positions chosen should be evenly spaced (if possible) since even
increments of CG travel result in even increments of elevator position at the
same lift coefficient (see Figure 4.56). This fact aids in fairing plots of elevator
position versus lift coefficient.
3. Airplane gross weight should be maintained near constant for the various CG
positions, since the neutral point may vary with angle of attack and power
setting. This is not too critical, however, since plotting the variables (elevator
position and longitudinal control force) versus lift coefficient tends to eliminate
the effect of variation in gross weight.
4. The in-flight tests are performed exactly as previously described for longitudinal
control force and elevator position stability. Power and trim setting should not
be altered as airspeed is changed about the trim conditions. In addition, power
4.xcii
should be the same at trim for all CG positions tested to eliminate power effects.
The small differences in climb or descent angles which result should not have a
significant influence on the accuracy of the data.
5. The pilot may have difficulty in attaining the same trim airspeed for the various
CG positions tested if the trim speed band of the airplane is large. This will be
evident in the longitudinal control force versus airspeed data. However, this
F
inconsistency is eliminated when the curves of qs are replotted versus lift
coefficient. The slopes of such curves are independent of the initial trim
condition.
6. Accurate elevator position data is easy to obtain. However, accurate

longitudinal control force data is extremely difficult to obtain because of friction
in the control system. The test pilot must exercise care to insure that the forces
measured are correct. If friction is large, maximum and minimum forces for
equilibrium conditions must be measured at each stabilized point faster and
slower than trim airspeed.
7. Data accuracy will be enhanced if sideslip is maintained constant as airspeed is

varied about trim. Changes in pitching moments are generated by the horizontal
tail moving in relation to the slipstream of propeller driven airplanes. This is
not a particularly important point in testing pure jet airplanes.
8. Plotting the elevator position data versus lift coefficient vice airspeed tends to
linearize the relationships. Also, the elevator position at zero lift coefficient is a
constant. This is a useful fact in fairing the curves.
The graphical determinations of the elevator position and longitudinal control force
neutral points are presented in Figure 4.56 and 4.57.
4.xciii
TED (1) Determine CL from various values of Ve.

eC = Constant
L= 0
Elevator Position
Required to Trim
C L =
s

Degrees
CG Moving Aft
1
V2e
Trim
2 ssl
+CL
(2) Plot e versus CL for all CG positions

TEU Airplane Lift Coefficient, CL tested.
(3) Fair lines using rules shown on figure.
(4) Using selected CL values from the

TEU faired e versus CL curve, determine Ve
at each CG position.
Elevator Position
Required to Trim
Degrees
(5) Plot e versus Ve for all CG positions

Trim
e
+Ve tested.
CG Moving Aft
(6) From the e versus CL curves, at selected
TED Equivalent Airspeed, KEAS
CL and CG values, determine de . If
dC L
de
relationships are linear, is constant
dC L
for given CG position. Therefore, the
neutral point is independent of CL.
Test CG Positions
de de
(7) Plot dC versus CG for various lines
dC L L
Lines of Constant CL
Degrees of constant CL.
Neutral Points
(8) CG positions where de is zero for
dC L
0 CG Position, % MAC Aft
each CL is the neutral point for that CL.
Determine neutral points for several CL
values.
(9) Plot neutral points versus CL.

Aft
Elevator Position
% MAC
Neutral Point
Lift Coefficient, CL +CL
Figure 4.56
Graphical Determination of the Elevator Position Neutral Point
4.xciv
Lb Push
q (1) Compute q = 1
2 ssl Ve2
CG Moving Aft
Fs (2) For each CG value, compute
q 0 +CL w
CL = s
q
F
(3) Compute qs
Lb Pull Airplane Lift Coefficient, CL
q
F
(4) Plot qs versus CL for each CG
position (include breakout including
friction for irreversible control systems).
dFs
q
(5) Measure the slopes, , and plot as a
dC L
function of CG position for various CL
values.
dF s Test CG Positions
q dFs
q
dC L (6) The CG positions where is zero
Lines of Constant CL dC L
for each CL is the control force neutral
Neutral Points
0 point for that CL. Determine neutral
Aft
CG Position, %MAC points for several CL values.
(7) Plot control force neutral points versus

CL .
(8) Also plot Fs versus Ve for each CG

position (include breakout including
Aft
friction for irreversible control systems).

This plot will aid the reader's
Longitudinal Control
Force Neutral Point
understanding of the data.

%MAC
Airplane Lift Coefficient, CL +CL
Figure 4.57
Graphical Determination of Longitudinal Control Force Neutral Point
4.xcv
The elevator position neutral point is exactly the same as the stick- or elevator-fixed
neutral point if these neutral points are defined by a neutral gradient of airplane pitching
moment coefficient versus airplane lift coefficient. The longitudinal control force neutral
point is almost always never exactly the same as the stick- or elevator-free neutral point
because of gadgetry in the longitudinal control system. Adding various gadgetry results in
an additional term being added to the longitudinal control force equation and an additional
dFs
q
value being added to the relationship dC .
L

Requirements for static and dynamic longitudinal flying qualities during
nonmaneuvering tasks are contained in the following applicable paragraphs of Military
Specification MIL-F-8785B(ASG), of 7 August 1969, hereafter referred to as the
Specification.
3.2 Longitudinal Flying Qualities (except 3.2.1.1.1)

3.2.3.1 Longitudinal control in unaccelerated flight
3.5.2 Mechanical Characteristics (control system) (as applicable)
3.5.3 Dynamic Characteristics (as applicable)
3.5.4 Augmentation Systems (as applicable)
3.5.5 Failure of augmentation systems
3.6.1 Trim System (as applicable)
6.2 Definitions
6.5 Engine Considerations
6.6 Effects of aeroelasticity, control equipment, and structural dynamics.
The requirements of the Specification may be modified by the applicable airplane

Detail Specification. Comments concerning individual requirements of the Specification are
presented below.
3.2.1.1.1 Exception in Transonic Flight This paragraph is self-
explanatory. It will be discussed more thoroughly ina subsequent section
on Transonic and Supersonic Flying Qualities.
4.xcvi
3.2.1.3 Flight-Path Stability The intent of this paragraph is to prohibit

rapidly increasing descent rates at airspeeds below normal approach speed
that might result in dangerous flight conditions or require excessive pilot
workload to maintain glide path. From previous investigations, it has been
determined that if the slope requirements of this paragraph are met, the pilot
will be able to effectively use the elevator control alone to make small glide
path adjustments.
4.5 NONMANEUVERING TASKS - GLOSSARY
4.5.1 Terms
Mode of Motion Manner of doing, method. In this case, a method of changing
flight conditions in the airplane's plane of symmetry.
Frequency Number of cycles per unit time. A measure of the quickness

of the motion.
Period Time required per cycle. Inversely proportional to frequency.
Damping Progressive diminishing in amplitude. A measure of the

subsidence of the motion when excited.
Nonmaneuvering Those tasks during which the transition from one equilibrium
Tasks flight condition to another is accomplished smoothly and
gradually; results in essentially unaccelerated flight conditions.
Incidence The acute angle between a chord of an airfoil and the

longitudinal axis of the airplane.
Tail Volume A measure of the size and location of the horizontal tail in
Coefficient relation to the size of the wing and the airplane center of
gravity, respectively.
Tail Efficiency A measure of the modification in energy level of the airflow

Factor between the point where the airflow first encounters the
airplane until it reaches the horizontal tail.
4.xcvii
Neutral Point The location of the center of gravity of an aircraft for which
static longitudinal stability would be neutral. The neutral point
may be described as stick-fixed, stick-free, elevator-
fixed, elevator-free, elevator position, or longitudinal
control force depending on the manner in which it was
determined.
Static Margin The distance between the actual center of gravity and the
neutral point of the airplane usually expressed as a percentage
of the mean aerodynamic chord.
Longitudinal A measure of the pitching moment coefficient change per

Control Power degree deflection of the longitudinal control surface.
Float As applied to the control surface of a reversible control

system: to ride in the airstream.
Aerodynamic Methods of controlling the magnitude of the hinge moment

Balancing parameters.
Undamped Natural The frequency of a dynamic system if zero damping is

Frequency exhibited.
Damping Ratio Ratio of the damping exhibited to the critical damping.
Spring Constant As applied to a dynamic system, a measure of the static

restoring tendency.
Aperiodic; Deadbeat A motion which does not exhibit periodic oscillations.
Oscillatory Characterized by periodic motion.
4.xcviii
4.6 NONMANEUVERING TASKS - REFERENCES

Manual, Volume II, Stability and Control, by Courtland D. Perkins, Professor,
2. Airplane Performance, Stability and Control, by Courtland D. Perkins,

Professor and Chairman, Aeronautical Engineering Department, Princeton University and
Robert E. Hage, Senior Engineer, Preliminary Design Department, Boeing Airplane
Company. Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, 1949.
3. Criteria for Acceptable Representation of Airplane Dynamic Responses in

Simulators Used for Pilot Training, by F.D. Newell, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory,
Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. BM-1642-F-1, September, 1962.
4. Dynamics of Flight, Stability, and Control, by Bernard Etkin, Professor of

Aeronautical Engineering, University of Toronto. Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, New York, 1959.
5. Flight Evaluations of the Effect of Variable Phugoid Damping in a KTB-

26B Airplane, by Fred Newell and Donald W. Rhoads, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory,
Inc., Buffalo, New York, WADC TR 56-223, Report No. TB-969-F-1, October 1956.
6. Flight Evaluation of Various Phugoid Dynamics and 1/Th1 Values for the
Landing Approach Tasks; by Charles R. Chalk, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.,
Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. TC-1921-F-4, February, 1966.
7. Flight Testing of Aircraft, by M.G. Kotik, et al., NASA Technical

Translation F-442, April, 1967.

4.xcix
9. Investigation of Phugoid Effects on GCA Landings, by Fred Newell,

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, WADC TR 57-650, Report
No. TB-1142-F-1, December, 1957.
10. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-

8785B(ASG), 7 August 1969.
11. Minimum Flyable Longitudinal Handling Qualities of Airplanes, by Gifford

Bull, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, Report No. TB-1313-F-
1, December, 1959.
12. Modern Flight Dynamics, by W. Richard Kolk, Systems Engineer, United

Aircraft Corporation. Publisher: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961.
13. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Aeronautical Dictionary by

Frank D. Adams, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1959.
14. Recommendations for Revision of MIL-F-8785(ASG), Military

Specification - Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, by C.R. Chalk, T.P. Neal, T.M.
Harris, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, Technical Report
AFFDL-TR-67, March, 1967.
15. Stability and Control, USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, Edwards
Air Force Base, California, FTC-TIH-64-2004, revised November, 1964.
16. Stability and Control of Airplanes and Helicopters, by Edward Seckel,

Aeronautical Engineering Department, Princeton University. Publisher: The Academic
Press, New York, New York, 1964.
Book C.
18. Substantiation Information for Selected Longitudinal Requirements, Cornell

Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. BM-2238-F-1, May, 1967.
4.c
4.7 THEORY - MANEUVERING TASKS
4.7.1 Static Longitudinal Stability and Control in

Accelerated Flight
The previous discussion on static longitudinal stability and control considered the
airplane flying on equilibrium, unaccelerated flight paths. It is now necessary to study
static longitudinal stability and control along curved flight paths. Obviously, every airplane
must be capable of turning, at least to some degree. The subject of turning performance
will not be considered here, although it is a subject of major interest in the performance
testing of many airplanes. The assumption is made that the turning performance of the
airplane is not limited by stability and control characteristics, but by engine or airframe
characteristics. The areas of interest in this discussion are the static longitudinal stability
and control characteristics exhibited by the airplane when it is subjected to accelerated flight
conditions with the lift greater than or less than the weight; i.e., in maneuvering flight. It is
essential that airplanes exhibit stability and controllability in maneuvering flight along
curved flight paths. Obviously, if the mission of the airplane involves a great deal of
maneuvering, the investigation of longitudinal maneuvering stability and control will
consume a considerable amount of flight test time. Since all airplanes are required to
perform some maneuvering, it is necessary to investigate these characteristics to some
extent in every airplane.
The flight path of the airplane may be curved by the pilot by performing wings level
pull-ups or push-overs or by banking the airplane or by performing a combination of these
maneuvers. For this study of static longitudinal stability and control in accelerated flight,
consideration will be given to steady pull-ups and steady turns at a constant airspeed.
Several relationships will be developed first for the steady pull-up maneuver; these
relationships will then be expanded to the steady turn maneuver. The relationships for
steady pull-ups are applicable also to steady push-overs.
4.ci
4.7.1.1 STEADY PULL-UPS

Consider that the airplane is initially trimmed in straight and level flight. If a climb,
then a dive with a wings level pull-out at the bottom are performed such that (at least for an
instant) the original trimmed values of altitude and airspeed are regained, the airplanes
original equilibrium conditions will have been modified in two ways (Figure 4.58).
1. The angle of attack and lift coefficient will be greater since extra lift is required
to sustain the curved flight path.
2. The airplane will exhibit a steady nose-up rate of rotation (pitch rate) about its
center of gravity. This pitch rate will be equal in magnitude to the rate of
rotation of the airplane about the center of the pull-out.
L = nW
Nose Up Rotation
L 2
1
Flight
ht
V1 Path V2 Flig
Path
W
W
(a) Level Flight (b) Manuevering Flight

L=W V2 = V1
n=1 2 = 1
L>W
n>1
n = Normal Acceleration
Figure 4.58
Relationships of Unaccelerated and Accelerated Flight
Both these modifications generate changes in pitching moments about the airplane
center of gravity which hopefully act so as to tend to restore the original unaccelerated flight
condition. Of course, in order to stabilize the airplane in the accelerated maneuver, the pilot
applies and holds the necessary amount of elevator deflection and longitudinal control
force. Thus, the amount of elevator deflection and longitudinal control force required are
4.cii
indications of static longitudinal stability of the airplane in maneuvering flight. The

increase in lift coefficient generates changes in pitching moments according to the familiar
dC
airplane static stability criterion in unaccelerated flight, dCm . The fact that the airplane is
L
rotating generates an additional contribution to the total pitching moment. This

contribution, usually quite powerful, is a result of the increase in effective angle of attack at
the horizontal tail, due to the horizontal tail moving downward relative to the air (Figure
4.59). (The air may be considered to be moving upward relative to the tail.) The change in
effective angle of attack at the horizontal tail during maneuvering generally contributes
greatly to the stability of the airplane in accelerated flight. It can readily be seen that this
contribution is directly dependent on the airplane pitch rate, , if airspeed is held constant.
For the pull-up maneuver just described, a constant angle of attack pull-up, the magnitude
of the pitch rate is a function only of normal acceleration if airspeed is held constant:
g (n 1)
pullup = eq 4.27
V
Where:
= pitch rate, radians per second.
ft
g = acceleration due to gravity, .
sec2
n = normal acceleration, g.
ft
V = True airspeed, .
sec
Similarly, for the steady level turn, the magnitude of the pitch rate is expressed as
follows:
g
n
1
steady level turn = eq 4.28
V n
Because it is the pitch rate which causes the pilot to use more or less elevator
deflection and longitudinal control force during maneuvering flight than was required
during nonmaneuvering flight, the airplane normal acceleration, n, is generally used as the
independent variable in maneuvering flight. This is a direct result of the last two equations,
which show the fundamental relationships between pitch rate and normal acceleration in
4.ciii
maneuvering flight. Thus, in flight test work, the parameters elevator position per g and
longitudinal control force per g are measured at a constant airspeed as classical indexes of
the longitudinal maneuvering stability of the airplane.
lt
Forward Relative
Airflow
Pitch Rate Horizontal
t Tail

Airplane
CG Resultant Relative
Airflow at Tail Upward Relative
Airflow Due to Pitch
Rate
t = Effective Increase in Angle of Attack of Horizontal Tail
Figure 4.59
The Horizontal Tail Angle of Attack Changes with Pitch Rate
4.7.1.2 ELEVATOR POSITION MANEUVERING LONGITUDINAL

STABILITY
The elevator positions required to stabilize the airplane at various values of lift
coefficient in accelerated flight at a constant airspeed are generally not the same as the
elevator positions required at various values of lift coefficient in unaccelerated flight. As
stated previously, the angular rotation of the airplane in pitch during curvilinear flight
creates an additional increment in effective tail angle of attack, which in turn generates an
additional pitching moment about the center of gravity. This pitching moment may be
expressed as:
lt 2
MCG = at q t St eq 4.29
Due to V
4.civ
Where:
at = lift curve slope of horizontal tail.
lt = tail arm length, in feet.
qt = dynamic pressure at horizontal tail, in pounds per square feet.
St = area of horizontal tail, in square feet.
(Note that tail arm length has a powerful influence on the magnitude of the pitching
moment).
In nondimensional coefficient form, pitch rate damping, damping in pitch, or

viscous damping in pitch may be defined as:
Cm CG l
Cm = = 2a t t V t eq 4.30
c
c

2V
Where:
c
= the nondimensional pitch rate.
2V
t = tail efficiency factor, nondimensional.
V = tail volume coefficient, nondimensional.
c = average chord length of wing in feet.
Without derivation, the elevator position required in steady, wings level pull-ups at
a constant airspeed may be expressed as:
1 W dC Cm gc
e PullUps = e 0 S m
2 dC n +
( n 1)
C m 1
SSL Ve L 4 W
S

e 2 Fixed
eq 4.31
4.cv
Where:
e0 = elevator angle required for zero lift coefficient and zero
pitch rate; a constant.
C m = elevator control power.
e
dCm
= stick-fixed static longitudinal stability.
dCL Fixed
The derivative of the last equation with respect to normal acceleration yields a
classical index of longitudinal maneuvering stability for steady, wings level pull-ups at a
constant airspeed:
de 1 W dC gc
= S m
+ C eq 4.32
dn PullUps 1 2 4 W S m
2 SSL Ve dCL Fixed
Cm
e
Similarly, the elevator position required in steady turns at constant airspeed may be
expressed as:
1 W dC Cm gc 1
eSteady = e0 S m
2 dC + n
Turns Cm 1
SSL Ve L 4 W
S n
e 2 Fixed
eq 4.33
Note that the only difference between the expressions for elevator angle required in
pull-ups and steady turns arises from the difference in expressions for pitch rate, ,
presented earlier. Taking the derivative of the last equation with respect to normal
acceleration yields the classical index of longitudinal maneuvering stability for steady turns
at a constant airspeed:
de 1 W dC Cm gc 1
= S m
+ n + 2

dn Steady Turns 1 2 dC
W
2 SSL e
Cm V L Fixed 4 S n
e
eq 4.34
4.cvi
Several important observations may be derived from a study of the equations for
de d e
and :
dn PullUps dn Steady Turns
de
1. For longitudinal stability in maneuvering flight, must carry a negative
dn
sign; i.e., to stabilize the airplane at a higher value of positive normal
acceleration, more trailing edge up (TEU - negative direction) elevator must be
applied.
2. Both equations contain two parts (See Figure 4.60). The first part is a stability
term due to the stick-fixed static longitudinal stability; the second part is a
damping term arising from the change in effective angle of attack at the
horizontal tail due to the pitch rate.
3. A little more elevator is required to pull the same normal acceleration increment
in steady turns than in pull-ups. The difference in the gradient of elevator
position versus normal acceleration is directly proportional to 12 ; therefore the
n
difference becomes very small at high levels of normal acceleration.
If n = 5, 1 = .04 . (See Figure 4.61).
n2
Center of gravity movement naturally has a profound effect on maneuvering

longitudinal stability through both the stability term and the damping term (Figure 4.62).
As the CG is moved aft, dCm( )

dC
L Fixed
becomes smaller in magnitude. When the CG is at
the stick-fixed neutral pint, the gradient dne is only a function of the damping term.
d
(The damping term decreases slightly in magnitude as the CG is moved aft because the tail
arm length is decreased.) If the CG is moved far enough aft, the gradient dne becomes
d
zero; this CG position is called the stick-fixed maneuvering neutral point, N M . Thus, the
stick-fixed maneuvering neutral point N M , should always be aft of the stick-fixed neutral
dC
point N 0 , if dCm in level flight is the same in maneuvering flight.
L
4.cvii
TEU Constant Ve
Constant Altitude n
8
Slope = ddne
Elevator Position e
7
Damping Term
6
e
4 Stability Term
3
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.60
Classical Variation of Elevator Position
in Maneuvering Flight
TEU Constant Ve
Constant Altitude
8
Difference in Gradients
1
Elevator Position
is Proportional to
7 n2
e
6 Difference in Elevator
Required is Proportional
5 to 1 1
N
Pull-Ups
4
Steady Turns
3
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.61
Relationships of Maneuvering Stability Characteristics
in Steady Turns and Pull-Ups
4.cviii
TEU
Direction
Constant Ve
Constant Altitude
Constant Weight
Elevator Position
e
CG Moving
Aft
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.62
d e
CG Movement Effects on dn
The effects of altitude on the elevator position gradient in maneuvering flight may
be studied by considering a constant CG position and constant equivalent airspeed while
varying altitude. Altitude variation, for these conditions, has no effect on the stability term.
However, as altitude is increased, the damping term decreases because of the reduction in
density; therefore the elevator position gradient in maneuvering flight decreases with
altitude increase at a constant equivalent airspeed (Figure 4.63).
4.cix
TEU
Constant Ve
Direction
Constant CG
Elevator Deflection
e
Increasing
Altitude
1 +
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.63
d e
Altitude Effects on dn at Constant Ve
(NOTE: The reader should not receive an erroneous impression from this discussion.
Pilots do not normally fly at the same equivalent airspeeds at high altitudes as they fly at
low altitudes. Generally, Ve is less at high altitude. Therefore, the pilots natural
impression of the elevator position variation with normal acceleration at high altitudes may
be that it is greater than at low altitudes. This is due to the fact that more elevator deflection
is required to produce a unit change in normal acceleration at the lower dynamic pressure
(lower equivalent airspeed) existing at the higher altitude.) If altitude is varied at a constant
Mach number, the elevator position gradient in maneuvering flight increases with increase
in altitude as shown in Figure 4.64.
4.cx
TEU Constant M
Direction Constant CG
Increasing
Altitude
Elevator Deflection
e
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.64
d e
Altitude Effects on dn at Constant Mach
This is due to a slight increase in the damping term and a considerable increase in
the stability term with increase in altitude at a constant Mach number.
Airspeed variation has a very large influence on the elevator position gradient in
maneuvering flight since Ve 2 appears in the equations for de
dn . An increase in equivalent
airspeed decreases the gradient of elevator position with normal.
Because of the large effect of airspeed variation on the elevator position gradient, it
is extremely important that the pilot maintain close control over airspeed during the flight
test measurement of maneuvering stability characteristics. Small errors in airspeed can
generate erroneous data as shown in Figure 4.66.
4.cxi
TEU
Direction Constant CG Ve1
Constant Altitude
Elevator Deflection
Slope 1
e Ve 2
Slope 2
If Ve 2 = 2Ve 1
Slope 2 = 1
4 ( Slope 1)
1 +
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.65
d e
Effect of Varying Equivalent Airspeed on dn
TEU Constant CG
Direction Constant Altitude 175
180
True Relationships
185
Elevator Deflection
e
Measured Relationship
1
Normal Acceleration +
n
Assume the test pilot desired to measure the elevator position

gradient in manuevering flight at 180 KEAS. If he measured
points 5 KEAS slow, on speed, and 5 KEAS fast (in turn),
the erroneous relationship shown above is a possible result.
Figure 4.66
Effect of Poor Airspeed Control on Manuevering Stability Data
4.cxii
4.7.1.3 LONGITUDINAL CONTROL FORCE MANEUVERING

STABILITY
The second criterion for longitudinal stability in maneuvering flight is the
longitudinal control force variation with normal acceleration at a constant airspeed. This
parameter, commonly called stick force per g has a tremendous effect on the overall
flying qualities of all airplanes. If the mission of the airplane requires extensive
maneuvering, the stick force gradient in maneuvering flight is perhaps the most important
single characteristic of the airplane.
Longitudinal control forces in maneuvering flight are generated by the requirement

for the pilot to move the elevator control to the position required for maintenance of the
accelerated condition. If the control system is reversible, elevator float may modify the
angle through which the pilot must move the elevator. For the irreversible control system,
classical elevator float is not a factor, although artificial elevator float may be introduced
by extendible link devices, mechanical advantage changers, etc. Of course, longitudinal
control forces in maneuvering flight may also be modified by various other control system
gadgetry in reversible or irreversible control systems. In this manual, maneuvering
control forces will be discussed for the reversible control system, then the irreversible
control system. The effects of various devices and gadgetry on longitudinal maneuvering
forces will then be presented.
4.7.1.4 STICK FORCES IN MANEUVERING FLIGHT -

REVERSIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM
For the reversible control system, the longitudinal control forces required in steady
wings-level pull-ups and in steady turns may be expressed as follows:
W C h e dC m V 2 Ch
e
FsPull Up = K 2 e n + K 12 l tg (n 1)Ch
S Cm dCL Free VeTrim t
e
eq 4.35
4.cxiii
W Ch e dCm V 2 1 Ch
e
FsSteady Turns = K 2 e n + K 12 l tg n C h
e
eq 4.36
Where:
K = a constant dependent on gearing ratio between the elevator and
cockpit control stick, size of the elevator, and horizontal tail
efficiency factor.
C h = elevator hinge moment coefficient variation with elevator
e
deflection.
C m = elevator control power.
e
dCm
= stick-free static longitudinal stability.
dCL Free
C h = elevator hinge moment variation with change in angle of attack
t
of the horizontal tail.

= rate of change of effective angle of attack with change of elevator
deflection.
Again, note that the only difference in the two equations arises from the difference
in expressions for pitch rate in steady wings level pull-ups and in steady turns. The
derivative of these equations with respect to normal acceleration (at a constant airspeed)
yields the following classical indices of longitudinal maneuvering stability for the reversible
control system.
dFs W C h e dC m Ch
= K + K 1 l g C
e
eq 4.37
dn Pull-Up S C m dC L Free 2 t ht

e
= K + K 12 l tg 1 + 2 C h e

dn Steady Turn S Cm dCL Free n t
e
eq 4.38
4.cxiv
Several important observations may be drawn from a study of the last two
equations:
1. For longitudinal stability in maneuvering flight, increases in longitudinal control

pull force must be used to stabilize the airplane at higher values of positive
normal acceleration.
2. Both equations contain two parts (see Figure 4.67). The first part is a stability
term due to the stick-free static longitudinal stability. The second part is a
damping term arising from the change in effective angle of attack at the
horizontal tail due to the pitch rate.
3. A little more longitudinal control force is required to pull the same normal
acceleration increment in steady turns than in pull-ups. The difference in the
dFs 1
gradient is directly proportional to ; therefore, the difference
dn n2
becomes very small at high levels of normal acceleration. (See Figure 4.68.)
30 Constant Ve
Longitudinal Control Pull Force
n Slope = dF s
25 Constant Altitude dn
Fs
20
Damping Term
Lbs
Fs
15
10
Stability Term
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.67
Classical Variation of Longitudinal
Control Force in Maneuvering Flight
4.cxv
30

Steady Turns
25
Pull-Ups
20 Difference in Force
Required is Proportional
Lbs
Fs
1
15 to 1 n
Difference in Gradients
10 is Proportional to 12
n
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.68
Relationship of Maneuvering Stability Characteristics
in Steady Turns and Pull-Ups
Center of gravity movement naturally has a profound effect on longitudinal control

force requirements in accelerated flight (Figure 4.69).

Constant Ve
Constant Altitude
Constant Weight
CG Moving
Aft
1 +
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.69
CG Movement Effects on ( ) dFs
dn or
d e
dn
4.cxvii
DCm
As the CG is moved aft, becomes smaller in magnitude. When the
dC L Free
dF
CG is at the stick-free neutral point, the gradient s is only a function of the damping
dn
term. (The damping term decreases slightly in magnitude as the CG is moved aft because
dF
the tail arm length is decreased.) If the CG is moved far enough aft, the gradient s
dn
becomes zero; this CG position is called the stick-free maneuvering neutral point, Nm' .
The stick-free maneuvering neutral point generally is aft of the stick-free neutral point,
No' . In certain instances power or Mach effects may cause this relationship to be reversed.
The effects of altitude variation on the longitudinal control force gradient in

maneuvering flight at a constant CG and constant equivalent airspeed is shown in
Figure 4.70. For these conditions, altitude variation has no effect on the stability term of
the equations; however, the damping term decreases because of the reduction in density.
Therefore, for the reversible control system, the longitudinal control force gradient in
maneuvering flight decreases with increase in altitude at a constant equivalent airspeed.
Constant Ve
Constant CG
Fs
Increasing
Altitude
1 +
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.70
Altitude Effects on
dFs
( )
dn at Constant Ve
for the Reversible Control System
4.cxviii
If altitude is varied at a constant Mach number, the longitudinal control force

gradient in maneuvering flight again decreases in altitude for the reversible control system.
This due to the decrease in the damping term because of the density decrease (Figure 4.71).
Constant M

Constant CG
Altitude
Increase
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.71
Altitude Effects on
dFs
dn at Constant Mach ( )
for the Reversible Control System
The effects of airspeed variation on longitudinal control forces in maneuvering

flight for the reversible control system are interesting to study. First of all, the classical
equations were developed by assuming that the airplane was initially trimmed in
unaccelerated flight at a force trim speed, Ve Trim . As long as Ve = V eTrim , the
longitudinal control forces required in maneuvering flight do not vary as trim airspeed is
varied if other factors remain constant (Figure 4.72). However is Ve is allowed to vary
from Ve Trim , the control forces vary considerably (Figure 4.73) (Ve 2 appears in the
equations for longitudinal control force.)
4.cxix
It should be noted that ( )

dFs
dn does not vary even if airspeed varies from trim
airspeed. Because of the situation shown in Figure 4.73, it is extremely important that the
test pilot maintain precise control over airspeed during the flight test measurement of stick
force per g. If airspeed is allowed to vary form trim airspeed, erroneous impressions of
maneuvering stability characteristics can be the result (Figure 4.74).

Constant Altitude
Constant CG Constant Altitude
All Ve , if Ve = Ve Trim Constant CG
dn
dF
Stick Force Per G,

1 +
+
Normal Acceleration Trim Airspeed, KEAS
n
Figure 4.72
For the Reversible Control System Stick Force per g
is not Affected by Changes in Trim Airspeed
4.cxx
Pull
Constant Altitude
Constant CG
Ve = Ve
Stick Force (Lb)

Ve < Ve Trim
Trim
Fs
Ve > Ve
Trim
dFs
dn = Constant
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.73
Affect of Speed Variation from Trim Airspeed
on Stick Force per g
Constant CG
Constant Altitude
Ve Trim = 180 KEAS 175
180
185
Fs
True Relationship for

Ve = 180 KEAS
Trim
Measured Relationship
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Assume the test pilot desired to measure the

longitudinal control force variation with normal
acceleration at a force trim speed of 180 KEAS. If
he measured points slow, on speed, and fast (in
turn), the erroneous relationship shown above is a
possible result.
Figure 4.74
Effect of Poor Airspeed Control on Maneuvering Stability Data
4.cxxi
4.7.1.5 STICK FORCES IN MANEUVERING FLIGHT-

IRREVERSIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM
Some of the characteristics of longitudinal control force variation in maneuvering
flight for the reversible control system are the same for the irreversible control system.
These are:
1. More longitudinal control force is required to pull the same normal acceleration
(
increment in steady turns than in pull-ups. However, the difference in dFs dn )
between the two cases is very small at high normal acceleration.
2. Aft CG movement decreases stick force per g, if other factors remain

constant.
3. Poor airspeed control during the measurement of stick force per g can result
in erroneous impressions of longitudinal maneuvering stability.
Equations for longitudinal control force variation in maneuvering flight will now be
presented for two types of irreversible control system. For simplicity, the equations for
steady turns only will be presented.
Assume the irreversible control system is designed such that longitudinal control
force is directly proportional to elevator deflection; i.e.:
Fs = K le eq 4.39
where K l = a constant describing the characteristics of the system such as strength of the
feel spring, gearing ratio, etc. (This is one of the simplest and most widely used
longitudinal control systems, generally containing a linear feel spring.)
4.cxxii
For this type of irreversible longitudinal control system, longitudinal control force
variation with normal acceleration in steady turns at a constant trim airspeed may be written
as follows:
dFs K W dC Cm gc 1
= 1 S m + 1
dn Steady Turns Cm 1 Ve2Trim dC L Fixed 4 W S n 2
e 2 SSL
eq 4.40
The effects of trim airspeed variation of stick force per g for this type control
system are shown in Figure 4.75, for no compressibility effects. Note the difference
between Figures 4.75 and 4.72. Also note that for the irreversible control system,
longitudinal forces are dependent on stick-fixed stability vice stick-free stability.
Constant Altitude
Constant CG Constant Altitude
Ve Constant CG
Trim 1
s
dn
dF
Ve Trim 2
Stick Force Per G

VeTrim 3
Fs
Ve
Trim 4
Increasing
Trim Airspeed
1 + +
Normal Acceleration Trim Airspeed, KEAS
n
No Compressibility Effects
Figure 4.75
Effect of Varying Trim Airspeed on Stick Force per g
for the Irreversible Control System Where Fs = K1 e
4.cxxiii
Consider now a different irreversible control system which incorporates a dynamic

pressure (q) sensor such that:
Fs = K 2q e eq 4.41
where K 2 = a constant describing the characteristics of the system, such as strength of the
feel spring, gearing ratio, etc. (This type longitudinal control system is commonly called a
q-feel system.)
For this type of irreversible longitudinal control system, longitudinal control force
variation with normal acceleration in steady turns at a constant trim airspeed may be written
as follows:
dFs K2 WS dC C m gc 1
m
= + 1 eq 4.42
Cm
e dCL Fixed
The influence of trim airspeed variation on stick force per g for this type of
control system is the same as for the reversible control system (see Figure 4.72) if no
compressibility effects are present.
4.7.1.6 EFFECTS OF COMPRESSIBILITY ON MANEUVERING

STABILITY
The previous discussions have neglected compressibility effects (high Mach
number flight) which may have a profound influence on maneuvering control forces.
Without proceeding deeply into transonic and supersonic flight testing, which will be
discussed in a subsequent section, compressibility generates the following phenomenon
which influence the maneuvering force gradient:
1. The wing aerodynamic center shifts aft in the transonic flight regime, which
( )
dC
increase dCm . (This is analogous to a forward shift in airplane center of
L
gravity.)
4.cxxiv
2. Shock wave formation and change in pressure distribution reduce the

effectiveness of the longitudinal control surface, particularly if the surface is an
elevator vice a stabilator.
Both the effects listed above tend to increase stick force per g and elevator
position per g for both the reversible and irreversible control system. Typical influence on
maneuvering stability is shown in Figure 4.76.
Constant Altitude
d e
dn
Constant CG
s
dn
dF
Elevator Position Per G,
Stick Force Per G,

or
1
+
Mach Number, M
Figure 4.76
Compressibility Influence on Maneuvering Stability
4.7.1.7 EFFECTS OF LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEM

GADGETRY ON CONTROL FORCES IN MANEUVERING FLIGHT
Longitudinal control system gadgetry has been introduced earlier in this section
and its effect on longitudinal flying qualities during nonmaneuvering tasks discussed.
Schematics of these devices were presented in that part; therefore, many of the schematics
will not be reproduced here.
4.cxxv
The most commonly used means of alerting longitudinal control forces in

maneuvering flight is through the use of bobweights. The addition of a positive
bobweight - a bobweight mounted so as to oppose movement of the longitudinal control
during accelerated flight - increases the stick force per g in maneuvering flight
(Figure 4.77). Conversely, the negative bobweight decreases stick force per g.
Fs (Pull) Constant Ve

Constant Altitude
Positive Constant CG
Bobweight ls
To Elevator Fs
d Addition of
Positive Bobweight
Wb
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.77
Bobweight Arrangement and Influence on Longitudinal
Control Forces During Maneuvering Flight
The following devices, generally used to correct shallow longitudinal control force
versus airspeed relationships in unaccelerated flight, usually increase stick force per g in
accelerated flight:
1. simple spring5
2. downspring5
3. Leading tab
5 The constant load downspring has no effect of stick force per g if it merely adds a preload force to the
longitudinal control system. This is generally not the case since simple springs and downsprings normally
add forces as a function of stick displacement. Of course, this arrangement does increase stick force per g.
4.cxxvi
Lagging tabs and Servo tabs, generally used to reduce longitudinal control force in
unaccelerated flight, also reduce longitudinal control forces in accelerated flight.
The blow-down tab does not affect stick force per g as long as the pilot maintains
trim airspeed precisely during the in-flight measurement.
The preloaded spring tab, has an interesting influence on maneuvering control

forces in that it introduces artificial nonlinearity into the stick force per g plots (Figure
4.78).
Spring Constant = (Same as Having No Spring Tab)
Servo
Fs
Action
Preload
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.78
Influence of Pre-Loaded Spring Tab on Maneuvering Control Forces
4.7.1.8 EFFECTS OF RAPID MANEUVERS ON MANEUVERING

STABILITY
The discussion of maneuvering stability has, to this point, considered only steady-
state conditions where dynamic equilibrium has been achieved. During transient
maneuvers with rapid inputs of stick force and elevator position (sometimes called sudden
pull-ups), the simple relationships previously presented no longer apply. It is extremely
important, of course, that the maneuvering stability characteristics (particularly stick force
4.cxxviii
per g) during sudden maneuvers be such that the airplane is not easily overstressed. In
addition, the dynamic characteristics of the airplane (short period damping, in particular)
and the phasing between the pilots force inputs to the control stick and the resulting stick
motion and normal acceleration response must be such that the airplane is not prone to
pilot-induced-oscillations in rapid maneuvering. Several factors affecting maneuvering
stability during abrupt maneuvering will now be presented.
Consider an airplane equipped with a reversible longitudinal control system with no

bobweight. If the pilot applies and holds a rapid input of longitudinal control pull force to
this system, the airplane response in normal acceleration will generally be less for the
sudden force input than for the equivalent steady force input. This is due to the fact that the
elevator does not have sufficient time to reach its float position in the rapid maneuver.
Therefore, the longitudinal control force are higher per unit change in normal acceleration in
the sudden maneuver as compared to the steady maneuver if the elevator is not over-
balanced (see Figure 4.79). (This is the same as saying the response in normal acceleration
per unit input of longitudinal control force is less in the sudden maneuver.) The difference
in control force variation with normal acceleration between steady maneuvering flight and
sudden maneuvering is dependent on the rapidity of the sudden input. This difference is
largest at low values of normal acceleration and smallest at high values. (At high levels of
normal acceleration, the steady pull-up or steady turn maneuver must be fairly rapid to
attain the high normal acceleration at a constant airspeed.)
For the irreversible control system which exhibits no classic elevator float, viscous
dampers or other devices may be used to discourage rapid longitudinal control inputs.
These device tend to effectively increase maneuvering control forces during rapid, abrupt
maneuvering exactly the same as shown in Figure 4.79. If the rapidity or the suddenness
of the input is increased, the difference between sudden and steady control forces in
maneuvering flight is increased.
However, consider the reversible control system again where the elevator is very
closely balanced Ch is very small). Satisfactory control forces in maneuvering flight

e
can be achieved for this situation by making Ch t slightly positive. This causes the
elevator to float opposite to the direction shown in Figure 4.79. However, in rapid
maneuvers, large elevator deflections may be obtained before the airplanes response builds
up the longitudinal control force through the floating tendency. This will generate large
4.cxxix
normal acceleration changes for undesirably small control forces in sudden maneuvers,
while in the steady state maneuver, longitudinal control force variation with normal
acceleration may be satisfactory (see Figure 4.80).
Final Elevator Position

For Steady Input
Sudden Input
Initial (Trimmed) Position

Float Angle
Horizontal Tail
Sudden Longitudinal Force Input is the same as the Steady Longitudinal

Force Input. For the Steady Maneuver, Final Elevator Deflection is Greater
because of Float Angle, which develops after a Finite Time Interval.
Sudden Maneuvers
Fs
Steady Maneuvers
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.79
Relationship Between Maneuvering Control Forces for Steady
and Sudden Maneuvering for the Reversible Control System
4.cxxx

Steady Maneuvers
Fs
Sudden Maneuvers
1
+
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.80
Typical Stick Force per g Characteristics for the Closely
Balanced or Overbalanced Elevator-Reversible Control System
The bobweight, previously introduced as a gadget used to tailor maneuvering

control forces in steady maneuvers, can have a serious degrading influence on longitudinal
flying qualities during rapid or sudden maneuvers. In any type of control system the
bobweight tends to alter the phasing between the pilots force inputs and the resulting stick
motion and normal acceleration response. Consider the case of an airplane which obtains
all or nearly all its maneuvering force gradient (stick force per g) in steady maneuvering
flight from a positive bobweight. In rapid maneuvering of this airplane, the cockpit control
stick can be moved with very small force inputs to initiate the sudden maneuver. As
normal acceleration develops, the bobweight, responding to the normal acceleration,
attempts to pull the control stick back to neutral. This requires the pilot to add increasing
longitudinal pull forces to maintain the control input. The same relationship between
sudden and steady maneuvers shown in Figure 4.80 again apply for this situation. In
addition, the pilot may induce objectionable high-frequency oscillations in normal
acceleration in attempting to perform rapid maneuvering tasks under these conditions. In
extreme cases, if the damping of the longitudinal control system is poor, the pilot feels the
control stick constantly slapping against his hand during rapid maneuvering.
4.cxxxi
In an attempt to alleviate poor control characteristics in sudden maneuvering for

control systems utilizing bobweights, the arrangement shown in Figure 4.81 is sometimes
used. The bobweight is not only sensitive to normal acceleration, it is sensitive to rate of
.
change of normal acceleration, or pitch acceleration,
Aft Stick
Airplane CG

W1 W2

Figure 4.81
Bobweight Arrangement Utilizing Bobweights
Fore and Aft of the Airplane Center of Gravity
From a study of Figure 4.81, the rationalization may be made that during rapid
maneuvering (during which normal acceleration and pitch rate are changing), the fore and
aft bobweight arrangement applies additive forces to the control system which oppose the
pilots control input. This tends to increase maneuvering control forces in sudden pull-ups,
etc. During steady maneuvering flight (during which normal acceleration and pitch rate are
constant), the fore and aft bobweights apply individual forces to the control system which
tend to cancel each other. (Bobweight W1 would increase stick force per g and
bobweight W2 would decrease stick force per g.) The overall effect depends, of course,
upon the relative size of the bobweights, as well as their placement with respect to the
airplane CG and the cockpit control stick. However, the overall effect would generally be
that shown in Figure 4.79.
4.cxxxii
4.7.2 Dynamic Longitudinal Stability and Controls Related

to Maneuvering Tasks
The previous discussion of longitudinal maneuvering stability has been concerned
mainly with equilibrium flight conditions. The discussion will now be expanded to study
the means by which one equilibrium flight condition is changed to another equilibrium
flight condition.
The means by which the airplane may be brought into a condition of equilibrium
during maneuvering tasks has been previously developed. Further, the typical response of
the airplane to a longitudinal control input thought the two longitudinal modes of motion
was presented earlier in the discussion of nonmaneuvering tasks. It is convenient to again
refer to this typical response (Figure 4.82). Note that the control input generates pitching
moments which initially cause only changes in angle of attack (and normal acceleration) at a
constant airspeed. This is the response of the airplane through its short period mode of
motion. The characteristics of this mode of motion greatly influence the pilots ability to
perform both maneuvering and nonmaneuvering tasks. Its characteristics are particularly
critical for maneuvering tasks. Characteristics of the phugoid or long period mode have
little influence during maneuvering tasks because:
1. The pilot generally has close control over pitch attitude during maneuvering
tasks, which effectively damps the phugoid motion.
2. The pilot is continually changing the airplanes flight path during maneuvering
tasks. The short time interval between changes in the airplanes flight path does
not allow the phugoid motion to develop.
It should be apparent from a study of Figure 4.82 that the short period mode of
motion is a second order response composed of angle of attack (and normal acceleration)
variations at an essentially constant airspeed. Thus the pilot utilizes the short period mode
to make angle of attack and normal acceleration changes; therefore, during maneuvering
tasks, the pilot will devote much of his attention to controlling the short period mode of
motion.
The remainder of this discussion will be direct toward describing the origin,
characteristics, and parameters affecting the short period mode of motion.
4.cxxxiii
Change in Angle of Attack

Final Equilibrium Conditions
3
(Degrees)
2

Phugoid or Long Period Response
1
Short Period Response
0
0 4 8 Time 12 16 20
(Seconds)
350
300
Airspeed
KIAS
250
200
0 4 8 12 16 20
Time
(Seconds)
Figure 4.82
Typical Airplane Response to Longitudinal Control Input
4.7.2.1 ORIGIN OF THE SHORT PERIOD MODE OF

LONGITUDINAL MOTION
Without derivation, the determinant of the transformed longitudinal equation of
motion for small disturbances may be written as shown in Figure 4.83.
4.cxxxiv
Drag 133
S + Du D g g
Characteristics
Lift
Lu L
S + -S
=0
Characteristics u0 u0
Pitching Moments
Mu M S M S 2 M S
Characteristics

Changes in Horizontal Velocity Changes in Pitch Attitude
Terms Generated by
Changes in Angle of Attack
S = Laplace Operator
g = acceleration due to gravity
u = horizontal velocity ( u 0 = initial horizontal velocity)
D/ u
Du = = change in drag with change in horizontal velocity divided by the mass of the
m
airplane.
D/
D = = change in drag with change in angle of attack divided by the mass of the
m
airplane.
L/ u
Lu = = change in lift with change in horizontal velocity divided by the mass of
m
the airplane.
L/
L = = change in lift with change in angle of attack divided by the mass of the
m
airplane.
M/ u
Mu = = change in pitching moment with horizontal velocity divided by the moment
I yy
of inertia in pitch, a speed stability term.
M/
M = = change in pitching moment with angle of attack divided by the
Iyy
moment of inertia in pitch, an angle of attack stability term.
M/

M = = change in pitching moment with rate of change of angle of attack divided
Iyy
by the moment of inertia in pitch, a downwash lag term.
M/
M = = change in pitching moment with rate of change of pitch divided by the
Iyy
moment of inertia in pitch, a pitch rate damping term.
Figure 4.83
The Longitudinal Determinant
4.cxxxv
The solutions of the longitudinal determinant will provide useful information about
the longitudinal modes of motion. The classic short period approximation is now of
concern. In order to make this approximation several assumptions must be made. These
assumptions, based on flight experience and logical reasoning, are as follows:
1. Airspeed remains constant during the motion.
2. Short period motion is not affected by pitch attitude; however, the short period
mode is sensitive to pitch rate.
3. Drag characteristics have no influence on the short period mode.
4. Low Mach number (no compressibility effects).
If the above assumptions are valid, the lift and moment portions of the longitudinal
determinate (with airspeed terms set equal to zero) are the controlling factors for the short
period motion. The classic short period approximation may then be written as follows:
L
S + u 1
0
= 0 eq 4.43
M S M S M
Solving the determinant yields the following second order characteristic equation:
L L
S2 + M M S M + M = 0 eq 4.44
u0 u0
4.cxxxvi
The undamped natural frequency of the short period mode of motion may be
developed as follows:
1 Pa M 2 X
= 2 S c C L CG N M eq 4.45
Iyy c
Where:
= The ratio of the specific heat of a gas at constant volume to that
at constant pressure ( is a constant, generally taken as 1.4).
Pa = absolute pressure, pounds per square foot.
M = Mach number
C L = change in lift coefficient per unit change in angle of attack (life

curve slope).
X CG
c N M = nondimensional distance between the airplane CG and stick-
fixed maneuvering neutral D (sometimes called maneuver margin
or maneuvering margin.
A simple expression for short period damped natural frequency is derived if the
following assumption are made:
M = 0
eq 4.46
L / u 0 = M
4.cxxxvii
The undamped natural frequency of the short period mode of motion may then be
developed as follows :
sp = M eq 4.47
Several important relationships can be gathered from a study of the equation for
n sp :
1. The undamped natural frequency of the short period motion increases as Mach
number increases; thus the period decreases with increase in Mach number.
(The quickness of the motion increases.)
2. The undamped natural frequency of the short period motion decreases with
increase in pressure altitude at a constant Mach number.
3. The undamped natural frequency of the short period motion decreases as the
airplane CG is moved aft toward the stick-fixed maneuvering neutral point.
This is analogous to weakening the spring in the spring-mass-damper system.
When the CG is at the stick-fixed maneuvering neutral point, the undamped
natural frequency is zero; i.e., the motion is nonoscillatory.
4. The undamped natural frequency of the short period motion decreases with an
increase in moment of inertia in pitch. This is analogous to increasing the mass
in the spring-mass-damper system.
5. The damped natural frequency of the short period motion is only dependent
on angle of attack stability, M , if certain simplifying assumptions are valid.
4.cxxxviii
The damping ratio of the short period mode of motion may be developed as
follows:
S
C Cm c2 C c2
m
2 L
sp = eq 4.48
2
c N M
C
I yy L
Where:
C L = lift curve slope coefficient
Cm = pitch rate damping coefficient

C m = downwash lag term coefficient
Certain important effects are visible from this relationship:
1. Increasing lift curve slope, increasing pitch rate damping, and increasing the
downwash lag term increases damping of the short period mode of motion.
2. Increasing angle of attack stability decreases short period damping.
3. Moving the CG forward decreases short period damping.
4. Damping of the short period mode of motion is not a direct function of airspeed
or Mach number.
4.7.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SHORT PERIOD MODE

Additional insight into the short period mode of longitudinal motion may be gained
by studying the flight path of an airplane during a short period oscillation. Figure 4.84
shows a typical short period motion. It is so rapidly damped out that the transient has
4.cxxxix
virtually disappeared in a very short horizontal distance. The deviation of the flight path
from the original flight path is generally small, the principal feature of the motion being the
rapid rotation of the airplane in pitch. (Compare the short period flight path with the
phugoid flight path presented earlier.)
1
Vertical Displacement
.5 Hundreds of Feet
500 1000 1500
0
-.5
-1
Horizontal Distance
Hundreds of Feet
Figure 4.84
Typical Short Period Flight Path
4.7.2.3 EFFECTS OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS ON SHORT

PERIOD MODE OF MOTION
The influence of varying several parameters on the short period motion will now be
shown using the convenient root locus plots. The classic short period roots, as well as
the classic phugoid roots are shown in Figure 4.85.
The short period mode shown in Figure 4.85 is typically stable, oscillatory, and
well damped. It is assumed that the CG is somewhere forward of the stick-fixed neutral
point.
The effect of varying angle of attack stability, M , can be studied by first

assuming the M u is zero, then allowing M to increase negatively from zero. (This is the
normal sign for M , since, for stability, positive (nose up) increases in angle of attack
must generate negative (nose down) pitching moments.) The effect of increasing angle of
attack stability is shown in Figure 4.86. (This is exactly the same effect as moving the CG
forward.)
4.cxl
Imaginary
Axis
X
Short Period
Roots
X
Real Axis
Long Period X
Roots
Figure 4.85
Complex Plane Representation of Classic Short Period
and Phugoid Modes of Motion
Imaginary
Axis
Increases sp
Decreases sp
X X X X Real Axis
[M u = M = 0 ]
Figure 4.86
Effect of Increasing Angle of Attack Stability, M
A typical effect of airspeed variation in the subsonic flight regime on the short
period motion is shown in Figure 4.87. As stated previously, short period damping is
independent of airspeed, although undamped natural frequency increases with increasing
airspeed.
4.cxli
Imaginary
Axis
Increases sp
sp Remains Constant
X
(Phugoid Period Increases;
Damping May be Decreased)
x
Real Axis
x
Figure 4.87
Influence of Increasing Airspeed on Longitudinal Short Period
and Phugoid Characteristics
The influence of changing speed stability, M u , on short period characteristics is

shown in Figure 4.88. The most apparent phenomenon to the pilot will be the divergent,
nonoscillatory phugoid tendency if M u is less than zero. Only in the transonic flight
regime is speed instability (negative M u ) generally encountered. This situation might be
characterized by a well-damped, high frequency short period motion; yet a pure divergence
in airspeed if speed is altered from trim, at least for small disturbances.
4.cxlii
Imaginary
Axis
x
MLu - MuL = 0
x
Real
Axis
x
M (Stable)
Figure 4.88
Influence of Reducing Speed Stability, Mu
One of the means of artificially augmenting short period damping is through the use
of a pitch rate damper. This device senses pitch rate and applies proportional longitudinal
control inputs which artificially increases M . The effect is shown in Figure 4.89.
Another means of artificially adding short period damping is via utilization of a pure
pitch attitude sensor (Figure 4.89). This device is not generally very good because it also
increases the frequency of the short period motion considerably. This results in a very
rough ride in turbulent air, particularly at high dynamic pressure.
4.cxliii
Increases sp Slightly Imaginary

Axis
Increases sp x
Real Axis
x
Classical Influence of Increasing Pitch Rate

Damping, M , on Longitudinal Motion
Imaginary
Axis
x
Increases sp
Increases sp
x
Real Axis
x
Figure 4.89
Effect of Increasing M
4.8 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES MANEUVERING

TASKS

A thorough investigation of longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks
must begin with thorough preflight planning. The purpose and scope of the investigation
must be clearly defined, then a plan of attack or method of test can be formulated.
4.cxliv
Preflight planning must start with research. This includes a study of the airplane
and a thorough study of the longitudinal control system - including stability and control
augmentation if installed. The design of the longitudinal control system should have a
major influence on both the scope of the investigation and the emphasis during the
investigation. The theory presented earlier for longitudinal maneuvering stability should
provide excellent direction to the test pilot and engineer in formulating a test program for
the investigation of longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks. For example,
major emphasis during maneuvering stability tests on airplanes with reversible control
systems should be on the linearity of the longitudinal control force variation with normal
acceleration at several selected trim airspeeds. Conversely, for airplanes with irreversible
control systems, major emphasis should be placed on the variation of the longitudinal
control force - normal acceleration gradient (stick force per g) with altitude and airspeed or
Mach number. Theory, although not always complete and not always classically applicable
to the practical tests, generally leads to the emphasis presented above because of the
following:
1. Nonlinear hinge moment characteristics at large elevator deflections and high

Mach numbers can generate serious nonlinearities in maneuvering control forces
for the airplane equipped with a reversible longitudinal control system. The
nature of the irreversible control system results in no aerodynamic force
feedback to the pilot from nonlinear hinge moments.
2. Reversible control system are usually utilized in airplanes with relatively

restricted flight envelopes. This fact, in conjunction with knowledge of the
characteristics of the reversible control system, leads to the rationalization that
the gradient of longitudinal control force with normal acceleration should not
vary greatly throughout the operational flight envelope for these airplanes. This
is generally not so for the irreversible control system. Because of the large
flight envelopes usually associated with airplanes possessing irreversible
control systems and the characteristics of irreversible control systems the
gradient of longitudinal control force with normal acceleration can vary
drastically within the operational flight envelope.
Preflight research also involves reviewing all available information on longitudinal

stability and control characteristics. Much useful knowledge may be gained from
conferences with pilots and engineers familiar with the airplane.
4.cxlv
The particular maneuvering tasks to be investigated must be determined and clearly

understood by the flight test team. These tasks, of course, depend on the mission of the
airplane. Knowledge of the mission and the maneuvering tasks allows determination of
appropriate test conditions - configurations, altitudes, centers of gravity, trim airspeeds,
and gross weights. Test conditions should be commensurate with the mission environment
of the airplane. Center of gravity position is, of course, extremely critical for these tests.
If flight test time permits, tests at the most aft and most forward operational CG positions
should be performed after an adequate build-up program. If flight time is limited, tests
should be performed (with care) at the most aft operational CG position (aft critical
loading). Note: Maneuvering longitudinal control force gradients (stick force per g) may
actually limit forward and/or aft CG positions for operational use. If the test program is
aimed at determining these limits, appropriate CG restrictions will be promulgated or
recommended by the test activity or higher authority.
with only production cockpit instruments and portable instrumentation-hand-held force
gauge and stopwatch. Automatic recording devices, such as oscillograph, magnetic tape,
and telemetry, are very helpful in rapid data acquisition and may be essential in a long test
program of quantitative nature. Special sensitive cockpit instruments are also very useful,
not only aiding in data acquisition but also aiding in stabilization for equilibrium tests
points.
example of a longitudinal stability and control data card for the investigation of
maneuvering tasks is shown in Figure 4.90. Many test pilots desire to modify data cards to
their own requirements or construct data cards for each tests. At any rate, the data cards
should list all quantitative information desired and should be easy to interpret in flight.
Blank cards should be utilized for appropriate qualitative pilot comments.
4.cxlvi
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY AND CONTROL RECORD CARD NUMBER

MANUEVERING TASK
T.O. CG
GEAR DOWN %MAC GEAR UP %MAC T.O. TIME LAND TIME

EXTERNAL LOADING CONFIGURATION
TRIM AIRSPEED MACH POWER ALT. LONG. TRIM

BREAKOUT & CONTROL SYSTEM MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS FREEPLAY
FRICTION
CN
CN
MANUEVERING LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
METHOD NORMAL AIRSPEED
TARGET
CN ACCELERATION Fs e OR s DEVIATION
N
N
TRIM SHOT
FUEL 1.0 0 0
FUEL
WIND-UP TURN
REMARKS:
FUEL CN
SHORT PERIOD CHARACTERISTICS
HALF-CYCLE
METHOD CN PERIOD AMPLITUDE RATIO
TRIM SHOT
FUEL
PIO INVESTIGATION
EASE OF TRIM TO TRIMMABILITY

Fs = 0 TRIM SENSITIVITY TRIM RATE
Figure 4.90
Longitudinal Stability and Control Record for Maneuvering Tasks
4.cxlvii

Longitudinal stability and control characteristics must be evaluated in relation to
their influence on various maneuvering mission tasks. Therefore, the test pilot must devote
a portion of the evaluation to performing or simulating the maneuvering tasks which have
been selected. While performing these tasks, the test pilot gains the essential qualitative
opinion of the longitudinal flying qualities and should assign handling qualities ratings.
Without recording a single item of data, the test pilot should be able to form a good opinion
of the mission effectiveness of the airplane, at least for the particular tasks being evaluated.
This opinion will be based on the amount of attention and effort the pilot must devote to
just flying the airplane. Due consideration should be given during this phase of the test
to the following considerations:
1. Whether the mission tasks will be performed in VFR and IFR weather, or
strictly VFR conditions.
2. The amount of time and effort the pilot must devote to duties other than just
flying the airplane - duties such as setting up a weapons system, coordinating
multiplane tactics, communicating with other aircraft or a controlling station,
etc.
3. If stability or control augmentation systems are installed, the consequences of

their failure.
The test pilots qualitative opinion of the airplanes longitudinal flying qualities in
relation to the selected mission task is the most important information to be obtained.
Therefore, this phase of the test must not be overlooked. The test pilot probably will have
some ideas as to the particular characteristics which make the airplane easy or hard to fly
even before proceeding to the quantitative phase of the testing. Use of the quantitative test
techniques described below hopefully allows the test pilot to substantiate his qualitative
opinion.
4.cxlviii

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics of the longitudinal flight control system have been
previously introduced earlier in this section on Longitudinal Flying Qualities. Therefore,
test techniques for measuring mechanical characteristics will not be restated. This
discussion is mainly concerned with the direct effects of mechanical characteristics on
longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks.

Friction in the longitudinal control system, since it is usually small, generally has
little or no effect on maneuvering handling qualities. However, if friction (without
breakout) is very large, longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks may be
seriously degraded. A large amount of friction would introduce poor control feel in
maneuvering flight in that the friction would necessitate significant longitudinal control
force inputs before an airplane response would be apparent (Figure 4.91). This would be
particularly true while maneuvering at low values of normal acceleration since the friction
would effectively mask the airplanes true stick force per g gradient, particularly if the
gradient were rather shallow.
25
20
Long. Control Force
Maneuvering Force
15
Gradient Masked
Lbs Pull
by Friction
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.91
Longitudinal Control Friction Effects
on Maneuvering Force Gradient
4.cxlix
A judicious amount of longitudinal control breakout force generally is beneficial to

longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks. It may reduce excessive sensitivity
in longitudinal control feel about trim for certain airplane flight conditions (high natural
frequency and low damping of the airplane short period mode, low stick force per g
gradient). Addition of some breakout force may reduce otherwise severe pilot-induced-
oscillation (PIO) tendencies for these flight conditions. However, if too much breakout
force is added, the pilot feels a lag in the control system which may cause him to
overcontrol (attempt to drive the airplane to the response he desires) and generate pilot-
induced-oscillations.
Breakout forces must be suitably matched to the longitudinal maneuvering stability

characteristics of the airplane. A combination of large breakout and shallow gradient of
longitudinal control forces in maneuvering flight (Figure 4.92) results in artificial
maneuvering force nonlinearity about trim. This generates poor longitudinal control feel
when the pilot attempts to track precisely at low values of normal acceleration.
25
20
Long. Control Force
15
Lbs Pull
10 Friction = 2 Lb
1
Breakout, Including
5 Friction = 6.5 Lb

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.92
Poor Matching of Longitudinal Maneuvering
Force Gradient and Breakout Forces
4.cl
In summary, some longitudinal breakout force is usually beneficial to longitudinal

flying qualities during maneuvering tasks, however, too much results in undesirable
characteristics. Friction generally should be as small as possible in the longitudinal control
system.
4.8.2.2.2 Freeplay
Freeplay in the longitudinal control system should be as small as possible.
Excessive freeplay results in difficulty in performing precise tracking tasks at low values of
normal acceleration about trim. The pilot will generally resort to tracking slightly out of
trim during precise maneuvering to avoid continually moving the longitudinal control stick
through a large dead band of freeplay.
4.8.2.2.3 Centering
Positive centering of the longitudinal cockpit control stick contributes to good
longitudinal flying qualities during maneuvering tasks; positive centering allows the pilot to
change normal acceleration, angle of attack, and pitch attitude toward the trim (one g)
condition merely by relaxing forward or aft force on the control stick.

Oscillations in the elevator control surface and the entire longitudinal control
system, initiated by either external perturbations or pilot inputs, should be essentially
deadbeat. Lightly damped or undamped motion can result in annoying motion in the
cockpit control stick during rapid maneuvering, as well as objectionable oscillations in
normal acceleration.
4.8.2.2.5 Measurement of Longitudinal Maneuvering

Stability
Longitudinal maneuvering stability characteristics have been shown to have a major
influence on the pilots opinion of the airplane during maneuvering tasks. In particular, the
longitudinal control force variation with normal acceleration, or stick force per g, is a
primary control feel parameter. This parameter is of tremendous importance for airplanes
which will be maneuvered extensively in operational use; however, it must be investigated
to some degree in all airplanes, irregardless of their missions.
4.cli
4.8.2.2.6 Stick Force per g

The pilots opinion of the maneuvering capabilities of the airplane are directly
related to the stick force per g gradient; therefore, it is necessary to design the airplane
very carefully to maintain this gradient within acceptable limits. The acceptability of a
particular airplanes stick force per g gradient will generally depend on at least the
following considerations:
1. The amount of maneuvering and the nature of the maneuvering tasks required
for mission accomplishment. If the airplane is designed to be maneuvered
extensively, the stick force per g gradient must be low enough so that the pilot
is not fatigued excessively. However, the stick force per g gradient must not
be too low or the control feel may be too light and sensitive. Additionally, there
may also be inadequate protection against inadvertent overstress with a low
force gradient.
2. The limit load factor, or g tolerance of the airplane. Obviously, the stick
force per g gradient must be high enough to discourage inadvertent overstress.
Stick force per g gradients must be higher for airplanes with low g -
tolerances than for airplanes with high g- tolerances. The pilot rightly expects
untrimmed stick forces to be high when the airplane is maneuvered near its limit
load factor.
3. The type of cockpit longitudinal controller; i.e., whether the airplane is

equipped with a wheel or center-stick controller. A wheel or yoke grip is
usually located higher with respect to the pilots seat than a center-stick,
therefore, the pilot is able to exert larger forces, even with one hand.
Considering also that the pilot is able to comfortably use both hands with a
wheel controller leads to the rationalization that the maximum acceptable stick
force per g gradients can be higher with a wheel controller than with a center-
stick controller. Similarly, the minimum acceptable stick force per g gradient
must generally be higher with a wheel controller because the pilots arm is
usually unsupported. The pilot has very good vernier control with a center-
stick even with a low stick force per g gradient because the forearm is usually
supported on the thigh.
4.clii
4. There is some evidence from flying qualities investigations to indicate that stick
force per g should be higher at low speeds than at high speeds. This is
probably due to the fact that the pilot maintains tight control over normal
acceleration at high speeds, then gradually switches to tight control of pitch
attitude at low speeds. Thus the pilot tends to use stick force per g as a
primary control feel parameter at high speeds, then switches to longitudinal
control force per unit change in angle of attack ( ) as a primary control feel
Fs

parameter at low speeds. In order to utilize the same criteria ( ) for both slow
Fs
g
and fast speeds, criteria for stick force per g at low speeds can be made
inversely proportional to the parameter n 6 (change in normal acceleration per
unit change in angle of attack, a direct measure of how much rotation of the
airplane is required to obtain the normal acceleration response). Use of this
type of requirement can be justified by study of the following constant speed
approximation:
Fs
= ( )( )
Fs
n
n
eq 4.49
It is very desirable that the plots of longitudinal control force versus normal
acceleration be linear within the range of normal accelerations which would normally be
attained during maneuvering tasks in operational use. Some nonlinearity must be expected
in all airplanes; however, the departure from linearity should not cause excessive
differences between the local stick force per g gradient and the average stick force per g
gradient. The local gradient is defined by the slope of a tangent to the curve at any point.
The average gradient is defined by the slope of a line drawn from the lg point where
breakout including friction is overcome to the point on the curve under consideration (see
Figure 4.93). In general, a departure from linearity which results in the local gradient
differing from the average gradient by more than 50 percent is considered excessive.
6 n is directly proportional to the slope of the airplane lift curve and the square of the airplane velocity.

4.cliii
35
Breakout, Including Friction

30
Local Gradient
25
At 2 G = 4.7 Lb/G
Long Control Force

20
Local Gradient
Lbs Pull
15 at 5 G = 3 Lb/G
Average Gradient
10
at 5 G = 3.3 Lb/G
5 Average Gradient
at 2 G = 9 Lb/G
0 2 Lb
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Normal Acceleration
n
Figure 4.93
Graphical Explanation of Local Gradients
and Average Gradients of Stick Force per g
4.8.2.2.7 Transient Control Forces

During abrupt maneuvers, the longitudinal control forces must not be too light, or
the pilot may inadvertently overstress the airplane while attempting to maneuver rapidly. A
satisfactory stick force per g gradient in steady, smoothly controlled flight is not absolute
assurance that transient control forces will not be too low. Essentially, it should be more
difficult to overstress the airplane during abrupt, sudden maneuvers than during steady
maneuvers. Thus, one requirement on transient longitudinal control forces is that the
control force required to attain a certain normal acceleration in a sudden or abrupt maneuver
should not be objectionably light and the buildup of control force during the maneuver
entry shall lead the buildup of normal acceleration. Another criterion which has been
developed is a requirement on the ratio of longitudinal control force to normal acceleration
during maneuvers in which the pilot sinusoidally pumps the longitudinal control at various
frequencies. This criterion states that these ratios should always be greater than 3.0 pounds
per g for a center-stick controller and 6.0 pounds per g for wheel controller.
4.cliv
4.8.2.2.8 Elevator Position per g

Of lesser influence on the pilots opinion of the airplane during maneuvering tasks
is the variation of elevator position with normal acceleration in maneuvering flight, or
elevator position per g. However, a positive elevator position gradient in maneuvering
flight; i.e., increasing trailing edge up elevator deflection for increasing positive normal
acceleration is essential for satisfactory unaugmented longitudinal flying qualities; it is also
indicative of good basic airplane design. No maximum or minimum limits are placed on
the elevator position variation in maneuvering flight. The only criterion is that increases in
trailing edge up elevator deflection shall be required to maintain increases in positive normal
acceleration throughout the range of attainable acceleration.
4.8.2.2.9 Stick Position per g

The longitudinal cockpit control motion required in maneuvering flight has some
effect on the pilots opinion of the airplane during maneuvering tasks. Qualitative and
quantitative criteria have been developed for the variation of cockpit control position with
normal acceleration in maneuvering flight. Stick position per g should at least be
positive-increasing aft cockpit control position required to maintain increases in positive
normal acceleration - and the cockpit control motions required should not be so large or
small as to be objectionable. A quantitative criterion that has been developed for Category
A Flight Phases is as follows: the average gradient of longitudinal control force per inch of
cockpit control motion during maneuvering flight should not be less than 5.0 pounds per
inch for Levels 1 and 2 (this is actually designed to discourage excessive control motion).
However, flying qualities investigations have shown fairly conclusively that some finite
stick position per g level is desirable during maneuvering tasks. The main benefit of the
stick motion during maneuvering is the filtering action which the stick motion has on the
pilots control inputs. For instance, if an airplane exhibits a shallow longitudinal control
force gradient in maneuvering flight and little or no stick force per g gradient, the pilot
has little longitudinal control feel in terms of either force or motion and he may tend to
overcontrol during precise maneuvering tasks. The stick force per g gradient for this
case may be optimum for the mission and characteristics of the airplane; if so, increasing
the stick motion during maneuvering flight may be the solution for the overcontrolling
tendency.
4.clv
4.8.2.2.10Steady Pull-Ups
Test techniques which may be used to measure maneuvering stability characteristics
- stick force per g elevator position per g, stick position per g, and n will now be
introduced. The first technique to be presented is the steady pull-up method.
The steady pull-up method involves obtaining data at a constant power setting, a
constant longitudinal trim setting, and a constant airspeed (trim airspeed) while varying
normal acceleration by varying pitch rate during stabilized wings-level pull-ups. It is
performed as follows:
Record appropriate data such as power, longitudinal trim setting, trim elevator
and/or stick position, and fuel quantity. Note any correction to be applied to
cockpit sensitive accelerometer readings (tare correction) and set the floating
pointers of the accelerometer to 1 g.
2. Without changing power or trim settings, decelerate in climbing attitude (zoom

climb) then push over to enter a shallow dive toward the original trim altitude.
As the airspeed increases toward the trim airspeed, steadily apply a pull
longitudinal control force to establish a nose-up pitch rate and increase normal
acceleration to approximately that selected for the test point.
3. Is using the hand-held force gauge on a center-stick controller, the force input
must be made through the force gauge; i.e., with the force gauge already
applied to the control stick. The transient force input necessary to initiate the
pitch rate may be different from the steady force input required to maintain the
established normal acceleration. The test pilot must keep in mind that the
floating pointer of the force gauge will remain at the maximum force applied,
which may not be the steady force which he desires to measure.
4.clvi
4. For a short period of time during the steady wings-level pull-up, airspeed,
longitudinal control force, and normal acceleration will be stabilized. During
this period of time, the pilot should activate the automatic recording devices and
mentally note stick force, stick or elevator position, and normal acceleration. If
using the hand-held force gauge, look at it quickly during this period; do not
rely solely on the floating pointer. For wheel-or yoke-control airplanes, it is
possible to establish the normal acceleration with one hand while holding the
force gauge in readiness with the other. Then when stabilization is attained, the
force gauge can be applied quickly and the steady control forces measured.
5. Airspeed control is critical for this test. Deviations in airspeed from trim
airspeed of more than + 5 KIAS during data gathering is considered
unacceptable.
6. Altitude would be within + 2000 feet of the base altitude during the stabilized
portion of the steady pull-up. Pitch attitude during the gathering of data should
be within + 15 degrees of the original trim pitch attitude.
7. The technique of arriving at the desired airspeed, altitude, and attitude with
approximately the desired g is difficult, but can be mastered with practice. (Do
not discard an otherwise perfect data point if the exact target g is not attained. A
reasonable spread of normal acceleration is all that is required.)
8. After the run, the pilot should decelerate in a zoom climb in preparation for the
next data point while recording appropriate information on the pilots data card:
counter number (if applicable), g attained, stick force, stick and/or elevator
position, and deviation from trim airspeed (if any) during measurement.
9. Normal acceleration should be increased in steps from near lg toward the

maximum useable in operational use. The maximum useable may be limited by
structural considerations, severe buffeting, or stall. If any of these limiting
cases are reached, no further efforts should be made to increase the applied
normal acceleration. (Buffet onset normal acceleration should be noted, if
4.clvii
reached prior to maximum useable normal acceleration, since it is indicated on

the data plots. (Nonlinearities in stick force per g and n usually occur at
normal acceleration levels past buffet onset.)
10. As applied normal acceleration increase, the deceleration prior to entering the
dive, the steepness of the dive, and the rapidity of the control force input to
initiate the pitch rate must be increased. As a matter of fact, for some airplanes,
the pull-up for high-g points may have to be initiated at airspeeds faster than
trim airspeed because it may be impossible to keep the airplane from
decelerating as the normal acceleration is applied.
4.8.2.2.11Steady Pushovers
The steady pushover is probably the optimum method of obtaining maneuvering
stability characteristics at less than 1g. This method is simply a reverse steady pull-up.
It is performed exactly as the steady pull-up except:
1. A dive is entered initially to increase airspeed from trim, then a climb is initiated
toward the original trim altitude. As the airspeed decelerates toward the trim
airspeed, steadily apply a push longitudinal control force to establish a nose-
down pitch rate and decrease normal acceleration.
2. For a short period of time during the steady, wings-level, pushover, airspeed,
longitudinal control force, and normal acceleration will be stabilized. Record or
note pertinent parameters at this time.
3. Minimum normal acceleration attainable during these tests will probably be

limited by the trailing edge down elevator deflection stops or the airplane
structural units.
4.8.2.2.12Steady Turns
This method involves obtaining data at a constant power setting, constant
longitudinal trim settings, and a constant airspeed (trim airspeed) while varying normal
acceleration by varying pitch rate during stabilized turns in both directions. This method is
4.clviii
somewhat easier than wings-level steady pull-ups because the test pilot has a better
opportunity to stabilize exactly on trim airspeed and normal acceleration. Additionally,
because of the nature of the technique, the stabilized condition can be maintained for a
longer time period, which facilitates obtaining all the required data. Steady turns are
Record appropriate cockpit data such as power, longitudinal trim setting, trim
elevator and/or stick position, and fuel quantity. Note any correction to be
applied to cockpit sensitive accelerometer readings (tare correction) and set the
floating pointers of the accelerometer to 1g.
2. Without changing power or trim settings, roll the airplane slowly and smoothly
into a turn while simultaneously lowering the nose slightly to maintain trim
airspeed. If using the hand-held force gauge on a center-stick controller, the
longitudinal force input will have to be made through the force gauge.
3. When well stabilized on trim airspeed, bank angle, and normal acceleration,
mentally note longitudinal control force, stick or elevator position, and normal
acceleration. If using the hand-held force gauge, look at it if possible during this
period. If the airplane is equipped with a wheel controller, stabilize with one
hand while holding the force gauge in readiness with the other, then apply the
force gauge and measure the force. If automatic recording devices are utilized,
take a picture of the stabilized condition.
4. After the run, roll wings level and climb in preparation for the next test point
while recording appropriate cockpit data: counter number (if applicable), g
attained, stick force, stick and/or elevator position, and deviation from trim
airspeed (if any) during measurement.
5. Airspeed again is the critical parameter for this test. The test pilot must note or
record data only when stabilized precisely on trim airspeed. Deviation from
trim by more than + 5 KIAS is considered unacceptable.
4.clix
6. Stabilized data points should be obtained at 30, 45, and 60 degrees of bank
angle, then in approximately one-half g increments to the maximum useable
normal acceleration. Again, do not discard a perfectly good data point if the
exact value of normal acceleration is not attained. A reasonable spread of
normal acceleration is all that is necessary. Only slight increases in bank angle
are necessary above 2 g in order to increase substantially the g increment.
7. Little altitude is generally lost for the stabilized points at 60 degrees of bank or
less; therefore, a considerable time interval can be spent attaining good
stabilization without exceeding the allowable altitude band (base altitude + 2000
feet). At greater bank angles (higher normal acceleration), the test pilot should
start above the test altitude prior to entering the steady turn. Obviously, at these
higher levels of normal acceleration, stabilization must be quicker because
altitude is being lost rapidly.
8. At the higher normal acceleration levels (60-90 degrees of bank), top or bottom
rudder should be utilized as an aid in precise airspeed control. A little bottom
rudder can salvage a run if the airspeed starts to decrease. Usually, if airspeed
increases sharply, top rudder will not be effective in stopping the increase, thus
the run must be aborted.
9. Both left and right steady turns should be performed. For jet airplanes, little
variation in maneuvering stability characteristics is generally attributable to the
direction of turn. For propeller driven types, large differences may be noted due
to direction of the turn; these differences are usually caused largely by
gyroscopic effects.
10. The time and effort required to obtain maneuvering stability characteristics at
less than 1 g in steady turns is excessive. Therefore, these characteristics
should be obtained during steady wings-level pushovers previously described.
4.clx
4.8.2.2.13Wind-Up Turns
The third method which may be used to obtain maneuvering stability data is the
wind-up turn. This technique is exactly the same as the alternate technique for
accelerated stall investigations presented previously. It merely involves gradually
increasing normal acceleration from 1 g to maximum useable in a wind-up turn (left or
right) at constant airspeed. The wind-up turn is a convenient method to utilize for obtaining
a large amount of data in a short period of time if automatic recording devices are utilized; it
is also a good quick look qualitative technique even without automatic recording devices.
The wind-up turn should be performed as follows:
condition. Record a trim shot with the automatic recording devices. Record
appropriate cockpit data such as power, longitudinal trim setting, trim elevator
and/or stick position, and fuel quantity.
2. Actuate the automatic recording devices and smoothly and slowly roll into the
wind-up turn. Increase normal acceleration smoothly and slowly by gradually
increasing bank angle and aft stick position while maintaining airspeed constant.
At high levels of normal acceleration (bank angles greater than 60 degrees), use
rudder inputs to aid in airspeed control. Actuate the event marker at
predetermined g increments, at buffet onset, and at maximum useable normal
acceleration. Deactivate the instrumentation while recovering to 1 g flight
conditions. Record counter number and set up for the next run.
3. Some flight test activities have advocated the wind-down turn as a means of
obtaining maneuvering stability data at less than 1 g normal acceleration.
However, this method requires extreme pilot skill and is hardly worth the time
and effort involved.
4.8.2.2.14Sinusoidal Stick Pumping, Out-of-Trim

Releases, and Sudden Pull-Ups
Three methods will be introduced through which transient control force
requirements in abrupt maneuvers may be determined. The technique to be utilized in a
particular test program will depend on the amount of instrumentation available and the
quantitative requirement being used as a criteria.
4.clxi
Sinusoidal stick pumping at various frequencies can be used to determine the

minimum transient stick force per g ratio. (The minimum stick force per g ratio results
when the control system is pumped sinusoidally at a frequency close to (the closeness
depending on short period damping ratio) the stick free airplane short period natural
frequency.) This technique requires automatic recording devices in the test airplane. The
procedure is merely to trim the airplane in the desired configuration at the desired flight
condition, then merely pump the cockpit control stick fore and aft sinusoidally at various
frequencies. The test pilot should attempt to include the frequency at which maximum
normal acceleration response is obtained for the lowest control force inputs. The amplitudes
of fore and aft stick motion, push and pull stick forces, and positive and negative load
factor excursions should be as nearly equal as possible. The sinusoidal stick pumping is
recorded on the automatic recording traces. Typical results are shown in Figure 4.94. The
minimum ratio of stick force per g in the transient maneuver should be greater than 3.0
pounds per g for center-stick controllers and 6.0 pounds per g for wheel controllers.
Out-of-trim stick releases is a method of artificially introducing a rapid pull-up.

The airplane is trimmed in the desired configuration and flight condition. It is then rolled
into a steady turn and stabilized at a desired normal acceleration. Maintaining the steady
turn, the test pilot notes the stick force required, then reduces it to zero by retrimming. The
airplane is then rolled out of the turn, and without retrimming, returned to the test altitude
and trim airspeed. (The trim airspeed is stabilized with wings level by maintaining a push
force on the control stick.) The pilot then merely releases the stick and notes the peak
normal acceleration response. The stick force required in the steady turn and the peak
normal acceleration response provide a point which may be compared to the stick force per
g gradient for steady pull-ups. Caution should be exercised in performing this test; start
with low g points and build up to higher values of normal acceleration. This test is not
rigorous although valuable qualitative information can be obtained. The validity of this test
is particularly questionable if the longitudinal control system has appreciable friction or if
control system centering is poor.
The sudden pull-up merely involves measuring the ratio of longitudinal control
force to normal acceleration change with various rates of cockpit control motion. The
airplane is trimmed in the desired configuration and flight condition. If a hand-held gauge
4.clxii
n
4
Normal Acceleration
2
n
0
-2
0 1 2 3 4
TED
Elevator Position
0
Degrees
5
TEU
0 1 2 3 4
Fs
Pull
Long Control Position
10
Lbs
10
Push
0 1 2 3 4
Aft
Cockpit Control Position
4
Inches
0
Fwd
0 1 2 3 4
Time - Seconds
Figure 4.94
Typical Data from Sinusoidal Stick Pumping
4.clxiii
is being used it is applied to the cockpit control stick so that the abrupt force input can be
made through the force gauge and recorded with the floating pointer. The cockpit control
stick is then smartly and rapidly deflected to the rear a predetermined, safe amount, then
returned to the trim position. The peak longitudinal control force and peak normal
acceleration during the abrupt maneuver are noted. This ratio is then compared to stick
force per g gradients in steady pull-ups. The sudden pull-ups should be performed with
various rates of cockpit control motion; the total elapsed time for the cockpit control input
(from start to return to the trim position) should be varied from approximately one-half to 6
seconds. If the airplane is instrumented for automatic recording of stick force, normal
acceleration, and elevator position, a continuous record of the entire maneuver will yield the
necessary quantitative information. This test should be performed with due caution; the test
pilot should make initial elevator inputs rather small until a good feel for the g-response
in abrupt maneuvers is obtained.
4.8.2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LONGITUDINAL SHORT PERIOD

CHARACTERISTICS
Damping and frequency (or period) of the airplane short period mode of motion
have been shown to have a profound effect on overall longitudinal flying qualities.
However, it is most appropriate to investigate the characteristics of this motion during
maneuvering tasks because of the effect of these characteristics on the response of the
airplane to external perturbations or longitudinal control inputs. It is necessary to discuss
the effect of varying short period characteristics by varying only one parameter at a time.
For the discussion of the effect of varying short period frequency it is assumed that the
damping ratio of the short period motion is fixed at an acceptable level.
4.8.2.3.1 Short Period Frequency

The parameter, dsp is the damped frequency of the second-order, short period
mode of motion. If it is a real, positive number, it is directly related to the physical

frequency (or quickness) with which the airplane responds to an elevator input or an
external disturbance. In visual flight, the pilot notes this frequency of response by
reference to the pitch attitude of the airplane, the normal accelerometer, or angle of attack
indicator. The pilot is also sensitive to this frequency of response through the normal
acceleration he feels. When flying by reference to instruments, the normal accelerometer,
4.clxiv
angle of attack indicator, and normal acceleration feel provide cues of the response
frequency of the airplane. Obviously, the damped frequency of the short period mode of
motion has a very large influence on the pilots opinion of the longitudinal flying qualities
of the airplane. However, the damped frequency is dependent on damping ratio as well as
the undamped natural frequency. Therefore, airplane short period flying qualities
requirements and data are usually presented in terms of the undamped natural frequency,
n sp and damping ration sp . Although the undamped natural frequency might seem to be
of academic interest only (at first glance) it will now be shown that it is actually a useful
means of describing the longitudinal maneuvering behavior of the airplane as the pilot sees
it.
With satisfactory damping of the short period mode, the following rationalizations
may be made concerning the effect of various short period natural frequencies on
longitudinal flying qualities:
1. For low n sp values - the pilot finds that the airplane tends to dig-in
during maneuvering. This characteristic is explained by the fact that the airplane
does not respond quickly enough initially to the pilots control input. The pilot
therefore tends to put in too large an input when attempting to make a rapid
flight path change, such as a sharp pull-up or rapid turn entry. The large input
yields the desired initial response; however, the pilot soon finds that the final
response, once it develops, is more than he wanted. Thus it is the initial
response which the pilot finds lacking when attempting vigorous maneuvering
tasks at low short period natural frequencies. If the airplane is always
maneuvered slowly and smoothly, the pilot probably does not object to the slow
initial response. (The large transport or passenger airplane, with large moments
of inertia in pitch, are characterized by low short period natural frequencies.
Since these airplanes do not have to be maneuvered extensively in their
missions, however, the pilot may feel the response characteristics are perfectly
satisfactory.) Trimmability may be impaired somewhat if n sp is too low.
This is due to the fact that every trim input the pilot makes requires a relatively
long time interval to take effect. Thus the pilot thinks he is in trim initially, but
finds later that a little further trim correction is necessary. The pilot does not
have a good, firm knowledge of when the trim setting is exactly correct.
4.clxv
2. If the short period undamped natural frequency is medium to high, the

response of the airplane to longitudinal control inputs is generally satisfactory
for maneuvering tasks. The airplane is quick responding longitudinally and the
pilot will generally feel very confident during gunsight tracking or bombing
deliveries. During vigorous maneuvering, the pilot has a strong, positive
feeling that the normal acceleration response will be exactly what was desired
when the elevator input was made. This predictability factor is important to
the pilot. Additionally, the medium to high short period frequency enhances
longitudinal trimmability. With the medium to high frequency, every correction
made during the task of trimming takes less time and comes to a completion
quicker. This gives the pilot the feeling that he knows exactly what trim
correction is necessary. In other words, the airplanes longitudinal trim point is
well defined and corrections to the trim point are made quickly.
3. For very high n sp values - the pilot may complain that the initial response of
the airplane is too fast or too quick. This is due to the fact that the high natural
frequency makes the airplane too sensitive and responsive to very small
longitudinal control inputs. During precise tracking maneuvers, the pilot tends
to bobble the nose position of the airplane. This may impair precise
placement of ordnance during certain maneuvering tasks required in mission
accomplishment. If the airplane is flown in turbulence, it may respond so
abruptly through angle of attack and normal acceleration changes that the pilot is
subjected to an uncomfortable, teeth-rattling ride. Flying qualities
investigations have shown that increasing stick force per g gradients tend to
attenuate the sensitivity and bobbling tendencies associated with high short
( )
F
period natural frequencies. The higher ns gradients merely require the pilot to
use larger force inputs during any maneuver, which tends to decrease the initial
( )
F
abruptness and sensitivity experienced with lighter ns gradients. However,
this type of compromise is never completely satisfactory since steady

longitudinal control forces in pull-ups and turns may become excessive. If the
short period natural frequency is very high, even the best compromise value of
( ) cannot make the maneuvering characteristics acceptable.

Fs
n
4.clxvi
4.8.2.3.2 Short Period Damping

The parameter, sp , is the damping ratio of the short period mode of motion. Its
value strongly affects the time or dynamic response of the airplane to a longitudinal control
input or an external disturbance. Pilots are very sensitive to this parameter. It may be
detected in visual flight by observing the pitch attitude of the airplane as the airplane
responds to an elevator input. The pilot notes the peak value and oscillatory nature of the
response. The damping ratio can be detected in instrument flight by reference to the normal
accelerometer or angle of attack indicator.
Short period damping ratio has a direct effect on piloting technique and the pilots
opinion of the longitudinal flying qualities of the airplane, particularly during maneuvering
tasks. At a constant short period undamped natural frequency of reasonable value, the
pilots description of the airplane can be varied from over-responsive to sluggish
merely by changing the damping ratio. Assuming a satisfactory n sp , the following
rationalizations may be made concerning the effect of various short period damping ratios
on longitudinal flying qualities.
1. For very low damping ratios - the airplane short period motion is very easily
excited by pilot inputs or external disturbances. Once excited, the motion (pitch
attitude, normal acceleration, and angle of attack oscillations) tends to persist for
a relatively long period of time. When the pilot attempts to maneuver the
airplane vigorously, he finds the longitudinal response is oscillatory and the
resulting oscillations in angle of attack and normal acceleration disconcerning
and uncomfortable. Thus, the pilot will probably switch to cautious
longitudinal control inputs in an attempt to keep from exciting the short period
motion. Longitudinal control forces required in maneuvering will probably feel
lighter to the pilot than the actual force gradient. This is because the initial
response of the airplane is quicker than the pilot thinks it should be, therefore,
the pilot thinks he applied more force than he should have applied.
2. For low short period damping ratios - the airplane short period motion is still
quite apparent to the pilot, however, it is very noticeably damped. The pilot
may still use somewhat cautious control inputs because a noticeable overshoot
in desired angle of attack and normal acceleration occurs when large, abrupt
4.clxvii
inputs are made. However, the pilot will feel more comfortable in maneuvering
vigorously than he would with the very low short period damping.
Longitudinal control forces in maneuvering flight may still seem a bit light.
3. For moderate short period damping ratios - the airplane short period motion is
natural and predictable. The response of the airplane to a longitudinal control
input is such that the pilot feels that he can change angle of attack, pitch attitude,
and normal acceleration to whatever values he desires. In addition, the pilot
feels that he can make these changes precisely without any overshoot or
undershoot in amplitude. Longitudinal control forces during maneuvering flight
feel normal. The pilot thus feels very secure in maneuvering the airplane
vigorously; maneuvering tasks required in mission accomplishment are
performed without undue pilot effort.
4. The fairly heavy and heavy short period damping, the airplane short period
motion is not evident to the pilot. The response of the airplane to longitudinal
control input approaches a steady state value with a minute overshort or it
approaches the steady state purely asymptotically. As the short period damping
ratio increases, the airplane response becomes slower and slower; the pilot
resorts to forcing the initial response by applying large elevator inputs to get
the response started. For this situation, the pilot describes the airplane as
sluggish during maneuvering, and because he resorted to using large initial
elevator inputs, longitudinal maneuvering control forces feel higher than
normal.
4.8.2.3.3 The Short Period Thumbprint.

The results of a pilot opinion study have indicated that there are combinations of
short period undamped natural frequencies and damping ratios which provide satisfactory
longitudinal flying qualities for tracking maneuvering tasks. A typical display of these
combinations, or thumbprint as it is commonly called, is presented in Figure 4.95 with
various pilot comments describing the airplanes longitudinal characteristics at appropriate
points outside the thumbprint. (The thumbprint discussion (Figure 4.95) is valid for
only one particular airplane; however, the trends are the same for all airplanes.)
4.clxviii
Best Tested Boundary

Unsatisfactory Boundary
1.1
A
Short Period Natural Frequency, CPS

1.0
G
.9
B
.8
H C
.7
.6
.5 D
F E
.4
.3
.2
.1
0
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 2.0
Short Period Damping Ratio

(Applicable for a Tracking Manuevering Task)
A. Moves in steps. Response initially a bit abrupt.
B. Response erratic or step-like. Forces too heavy. Not

manueverable. Stick motion too great.
C. Not very manueverable. Stiff and sluggish. Force too heavy

Good flying but not a fighter.
D. Bomber or heavy fighter. Not manueverable. Forces heavy

and stick motion too great. Trims well.
E. Light bomber Not fighter type. Forces heavy. Too much

stick motion. Not manueverable. Sluggish.
F. Response fast. Oscillatory. Difficult to track. Force

initially light then stiffens.
G. Oscillatory, too closely coupled. Too responsive.
H. Dangerous - could exceed load factor. Highly oscillatory.

Pilot reluctant to manuever. Very difficult to track.
Figure 4.95
The Short Period Thumbprint
4.clxix
4.8.2.3.4 Residual Oscillation

Any sustained residual oscillations in pitch should not interfere with the pilots
ability to perform the tasks required in the mission of the airplane. For levels 1 and 2,
oscillations in cockpit normal acceleration of greater than + .05g or pitch attitude
oscillations greater than + 3 mils (Category A Flight Phases) are considered excessive.
4.8.2.3.5 Additional Short Period Criteria

It is generally agreed that short period frequency and damping alone are not
adequate to completely describe the acceptability or unacceptability of the short period
response. An additional parameter has been utilized in an attempt to resolve discrepancies
existing between the results of various pilot opinion studies in which only n sp and sp
were considered. This parameter, n , has been previously introduced in the discussion of
maneuvering stability characteristics. The ratio of maximum pitching acceleration to steady
( )
2
n sp
state normal acceleration during maneuvering is approximately7 equal to n . This

pitching acceleration is the airplane longitudinal response which develops earlier during
maneuvering. Many of the objections to both very high and very low short period natural
frequencies are due to deficiencies in initial response. Therefore, requirements for short
period natural frequency have been expressed as a function of n ; these requirements are
( )
2
n sp
designed to maintain n essentially constant (see Figures 4.96 a, b, and c). Of

course, short period damping is always extremely important and must also be maintained
within acceptable limits.
7 Assumptions of constant airspeed and a high-frequency control systems are made.
4.clxx
100

Note: The boundaries for values of
outside the range shown are defined
by straight-line extensions. 2 sp

10.0
3.6
el 2
Lev
10
el 1
Lev
0.28
0.16
~
sp el 1
Lev
rad/sec
&3
s2
Level
1.0
Level 2
el 3
Lev
0.1
1.0 10 100
/ ~ g's/rad
Figure 4.96a
MIL-F-8785B
4.clxxi
100

Note: The boundaries for values of
outside the range shown are defined
by straight-line extensions. 2
sp

10.0
3.6
10
el 2
Lev
el 1
Lev
sp ~
rad/sec
0.085
0.038
el 1
Lev
1.0 3
ls 2&
Leve
0.1
1.0 10 100
/ ~ g's/rad
Figure 4.96b
MIL-F-8785B
4.clxxii
100

Note: The boundaries for values of greater
than 100 are defined be straight-line extensions.
2
The level 3 boundary for / less than 1.0 is sp

also defined by a straight-line extension.
10.0
3.6
el 2
Lev
10
el 1
Lev
0.16
Level 2, Classes I, II-C, IV

0.096
sp ~
Level 2, Classes II-L, III el 1
Classes II-L, III
rad/sec Lev 3
2&
Classes I,
ls
II-C, IV
Leve
1.0
el 3
Lev
Note: For Class I, II-C, and IV Airplanes,

n sp shall always be greater than 0.6
radians per second for Level 3
0.1
1.0 10 100
/ ~ g's/rad
Figure 4.96c
MIL-F-8785B
4.clxxiii
4.8.2.3.6 The Doublet, Pulse, and 2 g Pull-Up

Three methods will be introduced for obtaining quantitative short period
characteristics. The method utilized for a particular flight test will depend on the
characteristics of the airplane, the requirements against which tested, and the preference of
the individual test pilot.
The doublet input excites the short period motion nicely, while suppressing the
phugoid. It is generally considered to be the optimum means of exciting the short period
motion of any airplane. The doublet input manufactures a deviation in pitch attitude in one
direction (nose-down), then cancels it with a deviation in the other direction (nose-up).
The total deviation in pitch attitude from trim at the end of a doublet is zero. Thus, the
phugoid mode is suppressed. However, the short period motion will be evident since the
doublet generates deviations in pitch rate, normal acceleration, and angle of attack at a
constant airspeed. Short period characteristics may be determined from the manner in
which these parameters return to the original trimmed conditions.
The doublet is performed as follows:
condition. If using automatic recording devices, activate them before initiating
any deviation from trim. (The first part of the trace then serves as a trim
shot.)
2. With a smooth, but fairly rapid motion, apply airplane nose-down longitudinal
control to decrease pitch attitude a few degrees, then reverse the input to nose-
up longitudinal control to bring the pitch attitude back to trim. As pitch attitude
reaches trim, return the longitudinal cockpit control to trim and release it
(controls-free short period) or restrain it in the trim position (controls-fixed
short period). (Both methods should be utilized.) At the end of the doublet
input, pitch attitude should be at the trim position (or oscillating about the trim
position) and airspeed should be exactly trim airspeed. The doublet input and
various other significant parameters are shown in Figure 4.97.
4.clxxiv
3. Obtaining quantitative information on short period characteristics from cockpit

instruments is difficult and will be almost impossible if the motion is heavily
damped. However, if a sensitive accelerometer and/or sensitive angle of attack
indicator are available in the cockpit, and if the motion is not too heavily
damped, the test pilot may be able to see enough of the free oscillation to obtain
a half-cycle amplitude ratio. From this parameter, an approximate damping
ratio can be quickly obtained8 . The time required for a half-cycle may be
measured with a one - or three - second sweep stopwatch. Doubling this time
yields the approximate damped period of the short period motion. From this
parameter, approximate values for damped frequency and undamped natural
frequency may be computed, if desired8 . If the pilot cannot see enough of the
motion to measure and time a half-cycle amplitude ratio, the short period motion
should be qualitatively described as essentially deadbeat.
4. If automatic recording devices (oscillograph or magnetic tape, etc.,) are

available, the entire doublet input and short period response may be recorded
and analyzed8 later for accurate quantitative information.
5. The frequency with which the doublet input is applied depends on the frequency
and response characteristics of the airplane. The test pilot must adjust the
doublet input to the particular airplane. The maximum response amplitude will
be generated when the time interval for the complete doublet input is
approximately the same as the period of the undamped short period oscillation
(see Figure 4.97).
6. The amplitude of the doublet input must be large enough to generate a large
enough short period response to analyze. Ease and accuracy of analysis
increases with size of the short period response. It is judicious to make small
amplitude inputs until familiarity is gained with the response characteristics.
This is particularly important for a low altitude, high speed flight condition or
any high dynamic pressure flight condition.
8 See Analysis of Second Order Responses in the introduction of this manual.
4.clxxv
7. The doublet input may be made by first applying aft stick, then reversing to
forward stick. However, this results in less than 1g normal acceleration at the
completion of the doublet and is more uncomfortable for the pilot.
DOUBLET INPUT
AFT
LONGITUDINAL
CONTROL
POSITION
TRIM
FWD
TEU
ELEVATOR
POSITION
TRIM
TED
UP
AIRPLANE
ATTITUDE
PITCH
TRIM
DWN
NOSE UP
PITCH RATE
NOSE DOWN
AIRPLANE SHORT PERIOD MOTION
+
ACCELERATION
NORMAL
-
AIRPLANE SHORT PERIOD MOTION
+ PERIOD
OF ATTACK
ANGLE
TRIM
- 4
2 6
TIME - SECONDS
Figure 4.97
Doublet Input and Airplane Short Period Response
The pulse input also excites the short period nicely; however, it also tends to excite
the phugoid mode. This confuses data analysis, since the response of the airplane through
4.clxxvi
the phugoid may be taken as a part of the short period response. This is particularly true
for low-frequency, slow responding airplanes. Therefore, the pulse can usually only be
utilized for high-frequency, quick responding airplanes in which the short period motion
subsides before the phugoid response can develop. The pulse can always be used for a
quick, qualitative look at the form of the short period motion. It is performed as follows:
1. Stabilize and trim in the desired configuration at the desired flight condition.
Actuate the automatic recording devices, if available, before initiating any
deviation from trim.
2. With a smooth, but fairly rapid motion, apply airplane nose-up longitudinal
control to generate pitch rate, normal acceleration, and angle of attack changes,
then return the longitudinal control stick to the trim position. The short period
motion may then be observed while restraining the control stick at the trim
position (controls-fixed short period) or with the control stick free (controls-free
short period).
3. The pulse is actually the last half of a doublet input. The parameters shown in
Figure 4.97 at the completion of a doublet input will be the same at the
completion of the pulse input except airplane pitch attitude will be different from
trim and will return to trim only through the phugoid motion.
4. Pulses may also be performed by first applying airplane nose-down longitudinal

control.
The 2g pull-up excites the short period motion nicely and suppresses the phugoid if
performed correctly. It requires more time and effort than either the doublet or pulse inputs.
However, it is useful for investigating short period characteristics in low frequency, slow
responding airplanes. It may also be used in any airplane which exhibits heavy short
period damping and a large amplitude motion is desired for analysis. The 2g pull-up is
condition. If using automatic recording devices, take a trim shot, then turn the
devices off.
4.clxxvii
2. Decrease airspeed by increasing pitch attitude, then apply airplane nose-down

longitudinal control to enter a dive.
3. Trim altitude should be approached in a fairly steep nose-down attitude. As

airspeed increases toward the trim airspeed, actuate the automatic recording
devices and apply airplane nose-up longitudinal control to establish pitch rate,
normal acceleration, and angle of attack changes.
4. As the airplane pitch attitude approaches the initial trim pitch attitude, airspeed
should be trim airspeed, and normal acceleration should be approximately 2g.
As the pitch attitude reaches trim, smartly return the cockpit control stick to the
trim position and restrain it there or release it.
5. Observe appropriate short period characteristics and deactuate the automatic

recording devices after the motion has subsided.
4.8.3 Pilot-Induced Oscillations

The pilot-induced oscillation (PIO) can be defined as sustained oscillations or
instabilities resulting from the pilot being in the control loop. These oscillations would not
occur if the pilot had not closed the loop, since with few exceptions the airplane alone is
dynamically stable. It follows that control system dynamics as well as airframe and pilot
dynamics enter into this phenomenon. In other words, it is the total system that must be
considered when evaluating PIO.
Several open loop type flight tests have been developed to identify characteristics
that tend to contribute to PIO. One test is the sinusoidal pumping of the elevator control at
frequencies up to the short period. The phase angle between the elevator and stick is used
to assure adequate performance of the elevator servo. For this same type of pumping at all
input frequencies, the ratio of peak stick forces to peak load factors is used as an indicator
of how bobweights, augmentation systems, and basic control systems interact. If this ratio
decays significantly below steady state stick force per g, the airplane tends to become either
very sensitive in maneuvering or PIO may be encountered. Tests on the artificial feel
system including centering, breakout, friction, freeplay, and damping may also yield
information about control system characteristics that contribute to the problem.
4.clxxviii
All of these open loop tests may be used to point out areas of the flight envelope
where PIO tendencies exist; however, the PIO is a closed loop phenomenon and tasks
involving close pilot control of the airplane must be included. One such test is high-speed
formation flying where the pilot attempts to hold a precise wing position. Others involve
precise pitch tracking of either another aircraft or small ground and cloud targets. If PIO is
encountered, the pilot should get out of the control loop since the natural stability of the
airplane will normally damp out the oscillations. This can be done by simply releasing the
cockpit controls or by clamping the stick in the neutral position with both hands.
Obviously, if the PIO is encountered at very low altitude, the best recovery technique is to
smoothly but positively apply a pull force and commence a climb before releasing or
restraining the stick.
Since the PIO involves a closed loop where the short period mode is driven
divergent, it is obvious that a lightly damped free oscillation short period may contribute to
PIO. Also, since the dynamics of the pilot are involved, the higher frequency airplanes are
usually more prone to PIO. However, it does not necessarily follow that the lightly
damped, relatively high frequency airplane will exhibit PIO tendencies. Thorough testing
of both open and closed loop response characteristics in all flight phases is necessary to
fully define PIO tendencies.
There are no rigorous test techniques with which to investigate PIO tendencies.
The straight-forward approach is probably the best - fly the airplane in the flight conditions
where PIO tendencies are predicted and see if any are encountered. This approach should,
of course, be made in gradual steps, building up to the most critical conditions as
experience is gained. The following general guidelines are offered in planning and
conducting a test program for investigating pilot-induced-oscillation tendencies:
1. The airplane should be maneuvered as it would be while making precise

corrections in pitch attitude and normal acceleration. Close formation flying and
precise gunsight tracking tasks are tight spots where PIO tendencies may be
readily apparent.
4.clxxix
2. A properly planned test program using various frequencies of sinusoidal stick

pumping would practically force the test pilot to experience a PIO if the
tendency were present. Sinusoidal stick pumping was previously introduced in
the discussion of transient maneuvering control forces.
3. Extreme caution should be exercised in attempting a test program of this nature

of the LAHS flight regime. The amplitude of normal acceleration variation
during a PIO in this regime could precipitate dramatic and sudden structural
failure of the airframe and possibly incapacitate the pilot so that escape would be
impossible.
4. If longitudinal stability augmentation is installed, the effect of its failure on PIO

tendencies must be investigated with a careful build-up program.

rough qualitative report of the longitudinal flying qualities exhibited during the mission
tasks under evaluation. This report should be written while the events of the flight are
fresh in the test pilots mind. Qualitative pilot opinion, appropriately related to the mission
tasks under evaluation, will be the most important part of the final report.
Appropriate data should be selected to substantiate the pilots opinion. Several

suggested means of presenting data will be introduced. No matter what method is used, it
should be clear, concise, and complete.
4.8.4.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics may be presented as shown previously in the discussion
of "Test Procedures and Techniques - Nonmaneuvering Tasks."
4.clxxx
4.8.4.2 LONGITUDINAL MANEUVERING STABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS
Longitudinal maneuvering stability characteristics may be presented as plots of
longitudinal control force, elevator position, and longitudinal cockpit control position
versus normal acceleration at a constant trim airspeed. This presentation shows the
linearity or any nonlinearities of the relationships. If n is linear applicable specification
F
limits for the local ns gradient can be plotted on the longitudinal control force curves as an
F
aid in determining specification compliance (i.e., when local ns gradient is steeper than
minimum or shallower than maximum specification requirement). Longitudinal control
system breakout forces, including friction should be considered when fairing curves
F
through the data points and when drawing specification limits. The ns curves and the
specification limit lines should originate at the longitudinal control force value
corresponding to breakout, including friction in either the push or pull direction. Typical
plots are shown in Figure 4.98.
(NOTE: For the example shown, no difference in the characteristics and be detected
between left and right steady turns. For single engine, single rotation propeller airplanes,
the difference may be significant enough to fair curves for both left and right turns.)
If enough data points are obtained during the maneuvering stability tests, and/or if
no significant differences can be detected for steady turns and steady pull-ups, it is not
necessary to attempt to fair a curve through the data. In this case, the data points
themselves define the curves. Typical plots are shown in Figure 4.99. An additional plot
helpful in determining and presenting specification compliance is shown in Figure 4.100.
Wind-up turns at constant airspeed yield as many data points as the engineer desires
to obtain from the automatic recording traces. If automatic data reduction facilities are
available, enough data points can be obtained to "shot gun" the data. A typical example of
this method of data presentation is shown in Figure 4.101 for the "stick force per g"
characteristics only.
If maneuvering stability tests are performed at various CG positions for the same
configuration and essentially the same flight conditions, the data may be presented as
shown in Figure 4.102.
4.clxxxi
Steady Pull-Ups Steady Left Turns

Sudden Pull-Ups Steady Right Turns
Steady Pushovers
Pull Breakout Including Friction = 1.5 Lbs
Friction Negligible
20
10
Control Force
Longitudinal
0
Push
Lb
10
Trim Buffet Onset NL

Aft
10
Cockpit Control Position
5
Inches from Trim
Longitudinal
0
Fwd
5
Trim
TEU
10
Limits: TEU - 15 Deg
TED - 10 Deg
5
0
Elevator
Position
TED
Deg
5
-1.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Normal Acceleration
g
Model_________Airplane
BuNo________
Configuration: Power Trim: 400 KIAS, 10,000 Ft.

Loading: Long Range Attack Gross Weight: 18,240 Lb.
CG: 20.7% MAC Longitudinal Trim: 0.63 and
Stab Aug: On
Figure 4.98
Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Characteristics
4.clxxxii
Steady Pull-Ups Sudden Pull-Ups

Steady Turns Steady Pushovers
20
Pull
Breakout, Including Friction = 1.5 Lbs
Friction Negligible
10
Longitudinal
Stick Force
0
Push
Onset Buffet NL
Lb
10 Aft Trim
10
5 Inches from Trim

Stick Position
Longitudinal
0
Fwd
5
Trim
TEU
10
Limits: TEU - 15 Deg
5 TED - 10 Deg
TED
0
Elevator
Position
Deg
5
-1.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Normal Acceleration - g
BuNo________
Configuration: Cruise Trim: 350 KIAS, 5,000 Ft.

Loading: C Gross Weight: 17,130 Lb.
CG: 21.6% MAC Longitudinal Trim: 0.55 and
Stab Aug: Off
Figure 4.99
4.clxxxiii
Local Longitudinal Stick Force/g Gradient

Fs/n
Mil Spec Limits
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
BuNo________
Configuration: Power Trim: 450 KIAS, 5,000 Ft.

Loading: C Gross Weight: 18,340 Lb.
CG: 21.6% MAC Stab Aug: On
Figure 4.100
4.clxxxiv
Figure 4.101
Possible Means of Presenting "Stick Force per g"
Data from a Wind-Up Turn
4.clxxxvi
Altitude - 5,000 Ft
Left Steady Turns
Right Steady Turns
Steady Pull-Ups
Trim Airspeed - 190 Keas Trim Airspeed - 194 Keas Trim Airspeed - 194 Keas
Gross Weight - 20,000 Lb Gross Weight - 51,200 Lb Gross Weight - 51,200 Lb
CG Position - 21.6% Mac CG Position - 24.8% Mac CG Position - 24.8% Mac
80
Longitudinal Wheel Force
60
Lb-Pull
40
20
0
10
TEU
Elevator Position
Deg
0
Limits: TEU 15 Deg
TED
TED 10 Deg
10
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Longitudinal Wheel
80 8
Force Gradient
60 6
1.0g
Local
Lb/g
40 1.5 - 2.6g 4
20 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Center of Gravity Position - %Mac
BuNo________
Loading: Normal Transport Stab Aug: On
Figure 4.102
Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Characteristics in Configuration Cruise
Longitudinal maneuvering control force data is sometime presented in tabular form

when many loadings, configurations, altitudes, trim airspeeds, and CG positions have been
utilized. An example is presented in Figure 4.103.
CG Trim Control Force
4.clxxxvii
Loading Configuratio Position Gross Wt. Altitude Airspeed Gradient (1)

n (%MAC) (lb) (Ft) (KCAS/M) (Lb/g)
A CR 17.1 14,310 40,000 181/.62 23.6
A CR 21.1 14,155 40,000 221/.77 11.1
A P 23.2 15,240 40,000 274/.90 9.2
C CR 20.6 16,875 30,000 235/.64 9.2
C P 25.1 (2) 18,380 30,000 324/.81 6.9
A P 18.3 14,850 10,000 521/.92 6.8
A P 21.3 14,500 10,000 515/.915 5.0
A CR 24.2 15,830 10,000 433/.775 5.2
A CR 24.1 15,775 10,000 289/.52 5.6
C CR 19.4 (2) 16,565 10,000 346/.63 11.0
C P 24.9 (2) 18,240 10,000 445/.79 4.9
A PA 25.0 15,690 10,000 129 16.6
C PA 22.9 17,500 10,000 150 19.0
(1) Average maneuvering control force gradient measured from one g to maximum g
attained in a wind-up turn.
(2) See CG- Cross Weight relationship shown in Appendix IV, Figure 1.
Figure 4.103
Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Table
The flight test team may desire to presented the variation on the "stick force per g"
gradient with altitude and airspeed (or Mach number.) If so, average gradients of stick
force per g can be determined for different trim airspeeds and altitudes and presented on the
same plot (Figure 4.104). In general, the average gradient should be computed for the
same normal acceleration increment at each trim point; i.e., "average gradient between 1.0
and 3.0g" or "average gradient between 1.0 g and buffet onset." At any rate, the normal
acceleration increment used to compute the average gradient should be presented on the
plots.
4.clxxxviii
16
35,000 Ft
14
10,000 Ft
Average Longitudinal Control Force Per

g from 1.0g to 3.0g in Windup Turns
12
10
Lb/g
6
0
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Indicated Mach Number, IMN
BuNo________
Configuration Cruise - Power Gross Weight: 16,000 - 20,000 Lbs

Loading: Normal Fighter CG: 20.0% - 25% MAC
Figure 4.104
Variation of Stick Forces per g with Altitude and Mach Number
4.8.4.3 AIRPLANE SHORT PERIOD CHARACTERISTICS

The presentation of airplane short period characteristics will be dictated by the
amount of data available. If the scope of the evaluation is limited, short period
characteristics are effectively presented in tabular form. An example is shown in Figure
105. If the short period motion was recorded on oscillograph, magnetic tape, or telemetry,
the actual trace, approximately annotated, may be presented in the report. Angle of attack is
the most desirable parameter to use in analyzing the test results, since it exhibits the pure
short period response better than any other parameter, particularly at low speeds.
However, normal acceleration or pitch rate may also be utilized in obtaining approximate
quantitive short period characteristics.
4.clxxxix
Configuration Altitude Trim CG Stab n sp sp C1

10
(Ft) Airspeed (%MAC) Aug
(Rad/
(KIAS,
Sec)
IMN)
Power (P) 40,000 1.2 35.0 On 3.9 0.3 1.0
Power (P) 5,000 550, 0.9 35.5 On 5.0 0.6 0.5
Power 5,000 130 26.0 Off Motion Essentially
Approach Dead Beat
Figure 4.1705
Airplane Short Period Characteristics
When the flight test team desires to shown the variation of airplane short period
characteristics with airspeed or Mach number, a plot similar to that shown in Figure 4.107
may be utilized.
4.cxc
A
B
C
.9 Symbol Loading
.8
.7 30.9 - 33.6
CG % MAC
34.8 - 35.9
.6 34.5 - 36.0
Altitude - 40,000 Ft
.5 Shaded Symbols Denote Stab Aug On
.4
.3
.2
4.cxci
.1
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0
.7 .8 .9
CPS
Natural Frequency
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0

Undamped
Damping Ratio
Mach Number
Figure 4.106
4.8.4.4 PILOT-INDUCED OSCILLATIONS

Any tendency of the pilot-airplane combination toward PIO during any of the
maneuvering tasks must, of course, be thoroughly discussed in the technical report. This
discussion may be a separate section within the report or integrated into other sections of
the report, such as mechanical characteristics, maneuvering stability, or short period motion
discussions.

Requirements for static and dynamic longitudinal flying qualities during
maneuvering tasks are contained in the following applicable paragraphs of Military
Specification MIL-F-8785B(ASG), of 7 August 1969, hereafter referred to as the
Specification.
3.2.2 Longitudinal maneuvering characteristics.
3.2.3.2 Longitudinal control in maneuvering flight.
3.5.2 Mechanical characteristics.
3.5.3 Dynamic characteristics.
3.5.4 Augmentation systems.

Detail Specification. Comments concerning only those portions of the Specification which
require some interpretation are presented below.
3.2.2.2.1 Control Forces in Accelerated Flight
The terms "local gradient" and "average gradient" are not defined in the
Specification. The definitions presented earlier in this section should be utilized in the
analysis of test results. Note that limit local factor, n L , is defined as the symmetrical flight
limit load factor for a given Airplane Normal State, based on structural considerations. If
4.cxcii
this information is not defined by the contractor, utilize the maximum allowable load factor
for the particular configuration, store loading, etc., in computation of Specification limits
F
for maximum and minimum local force gradients. Interpretation of the ns limits of table
F
V. Because the limits on ns are a function of both n L and n , table V is rather complex.
To illustrate its use, the limits are presented on Figure 4.107 for an airplane having a
center-stick controller and n L + 7.0.
100
Gradient of Elevator Control Force with n ~ Lb/g

56
Level 3
42.5 360
n L/
ev
28 el
2
Le
ve
( )
l1
85
nL 1
10 240
n

( 56
nL 1 )
Level 1 ( 21
nL 1 )
Level 2 ( 18
nL 1 )
(Min. for Level 3 is 3.0 Lb/g)
1.0
1.0 10 100
n/ ~ g/RAD
Figure 4.107
MIL-F-8785B
4.cxciii
4.10 MANEUVERING TASKS - GLOSSARY

Pitch Rate Damping Pitching moment created because of the angular rotation
of the airplane in pitch during curvilinear flight.
Sometime called "damping in pitch" or "viscous
damping in pitch."
Stick-Fixed Maneuvering The location of the center of gravity of an aircraft for

Neutral Point which the gradient of elevator position versus normal
acceleration at constant airspeed would be zero.
Sometimes called the "elevator position maneuvering
neutral point."
Stick-Free Maneuvering The location of the center of gravity of an aircraft for

Neutral Point which the gradient of longitudinal; control force versus
normal acceleration at a constant airspeed would be zero.
Sometime called the "longitudinal control force
maneuvering neutral point."
Maneuvering Tasks Those tasks which result in accelerated flight conditions;

during these tasks, transitions for one equilibrium flight
condition to another are made quickly, and possibly,
somewhat roughly.
Local Stick Force Slope of the tangent to the curve of longitudinal control
per g Gradient force versus normal acceleration at any point.
Average Stick Force Slope of a line drawn from the 1g point where breakout,
per g Gradient including friction is overcome to the point under
consideration on the curve of longitudinal control force
versus normal acceleration.
Pilot-Induced-Oscillation A divergent oscillation of the pilot - airplane combination

(PIO) where the airplane alone exhibits at least some degree of
dynamic stability.
4.cxciv
4.11 MANEUVERING TASKS - REFERENCES

2. Airplane Performance, Stability and Control by Courtland D. Perkins,

3. Analysis of Frequency and Damping Characteristics of Airplane Longitudinal

Short Period Oscillations, by William B. Rhodes, Flight Test Division, Naval Air Test
Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, FT-TM-1-64, 28 December 1964.
4. Calculation of the Response of a Fighter Aircraft to Turbulent Air and a

Comparison with Flight Measurements, by C.G.B. Mitchell, Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Ministry of Aviation, Farnborough, Hants, RAE Technical Report 66275, August 1966.
5. Computer Programmers to Calculate the Response of Flexible Aircraft to

Gusts and Control Movements, by C.G.B. Mitchell, Ministry of Technology, Aeronautical
Research Council, London, Current Paper No. 957, October 1966.
6. Considerations in the Determination of Stability and Control Derivatives and

Dynamic Characteristics from Flight Data, by Chester H. Wolowicz, NASA Flight
Research Center, Edwards Air Force Base, California, AGARD Report 549 - Part 1, 1966.

Simulators Used for Pilot Training, by F. D. Newell, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory,
8. Dynamics of Flight, Stability and Control, by Bernard Etkins, Professor of
4.cxcv
9. Experience With Shinbrots Method of Transient Response, by B.R.A.

Burns, British Aircraft Corporation, Preston Division, Warton Aerodrome, Preston,
Lancashire, AGARD Report 549 - Part II, 1966.
10. Flight Investigation of Longitudinal Short Period Frequency Requirements

and PIO Tendencies, by Dante A. Difranco, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.,
Buffalo, New York, AFFDL-TR-66-163, June 1967.
11. Flight Test Evaluations of Airplane Dynamic Longitudinal Stability in the Low
Altitude High Speed Region, Mr. Thomas M. McPherson and Captain Kenneth W. Weir,
USMC, Flight Test Division, Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland.
12. Flight Testing of Aircraft, by M. G. Kotik, et al., NASA Technical

13. Frequency Response Method of Determining Aircraft Longitudinal Short-

Period Stability and Control System Characteristics in Flight, by Henry A. Klung, Jr.,
Captain, USAF, Aerospace Engineer, AFFTC-TR-66-24, August 1966.
14. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Techniques, Empire Test Pilots
15. Investigation of Low Level, High Speed Flight Problems, by Richard C.

Adams, Commander, USN, Flying Qualities and Performance Branch, Flight Test
Division, Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, Society of Experimental Test
Pilots 8th Annual Symposium, 25-26 September 1964.
16. Low Altitude, High Speed Handling and Riding Qualities, by Ralph C.
AHarrah, AGARD Flight Mechanics Meeting, Turin, Italy, April 1963.
4.cxcvi
17. Maneuverability and Gust Response Problems Associated with Low Altitude,
High Speed Flight, By R.C. AHarrah, AGARD Consultant, AGARD Report 556,
October 1967.
18. Military Specifications, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-8785C,

of 5 November 1980.

Bull, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, Report No. TB-13130-
F-1, December, 1959.


22. Stability and Control, Empire Test Pilots School Ground School Notes,
Book "C".
23. Stability and Control, USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, Edwards Air
Force Base, California, FTC-TIJ-64-2004, revised November, 1964.

25. Study of Some Hand-Computing Techniques to Determine the Approximate

Short Period Mode From Airplane Response, by Benjamin H. Dolbin, Jr., Cornell
Aeronautical Library, Inc., Buffalo, New York, CA FSDM-371, March 1966.

Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. BM-2238-F-1, May 1967.
4.cxcvii
4.12 MISCELLANEOUS LONGITUDINAL TESTS
4.12.1 Introduction
There are numerous miscellaneous longitudinal tests which have not been discussed
previously and which are conveniently presented as a group. These tests are the subject of
this section.
4.12.2 Longitudinal Trim Changes

Since changing power, lowering the landing gear, extending the flaps, opening the
speed brakes, and movement of other external variable position devices cause pitching
moments, the magnitude of the forces involved in opposing these moments must be
determined. The specification contains a table of the most commonly encountered
"configuration changes" along with the trim speeds to be used and the initial configurations
to be set up prior to varying the configuration. Each of the configurations represents
conditions of flight under which the configuration change would logically be made.
Consider the following example:
Initial Trim Condition
Flight Altitude Speed Landing High-Lift Thrust Configuration Parameter
Phase Gear Devices Change to be Held
& Wing Constant
Flaps
Approach h 0 min Normal Up Up TLF Gear Down Altitude

Pattern and
Entry Airspeed*
Speed
*Throttle setting may be changed during the maneuver.
4.cxcviii
In this case, the airplane is being prepared for an approach. The trim speed (zero
stick force) is the normal gear extension speed. (Reference should be made to table 1 of the
specification which defines h o min .) Power applied is sufficient to maintain level flight at
the trim speed. The configuration change is lowering the landing gear. The peak forces
involved in holding altitude and airspeed constant for a 5-second period after initiation of
the configuration change are the data desired to determine specification compliance. A
greater period of time may be of interest for mission suitability considerations.
The specification allows considerable latitude in this particular test. The table set
forth in the specification is only a recommended scope of investigation. It states
specifically that the changes should be made under conditions of flight representative of
operational procedures. A majority of the objections to the table result from the speed
brake section which is not too realistic in that the effect of extension and retraction of
brakes in dives is not included. Accordingly, a recommended addition to the scope of the
tests for Class IV airplanes is an investigation of the effect of extending speed brakes in a
dive with the parameter to be held constant being attitude ( or the aiming point of the dive
prior to extension). The trim changes resulting from speed brake extension and retraction
at different airspeeds as well as during jet instrument penetrations, GCA approaches, and
landing approaches should also be assessed.
Another item to be considered when conducting this test is the airplanes response
to the changes in configuration. With modern control systems, the forces are usually low,
even when the pitching moments are considerable. Therefore, the response of the airplane
is quite important in determining suitability from a pilots point of view. In particular,
when putting wheels and flaps down under instrument flight conditions, a rapid pitch-up or
down is highly undesirable even though the forces required to maintain altitude constant are
of a low order. Another condition which arises frequently is a roll or yawing moment
which results from asymmetric extension or retraction of flaps or wheels. This is annoying
as pilot attention must be directed to directional and/or lateral trim changes in addition to the
longitudinal change normally expected.
For each trim change condition, an attempt should be made to trim out the final
forces resulting from the change in configuration. In some cases, when holding altitude
constant is the requirement, the additional drag caused by extension of wheels or flaps may
cause the speed to reduce to stall. In such a case, there is no final value, only a peak force.
Usually upon completion of a card, examination of the data will reveal that several of the
4.cxcix
configuration changes which could logically be changed simultaneously will require

application of longitudinal force in the same direction. For example, if two configuration
changes require a push force individually, most likely their combined effects would be
additive. The test pilot should determine which combination of configuration changes
would be encountered in the airplanes mission and investigate them thoroughly.
4.12.3 Longitudinal Trimming Device Irreversibility

It is highly desirable that the longitudinal trimming device maintain a given setting
indefinitely, unless changed intentionally; or to put it differently, it should be irreversible.
In order to test a longitudinal trimming device for irreversibility, it is necessary that the tab
or variable stabilizer be subjected to a high angle of attack at as great a "q" (dynamic
pressure) as is feasible. This is down by carefully trimming the airplane at an airspeed,
entering a dive, and increasing the airspeed to close to the maximum permissible airspeed
of the airplane without retrimming. A high g, symmetrical pull-out is executed at a lower
altitude (at least 10,000 feet) and without retrimming, a check is made at the original trim
airspeed, altitude, and power setting. If the longitudinal trimming device is irreversible, the
force required to maintain the trim speed will be zero. If, however, the tab is reversible, a
push or pull force will be required to maintain the trim speed.
The tab indicator itself is not reliable inn determining movement of the tab. If
control system friction is high, a change in tab setting may not be apparent through the
airplanes stick-free stability. In such cases, it will be necessary to instrument for tab
position if the reversibility is actually annoying. Normally, if there is not apparent change
in trim (as reflected by zero Fs ) at the original trim speed, the fact that the tab has moved is
not too objectionable, unless the tab movement under some other condition of flight is
bothersome.
4.12.4 Ground Effect Hold-Off

For airplane configurations with the horizontal tail behind the wing, "ground effect"
reduces the angle of downwash at the tail. Since the downwash behind a wing not in
ground effect reduces the tail angle-of-attack (t ) ,the change caused by ground effect
results in an increase in the tail angle-of-attack and a corresponding increase in tail lift.
This effect is illustrated in Figure 4.108.
4.cc
Out of Ground Effect

Wing
ind Tail
eW
e l ativ g) Rela
tive
R n
(Wi (Wi Wind
ng)
In Ground Effect
Wing
d
Win
tive
Rela ing)
(W Tail
Relative Wind
(Tail)
Runway Surface
Figure 4.108
Ground Effect
Since tail lift is increased by ground effect, more up elevator is required to maintain
a given lift coefficient (C L ) in ground effect than out; if follows that because the elevator
deflection is physically limited, its capacity to produce nose-up pitching moments is
lessened by ground effect. In some airplanes, we find that the elevator effectiveness is
insufficient to obtain an aerodynamic stall. Now, if the airplane is flown in ground effect,
the effectiveness of the elevator is further reduced, and very likely it is not possible to
obtain the minimum guaranteed landing speed or even the minimum speed that was
attainable at altitude.
Approach and landing speeds are becoming more and more critical and should not
be limited by longitudinal control effectiveness. Because of this, we test for what is called
the "ground effect hold-off speed;" i.e., the minimum speed attainable in ground effect in
configuration L and the stick force required to maintain the required elevator deflection at
this speed. It is important to understand that this test is conducted to evaluate longitudinal
control effectiveness in close proximity to the ground and is not intended to be a test of
landing characteristics with idle power/thrust.
4.cci
4.12.4.1 METHOD OF TEST

With a forward critical CG loading, the airplane is trimmed in configuration PA at
normal approach speed and at low altitude (1000 to 2000 feet). It is then flown to the field
traffic pattern and, without changing trim, a fairly long, flat straight-in approach is made at
an airspeed 20-30 knots above normal approach speed. As the end of the runway is
crossed at roughly 20 feet altitude, power (thrust) is reduced to "idle." The airplane is
leveled off 2-3 feet above the runway and, as the speed decreases, up elevator deflection is
increased so as the maintain a constant height above the runway. Care should be exercised
to avoid changes in height during this phase; if a rate-of-descent is set up, more up elevator
is required to stop the rate-of-descent and hold a given speed than would have been
required to hold the same speed at a constant height. If an aerodynamic stall does not
precede application of full-up elevator, the airplane will settle to the runway soon after the
elevator has reached full-up deflection. The speed at which the airplane touches down and
the elevator force required to maintain a stick position just short of the "stop" is noted. If
the airplane is not instrumented for automatic recording of longitudinal stick force, it is
normally necessary to make two approaches, recording the minimum hold-off speed during
one approach and the longitudinal stick force with a hand-held force indicator during the
next.
Caution should be exercised during the later phase of the hold-off. There is a
definite tendency to neglect some of the more important aspects of landing an airplane when
concentrating on the test being conducted. For one thing, the test should not be conducted
in a strong cross-wind for obvious reasons. Further, a touch-and-go type landing will be
planned from the start of the approach, unless runway length is extensive, as a large
portion of the runaway is usually used during the hold-off.
4.12.4.2 ALTERNATE METHOD OF TEST (GEOMETRY LIMITED)

The geometry of certain airplanes precludes attainment of a stall attitude during a
hold-off landing. For example, the tail of the F-8 will strike the runway before either a stall
or full aft stick is reached. In such cases, the specification requires that longitudinal control
effectiveness in ground effect be sufficient to maintain the geometry-limited touchdown
attitude in level flight.
4.ccii
The test is performed in the same manner as for the nongeometry limited airplane
except that the maneuver is terminated when the predetermined geometry-limited attitude (or
angle of attack) is reached in level flight. It is especially important that the hold-off be
performed in close proximity to the runway (2-3 feet) for acceptable data and to prevent
hard landings. After the test pilot has reached the predetermined attitude and noted the
appropriate data, he should concentrate on making a normal touch-and-go landing or a
wave off. If automatic recording devices are installed the "event marker" should be
actuated to denote the predetermined attitude. Longitudinal trim must remain at the initial
setting (normal approach speed). After the final landing elevator position and force (if the
system is irreversible) required for level flight in ground effect are recorded.
4.12.5 Nosewheel Touchdowns

The nosewheel touchdown speed is defined as the speed at which the nosewheel
touches the runway following a landing in which the elevators are held in the full up
position during the rollout. There is no specification requirement for this characteristic at
the present time; however, it is considered useful information and worthy of investigation.
It is common practice to slow airplanes equipped with tricycle landing gears by holding the
nose-up as long as possible during the landing rollout. This creates more drag than would
be present with the nosewheel on the runway because of the higher angle of attack. By
using such a technique, it is possible to minimize the use of brakes in slowing the airplane
to a safe speed before turning off the runway.

Using the trim settings normally used during the approach, a smooth landing is
made on the two main wheels. The nosewheel is held off the runway by application of up
elevator. As the full elevator deflection is attained, the airplane will nose over and the
nosewheel will contact the runway. The speed at which this occurs is the nosewheel
touchdown speed.
4.12.6 Nosewheel Lift-Off

As explained earlier in the "Ground Effect Hold-Off" section, the effectiveness of
the elevator is reduced when in close proximity to the runway. In extreme cases, a lack of
elevator effectiveness can compromise take-off performance. For example, a given
airplane can produce enough lift at 95 knots to take off, provided sufficient angle of attack
can be attained. The elevator, however, may not be effective enough to rotate the airplane
4.cciii
to this angle of attack. Therefore, the airplane lifts off at some speed greater then 95 knots.
This penalizes the airplane in that a longer take-off run is required to attain the speed
necessary to lift clear of the runway. This test is of particular importance for carrier
airplanes in that insufficient longitudinal control effectiveness will probably result in
serious pitch control problems during the normal rotation required during catapult launches
or bolters.
Since the speed at which the nosewheel can be lifted from the runway is essentially
the speed at which take-off attitude can be obtained, we determine nosewheel lift-off speed
and use it as an indication of elevator effectiveness in take-off. If the nosewheel lift-off
speed is determined to be equal to or less than .9 Vmin (as defined in paragraph 3.1.8.2 of
the specification), then elevator effectiveness does not compromise take-off performance.
The loading tested should be the CG position that produces the greatest load on the
nosewheel. For carrier airplanes, elevator control effectiveness must be sufficient to
prevent an undesirable nose-up or nose-down pitch between the minimum catapult end-
speed (as published in the Launch Bulletins) and 30 knots above this speed.
If the airplane is equipped with a trimmable stabilizer, or a unit horizontal tail

(stabilator) with deflection limits which vary with trim setting, the take-off trim used can
have a profound effect on the minimum nosewheel lift-off speed obtained. Increased nose-
up trim will produce increased nose-up pitching moments attainable with full aft
longitudinal control deflection. The trim setting used when testing airplanes equipped with
tab trimmed elevators affects only the forces present during the run. Caution should be
exercised when checking the effect of applying additional nose-up trim, because some
airplanes "break ground" rapidly once the nosewheel begins to lift. For this reason, a
"build-up" should be employed, making a series of runs at increasing nose-up stabilizer
settings. The amount of nose-up stabilizer that can be tolerated will depend upon its effect
on the forces encountered during the take-off and transition to the "clean" condition. For
both land and carrier-based operations, satisfactory take-offs should not be dependent on
the use of the trimmer during take-off or on complicated control manipulation by the pilot.
All forces encountered during take-off and the ensuing acceleration phase should be low
enough to be handled easily with one hand. If raising the landing gear and flaps causes a
nose-up pitching moment, the force required to overcome this pitching moment should be
considered when deciding upon the trim setting to be used.
4.cciv
The landing gear will usually be retracted immediately after becoming airborne.
Consequently, if a push force is encountered during the initial acceleration after take-off
and a push force results from retraction of the gear, the combined forces will be additive.
While the longitudinal trim setting used is optional, it must be held constant throughout the
take-off run and subsequent acceleration to Vmax TO (as defined in paragraph 3.1.8.1 of the
specification). Normally it will be a setting which will give zero stick forces just after
becoming airborne and will result initially in a pull force (if the airplane has positive stick
force stability), which will lessen throughout the take-off run.
This test should be conducted only on a smooth runway as nose-up pitching

moments applied through the nosewheel strut can cause the nosewheel to lift off prior to
attaining a speed at which the elevator effectiveness is sufficient to rotate the airplane.
Rapid application of nose-up elevator control should also be avoided. A careful check of
inflation of the nosewheel strut should be made to insure that the prescribed pressure is
used. Usually this test is conducted as a matter of course during each take-off; i.e., usually
flights are not exclusively devoted to determining the nosewheel lift-off speed. Although
the forces encountered during the take-off are of interest, unless the airplane is provided
with a means of automatic recording of longitudinal control forces and speed, the most that
can be hoped for are the forces at nosewheel lift-off, take-off, and Vmax TO plus, of course,
qualitative comments as to the acceptability of the forces.

The airplane, loaded at the forward critical CG loading, is aligned with the runway
heading and take-off power (or thrust) is applied. With the stick held in the full aft
position, the brakes are released. The speed at which the nosewheel leaves the runway is
noted and the run is aborted or a take-off is accomplished. If it is decided to continue the
take-off, a normal take-off attitude should be established after the nosewheel lift-off speed
is noted. Recent experience indicates that it is possible with full-up elevator to hold certain
airplanes in nose-up attitudes which preclude effecting a take-off due to drag effects.
Caution must be exercised in some airplanes to prevent damage to the aft fuselage or tail
section by overrotation.
4.ccv
4.12.7 Thrustline Level

This test is the nosewheel lift-off tests opposite number for determining elevator
effectiveness during the take-off run of airplanes equipped with tail wheel type landing
gear. Because there is less drag present with the thrustline level than in a "three-point"
attitude, acceleration will be greater during take-off if the thrust line is level. Further, the
distance required to take off is directly related to the acceleration. This leads to the
conclusions that the initial phase of a minimum distance take-off should be made with the
thrustline level. And, in a majority of cases, this is true. The normal technique used is to
raise the tail wheel as soon as the elevator effectiveness permits and then accelerate with the
thrustline level until the take-off speed is approached. At this point, the stick is eased to the
rear in such a manner as to reach a "three-point" attitude simultaneously with attaining take-
off speed. Therefore, the ability of the elevator to raise the tail to a thrustline level attitude
and the speed at which this is possible is of interest since it affects take-off performance.
In the nosewheel lift-off test, ground effect lessened elevator effectiveness. The
converse is true in this test where the increasing t due to "ground effect" aids the
elevators in lifting the tail. As would be expected, the critical loading is the normal service
loading that provides the greatest tail heavy moment. It should be pointed out that CG
position alone does not define this condition. Loadings are possible wherein the effect of
increasing weight predominates over CG position. For example, a lightweight, aft CG
position loading will probably not cause as great a weight on the tail wheel as a much
heavier loading will, at a CG position slightly forward of the light loading CG position.
The longitudinal trim setting is optional, but should be a setting which does not result in
excessive forces during the take-off run or immediately after becoming airborne. As in the
nosewheel lift-off test, trimmable stabilizers can be adjusted so as to provide a nose down
pitching moment so long as the elevator forces encountered during take-off are not
excessive.

The pilot aligns the airplane with the runway heading and locks the brakes. The
flaps are extended to the optimum take-off position and the power is increased until the tail
wheel is just lifting from and returning to the runway surface. As much power should be
applied as possible, without the risk of nosing over. (If the airplane begins such a
maneuver as the power is increased, release the brakes immediately. As you will find out
4.ccvi
from running this thrustline level test, it is impossible to nose an airplane over, even with
full forward stick and full power applied unless the brakes are used.) Next, the brakes are
released, take-off power is applied, and the stick is eased to the full forward position.
Remember the order in this sequence of events; first, release the brakes; second, apply full
power; third, ease the stick full forward. Full forward stick position is maintained until the
thrustline is level. The indicated airspeed is noted and the force required is determined.
The test should be repeated until reliable data is obtained. The major problem is that of
determining when the thrustline is level. It is recommended that a given nose attitude be
arbitrarily chosen as the equivalent of thrustline level. This is the only way that repeatable
data will be obtained unless an outside observer transmitting a "mark" is utilized.
4.12.8 Speed Brake Effectiveness

Investigation of the effectiveness of the speed brakes is a qualitative task. Speed
brakes can be used for airplane deceleration, dive speed limitation, allowing higher engine
speed during penetrations and approaches, etc. The particular functions desired from the
speed brakes will depend on the airplanes mission. A thorough test plan encompassing all
possible uses of the speed brakes should be formulated. In general, for the particular
airplane mission, the speed brakes should be sufficient to provide adequate control of
airspeed, flight path, etc. at any flight conditions within the Operational Flight Envelope.
4.12.9 Longitudinal Control Forces in Dives

The purpose of this test is to determine the magnitude and rate of change of
longitudinal control forces in dives to maximum airspeeds and the ease with which these
forces can be maintained near zero by retrimming.

The airplane is trimmed for VMRT (level flight) at high altitude. Without changing
power, a dive is entered so as to reach maximum operational airspeed at a low altitude. The
maximum longitudinal control force required at maximum operational airspeed is noted.
During a similar dive, the ability of the pilot to keep longitudinal control forces near zero by
retrimming is determined.
4.ccvii
4.12.10 Longitudinal Trim System Effectiveness and Failures

The purpose of this test is to determine the capability of the longitudinal trim system
to reduce control forces to zero at all operational airspeeds. Longitudinal trim system
failures should also be investigated.

The airplane is flown from minimum airspeeds to maximum operational airspeeds
in all configurations, and the ability to trim the longitudinal control forces to zero is
evaluated.
Trim system failures are simulated at representative operational airspeeds by

running the longitudinal trim in the nose-up and nose-down direction until full control
deflection is reached, excessive control forces are required, or the maximum trim travel
limits are reached. The controllability of the airplane is then evaluated.
4.ccviii
CHAPTER FIVE
LATERAL - DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES
PAGE
5.2 THEORY - NORMAL LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

AND CONTROL 5.4
5.2.1 Static Lateral-Directional Stability and Control 5.4
5.2.1.1 Lateral-Directional Terminology 5.6
5.2.1.2 Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives -
Sideforces and Sideforce Derivatives 5.7
5.2.1.2.1 Vertical Tail Contribution, Y v or C y 5.8
v
5.2.1.2.2 Sideforce Due to Roll Rate, Yp or C yp 5.9
5.2.1.2.3 Sideforce Due to Roll Rate, Yr or C yr 5.10

5.2.1.2.4 Sideforce Due to Rudder Deflection
Y r or C y 5.11
r
5.2.1.2.5 Sideforce Due to Gravity,

Wsin or C L 5.12
5.2.1.2.6 Sideforce Due to Lateral Control

Deflection, Ya or C y 5.13
r
5.2.1.3 Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives -

Rolling Moments and Lateral Stability Derivatives 5.14
5.2.1.3.1 Rolling Moment Due to Sideslip, Dihedral
Effect L or C l 5.14
5.2.1.3.2 Rolling Moment Due to Yaw Rate,

L r or C lr 5.18
5.2.1.3.3 Rolling Moment Due to Rudder Deflection,
L r or C l 5.19
r
5.2.1.3.4 Rolling Moment Due to Lateral Control

Deflection, L a or C l 5.20
a
5.i
5.2.1.3.5 Rolling Moment Due to Roll Rate, Roll

Damping, L p or C l p 5.22
5.2.1.4 Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives - Yawing

Moments and Directional Stability Derivatives 5.23
5.2.1.4.1 Yawing Moment Due to Sideslip,
Directional Stability, N or C n 5.23
5.2.1.4.2 Yawing Moment Due to Rate Damping

N r or C n r 5.26
5.2.1.4.3 Yawing Moment Due to Rudder Deflection,
N r or C n 5.27
r
5.2.1.4.4 Yawing Moment Due to Lateral Control

Deflection, N r or C n 5.28
r
5.2.1.4.5 Yawing Moment Due to Rolling Velocity,

N p or C n p 5.30
5.2.1.5 Steady Heading Sideslips 5.33

5.2.1.5.1 Rudder Position Required in Sideslip 5.35
5.2.1.5.2 Rudder Forces Required in Sideslips 5.37
5.2.1.5.3 Rudder Lock 5.41
5.2.1.5.4 Aileron Position Required for Sideslips 5.43
5.2.1.5.5 Aileron Forces Required in Sideslips 5.46
5.2.1.5.6 Bank Angle Required in Sideslips 5.47
5.2.1.5.7 Miscellaneous Characteristics Observed
in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.49
5.2.1.5.8 Miscellaneous Characteristics Observed
in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.49
5.2.2 Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability and Control 5.51
5.2.2.1 Origin of the Lateral-Directional Modes of Motion 5.51
5.2.2.2 Characteristics of the Lateral-Directional Modes
of Motion 5.54
5.2.2.2.1 The Spiral Mode 5.54
5.2.2.2.2 The Roll Mode 5.55
5.2.2.2.3 The Dutch Roll Mode 5.56
5.ii
5.2.2.3 Effects of Various Parameters on the Lateral-Directional

Modes of Motion 5.62
5.2.2.3.1 Dihedral Effect, L 5.62
5.2.2.3.2 Rolling Moment Due to Yaw Rate, L r 5.63
5.2.2.3.3 Yawing Moment Due to Roll Rate, N p 5.64
5.2.2.3.4 Directional Stability, N 5.65
5.2.2.3.5 Yaw Rate Damping 5.66
5.2.2.3.6 Bank Angle Control Adverse Yaw 5.67
5.2.2.4 Effect of on Flying Qualities 5.71
5.2.3 Lateral-Directional Characteristics in Turning Flight 5.74
5.2.3.1 Aileron-Only Turns 5.76
5.2.3.2 Rudder-Only Turns 5.79
5.2.3.3 Coordinated Turns 5.82
5.2.4 Influence of Center of Gravity Movement 5.84
5.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES - LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL

FLYING QUALITIES 5.85
5.3.2.1.1 Lateral-Directional Trimmibility 5.88
5.3.2.1.2 Rudder-Only Turns 5.89
5.3.2.1.3 Aileron-Only Turns 5.91
of the Lateral-Directional Control System 5.92
5.3.2.2.2 Freeplay 5.93
5.3.2.2.3 Centering 5.93
5.3.2.3 Measurement of Static-Lateral-Directional Stability
Characteristic 5.94
5.3.2.3.1 Stabilized Steady Heading Sideslips 5.97
5.3.2.3.2 Transient Steady Heading Sideslips 5.99
5.iii
5.3.2.4 Measurement of Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability

Characteristics - The Spiral Mode 5.100
5.3.2.4.1 Spiral Stability 5.100
5.3.2.5 Measurement of Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability

Characteristic - The Dutch Roll Mode 5.102
5.3.2.5.1 Dutch Roll Damping 5.103
5.3.2.5.2 Dutch Roll Frequency 5.104
5.3.2.5.3 Roll-to-Yaw Ratio 5.106
5.3.2.6 Dutch Roll Requirements 5.107
5.3.2.6.1 Techniques for Exciting Dutch Roll
Motion for Quantitative Measurements 5.109
5.3.3 Dutch Roll Influence on Roll Performance During Precision
Maneuvering 5.113
5.3.4 Adverse and Proverse Yaw Effects On Precision Maneuvering 5.114
5.3.5 Determining of Phase Angle from Flight Test Records 5.115
5.3.6.1 Mechanical Characteristics of the Lateral-Directional
5.3.6.2 Static Lateral-Directional Stability Characteristics 5.117
5.3.6.3 Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability Characteristic
- Spiral Stability 5.119
5.3.6.4 Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability Characteristics
- Dutch Roll Characteristics 5.120
5.3.6.5 Lateral-Directional Trimmability, Rudder-Only
Turns, and Aileron-Only Turns 5.124
5.5 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES - GLOSSARY 5.126
5.6 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES - REFERENCES 5.126
5.7 THEORY - ROLLING PERFORMANCE 5.130

5.7.1 General 5.130
5.iv
5.7.2 Single Degree of Freedom Roll Response 5.131

5.7.2.1 Steady State Roll Rate 5.135
5.7.2.2 Roll Mode Time Constant 5.137
5.7.3 Influence of Various Parameters on Roll Characteristics 5.138
5.7.3.1 Lateral Control Deflection 5.138
5.7.3.2 Moment of Inertia in Roll 5.139
5.7.3.3 Altitude 5.139
5.7.3.4 Airspeed 5.141
5.7.4 Real Airplane Response to Lateral Control Inputs 5.141
5.7.4.1 Dutch Roll Excitation During Rolling Maneuvers 5.141
5.7.4.1.1 High C n , Low C l , Low C n ,
a
and C n p 5.142
5.7.4.1.2 Low C n , Low C l , High C n ,

a
and C n p 5.143
5.7.4.1.3 Low C n , High C l , High C n ,

a
and C n p 5.143
5.7.4.2 Roll Coupling 5.144

5.7.4.2.1 Inertia Coupling 5.144
5.7.4.2.2 Kinematic Coupling 5.148
5.7.4.2.3 The I xz Parameter 5.150
5.7.4.2.4 The Pilots Contribution to Roll
Coupling 5.152
5.7.4.2.5 Aeroelastic Effects 5.153
5.7.5 Lateral Control Forces 5.156
5.8 Test Procedures and Techniques - Rolling Performance 5.161

5.8.2.2 Measurement of the Mechanical Characteristic
of the Lateral Control System 5.165
5.8.2.2.2 Freeplay 5.166
5.v
5.8.2.2.3 Centering 5.166

5.8.2.3 Factors and Parameters Indicating Rolling
Performance 5.167
5.8.2.3.1 Rate of Roll, p 5.167
5.8.2.3.2 Roll Mode Time Constant, R 5.168
5.8.2.3.3 Bank Angle Change in a Given Time, t 5.170
5.8.2.3.4 Lateral Control Force, Fa 5.170
5.8.2.3.5 Lateral Cockpit Control Postion 5.171
5.8.2.3.6 Dutch Roll Influence 5.171
5.8.2.4 Measurement of Rolling Performance 5.173
5.8.2.4.1 Automatic Recording Devices 5.176
5.8.2.4.2 Portable Instrumentation and Cockpit
Mounted Instruments 5.177
5.8.3.1 Mechanical Characteristics of the Lateral Control
System 5.180
5.8.3.2 Rolling Performance 5.180
5.8.3.4 Quantitative Indications of Dutch Roll Influence 5.185
5.8.3.4.1 Low Roll-to-Yaw Ratio 5.185
5.8.3.4.2 Sideslip Excursions 5.185
5.8.3.4.3 Moderate to High Roll-to-Yaw Ratios 5.187
5.8.4 Control Force Coordination 5.189
5.8.4.1 Analytical Determination of the Roll Mode
Time Constant 5.190
5.10 ROLLING PERFORMANCE - GLOSSARY 5.197
5.11 ROLLING PERFORMANCE - REFERENCES 5.198
5.vi
5.12 MISCELLANEOUS LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL TESTS 5.201

5.12.2 Lateral-Directional Control During Crosswind Takeoffs,
Approaches, and Landings 5.201
5.12.2.1 Directional Ground Stability 5.201
5.12.2.2 Crosswind Approach Techniques 5.203
5.12.2.2.1 The Sideslipping Approach 5.203
5.12.2.2.2 The Crabbing Approach 5.205
5.12.2.3 Test Procedures and Techniques 5.206
5.12.2.3.1 Preliminary Investigations 5.206
5.12.2.3.2 Crosswind Tests 5.210
5.12.3 Lateral-Directional Trim Changes 5.212
5.12.4 Irreversibility of Lateral-Directional Trim Systems 5.212
5.vii
CHAPTER FIVE
FIGURES
PAGE
5.1 Airplane Axis System and Plane of Asymmetry 5.1
5.2 The Sideslip Angle 5.5
5.3 Sideslip Angle and Angle of Yaw 5.7
5.4 Generation of Sideforce Due to Sideslip by the Vertical Tail 5.8
5.5 Generation of Sideforce by the Vertical Tail Due to Roll Rate 5.10
5.6 Generation of Sideforce Due to Yaw Rate 5.11
5.7 Generation of Sideforce Due to Rudder Deflection 5.12
5.8 Gravitational Component of Sideforce Due to Bank Angle 5.13
5.9 Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslip and Geometric Dihedral 5.15
5.10 Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslip and Wing Sweep 5.15
5.11 Typical Variation of Dihedral effect with Lift Coefficient 5.16
5.12 General Relationships Between Wing Placement and Effective Dihedral 5.16
5.13 Influence of Vertical Tail on Dihedral Effect 5.17
5.14 Possible Influence of Power and Flap Deflection on Dihedral Effect 5.18
5.15 Rolling Moment Generated by Rudder Deflection 5.19
5.16 Generation of Rolling Moment from Aileron Deflection 5.20
5.17 Strip Integration for L and C L 5.21

5.18 Generation of Roll Damping 5.23

5.19 Contribution of the Vertical Tail to Directional Stability 5.24
5.20 Propeller Power Influence on Directional Stability 5.25
5.21 Generation of Yaw Rate Damping from the Vertical Tail 5.27
5.22 Yawing Moment Due to Rudder Deflection-Rudder Power 5.28
5.23 Generation of Adverse Aileron Yawing Moment 5.29
5.24 Yawing Moments Generated by Spoiler Deflection 5.30
5.25 Wing Contribution to Yawing Moment Due to Roll Rate 5.31
5.26 Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives Summary 5.32
5.27 Rudder Position Required in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.37
5.28 The Vertical Tail Contribution to C n May be Reduced By Rudder Float 5.38
5.viii
5.29 Rudder Forces Required in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.41

5.30 Rudder Lock Generated by Float Characteristics 5.42
5.31 Rudder Lock Generated by Directional Stability Problem 5.43
5.32 Aileron Position Required in Sideslips 5.45
5.33 Lateral Control Forces Required in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.46
5.34 Sideforce Characteristics 5.48
5.35 Forces and Moments Balanced in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.50
5.36 The Lateral-Directional Determinant 5.52
5.37 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Lateral-Directional Modes
of Motion 5.53
5.38 Nature of the Spiral Mode 5.55
5.39 Single Degree of Freedom Roll Response 5.56
5.40 Typical Dutch Roll Motion 5.61
5.41 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Lateral-Directional 5.62
5.42 Influence of Adding Positive Dihedral Effect 5.63
5.43 Effect of Adding Roll Due to Yaw Rate, L r 5.64
5.44 Influence of Changing Directional Stability on Two Degree of Freedom
Dutch Roll 5.66
5.45 Effects of Increasing Yaw Rate Damping, N r 5.66
5.46 Dutch Roll Root and Zero Combinations 5.68
5.47 Path of the Lateral-Directional Roots with Increase in Tightness
of Bank Angle Control 5.69
5.48 Paths of the Lateral-Directional Roots with Increase in Tightness
5.49a MIL-F-8785B 5.72
5.49b MIL-F-8785B 5.73
5.50 The Airplane in a Coordinated Turn 5.75
5.51 The Airplane Established in the Steady Aileron-Only Turn 5.77
5.52 Comparison of Typical Coordinated and Aileron-Only Turn 5.79
5.53 Typical Airplane Response to a Rudder-Only Input 5.80
5.54 Lateral-Directional Stability and Control Record 5.87
5.55 Paths of Airplane Wingtip on Horizon During Dutch Roll Motion 5.112
5.56a Roll Rate Oscillation Limitations 5.113
5.56b Sideslip Excursion Limitations 5.115
5.56c Determination of Phase Angle 5.117
5.ix
5.57 Static Lateral-Directional Stability Characteristics 5.118

5.59 Spiral Stability 5.120
5.60 Airplane Dutch Roll Characteristics 5.121
5.61 Determination of Roll-to-Yaw Ratio of Dutch Roll Motion 5.122
5.62 Dutch Roll Characteristics 5.123
5.63 Airplane Response to Aileron Input 5.134
5.64 Roll Rate Response to Step Lateral Control Input 5.135
5.65 Steady State Roll Rate 5.136
5.66 Roll Mode Time Constant 5.137
5.67 Classic Variation of Roll Characteristics 5.138
5.68 Typical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Rolling Moment of Inertia 5.139
5.69 Classical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Altitude
(Constant True Airspeed) 5.140
5.70 Typical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Altitude (Constant Ve ) 5.140
5.71 Classical Variation of Roll Characteristics with True Airspeed 5.141
5.72 Typical Influence of Various Characteristics on Roll Response 5.142
5.73 Generation of Inertia Coupling Moments 5.146
5.74 Comparison of Airplane Mass Distribution 5.147
5.75 Kinematic Coupling 5.149
5.76 Product of Inertia and Principle Inertial Axis 5.150
5.77 I xy Effects on Rolling 5.151
5.78 Typical Pilot Control Inputs Required to Overcome Roll Coupling Effects 5.152
5.79 Wing Twist During Rolling Motion 5.154
5.80 Influence of Wing Bending on Rolling Performance of a Swept-Wing
Airplane 5.155
5.81 Typical Influence of Aeroelastic Effects on Rolling Performance 5.156
5.82 Generation of Angle of Attack Changes During Rolling Maneuvers 5.158
5.83 Rolling Performance May Be Limited by Force Requirements for the
Reversible Control System 5.160
5.84 Possible Response Characteristics with Reversible and Irreversible Control
Systems 5.161
5.85 Rolling Performance Data Card 5.164
5.x
5.86 Typical Influence of R on Roll Control Techniques 5.169

5.87 Rolling Performance in Configuration CO and PA 5.181
5.88 Rolling Performance in Configuration Power 5.182
5.89 Rolling Performance in Configuration 5.184
5.90 Roll Coupling During a Full Aileron Deflection Right Roll 5.186
5.91 Sideslip Excursion Limitations 5.187
5.92 Roll Rate Oscillation Limitations 5.188
t
X( t ) = p ss e R
5.94 Plotted on Semi-Log Paper 5.192
5.95 Determination of R from Oscillograph Trace of a Rolling Maneuver 5.193
5.96 Lateral Ground Stability 5.202
5.97 Sideslipping Technique for Cross-Wind Approaches 5.204
5.98 Crabbing Technique for Cross-Wind Approaches 5.205
5.99 Geometric Maximum Permissible Bank Angle 5.207
5.100 Absolute Maximum Cross-Wind for the Sideslipping Approach 5.208
5.xi
CHAPTER FIVE
EQUATIONS
PAGE
Y v = a v ( ) q v S v eq 5.1 5.8
d S
C y = a v 1 v v eq 5.2 5.9
v d Sw
Y r = a v v r q v S v eq 5.3 5.11
S
C y = a v v v v eq 5.4 5.12
r Sw
d S Zv
C l = a v 1 v v eq 5.5 5.17
v d Sw b
L r = Y r Z v eq 5.6 5.19
Zv
C l = Cy eq 5.7 5.19
r r b
y2
L a = 2a w a q a
y1
c y dy eq 5.8 5.20
2a w a a y2
C l
a
=
Sw b y1
c ydy eq 5.9 5.21
d
N v = Y v lv = a v 1 q S l eq 5.10 5.24
d v v v
5.xii
lv d S l
Cn = Cy = av 1 v v v eq 5.11 5.24
V v b d Sw b
C n = C n + C n eq 5.12 5.25
w, F, N v
lv2
N rv = a v S v q v eq 5.13 5.26
V
Cn S l 2
= = 2a v S V v v2
( )
Cnr eq 5.14 5.26
v 2V
rb w b
N r = av v q v S v l v eq 5.15 5.27
S lv
C n = a v v n v S v b eq 5.16 5.27
r w
SIDEFORCE C y0 + C y + C y r + C L = 0
r
eq 5.17 5.34
YAWING MOMENT C n0 + C n + C n r + C n a = 0
r a
eq 5.18 5.34
ROLLING MOMENT C l0 + C l + C l r + C l a = 0
r a
eq 5.19 5.34
d r d
SIDEFORCE C y + C y d + C L d = 0
r
eq 5.20 5.34
d r da
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n d + Cn d = 0
r a
eq 5.21 5.34
5.xiii
d r da
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l d + Cl d = 0
r a
eq 5.22 5.34
Cn Cn Cl
C 1 C a C
d r n r la n
= eq 5.23 5.35
d Cn Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
Cl Cl Cn
C 1 C a C
d a l r na l
= eq 5.24 5.35
d Cn Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
d
d = C1
L {C y + Cy
r
d r
d } eq 5.25 5.35
Cn
d r
d = C eq 5.26 5.35
n r
Cn Cl
1 C l
a
C n
r
eq 5.27 5.36
a r
Cn Cl
1 C a C eq 5.28 5.36
l n
a
Fr = K 1 r (linear feel spring system) eq 5.29 5.37
Fr = K 2q r ("q feel" system) eq 5.30 5.37
C h
rFloat = C v v eq 5.31 5.38
h
r
r
{
Fr = K C h q vSr cr rEquilibrium rFloat } eq 5.32 5.39
5.xiv
dFr d d rFloat
= K C h q vSr c r dr eq 5.33 5.39
d r d
Cn
d r
d = C (if the assumption C n = 0 is valid) eq 5.34 5.39
n a
r
( )
Ch
d r Float
d = C v 1 d
d eq 5.35 5.39
h r

( )
Ch Cn C h
dFr
= K C r q vSr cr Cn + r
C
v
1 d eq 5.36 5.40
d n r h r d
(1 )
Cn C h
r v d
Ch d eq 5.37 5.40
r
Cl Cl Cn
C 1 C r C
d a la nr l
= eq 5.38 5.43
d C n C l
1 Cl a C n r
r r
Cl
d a
d = C eq 5.39 5.44
l a
Cn Cl
1 C l
a
C n
r
eq 5.40 5.44
a r
C l Cn
1 Cn a Cl eq 5.41 5.44
a
d
d = C1
L {C y + Cy
r
d r
d } eq 5.42 5.47
Cn
d r
d = C eq 5.43 5.47
n r
d Cy
= C1 C y C r C n eq 5.44 5.47
d L nr
5.xv
C y = C y + C y eq 5.45 5.47
Wing, Fuselage, Nacelles Vertical Tail
C n = C n + C n
lv
C n = C n Cy b eq 5.46 5.47
W, F, N v
C y C y
Cn
r
= l
r
= lb eq 5.47 5.47
r Cy bv v
r

C y bv
d l
= C1 C y + C y + lb C n
d L W, F, N v v W, F, N v
= C1 C y
d
+ lb C n
d L W, F, N v W, F, N
eq 5.48 5.48
L = 0 Lr = 0 eq 5.49 5.51
S Y
( )
1
S S Lp = 0 eq 5.50 5.53
N SNr
(
S S Lp ) {S2 + ( Y ) (
N r S + N + Y N r )} = 0 eq 5.51 5.53
g
u0 {L N r N L r } eq 5.52 5.54
L l C
pSS = L a a = C a 2V
b a eq 5.53 5.55
p lp
L/ a qSb
La = I XX = Cl I = rolling moment due to lateral control deflection
a XX
(lateral control power) term.

eq 5.54 5.55
R = L1 eq 5.55 5.56
p
5.xvi
{S2 + (Y N r ) S + (N + Y N r )} = 0 eq 5.56 5.57
Pa Sb
n DR = M C n 2 I ZZ eq 5.57 5.57
Sb 3
DR = C n r 8 C I eq 5.58 5.59
n ZZ
(S) =
[
L a S2 + 2 n S + n 2 ]
( )( )[ ]
eq 5.59 5.67
a S + 1 S + 1 S2 + 2 d n d S + nd 2
s R
g sin = Vr eq 5.60 5.75
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r (2Vrb ) + W
qS sin = W Vr
g qS
eq 5.61 5.76
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n r (2Vrb ) = 0 eq 5.62 5.76
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l a + C l r
a
( 2Vrb ) = 0
eq 5.63 5.76
a Equilibrium = C 1
l a
{C lr ( 2V ) l
rb + C

} eq 5.64 5.76
( 2V )
Cn
= C r rb eq 5.65 5.76
n
{C }
d a
Equilibrium
= C 1C C n C l C n r 5.77
( )
rb lr eq 5.66
d l n
2V a
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r + C yr 2V
rb + W sin = W Vr
qs g
r
eq 5.67 5.81
5.xvii
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n r + C n r 2V
rb = 0 eq 5 .68 5.81
r
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l r 2V
rb = 0 eq 5.69 5.81
r
Equilibrium
= C1
n r
{Cnr ( 2V ) n
rb + C

} eq 5.70 5.81
Cl
= C r 2V
rb eq 5.71 5.81
l
{C }
d r
Equilibrium
= C 1C Cn Cl C nr 5.81
( )
rb lr eq 5.72
d 2V n l r
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r + C yr
r
( 2V
rb
) = 0
(Since WqS sin = W Vr

g qS ) eq 5.73 5.82
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n r + C n a + C n r
r a
( 2V
rb
) = 0
eq 5.74 5.82
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l r + C l a + C l r
r a
( 2Vrb ) = 0
eq 5.75 5.82
Cy Cy r
Cn C n r
r
Equilibrium
= Cy C y ( 2V
rb
) eq 5.76 5.82
r
C n C n
r
5.xviii
Cyr
Cy C n
d rEquilibrium Cn Cnr
= C r 5.82
( ) rb Cy eq 5.77
d 2V
n r C y r C
Cn r n
( 2Vrb )
Cn
rEquilibrium = C r
n r
C n = 0 eq 5.78 5.83
a
Cn
C n + C n C r
r nr
( 2V
rb
) + C nr ( 2V
rb
) = 0
=
(C n r Cnr ) ( 2Vrb )
Cn
= 0 eq 5.79 5.83
( 2Vrb )
Cn
rEquilibrium = C r Equilibrium = 0 eq 5.80 5.83
n r
Cn
C l C r
r n r
( 2V )
rb + Cl
a
a Equilibrium + C l r ( 2Vrb ) = 0
d a Equilibrium Cl C l C nr
= C r 1 C rC
( )
eq 5.81 5.84
rb
d 2V l a lr n r
Level 1 d nd = .014 2n d / d 20 ( )
Level 2 d nd = .009 ( 2nd / d 20 )
Level 3 d n d = .005 ( 2n d / d 20 )
with n d in rad/sec. eq 5.82 5.109
= 360 360
Td t n + ( n 1) 360 = 3.5 (2.95) = 303 eq 5.83 5.116
mu0 + mu0 r
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r + C L sin = qS
r
eq 5.84 5.131
5.xix
rb
YAWING MOMENT C n + Cn r + C n a + C n r
r a 2V
pb
+ C n p 2V = qSb
1 I r
yy eq 5.85 5.131
rb
r a 2V
pb 1
+ C lp = I p eq 5.86 5.131
2V qSb yy
C l ; C l r ; C lr 2V
rb eq 5.87 5.131
r
I XX pb
p qSb C l p 2V C l a = 0 eq 5.88 5.132
T a
C l qSb C l qSb
p
p I b
2VT p a
I XX a = 0 eq 5.89 5.132
XX
p L p p L a a = 0 eq 5.90 5.132
p (t ) =
Laa
Lp {e Lpt
1} eq 5.91 5.132
{
p ( t ) = p ss 1 e t/ R } eq 5.92 5.133
p L p p L a a = 0 eq 5.93 5.133
p t = 0 = L a a eq 5.94 5.133
5.xx
p L p p L a a = 0
however, when L p p = L a a , p = 0, and p = p ss , thus:

La a
pss = Lp eq 5.95 5.135
( )
Cl
pb
2VT Max = C a a Max eq 5.96 5.136
lp
R = L1 eq 5.97 5.137
p
L
pss = L a a eq 5.98 5.138
p
4 I 4 I
R = L1 or R = xx
2 or R =
xx
eq 5.99 5.138
p Cl p VT Sb Cl p ssl VeSb 2
Cm qSc
I yy
PCRIT1 ~ I xx I zz eq 5.100 5.148
I yy
Cn qSb
I zz
PCRIT2 ~ I yy I xx eq 5.101 5.148
I zz
Fa = K 1 a (linear feel spring system) eq 5.102 5.156
Fa = K 2 qa ("q feel" system) eq 5.103 5.156
C h = C h + C h Ave eq 5.104 5.157

py
Ave = eq 5.105 5.157
V
a Float = C
h
Ch
a
py'
V
Ch
= C
h a
( 2y'b ) ( 2Vpb ) eq 5.106 5.157
5.xxi
Fa = K C h
a
{
q S a c a a Equilibrium aFloat } eq 5.107 5.158
Cl p pb
aEquilibrium = C 2V (steady state roll) eq 5.108 5.159
l a
Ch
a Float = C
h a
( 2y'b ) ( 2Vpb ) eq 5.109 5.159
{ } 2y
Cl p Ch
Fa = Vp K
4 Ch Sa ca b Cl + C b eq 5.110 5.159
a a h a
Fa = K 1 Vp eq 5.111 5.159
pV = K 2 eq 5.112 5.159
{
p ( t ) = p ss 1 e t/ R } eq 5.113 5.190
p ( t ) = p ss pss e t/ R eq 5.114 5.190
t
R
X (t) = p ss e eq 5.115 5.191
ln X ( t ) = ln p ss t eq 5.116 5.192
R
ln X(t) = K 1 Kt eq 5.117 5.192

2
X( t ) = p ss e t/ R eq 5.118 5.192
R = t 2 t1 eq 5.119 5.194
5.xxii
CHAPTER FIVE
LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The investigation of lateral-directional stability and control involves the study of
characteristics exhibited in the airplane's planes of asymmetry. These planes of asymmetry
divide the airplane into unsymmetrical parts of contain components of motion only along
the Y axis and about the X and Z axes (see Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1
Airplane Axis System and Planes of Asymmetry
Airplane motion in the planes of asymmetry or lateral-directional motion generally

results in some motion in the plane of symmetry or longitudinal motion. For part of the
study of lateral-directional flying qualities, this longitudinal motion will be considered fairly
insignificant. However, in some flight conditions, lateral-directional motion can generate
significant longitudinal motion and vice versa. These conditions will be discussed
thoroughly in a subsequent section.
5.xxiii
Lateral-directional flying qualities must be investigated from equilibrium and

nonequilibrium flight conditions. From equilibrium conditions, the static lateral-directional
characteristics may be determined. These characteristics are:
1. Variation of directional control forces and rudder positions with sideslip angle
in steady heading flight at a constant trim airspeed (static directional stability
characteristics).
2. Variation of lateral control forces and aileron positions with sideslip angle in
steady heading flight at a constant trim airspeed (static lateral stability
characteristics or dihedral characteristics).
3. Variation of bank angle with sideslip angle in steady heading flight at a constant
trim airspeed (sideforce characteristics).
Dynamic lateral-directional flying qualities are investigated from nonequilibrium

flight conditions. This requires study of the characteristics of the three lateral-directional
modes of motion - the Dutch roll mode, the spiral mode, and the roll mode - which are
suppressed in equilibrium flight. Two of the lateral-directional modes differ from the
longitudinal modes in that the pilot does not usually deliberately excite the Dutch roll or
spiral modes. Excitation of these modes is not required to maneuver the airplane under
normal flight conditions. However, the Dutch roll and spiral modes are continually
inadvertently excited by the pilot or by external perturbations. Therefore, the characteristics
of these modes greatly affect the pilot's opinion of the airplane during all phases of mission
accomplishment. During certain special flight conditions, such as flight with asymmetric
power or landing with a crosswind; the pilot may deliberately utilize the Dutch roll mode to
generate sideslip changes in order to maintain steady heading flight. Since the Dutch roll
mode is a second order response generally involving both lateral and directional motion, the
characteristics of this mode to be investigated are:
1. Frequency or period of the motion.
2. Damping of the motion or lack of it.
5.xxiv
3. The relative magnitude of the lateral part of the motion to the directional part of
the motion, or simply, the "roll to yaw ratio".
4. The degree of excitation of the Dutch roll mode during uncoordinated, aileron
only turns.
Since the spiral mode is a first order motion which may be convergent, divergent,
or neutral, the characteristics of this motion to be investigated are:
1. The nature of the motion; i.e., whether it is divergent, neutral, or convergent.
2. The time required for the amplitude of the first order motion to double or half.
Obviously, the pilot will deliberately excite the roll mode in order to make bank
angle changes required in all phases of mission accomplishment. Characteristics of the roll
mode have a significant influence on the pilot's opinion of the airplane. The roll mode is an
essentially first order response and is usually heavily damped. Therefore, the
characteristics of the roll mode to be investigated are:
1. The roll mode time constant.
2. Steady state roll rates obtainable with various lateral control inputs.
3. The nature and amount of yawing motion generated during rolling maneuvers.
The pilot's opinion of lateral-directional flying qualities depends on all the static and
dynamic characteristics mentioned above plus the characteristics of the lateral-directional
control system. In addition, other parameters influence lateral-directional flying qualities
because of inseparable interaction phenomenon, such as roll response to a directional
control input, and yaw response to a lateral control input and roll rate. Therefore, it is not
possible to state which of the aforementioned characteristics are dominant in a particular
5.xxv
flight condition. They are all important to varying degrees and must all be investigated to
determine their influence on every piloting task. In the interest of simplicity, lateral-
directional flying qualities will be presented in four sections:
1. "Normal" lateral-directional flying qualities.
2. Rolling performance and roll coupling.
3. Asymmetric power.
4. Miscellaneous lateral-directional tests.
Lateral-directional stability and control characteristics profoundly affect the pilot's

ability to perform both maneuvering and nonmaneuvering tasks required in mission
fulfillment. Satisfactory lateral-directional characteristics allow the pilot to trim the airplane
easily and simply, maneuver the airplane safely and precisely without excessive effort, and
maintain adequate control of the airplane under all possible operational flight conditions.
Thus, mission tasks can be performed safely, simply, and precisely, and overall mission
effectiveness is correspondingly enhanced.
5.2 THEORY - NORMAL LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY AND

CONTROL
5.2.1 Static Lateral-Directional Stability and Control

It is now necessary to study the stability characteristics of the airplane when its
flight path deviates from the plane of symmetry. This means that the relative wind will be
making some angle to the airplane's plane of symmetry; this angle is referred to as the
sideslip angle, (see Figure 5.2). The angle of sideslip differs from the angle of attack in
that it lies in a different plane and its action is quite different. Angle of attack determines
the airplane's lift coefficient and, therefore, its airspeed (for unaccelerated flight conditions)
or normal acceleration (at a constant airspeed). However, sideslip is generally quite useless
to the pilot. It can be used to increase drag and increase rate of descent during landing, or it
can be used to make airplane heading the same as runway heading during crosswind
5.xxvi
landings, or it can be used to ease the pilot's workload during flight with asymmetric
power, etc. Nevertheless, it can be stated that, in general, it is advantageous to maintain
zero sideslip in almost all flight conditions. Therefore, the problem of directional stability
and control is to insure that the airplane tends to maintain zero sideslip and to insure that the
pilot is provided a suitable means of controlling sideslip during maneuvers that tend to
produce sideslip, or during maneuvers in which he wishes to deliberately induce sideslip.
Obviously, the pilot must also be provided with satisfactory control of the
airplane's angle of bank, ; this control is necessary to provide a force to accelerate the
flight path in the horizontal plane; i.e., to turn the airplane. A subsequent section on
Rolling Performance will discuss thoroughly the subject of lateral control. However, since
sideslip generally induces a rolling moment, it is necessary to introduce here the concept of
dihedral effect or lateral stability. This is really not a static stability in the true sense of the
term since the rolling moments created are not a result of bank angle but are a result of
sideslip. However, dihedral effect has a significant influence on the pilot's opinion of the
airplane's lateral-directional flying qualities.
X
Relative Wind
Sideslip Angle,
Airplane CG
Figure 5.2
The Sideslip Angle
5.xxvii
In order to discuss the theory of later-directional flying qualities, it is necessary first

to develop some terminology which will permit a complete description of the forces and
moments acting on the airplane during any maneuver that involves sideslip.
5.2.1.1 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY
The angle of sideslip, , is equal of the arcsin V ( )

v or for small angles encountered
in normal flight, = V v (Figure 5.3). The sideslip angle is arbitrarily given a positive
sign when the relative wind is to the right of the geometric longitudinal axis of the airplane.
The angle of yaw, , is defined as the angular displacement of the airplane's geometric
longitudinal axis in the horizontal plane from some arbitrary direction taken as zero at some
instant of time. Note that for a curved flight path, yaw angle does not equal sideslip angle.
In a 360 degree turn, the airplane yaws through 360 degrees but may develop no sideslip
during the maneuver if the turn is perfectly coordinated. If the airplane is sideslipped to
maintain a straight path, the angle of yaw is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the
angle of sideslip.
Considerable confusion can arise if the terms sideslip and yaw are misunderstood.
In this manual, sideslip will always be used to describe the angle generated by the relative
wind not being perfectly aligned with the airplane's geometric longitudinal axis in the XY
plane.1 However, the term yaw will also be used in describing rates and moments in many
cases. This is necessary since, for instance, the airplane can exhibit a yaw rate with zero
sideslip or can have yawing moments generated at zero sideslip. With the meanings of
sideslip and yaw in mind, other lateral-directional stability derivatives may now be
developed.
1 Sideslip is invariably used to describe this angle in flight test work. However, yaw is almost invariably
used in wind tunnel work and in many theoretical works to describe the same angle.
5.xxviii
V
Flight Path
X +
Arbitrary Direction X v V Flight Path
at Some Instant
of Time
+
Y
CG
CG
Curved Flight Path Straight Flight Path
V = Velocity of the Airplane Tangential

to the Flight Path at any Time
v = Component of V along the Y Axis of

the Airplane
Figure 5.3
Sideslip Angle and Angle of Yaw
5.2.1.2 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY DERIVITIVES-

SIDEFORCES AND SIDEFORCE DERIVATIVES
Whenever a sideslip angle is imposed on the airplane, sideforces are developed by
the fuselage, wings, and the vertical tail. The main contributions come from the fuselage
and the vertical tail. Wing interference with the flow of air over the wing-fuselage
combination makes the estimation of the sideforce due to the fuselage alone very difficult.
The portion of the sideforce that is due to the vertical tail is more predictable (Figure 5.4).
5.xxix
X
+
Relative Wind
v = Sideslip Acting on
Vertical Tail
= Sidewash Angle Caused

by Wing Tip Vortices and
CG Fuselage-Tail Interference.
Similar to Downwash Angle
for Longitudinal Case.
v =
Y = Sideforce Generated by
v
Vertical Tail at an Angle of
Sideslip, v
Y
v
Figure 5.4
Generation of Sideforce Due to Sideslip by the Vertical Tail
5.2.1.2.1 Vertical Tail Contribution, Y v or Cy

v
When the airplane is subjected to a sideslip angle, , the vertical tail is subjected to
a sideslip angle, v , which is generally less than because of the sidewise inflow of air
which occurs prior to the airflow impinging on the vertical tail. Thus, the vertical tail
develops a force which is directed sideways with respect to the airplane. The magnitude of
this sideforce may be expressed as:
Y v = a v ( ) q v S v eq 5.1
Where:
av = lift curve slope of the vertical tail, a vertical tail design parameter.
= airplane sideslip angle.
= sidewash angle, a measure of the change in direction of the relative wind

in the XY plane due to interference from airplane components, best
determined from wind tunnel studies.
5.xxx
qv = dynamic pressure at vertical tail in pounds per square

foot.
Sv = area of the vertical tail in square feet.
The sign of the sideforce created by the vertical tail is negative since the sign
convention utilized in this manual is that forces acting out the right wing of the airplane are
positive. Thus, since positive sideslip generates vertical tail sideforces acting to the left,
Y v carries a negative sign. Similarly, the nondimensional derivative form, C y , also
v
carries a negative sign and may be expressed as follows:
d S
C y = a v 1 v v eq 5.2
v d Sw
Where:
q
v = vertical tail efficiency factor, qv , where q is free stream dynamic
pressure.
Sw = area of the wing in square feet.
5.2.1.2.2 Sideforce Due to Roll Rate, Yp or C yp
A sideforce is developed at the vertical tail whenever the airplane is rolling. As the
airplane rolls, every point on the vertical tail that is not on the rolling axis is subjected to a
side velocity. This side velocity creates a sideslip at the vertical tail, even though the
airplane may have zero sideslip (Figure 5.5). This contribution, called sideforce due to roll
5.xxxi
rate, Yp , is generally small unless the airplane has a very high vertical tail. It carries a
negative sign, since a positive (right) roll rate, p, creates sideforce acting to the left.1
Similarly, the nondimensional derivative form, C yp , also carries a negative sign.
Free Stream
Relative Wind Relative Wind at
v Vertical Tail
Side Velocity Generated by

Airplane Rolling - to the Right
in this Example
Sideforce Due to
Roll Rate, Yp
Figure 5.5
Generation of Sideforce by the Vertical Tail Due to Roll Rate
5.2.1.2.3 Sideforce Due to Yaw Rate, Yr or C yr
Whenever the airplane exhibits a yaw rate, r, another sideforce is developed. This
sideforce, Yr , is developed as a result of side velocity due to the yaw rate (Figure 5.6).
The sideforce due to yaw rate is generally fairly small. The vertical tail and other surfaces
aft of the CG develop a positive Yr or C yr ; areas forward of the CG develop a negative Yr
or C yr . The vertical tail contribution is generally dominant, therefore, Yr and C yr usually
carry a positive sign.
1 This is the right hand rule convention. If the right hand is placed along the airplane axis under
consideration such that the thumb points in the positive direction, the fingers of the hand will curl in the
positive rotational direction. Positive axis directions are defined as (from the airplane CG) toward the right
wing, forward, and down.
5.xxxii
Free Stream
Side Velocity v Relative Wind
Generated by Relative Wind at
Yaw Rate, r Airplane Yawing Vertical Tail
- to the Right in
this Case
CG
Sideforce Due
To Yaw Rate, Y r
Sideforce Due
to Yaw Rate, Y r
Figure 5.6
Generation of Sideforce Due to Yaw Rate
5.2.1.2.4 Sideforce Due to Rudder Deflection,
Y r or C y
r
A deflection of the rudder control surface makes the vertical tail-rudder combination
a cambered airfoil. This generates a sideforce from the vertical tail (Figure 5.7). The
magnitude of this sideforce, Y r , may be expressed as follows:
Y r = a v v r q v S v eq 5.3
Where:
v = rate of change of effective tail sideslip angle with rudder deflection,
d
sometimes written dv . It is a function of the ratio of the area of the
r
rudder to the area of the entire vertical tail; for the all-moveable vertical
tail, v = 1.0.
r = rudder surface deflection.
5.xxxiii
The sideforce due to rudder deflection carries a positive sign, since trailing edge left
rudder deflection, considered positive rudder deflection, generates a sideforce acting
toward the right. Similarly, the nondimensional derivative form, C y , also carries a
r
positive sign and may be expressed as follows:
S
C y = a v v v v eq 5.4
r Sw
Relative Wind
Y
r
Figure 5.7
Generation of Sideforce Due to Rudder Deflection
5.2.1.2.5 Sideforce Due to Gravity, W sin or C L
Whenever the airplane is banked, there is a gravitational component of sideforce.

The magnitude of this sideforce is dependent on the magnitudes of the bank angle and the
weight vector of the airplane. It is the projection of the weight vector on the Y axis of the
5.xxxiv
airplane (Figure 5.8) and may be expressed as W sin or mg sin . 1 In

nondimensional form for "small" bank angles, it may also be expressed as C L . Since the
gravitational component of sideforce acts through the airplane CG, it generates no rolling or
yawing moments.
Right Wing
CG W SIN
or
mg SIN

W or mg
Figure 5.8
Gravitational Component of Sideforce Due to Bank Angle
5.2.1.2.6 Sideforce Due to Lateral Control Deflection,

Ya or C y
a
If the lateral control devices are located close inboard on the wings, their deflection
may disturb the airflow around the fuselage enough to generate a sideforce. In supersonic
flight, shock wave formation due to lateral control deflection may cause a similar effect.
This sideforce is generally very small and, therefore, is usually neglected.
1 Where W is the weight of the airplane, m is the mass, and is the bank angle.
5.xxxv
5.2.1.3 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY DERIVATIVES -

ROLLING MOMENTS AND LATERAL STABILITY DERIVATIVES
5.2.1.3.1 Rolling Moment Due to Sideslip, Dihedral Effect

L or C l
Whenever a sideslip angle is imposed on the airplane, rolling moments are generally
developed as a direct result of the sideslip. This rolling moment due to sideslip is called
dihedral effect. Dihedral effect is generally referred to as being positive if the airplane tends
to roll in a direction opposite to the imposed sideslip. However, the sign of the moment,
L or nondimensional derivative, C l , is negative for "positive" dihedral effect since a
positive (right) sideslip angle would result in a negative (left) rolling moment. Dihedral
effect is mainly influenced by geometric wing dihedral, wing sweep, wing placement on
the fuselage, and vertical tail height, as well as power for propeller-driven airplanes, and
flap deflection if the flap hinge line is swept. If the airplane exhibits a positive wing
dihedral angle, (tip chord above the root chord), the airplane tends to roll away from any
sideslip which is developed because the forward wing is subjected to a higher effective
angle of attack than the trailing wing (Figure 5.9). Thus, positive geometric wing dihedral
contributes to positive dihedral effect.
Wing sweepback tends to contribute to positive dihedral effect since the forward
wing's effective sweep angle is reduced and the trailing wing's effective sweep angle is
increased (Figure 5.10). Neglecting compressibility effects and assuming that the airplane
is not operating close to its stall angle of attack, the lift coefficient on the forward wing is
thus increased and the lift coefficient on the trailing wing is decreased.1 Therefore, wing
sweepback contributes to positive dihedral effect. Additionally, dihedral effect of the
airplane with swept wings is directly related to lift coefficient (Figure 5.11) Airplanes with
sweepback will exhibit increasing positive dihedral effect with increasing lift coefficient;
these airplanes may tend to have excessive positive dihedral at low airspeeds.
1 See Figure 2.3, Page 2.6 of the STALLS section.
5.xxxvi
Rolling Moment LL
LR
+ +
Left Sideslip Angle

Zero Bank Angle
View Looking Directly Along

Relative Wind Vectors
Relative Wind

Higher Effective Angle of
Attack on Left Wing
Top View
Figure 5.9
Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslip and Geometric Dihedral

Relative Wind
Vectors
Right Wing
Effective Sweep Angle
Left Wing is Increased
Effective Sweep Angle C L is Increased
is Increased
C L is Reduced
Rolling Moment
No Compressibility Effects
< Stall
Figure 5.10
Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslip and Wing Sweep
5.xxxvii
-.0008 Sweep Back

Dihedral Effect
CL
-.0006
Straight Wing
-.0004
-.0002 Sweep Forward
0
0.5 1.0 1.5
Lift Coefficient
CL
Figure 5.11
Typical Variation of Dihedral Effect with Lift Coefficient
Interference effects between the wing, fuselage, and vertical tail influence the
airplane dihedral effect; however, the influence is bothersome and difficult to analyze. In
general, a high wing placement on the fuselage tends to increase dihedral effect, a mid wing
design has negligible influence, and a low wing design tends to decrease dihedral effect
(Figure 5.12).
Equivalent To
Equivalent To
Equivalent To
Figure 5.12
General Relationships Between Wing Placement and Effective Dihedral
The vertical tail can contribute to the dihedral effect if it is located above the
airplane's center of gravity. This contribution is quite easily computed from the sideforce
created by the vertical tail when sideslip is imposed on the airplane (Figure 5.13). Since
positive sideslip generates a rolling moment from the vertical tail which tends to roll the
5.xxxviii
airplane in the direction opposite to the sideslip, the vertical tail contributes to positive
dihedral effect. The magnitude of this rolling moment contribution may be presented as
follows in nondimensional derivative form:
d S Zv
C l = a v 1 v v eq 5.5
v d Sw b
Where:
Zv = Vertical distance between center of pressure of the vertical tail and
airplane center of gravity in feet.
b = airplane wing span in feet. (b appears in moment relationships in order

to nondimensionalize the moment derivatives).
Rolling Moment, Lv = -Y vZv
Yv Center of Pressure of
Sideforce Developed
Airplane CG
Zv
Zv = Distance of Vertical Tail CP Above

Airplane CG
Sideslip from Right (Positive)
Figure 5.13
Influence of Vertical Tail on Dihedral Effect
The influence of power on dihedral effect is apparent only if the airplane is

equipped with one or more reciprocating or turboprop engines. This influence arises
because of the displacement of the propeller slipstream in a sideslip, resulting in one wing
being immersed in the slipstream to a greater extent than the other (Figure 5.14). This
tends to cause the airplane to roll in a direction toward the sideslip; thus power tends to
cause negative dihedral effect in propeller driven airplanes. This power influence is largest
in full-power, low-airspeed flight conditions where the ratio of slipstream velocity to free
5.xxxix
steam velocity is the greatest. The "destabilizing" influence of power on dihedral effect
may be extremely pronounced with inboard flaps extended, since the flap on one wing will
be immersed in the slipstream more than the flap on the other wing. If the flap hinge line is
swept forward, the contribution toward negative dihedral effect is increased (Figure 5.14).
Relative Wind
Rolling Moment Due to

Power Effect and Flap
Deflection
Figure 5.14
Possible Influence of Power and Flap Deflection on Dihedral Effect
5.2.1.3.2 Rolling Moment Due to Yaw Rate, L r or C lr
A rolling moment is generated if the airplane is yawing; this is the "roll due to yaw
rate," L r , or in nondimensional derivative form, C lr . This rolling moment is composed
of contributions from the vertical tail and the wing. When the airplane is yawing, a
sideforce is developed by the vertical tail (see Figure 5.6). A positive (right) yaw rate, r,
generates a positive (right) rolling moment contribution from the vertical tail. The left wing
of an airplane yawing to the right advances into the air slightly more rapidly than the right
wing. As a result, the left wing develops slightly more lift, which generates a rolling
moment to the right. This rolling moment is proportional to lift coefficient, C L , and the
magnitude of this contribution increases with decreasing speed. A positive yaw rate
5.xl
generates a positive rolling moment contribution from the wing. Thus, both the vertical tail
and wing contribute positively to the rolling moment due to yaw rate. Therefore, L r and
C lr carry positive signs.
5.2.1.3.3 Rolling Moment Due to Rudder Deflection, L r
or C l
r
A deflection of the rudder produces a sideforce as shown earlier in Figure 5.7.

This sideforce generates a rolling moment which may be expressed as follows:
L r = Y r Z v eq 5.6
or in nondimensional derivative form:
Zv
C l = Cy eq 5.7
r r b
As shown in Figure 5.15, a positive rudder deflection generates a positive rolling moment,
therefore, L r and C l carry positive signs. If the airplane has a very high vertical tail,
r
this derivative can be substantial.
Trailing Edge Left

Rudder Deflection
Y
r
Zv
Rolling Moment, L r = Y r Zv
Figure 5.15
Rolling Moment Generated by Rudder Deflection
5.xli
5.2.1.3.4 Rolling Moment Due to Lateral Control

Deflection, L a or C l
a
From the previous discussion, it can be argued that the pilot can maintain control
over bank angle by use of simple rudder control. However, this method is not practical
because of the lack of precision of control and, in many instances, lack of any bank angle
control at all by use of the rudder. Therefore, the major means of controlling rolling
moments and bank angle is through the use of lateral control devices - ailerons or spoilers
or a combination of the two. The ailerons on each wing deflect asymmetrically, thereby so
altering the spanwise load distribution that a rolling moment is created (Figure 5.16). Wing
spoilers act in a similar manner.
No Lateral Control Input
Right Lateral Control Input

Left Aileron - Trailing Edge Down
Right Aileron - Trailing Edge Up
L
a
Top View
Figure 5.16
Generation of Rolling Moment from Aileron Deflection
The magnitude of the rolling moment due to aileron deflection, L a , or the lateral control
power coefficient, C l , may be evaluated by the strip integration method (Figure 5.17)
a
and expressed as follows:
y2
L a = 2a w a q a
y1
c y dy eq 5.8
5.xlii
2a w a a y2
C l
a
=
Sw b y 1
c y dy eq 5.9
Where:
a = rate of change of effective wing angle of attack with aileron deflection.
a = aileron deflection, right wing trailing edge down considered positive.
c = wing local chord.
q
a = aileron efficiency factor, qa where q is freestream dynamic pressure.
b/2
y dy
y1 y2
Figure 5.17
Strip Integration for L and CL
The sign convention used here is such that right wing trailing edge down aileron is
considered positive aileron deflection, and this aileron deflection generates a rolling
moment in the negative (left) direction, L a and C l normally carry negative signs.
a
5.xliii
5.2.1.3.5 Rolling Moment Due to Roll Rate, Roll

Damping, L p or C l p
As the airplane rolls, a modified wing lift distribution will be created that is a
function of the rolling velocity, p. On the downgoing wing, the effective angle of attack is
increased, on the upgoing wing, the effective angle of attack is decreased. The resultant
changes in lift distribution generate a rolling moment, L p , which opposes the rolling
moment due to aileron deflection, L a (Figure 5.18). In rolling maneuvers, it is this
opposing rolling moment, L p , which determines the final steady state roll rate for a given
aileron deflection. Therefore, L p and the nondimensional derivative form C l p are
commonly referred to as "roll damping" or "damping in roll". It can readily be seen that
roll damping depends almost exclusively on wing design parameters such as lift curve
slope and wing span, however, a high vertical tail can have some contribution. Since roll
damping usually acts to oppose the rolling moment generated by lateral control deflection,
L p and C l p generally carry negative signs. If the airplane is flying at low airspeeds near
stall, an increased angle of attack on the downgoing wing may stall that wing. This causes
C l p to become positive and the wing will "autorotate"1 unless corrective action is taken by
the pilot.
1 Uncontrolled rolling motion, as in a spin.
5.xliv
Lp
Change in Lift Due to Roll Rate

P
Y
V = Airspeed
PY = Local Velocity Vector at
V Individual Section Imposed
PY by Roll Rate
= Change in Angle of Attack
Effective Relative Wind at Individual Sections
= PY
V
(for Small Angles)
Figure 5.18
Generation of Roll Damping
5.2.1.4 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY DERIVATIVES -

YAWING MOMENTS AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
DERIVATIVES.
5.2.1.4.1 Yawing Moment Due to Sideslip, Directional

Stability, N or C n
Whenever a sideslip angle is imposed on the airplane, yawing moments are

generally developed as a result of the sideslip. If the yawing moments tend to reduce the
imposed sideslip angle, the airplane exhibits directional stability or "weathercock stability".
The strength of this directional stability is one of the most important characteristics of the
airplane. The main contributions to this characteristic come from the fuselage, nacelles,
and the vertical tail. The wing contribution is usually negligible since a sideslip angle
creates only very small sideforces on the wing. However, the contributions of the fuselage
and nacelles to the yawing moment due to sideslip are usually significant and unstable. The
vertical tail must be designed to offset the destabilizing fuselage-nacelle contribution and
provide some level of directional stability for the airplane. The contribution of the vertical
5.xlv
tail to the yawing moment due to sideslip is usually very powerful and is generated as a
result of the sideforce created by the vertical tail (Figure 5.19). This contribution N may
v
be expressed as:
d
N v = Y v lv = a v 1 q S l eq 5.10
d v v v
lv d S l
Cn = Cy = a v 1 v v v eq 5.11
V v b d Sw b
Where:
lv = horizontal distance between center of pressure of the vertical tail and the
airplane center of gravity in feet.
Relative Wind
Yawing
Moment
Nv
Airplane CG
lv
v Relative
Center of Pressure Wind
of Sideforce Developed
Yv
Figure 5.19
Contribution of the Vertical Tail to Directional Stability
5.xlvi
The airplane's total yawing moment due to sideslip, or directional stability, is the
sum of the contributions from the wing, fuselage, nacelles, and vertical tail:
C n = C n + C n eq 5.12
w, F, N v
If C n is positive, i.e., positive sideslip generates a positive yawing moment, the
airplane is directionally stable. Obviously, N and C n normally carry positive signs.
The running propeller can have large effects on the airplane directional stability. A
sideforce is generated as a result of the airflow passing through the propeller disc at a
sideslip angle. This effect is sometimes called the "propeller fin effect." From a study of
Figure 5.20, it may be rationalized that the effect of propeller operation on directional
stability depends on the location of the propeller with respect to the airplane CG. If the
propeller is positioned ahead of the CG, propeller effects are destabilizing. The influence
of jet engine operation on directional stability is the same.
Relative Wind

Yawing
Moment
N
N = Yl p
Y
lp
CG
Figure 5.20
Propeller Power Influence on Directional Stability
5.xlvii
5.2.1.4.2 Yawing Moment Due to Yaw Rate Damping,
N r or C n r
The sideforces created when the airplane is yawing about its CG with some yaw
rate, r, generate yawing moments which generally tend to oppose the motion. This "yaw
rate damping" or "damping in yaw" derives most of its magnitude from the vertical tail.
The vertical tail is subjected to a sideslip angle, v , due to yaw rate even if the airplane
sideslip angle is zero1 (see Figure 5.6). The resultant sideforce generates a yawing
moment, N, which opposes the yawing motion (Figure 5.21). The magnitude of the yaw
rate damping contribution from the vertical tail may be expressed as follows:
lv2
N rv = a v S v q v eq 5.13
V
Cn S l 2
= = 2a v S V v v2
( )
Cnr eq 5.14
v 2V
rb w b
Where:
rb
2V is called the "nondimensional yaw rate"
V = true airspeed
(Note that vertical tail "arm length," l v , has a powerful influence on the magnitude of the
yaw rate damping.)
Yaw rate damping is increased through a wing contribution particularly at high lift
coefficients. This contribution arises because the "outer" wing is traveling forward at a
slightly higher airspeed than the wing to the inside of the turn. The outer wing therefore
develops more profile and induced drag, which generates an additional yawing moment
opposing the yaw rate.
1 This situation is approached in a perfectly coordinated turn.
5.xlviii
Yaw Rate
r
CG
lv
Yr
N r = Yr l v
Figure 5.21
Generation of Yaw Rate Damping from the Vertical Tail
Yaw rate damping, N r , or C n r , normally are negative quantities since their action
is in opposition to the established yaw rate.
5.2.1.4.3 Yawing Moment Due to Rudder Deflection,

N r or C n
r
The sideforce generated at the vertical tail due to rudder deflection produces a
yawing moment about the airplane CG (Figure 5.22). The magnitude of this yawing
moment is a measure of the rudder effectiveness or "rudder control power". The yawing
moment due to rudder deflection may be stated as:
N r = av v q v S v l v eq 5.15
or in nondimensional coefficient form:
S lv
C n = a v v n v S v b eq 5.16
r w
5.xlix
N r and C n normally are negative quantities since a positive (trailing edge left)
r
rudder deflection generates a negative yawing moment.
Airplane CG
lv
Y r
N = Y l v
r r
Figure 5.22
Yawing Moment Due to Rudder Deflection-Rudder Power
5.2.1.4.4 Yawing Moment Due to Lateral Control

Deflection, N a or C n
a
The lateral control surfaces - ailerons and/or spoilers - usually generate yawing
moments when deflected. If the yawing moments created act so as to rotate the nose of the
airplane opposite to the direction of roll, the yawing moment is termed "adverse." If the
yawing moments act so as to rotate the nose in the same direction as the roll, the yawing
moment is termed "proverse." (These terms do not, in themselves, devote unfavorable or
favorable flying qualities. In some cases, adverse yaw contributes more to good flying
qualities than proverse yaw!) For airplanes equipped with ailerons, the yawing moments
created with aileron deflection are usually adverse. This is due to an increase in drag due to
5.l
the increase in lift on the wing with the aileron trailing edge down and vice versa (Figure
5.23). The yawing moment due to aileron deflection, N a or, in nondimensional derivative
form, C n , will be positive if the yawing moment is adverse. (Right aileron trailing edge
a
down is positive; left roll is generated; if yawing moment is adverse, a right (positive
yawing moment results.)
N

L
Left Aileron Right Aileron Reduced

Induced
Trailing Edge Down Trailing Edge Up Increased
Drag
Increased Lift Reduced Lift Induced
Increased Induced Reduced Induced Drag
Drag Drag
Figure 5.23
Generation of Adverse Aileron Yawing Moment
For airplanes equipped with spoiler type lateral control devices, the yawing moment
due to lateral control deflections may be proverse or adverse. This is because spoilers
generate changes in profile drag as well as induced drag. If the changes due to profile drag
are predominant, the yawing moments due to spoiler deflection are proverse; if changes due
to induced drag predominate, the yawing moments are adverse (Figure 5.24). Therefore, at
high airspeeds, spoilers tend to generate proverse (negative) yawing moments, while at low
airspeeds, spoilers tend to generate adverse (positive) yawing moments.
For airplanes equipped with differential horizontal stabilizers, the yawing

movements due to lateral control deflections are usually proverse. This is because the
intensified pressure field generated above the stabilizer on the downgoing side is also felt
by the vertical tail.
5.li
Proverse if Profile Drag

Effect is Predominant
N
a
Di
L
a
Dp
Left Spoiler Right Spoiler Up
Faired Reduced Lift
Reduced Induced Drag
Increased Profile Drag
N a
Adverse if Induced Drag

Effect is Predominant
Figure 5.24
Yawing Moments Generated by Spoiler Deflection
5.2.1.4.5 Yawing Moment Due to Rolling Velocity,

N p or C n p
Yawing moments are also generated by rolling velocity. The main contributing
factor to this yawing moment, N p , or in nondimensional derivative form, C n p is the
wing, although large span horizontal and vertical tails can have appreciable effects. The
wing contribution is due to the changes in effective angles of attack on the downgoing and
upgoing wing during rolling (see Figure 5.18). These changes result in tilting of the lift
and drag vectors on the respective wings (along with changes in the magnitudes as well).
As shown in Figure 5.25, the modifications to the lift vectors generally are predominant,
resulting in a yawing moment which tends to yaw the airplane opposite to the direction of
roll. The influence of the horizontal tail would be the same. The sideforces generated at
the vertical tail due to roll rate (see Figure 5.5) would result in a yawing moment which
tends to yaw the airplane in the direction of roll, which is exactly opposite to the wing
effect. The total yawing moment due to roll rate is the sum of the contributions of the
wing, horizontal tail, and vertical tail. Since the wing contribution is normally
predominant, N p and C n p are normally negative quantities, since a right (positive) roll rate
would result in a left (negative) yawing moment due to the roll rate.
5.lii
The influence of the yawing moment due to roll rate is frequently incorrectly
included in the effects of aileron adverse or proverse yaw, C n . This is due to the fact
a
that, in a rolling maneuver, the yawing moments generated are a result of both C n and
a
C n p . It is never possible to completely separate the two during flight test investigations.
The test pilot and engineer should be careful to use correct technical terminology when
describing the phenomenon observed during flight tests.
Left Wing Np Right Wing

Section Section
L H
Effective L H
Relative Wind L H
L
LH
L D

V
V
D
Airplane Rolling Right
Effective
Relative Wind
Figure 5.25
Wing Contribution to Yawing Moment Due to Roll Rate
A tabular presentation of the lateral-directional stability derivatives is presented in

Figure 5.26.
5.liii
Non-
Dimensional
Derivative Norma Prime
Force or Moment Symbol Form l Signs Contributing Remarks
Factors
Contributes to Positive
Sideforce Due to Vertical Tail, Dihedral Effect, Positive
Sideslip Y Cy - Fuselage Directional Stability
Contributes to Roll
Sideforce Due to Damping, Yawing
Roll Rate Yp Cy p - Vertical Tail Moment Due to Roll Rate
Sideforce Due to Contributes to Roll Due
Yaw Rate Yr Cy r + Vertical Tail to Yaw Rate, Yaw Rate
Damping
Vertical Tail- Contributes to Roll Due
Sideforce Due to Rudder to Rudder, Rudder Control
Rudder Deflection Y r Cy + Combination Power
r
Sideforce Due to Generates No Rolling or

Gravity W sin C L Whole Airplane Yawing Moments
Sideforce Due to
Lateral Control Ya Cy None Aileron, Spoiler
a
Deflection Location Usually Neglected
Wing Design,
Although a High Positive Dihedral Effect
Rolling Moment Vertical Tail and Corresponds to a Negative
Due to Sideslip- L Cl Power (Recip) Stability Derivative
Dihedral Effect - Can Influence
Magnitude of Wing
Rolling Moment Wing, Vertical Contribution Increases
Due to Yaw Rate Lr Cl r + Tail with Decreasing Airspeed
Rolling Moment Vertical Tail- Of Significant Magnitude
Due to Rudder Rudder if Airplane has a High
Deflection Lr Cl + Combination Vertical Tail
r
Rolling Moment
Due to Lateral
Control Deflection,
Lateral Control
Power La Cl - Aileron, Spoiler
a
Rolling Moment L a and L p Determine

Due to Roll Rate- Wing, Although a the Steady State Roll Rate
Roll Damping LP Cl p - High Vertical Tail for a Given Lateral
Can Influence Control Deflection
Figure 5.26
Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives Summary
5.liv
Vertical Tail Must be

Yawing Moment Designed to Offset
Due Sideslip- Destabilizing Influence
Directional N Cn + Vertical Tail, of Fuselage-Nacelle
Stability Fuselage, Nacelles Combination
Vertical Tail,
Yawing Moment Although the Wing Wing Contribution is
Due to Yaw Rate- Has Some Largest at High Angles
Yaw Rate Damping Nr Cn r - Influence of Attack
Yawing Moment
Due to Rudder Vertical Tail-
Deflection-Rudder Rudder
Control Power Nr Cn - Combination
r
Yawing Moment
Due to Lateral Ailerons Generally
Control Deflection- Produce Adverse Yaw.
Adverse or Proverse Lateral Control Spoilers May Generate
Yaw Na Device Design Adverse or Proverse
C n
a Yaw.
Wing, Although a
Yawing Moment High Vertical Tail Sometimes Incorrectly
Due to Rate of Can Have Some Included in Aileron
Roll Np Cn p - Influence Adverse or Proverse
Yaw.
Figure 5.26
Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives Summary (Contd)
5.2.1.5 STEADY HEADING SIDESLIPS

The steady heading sideslip is a common maneuver to all pilots. It is sometimes
utilized to maintain airplane heading equal to runway heading during crosswind landings,
or to increase drag and steepen the glide path in light airplanes. However, the primary
reason for studying steady heading sideslips is not to determine the feasibility of utilizing
the maneuver in normal operations, although this determination is obviously a by-product
of the study. The steady heading slideslip requires the pilot to balance the forces and
moments generated on the airplane by the sideslip with appropriate lateral and directional
control inputs and bank angle. Since these control forces and positions and bank angles are
at least indicative of the sign (if not the magnitude) of the generated forces and moments
(and therefore of the associated stability derivative), the steady heading sideslip is a
convenient flight test technique.
5.lv
The equilibrium equation for the steady heading sideslip will not be presented in
terms of the stability derivatives. Since the steady heading sideslip results in zero yaw rate
and zero roll rate, all force and moment coefficients due to yaw rate or roll rate are
eliminated from the equations. Also, the sideforce due to aileron deflection, C y , will be
a
neglected, since it is usually very small. Thus, the steady heading sideslip equations for
sideforce, yawing moment, and rolling moment may be written as follows:
SIDEFORCE C y0 + C y + C y r + C L = 0 eq 5.17
r
YAWING MOMENT C n0 + C n + C n r + C n a = 0 eq 5.18

r a
ROLLING MOMENT C l0 + C l + C l r + C l a = 0 eq 5.19

r a
Where:
C y0 , C n0 , and C l0 are sideforce yawing moment, and rolling moment derivatives
when rudder deflection, aileron deflection, bank angle, and sideslip angle are zero
and are constants. These constants could result from asymmetric configurations,
loadings, etc.
The variables in the steady sideslip equations can only be bank angle, rudder
position, aileron position, and sideslip angle, By differentiating the last equation with
respect to sideslip angle, the constants can be eliminated and useful relationships for the
variation of rudder position, aileron position, and bank angle with sideslip angle in steady
heading flight can be developed. Differentiation yields:
d r d
SIDEFORCE C y + C y d + C L d = 0 eq 5.20
r
d r da
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n d + Cn d = 0 eq 5.21
r a
d r da
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l d + Cl d = 0 eq 5.22
r a
5.lvi
d d a d
Solving the last three equations for the variables dr , d , and d yields the
following important classical relationships which will be analyzed in turn:
Cn Cn Cl
C 1 C a C
d r n r la n
= eq 5.23
d Cn Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
Cl Cl Cn
C 1 C r C
d a l a n r l
= eq 5.24
d Cn Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
d
d = C1
L {C y + Cy
r
d r
d } eq 5.25
5.2.1.5.1 Rudder Position Required in Sideslip

The variation of rudder position with sideslip angle reduces to the following simple
relationship if C n is zero:
a
Cn
d r
d = C eq 5.26
n r
Thus, a positive variation of rudder position with sideslip angle indicates positive
d
directional stability since C n is invariably a negative quantity. Obviously, dr yields
r
absolutely no information as to the magnitude of the directional stability C n , unless the
magnitude of the derivative, C n , is known.

r
5.lvii
d
Even if C n is not zero, the gradient dr still has a major influence on the pilot's
a
opinion of lateral-directional flying qualities. The denominator:
Cn C l
1 C l a C n r eq 5.27
a r
can usually be considered to be one and can be neglected in analysis.
However, the numerator:
Cn Cl
1 C a C eq 5.28
l n
a
can have a significant influence on the rudder positions required in sideslips. For example,
a swept wing airplane in approach configuration can have a ratio of dihedral effect to
C l
directional stability C as high as three. If these airplanes exhibit significant aileron
n
d
adverse yaw, C n , in this flight condition, the gradient dr may be reduced drastically
a
even though directional stability, C n , may still be strong. Thus, adverse aileron yaw and
high dihedral effect can combine to reduce significantly the pilot's opinion of the directional
"stiffness" of the airplane.
Obviously, some level of positive rudder position variation with sideslip angle
(Figure 5.27) is required in any airplane. This variation is sometimes referred to as rudder
position directional stability or directional stability, rudder-fixed.
5.lviii
TER, -
dr
Rudder Position, r
d
=+
TEL, +
Left, - Right, +
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.27
Rudder Position Required in Steady Heading Sideslips
5.2.1.5.2 Rudder Forces Required in Sideslips

Of great importance to the pilot is the variation of rudder pedal forces required in
steady heading sideslips. Rudder forces are generated by the requirement for the pilot to
move the rudder to the position for equilibrium. If the directional control system is
irreversible, rudder forces are merely a function of rudder position, i.e.:
Fr = K 1 r (linear feel spring system) eq 5.29

or:
Fr = K 2q r ("q feel" system) eq 5.30
Where:
K1 and K 2 are constants describing the characteristics of the system, such as
strength of the feel spring, gearing ratio, etc.
However, if the directional control system is reversible, the rudder is free to float in
response to hinge moments developed. This floating tendency can have a large influence
on the directional stability of the airplane. If the rudder floats so as to align itself with the
relative wind at the vertical tail, the restoring moment generated at the vertical tail, C n
v
5.lix
(and therefore C n ), will be decreased (Figure 5.28). Conversely, if the rudder floats
opposite to the relative wind, C n will be increased. The floating angle of the rudder can
be expressed analytically as follows:
C h
rFloat = C v v eq 5.31
h r
Where:
C h = rudder hinge moment coefficient variation with sideslip angle at zero
v
deflection, normally carries a positive sign.
C h = rudder hinge moment coefficient variation with rudder deflection at zero

r
sideslip angle, and carries a negative sign.
CG
Cn < Cn
Float No Float
Relative
Wind
v
Cy y
Float
Cy y
No Float
r
Float
Figure 5.28
The Vertical Tail Contribution to C n May be Reduced by Rudder Float
5.lx
Since the pilot must apply rudder forces to move the rudder from its float position
to the position for equilibrium, the analytical expression for rudder forces in the reversible
system is as follows:
{
Fr = K C h q vSr cr rEquilibrium rFloat
r
} eq 5.32
Where:
K = a constant describing the characteristics of the system, radians per foot.
qv = dynamic pressure at vertical tail, pounds per square foot.
Sr = area of the rudder, square feet.
cr = average rudder chord, feet.
The variation of rudder forces with sideslip angle is obtained by differentiating the
last equation with respect to sideslip:
dFr d d r Float
= K C h q vSr c r dr eq 5.33
d r d
Now since:
Cn
d r
d = C (if the assumption C n = 0 is valid) eq 5.34
n a
r
and
( )
Ch
d r Float
d = C v 1 d
d eq 5.35
h r
5.lxi
the gradient of rudder forces with sideslip angle for the reversible system may be expressed
as :

( )
Ch Cn C h
dFr
= K C r q vSr cr C n + r
C
v
1 d eq 5.36
d n r h r d
The expression enclosed in braces in the above equation is sometimes referred to as

"directional stability, rudder-free." The destabilizing or stabilizing (depending on the sign
of C h ) influence of rudder float is represented by the expression:
v
(1 )
Cn C h
r v d
Ch eq 5.37
d
r
Obviously, the pilot always desires some positive gradient7 of rudder pedal force
with sideslip angle (Figure 5.29). If the gradient is shallow or zero through zero sideslip,
the pilot experiences difficulty in maintaining zero sideslip during maneuvering. If the
gradient is high, the airplane feels "stiff" directionally to the pilot and he is generally quite
satisfied from this point of view.
7 Left rudder pedal force is considered positive. For a positive rudder force gradient, left rudder pedal forces
are required with right sideslip angles, and vice versa.
5.lxii
Right -
dFr
=+
Rudder Pedal Force, Fr

d
Left +
Left - Right +
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.29
Rudder Forces Required in Steady Heading Sideslips
5.2.1.5.3 Rudder Lock

If the directional control system is reversible, the pilot may be confronted with
nonlinearities in rudder pedal forces at high sideslip angles even though the rudder position
variation is linear. This situation, depicted in Figure 5.30, is due to an increase in rudder
float angle at large sideslip angles because of changes in rudder hinge moment
characteristics. If the float angle equals the rudder angle required for equilibrium, the
rudder forces required will be zero. Any increase in sideslip beyond this point results in
the rudder floating all the way to the stops unless the pilot applies opposite rudder force.
This situation, called "rudder lock," is obviously unsatisfactory if it is encountered in a
flight condition representative of an operational situation. Rudder lock may also be
generated by nonlinearities in the rudder position gradient with sideslip angle, i.e., a
directional stability problem. This situation, depicted in Figure 5.31, results in the same
rudder pedal force variation with sideslip angle but can be differentiated from the "float-
induced rudder lock" because the rudder position gradient is nonlinear.
5.lxiii
Rudder Required
Right
for Equilibrium
r
Rudder Position,
Pilot Moves Rudder
from Float to
Equilibrium
Left Rudder Float 0
"Rudder Lock"
Left Right
"Rudder Lock"
Sideslip Angle,
Right
Rudder Pedal Force, Fr
0
Left
Left Right
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.30
"Rudder Lock" Generated by Float Characteristics
5.lxiv
Right
Rudder Required
Rudder Position, r
0
Rudder Float
Left
"Rudder Lock"
Left
"Rudder Lock"
Right
Right Sideslip Angle,

Rudder Pedal, r
0
Left
Left Right
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.31
"Rudder Lock" Generated by Directional Stability Problem
5.2.1.5.4 Aileron Position Required for Sideslips

The relationship for aileron position for equilibrium in steady heading sideslips is
rewritten for convenience:
Cl Cl Cn
C 1 C r C l
d a la nr
d = eq 5.38
C n Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
5.lxv
If roll due to rudder deflection, C l , is zero, the above relationship reduces to the
r
following simple form:
Cl
d a
d = C eq 5.39
l a
d
Thus, a variation of aileron position with sideslip angle such that da is negative
indicates positive dihedral effect since C l is invariably a negative quantity. Obviously,

a
d a
d yields absolutely no information as to the magnitude of the dihedral effect, C l ,
unless the magnitude of the aileron control power, C l , is known.

a
d
Even if C l is not zero, the gradient da still has a major influence on the pilot's
r
opinion of the lateral-directional flying qualities. Again, the denominator:
Cn Cl
1 C l a C n r eq 5.40
a r
can usually be considered to be one and can be neglected in analysis. However, the
numerator:
C l Cn
1 Cn r C l eq 5.41
r
can have a significant influence on the aileron positions required in sideslips. For example,
a swept wing aircraft with a high vertical tail in supersonic flight can have a ratio of
Cn
directional stability to dihedral effect C as high as two. The ratio of roll due to rudder
l
Cl
to rudder control power C r is equal to the ratio of vertical tail height (Z v ) to vertical
n r
5.lxvi
tail length (l v ) , which may be about one-half for a high vertical tail. Therefore, in high
speed flight, the rudder can provide a significant amount of the rolling moment required for
equilibrium in steady heading sideslips.
The steady heading sideslip test conducted under these conditions would yield little
useful information as to the ratio of dihedral effect to aileron control power. However, the
results of the test would still be very important from a flying qualities standpoint,
particularly in the analysis of lateral-directional trimmability and the ease of controlling
bank angle with rudder.
The desired magnitude of aileron position variation with sideslip angle has never
been clearly determined. Analysis of many flying qualities investigations reveals that, in
general, pilots prefer some positive gradient such that right lateral control position is
required in right sideslips8 , and vice versa (Figure 5.32). However, if the gradient is too
steep, lateral-directional flying qualities may be degraded also. This variation is sometimes
called control-fixed dihedral effect or dihedral effect (aileron position).
TEU, -
Right Aileron Position, a
da
=-
d
TED, +
Left - Right +
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.32
Aileron Position Required in Sideslips
8 This results in d a being a negative quantity since right (positive) sideslip would require right aileron
d
trailing edge up (negative) deflection.
5.lxvii
5.2.1.5.5 Aileron Forces Required in Sideslips

Aileron forces in the steady heading sideslip are generated by the requirement for
the pilot to move the aileron to the position required for equilibrium. If the lateral control
system is irreversible, aileron control forces are merely a function of aileron position. If
the lateral control system is reversible, the aileron is free to float in response to hinge
moments developed. However, aileron float is generally very small during steady heading
sideslips. In some cases, aileron float has been observed in airplanes with high geometric
dihedral9 such that a positive gradient of aileron position is exhibited with a flat, or zero,
gradient of aileron control force with sideslip. Some positive gradient of aileron control
force with sideslip angle is desired such that right lateral control forces are required in right
dF
sideslips, and vice versa. This results in da being a negative quantity (Figure 5.33). The
variation of lateral control forces with sideslip angle is sometimes referred to as control-free
dihedral effect or dihedral effect (aileron force). Lateral control forces will be discussed
more thoroughly in the section on Rolling Performance.
Right, -
Rudder Control Force, Fa
dFa
=-
d
Left, +
Left - Right +
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.33
Lateral Control Forces Required in Steady Heading Sideslips
9 Aileron float in steady sideslips appears to increase with geometric dihedral and sweepback, although
reversible lateral control systems are seldom utilized on airplanes with high sweepback.
5.lxviii
5.2.1.5.6 Bank Angle Required in Sideslips

The classical relationship for bank angle variation with sideslip angle, developed
earlier, is as follows:
d
d = C1
L {C y + Cy
r
d r
d } eq 5.42
If yawing moments due to aileron deflection, C n , can be assumed negligible, the rudder
a
requirement with sideslip can be written:
Cn
d r
d = C eq 5.43
n r
Therefore, making the above substitution:
d Cy
= C1 C y C r C n eq 5.44
d L n
r
However, C y can be expressed as follows:
C y = C y + C y eq 5.45
and C n can be written:
C n = C n + C n
lv
C n = C n Cy b eq 5.46
W, F, N v
C y
(the b is required to nondimensionalize the vertical tail length.) and C r can be written:
n r
C y C y
Cn
r
= r
lv = lb 5.47
r Cy v
r b
5.lxix
Therefore, making the above substitutions:

C y bv
d l
= C1 C y + C y + lb C n
= C1 C y
d
+ lb C n eq 5.48
The point of the last tedious derivation is to emphasize the fact that if C n is zero,
a
the bank angle requirement in steady heading sideslips is dependent strictly on "tail-off"
d
parameters. Also, if C n is zero, d is not included by dihedral effect. Even if C n is
a a
not zero, the bank angle requirement in steady heading sideslips is primarily dependent on
the sideforces and yawing moments created by wing, fuselage, and nacelles. The gradient,
d
d , is most often referred to as the sideforce characteristic. It is a rather important flying
d
quality, since it provides a cue to the pilot if sideslip is developed. If d is zero, the pilot
will probably find that the airplane is easy to trim up in a wings level sideslip. Some
d
positive gradient of d - right bank angle required in right sideslips and vice versa - is
desirable for satisfactory lateral-directional flying qualities (Figure 5.34).
d
=+
d
Left, -
Bank Angle
Right, +
Left - Right +
Sideslip Angle,
Figure 5.34
Sideforce Characteristics
5.lxx
5.2.1.5.7 Miscellaneous Characteristics Observed in Steady

Heading Sideslips
There are several other characteristics of lesser importance which can be determined
from the steady heading sideslip test. The first of these is the indicated airspeed error
induced by sideslip. Subjecting the production airspeed source to a sideslip angle can
result in erroneous airspeed indications in the cockpit. Generally, boom-mounted airspeed
sources utilized for sensitive airspeed read outs are not as susceptible to airspeed error with
sideslip, particularly if the boom head swivels so as to align itself with the relative wind.
Large indicated airspeed errors with sideslip angles normally employed in operational usage
is obviously an undesirable, if not dangerous, characteristic. Airspeed errors may vary
with the direction of sideslip.
Pitching moments are generated by sideslip angles due to changes in airflow

characteristics and effective angles of attack at the wing and horizontal tail. Propeller-
driven airplanes commonly exhibit a nose-down pitching moment with sideslip from one
side and a nose-up moment with sideslip from the opposite side. This is due to the
phenomenon of moving the horizontal tail in and out of the high energy propeller slipstream
when sideslips are induced. These pitching moments or longitudinal trim changes are
manifested to the pilot through the elevator deflection and longitudinal control force
required to maintain airspeed constant in the steady heading sideslips. Excessive
longitudinal trim changes with sideslip angels normally utilized in operational flight
conditions would place excessive demands on pilot attention and coordination.
Sideslip angle almost invariably result in increases in airplane drag coefficient.

Thus, to maintain airspeed constant without changing power setting, the pilot notes an
increase in rate of descent during sideslipping flight. This characteristic has been utilized to
increase the landing approach flight path angle in light airplanes. However, excessive rate
of descent with sideslip angles normally utilized in operational flight conditions would be
undesirable.
5.2.1.5.8 Steady Heading Sideslip Review

The forces and moments which must be balanced in the steady heading sideslip are
summarized in Figure 5.35.
5.lxxi
Cn

Relative
Wind
Adverse Yawing Moments
Cn a
a
TED TEU
Proverse
Cn r r
Cl r
r
Rolling Moments
Cl a Cl
a
C y r
r
Sideforces
Cy C L
Cm ee Cm Pitching Moments
Figure 5.35
Forces and Moments Balanced in Steady Heading Sideslips
5.lxxii
5.2.2 Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability and Control

The previous discussion of lateral-directional stability has been concerned only with
equilibrium flight conditions. The discussion will now be exp anded to study the means by
which one equilibrium flight condition is changed to another equilibrium flight condition,
either by pilot control inputs or by external perturbations. The study of dynamic lateral-
directional stability and control characteristics will require the investigation of
nonequilibrium flight conditions.
The origin, characteristics, and parameters affecting the lateral-directional modes of

motion will now be introduced.
5.2.2.1 ORIGIN OF THE LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL MODES OF

MOTION
Without derivation, which can be found in appropriate literature, the determinant of
the transformed lateral-directional equation of motion for "small" disturbances may be
written as shown in Figure 5.36. (Note: The lateral-directional determinant is presented
with the assumption that the effect of lateral-directional inertia cross-coupling is included in
each of the terms of the equation. This cross-coupling is a result of the product of inertia in
roll and yaw, I XZ . The assumption that I XZ effects are "built into" each of the stability
derivatives is deemed valid for qualitative analysis. However, the use of complete
equations, which show the influence of the produce-of-inertia on each term, is
recommended for quantitative analysis. These equations may be found in appropriate
technical literature.)
The solutions of the lateral-directional determinant will provide much useful

information about the lateral-directional modes of motion. In order to easily obtain the first
solution, the assumption is made that dihedral effect and roll due to yaw rate are zero:
L = 0 Lr = 0 eq 5.49
(The effect of varying these parameters will be introduced later.)
5.lxxiii
Sideforce g
Characteristics S Y 1
0
Rolling Moment
Characteristics
L (
S S Lp ) L r
=0
Yawing Moment N N pS S Nr
Characteristics

Changes in Sideslip Angle Changes in Yaw Rate
Terms Generated
by Changes
in Bank Angle
S = Laplace Operator.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
= horizontal velocity ( u 0 = initial horizontal velocity).
I XX = airplane moment of inertia in roll.

I ZZ = airplane moment of inertia in yaw.
Y/ qS
Y = mu 0 = C y mu = sideforce due to sideslip term.
0
L/ qSb
L = I XX = C l I XX = rolling moment due to sideslip (dihedral effect)
term.
L/ p qSb 2
Lp = I XX = C l p 2u I = rolling moment due to roll rate (roll damping)
0 XX
term.
qSb 2
L r = L/ r
IXX = C l r 2u 0I XX = rolling moment due to yaw rate term.
N/ qSb
N = IZZ = Cn I ZZ = yawing moment due to sideslip (directional
stability) term.
N/ p qSb 2
Np = I ZZ = C np 2u I = yawing moment due to roll rate term.
0 ZZ
qSb2
N r = N/ r
I ZZ = C nr 2u 0 I ZZ = yawing moment due to yaw rate (yaw rate
damping) term.
Figure 5.36
The Lateral-Directional Determinant
5.lxxiv
The lateral-directional determinant thus reduces to:
S Y 1
(
S S Lp ) = 0 eq 5.50
N S N r
Solving the above yields:
(
S S Lp ) {S2 + ( Y ) (
N r S + N + Y N r )} = 0 eq 5.51
The last equation describes the three lateral-directional modes of motion if L and
L r are both equal to zero. These mode of motion are the spiral mode - indicated by
{S + ( Y N r ) S + ( N + YN r) } . These "classic" lateral-directional roots are

presented on the convenient root locus plot in Figure 5.37. As previously developed, the
spiral root lies at the origin, indicating neither a divergence or convergence when excited.
The roll mode is characterized by a large negative real root, corresponding to a heavily
damped, nonoscillatory rolling motion. The Dutch roll mode is characterized by a complex
pair of roots, indicating an oscillatory second-order type of motion.
Imaginary
Axis
Roll Root Spiral Root

Dutch Roll
Roots Real
X X Axis
X
L = Lr = 0
Figure 5.37
Complex Plane Representation of Classic Lateral-Directional Modes of Motion
5.lxxv
5.2.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL

MODES OF MOTION
5.2.2.2.1 The Spiral Mode
The spiral mode is a first order nonoscillatory mode of motion. It can be described
as a bank angle divergency or convergency after a bank angle disturbance from wings level
flight with controls restrained in the position for wings level flight. Actually, the spiral
mode can be convergent, divergent, or neutral. The pilot does not normally excite the
spiral mode intentionally; however, it is excited any time the bank angle of the airplane is
disturbed from a trimmed wings level condition. Therefore, it has some influence on the
airplane's lateral-directional flying qualities. The nature of the spiral mode, i.e., whether it
is convergent, divergent, or neutral, depends on the sign of the following combination of
stability derivatives10 :
g
u0 {L N r N L r } eq 5.52
If L N r is larger than N L r , the spiral mode will be convergent; if N L r is

larger than L N r , the spiral mode will be divergent (Figure 5.38). In general, strong
directional stability (large N ) promotes a divergent spiral mode; while high positive
dihedral effect (large negative L ) promotes a convergent spiral mode. At any rate, the
magnitude of the spiral root tends to vary inversely with airspeed (see the last equation).
Thus, the magnitude of the spiral, which corresponds to the rate of convergency or
divergence of the motion, tends to be large at slow airspeeds and small at high airspeeds.
10 Sometimes referred to as the E coefficient of the lateral-directional characteristic equation.
5.lxxvi
Imaginary
Axis
X
If LNr > NLr,
Spiral is Convergent
Real
X X Axis
If LNr = NLr, or
If NLr > LNr,
If L = Lr = 0, Spiral Spiral is Divergent
is Neutral X
Figure 5.38
Nature of the Spiral Mode
5.2.2.2.2 The Roll Mode

The classic roll mode is a heavily damped, first order, nonoscillatory mode of
motion manifested in a build-up of roll rate to a steady state value for a given lateral control
input. This rolling motion (depicted in Figure 5.39) is utilized by the pilot to vary and
control bank angle. Thus, the characteristics of this rolling motion have a major influence
on the pilot's opinion of the maneuvering capabilities of the airplane. For now, the roll
response will be considered to be a "single degree of freedom" motion; i.e., the airplane is
free only to roll (not yaw or pitch) in response to a lateral control input. For this single
degree of freedom roll, the steady state roll rate for a given lateral control deflection can be
expressed as:
L l C
b a eq 5.53
p lp
Where:
L/ a qSb
La = I XX = Cl I = rolling moment due to lateral control
a XX
deflection (lateral control power) term.
eq 5.54
5.lxxvii
The rate at which the roll rate builds up to steady state, or decelerates to zero, is
governed by the "roll mode time constant," R . The roll mode time constant is defined as
the time required for the roll rate to reach 63.2 percent of the steady state roll rate following
a step input of lateral control (Figure 5.39). The roll mode time constant is inversely
proportional to the roll damping parameter:
R = L1 eq 5.55
p
Actual rolling motion is generally contaminated by yawing motion which results in

the roll rate being somewhat oscillatory. Actual rolling motion will be discussed more
completely in the section on Rolling Performance.
+
L
Steady State =
a a
Lp
Roll Rate, P
Imaginary
63.2% Pss Axis
X
1 Roll Mode
R = LP
Real
X X
0 + Axis
Time, t
1 = Lp
Seconds R
X
Step Aileron Input
a = 0
t=0 Time, t
Seconds
Figure 5.39
Single Degree of Freedom Roll Response
5.2.2.2.3 The Dutch Roll Mode

The remaining two roots of the lateral-directional solution form a complex pair
corresponding to a classic second-order, oscillatory mode of motion. This is the "Dutch
roll" or "lateral-directional oscillation." The Dutch roll mode is sometimes referred to as a
5.lxxviii
"nuisance" or "annoyance" mode since the motion is not normally deliberately excited in
normal flying. However, it is inadvertently excited almost continually by pilot control
inputs or by external disturbances. Therefore, the characteristics of this mode of motion
greatly influence the pilot's opinion of the airplane during all phases of mission
accomplishment. (During certain special flight conditions, such as flight with asymmetric
power or landing with a crosswind, the pilot may utilize the Dutch roll mode to generate
sideslip changes in order to maintain steady heading flight. In addition, bank angle control
by use of the rudders is manifested through the Dutch roll mode of motion.)
There are no simple approximations for the frequency and damping ratio of the
Dutch roll motion. However, rough approximations may be made by assuming that L
and L r are both zero. This reduces the Dutch roll motion to "two degrees of freedom" -
rotation about the Z axis of the airplane and lateral translation (the Dutch roll for these
conditions is a pure directional oscillation - a pure "snaking" motion). The portion of the
characteristic lateral-directional equation which describes this motion is:
{S2 + (Y N r ) S + (N + Y N r )} = 0 eq 5.56
From this relationship, a rough approximation for the undamped natural frequency
of the Dutch roll oscillation can be derived and written as follows:
Pa Sb
n DR = M C n 2 I ZZ eq 5.57
Where:
M = Mach number
C n = directional stability derivative
= a constant, generally taken as 1.4
Pa = absolute pressure, pounds per square foot
5.lxxix
S = Wing area, square feet
b = Wing span, feet
I ZZ = Moment of inertia in yaw
Several important relationships can be gathered from a study of this equation for
n DR :
1. The undamped natural frequency of the Dutch roll motion increases as Mach
number increases; thus, the period decreases with increasing Mach number.
(The "quickness" of the motion increases).
2. The undamped natural frequency of the Dutch roll motion increases with an
increase in directional stability, and decreases as C n is decreased. This is
analogous to strengthening or weakening the spring in the spring-mass-damper

system.
3. The undamped natural frequency of the Dutch roll motion decreases with an
increase in pressure altitude at a constant Mach number. (The "quickness" of
the motion decreases at high altitude if all other parameters are constant.)
4. The undamped natural frequency of the Dutch roll motion decreases with an
increase in moment of inertia in yaw. This is analogous to increasing the mass
in the spring-mass-damper system. (Large airplanes with large I ZZ parameters
have low frequency Dutch roll motions. They are therefore slow in responding
to gust disturbances or rudder inputs.)
5.lxxx
In order to obtain an approximation for the damping ratio of the Dutch roll motion,
it is assumed that Y and N r are approximately the same value. The damping ratio may
then be developed as follows :
Sb 3
DR = C n r 8 C I eq 5.58
n ZZ
Where:
Cnr
= yaw rate damping derivative.
= density, slugs per cubic foot.
Certain important effects are visible from this relationship:
1. Damping of the Dutch roll motion is largely dependent on yaw rate damping.
Changing yaw rate damping is analogous to changing the viscosity of the
damper in the spring-mass-damper system.
2. Damping of the Dutch roll motion decreases with increasing altitude because of
the reduction in density.
3. Increasing directional stability decreases Dutch roll damping.
4. Increasing the yawing moment of inertia decreases Dutch roll damping.
5. Damping of the Dutch roll mode of motion is not a direct function of airspeed or
Mach number.
5.lxxxi
If the airplane exhibits some level of dihedral effect and/or roll due to yaw rate,
there will obviously be rolling motion generated by the sideslip and yaw rate excursions
during the Dutch roll oscillation. The degree of rolling motion exhibited, expressed in
()

terms of "roll-to-yaw" ratio , has a significant influence on the acceptability of a
particular combination of Dutch roll damping and frequency. In general, more damping is
required as the roll-to-yaw ratio is increased.
The real Dutch roll oscillation generally consists of yawing, sideslipping, and
rolling. The phasing of the rolling and yawing depends on whether positive or negative
dihedral effect is present. The Dutch roll oscillation shown in Figure 5.40 is presented
assuming the airplane exhibits positive dihedral effect.
5.lxxxii
Starting Points
RW
RW
RW
RW
RW
RW
RW
Figure 5.40
Typical Dutch Roll Motion
5.lxxxiii
5.2.2.3 EFFECTS OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS ON THE

LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL MODES OF MOTION
The influence of varying several parameters on lateral-directional dynamics will
now be presented using the convenient root locus plots.
The characteristic roots for zero dihedral effect and roll due to yaw rate are as
shown in Figure 5.41.
Imaginary
Axis
Dutch Roll X
Roll
Real
X X
Axis
Spiral
L = Lr = 0
Dutch Roll X
Figure 5.41
Complex Plane Representation of Classic Lateral-Directional Roots
The following discussion and plots are introduced to show the influence of certain
derivatives on the characteristic roots.
5.2.2.3.1 Dihedral Effect, L
Fixing the values of roll due to yaw, L r , and yaw due to roll, N p , at zero, the
influence of dihedral effect is as shown in Figure 5.42.
5.lxxxiv
Imaginary
Axis
Increased
X
DR Decreased
X
n Remains Essentially
DR
Constant
Real
X X
Stabilizes Spiral Axis
LP Increases
r Decreases
Figure 5.42
Influence of Adding Positive Dihedral Effect
The consequences of introducing dihedral effect are:
1. Total roll damping is increased.
2. Damping of Dutch roll is decreased.
3. Spiral mode tends to become stable.
5.2.2.3.2 Rolling Moment Due to Yaw Rate, L r

Assuming L and N p are fixed at zero, the influence of L r is as shown in Figure
5.43.
5.lxxxv
Imaginary
Axis
Increases
X
n Increases
DR
X
DR Remains Essentially
Constant
Real
X X
Destabilizes Axis
Increases LP
Spiral
Figure 5.43
Effect of Adding Roll Due to Yaw Rate, L r
Roll due to yaw rate effects on root locations are:
1. The Dutch roll frequency tends to increase.
2. The spiral mode tends to destabilize.
3. Roll damping increases.
5.2.2.3.3 Yawing Moment Due to Roll Rate, N p
The general trend of the influence of N p on a typical airplane is discussed. For

nominal negative values of N p and typical values of L and L r , the Dutch roll damping is
reduced and the total roll damping may increase or decrease depending on how much
dihedral effect is present. The spiral mode is practically unchanged but tends to move
toward the origin. Positive values of N tend to have the reverse effect.
5.lxxxvi
5.2.2.3.4 Directional Stability, N
The frequency of the Dutch roll is influenced most strongly by directional stability.
There is a minor influence on the spiral mode and roll mode. Figure 5.44 illustrates the
effect of increasing directional stability.
The following is a summary of the effects of directional stability:
1. Increasing N will increase the Dutch roll frequency, n d , and decrease the
damping ratio, d .
2. Increasing N will tend to drive the spiral mode divergent but has limited
influence on the magnitudes of the mode.
3. Increasing N tends to drive the roll mode toward the single degree of freedom
root location, L p .
4. Decreasing N towards zero would finally drive the Dutch roll to a dead beat
mode and the lateral-directional characteristic equation would be made up of
four real roots.
5.lxxxvii
Imaginary
Axis
Real
X X
Axis
Figure 5.44
Influence of Changing Directional Stability on Two Degree of Freedom Dutch Roll
5.2.2.3.5 Yaw Rate Damping, N r

The influence of yaw rate damping, N r , is primarily on the Dutch roll damping.
The influence on the spiral mode and roll mode is limited to a very minor effect. Figure
5.45 illustrates the trends.
Imaginary
Axis

and n Remain Constant
DR X
Increases DR
Real
X X
Spiral Mode Tends Axis
Toward Stability
Figure 5.45
Effects of Increasing Yaw Rate Damping, N r
5.lxxxviii
The following is a summary of the typical influence of a nominal increase in yaw rate
damping:
1. The real part of the Dutch roll is increased.
2. The spiral mode tends toward a convergent mode if positive dihedral effect is
present.
3. The roll mode root is slightly increased if positive dihedral effect is present.
5.2.2.3.6 Bank Angle Control and Adverse Yaw

In the previous paragraphs, the influence of various stability derivatives on the
roots of the characteristic equation was discussed. Yaw due to aileron deflection, N a ,
was not among them simply because it has no affect on root location. However, it is
obvious that it has an effect on handling qualities and the following discussion to show that
effect.
The bank angle transfer function can be expressed as:
(S) =
[
L a S2 + 2 n S + n 2 ]
( )( )[ ]
eq 5.59
a S + 1 S + 1 S2 + 2 d n d S + nd 2
s R
where the roots of the denominator are the roots of the characteristic equation that have
previously been discussed. Recall that the Dutch roll roots were the two degree of freedom
roots as modified by dihedral effect, roll due to yaw, etc. These roots will now be referred
to as the three degree of freedom Dutch roll. The numerator roots are also the two degree
of freedom Dutch roll roots but as modified by adverse yaw and dihedral effect. Figure
5.46 shows the movement of the three degree of freedom Dutch roll roots as a result of
increased dihedral effect and roll due to yaw rate for nominal values of the remaining terms
and the movement of the numerator roots as either adverse yaw or dihedral effect is
increased. How much these roots are separated is indicative of the amount of Dutch roll
response that will be present in the total roll response or how much oscillatory roll is added
to the average roll.
5.lxxxix
Imaginary
Axis
Proverse X L Increasing
Yaw
Adverse
Yaw
Real
Axis
Figure 5.46
Dutch Roll Root and Zero Combinations
The zero locations become very important in the closed loop task of bank angle
control. With the pilot in the loop and tasked with precise bank angle control, the roots of
the system tend to move as indicated in Figures 5.47 and 5.48.
5.xc
Imaginary
Axis
Real
X X
Axis
Adverse Aileron Yaw X

Positive Dihedral Effect
Lightly Damped Dutch Roll (Controls Free)
Piloting Task Requiring Close Control of Bank Angle
Figure 5.47
Path of the Lateral-Directional Roots with Increase
in Tightness of Bank Angle Control
Imaginary
Axis
Real
X X
Axis
X
Proverse Aileron Yaw
Positive Dihedral Effect
Lightly Damped Dutch Roll (Controls Free)
Piloting Task Requiring Close Control of Bank Angle
Figure 5.48
Paths of the Lateral-Directional Roots with Increase
in Tightness of Bank Angle Control
5.xci
Figure 5.50 is for a typical case where a nominal value of adverse yaw is present.
Note that the roll/spiral mode is stabilized and the closed loop damping of the Dutch roll is
increased. Figure 5.49 is for a case of proverse yaw and, for the case shown, the Dutch
roll is driven unstable. The pilot will not permit this and will have to change his control
technique. The pilot would obviously rate this system as unsatisfactory. It is important to
note that the cause was zero location and not the locations of the characteristic roots.
In the roll rate response to a step input of aileron, the phase angle between roll rate
and sideslip is indicative of the relative angular positions of the Dutch roll root and the
zeros of the roll transfer function.

The expression, , is frequently used as an indication of the roll disturbance at
DR

the Dutch roll natural frequency due to aileron inputs. If = 1 , the yawing moment
DR
due to aileron deflection, N a , is zero and there is little or no Dutch roll motion in the roll

response to aileron inputs. If > 1 , the yawing moment due to aileron deflection is
Dr
( )
proverse N a < 0 and the damping of the Dutch roll motion during precise bank angle
tracking tasks may decrease. The Dutch roll motion will be excited during the roll response

of the airplane to a lateral control input if > 1. When < 1 , the yawing
Dr Dr
( )
moment due to lateral control deflection is adverse N a > 0 and the damping of the
Dutch roll motion during precise bank angle tracking tasks generally is better than the
damping exhibited by the airplane with controls free. The Dutch roll motion will be excited
to some extent whenever the airplane rolls in response to a lateral control input when
Dr < 1.
5.xcii
There are two parameters used to quantitatively evaluate the Dutch roll influence on
roll performance in "tightly controlled" tracking tasks. These parameters are:
1. The ratio of the oscillatory component of roll rate to the average component of
P
roll rate following a rudder-pedals-free step aileron control command, Posc (see
av
Definitions section of MIL-SPEC 8785B for further definition).
2. The phase angle is a cosine representation of the Dutch roll component of

sideslip, .
5.2.2.4 EFFECT OF ON FLYING QUALITIES
Since is a rather abstract parameter, it is well to consider its physical

implications and significance to the piloting of an airplane. Very simply, can be
considered as an indication of those closed-loop stability characteristics of an airplane that
are related to the lateral-directional coupling derivatives; and of the difficulty a pilot will
experience in coordinating a turn entry. Further clarification can be obtained by discussing
P
the variation of the specified values of Posc with for positive dihedral.
av
P
The parameters Posc and have been used to specify criteria as a function of
av
Flight Phase Category and Level as shown in Figure 5.49a (Specification Paragraph
3.3.2.2.1, Figure 5.4).
5.xciii
1.1
1.0
Flight Phase
.9 Category B
.8 Level 2
Level 1
.7
.6
Flight Phase
Posc
Pav
.5 Categories A&C
.4 Level 2
Level 1
.3
.2
.1
Positive
0 -40
Dihedral -80 -120 -160 -200 -240 -280 -320 -360
(Deg) When P Leads by 45 to 225
Negative -180 -220 -260 -300 -340 -20 -60 -100 -140 -180
Dihedral
(Deg) When P Leads by 225 through 360 to 45
Figure 5.49a
MIL-F-8785B
It should be noted that this figure has two scales, one for positive dihedral (p
leads by 45 to 225 ) and the other for negative dihedral (p leads by 225 through
360 to 45 ).
From this figure it can be seen that the ratio of roll rate oscillation to steady state roll
rate can be much greater for some values of than for others. Specifically, the specified
Posc
values of Pav for 0 90 are far more stringent than
180 270 . There are at least three reasons why this is so:
1. Differences in Closed-Loop Stability - From a root locus analysis, it can be
shown that when the zero of the P transfer function list in the lower left
as
quadrant with respect to the Dutch roll pole, 180 270 , the ( )
closed-loop damping increases when the pilot closes a bank angle error to
aileron loop. (See Figure 5.49b.) The reason for this in physical terms is that
when the zero lies in the lower left quadrant, aileron inputs proportional to bank
angle errors generate yawing accelerations that tend to damp the Dutch roll
oscillations. Thus, the Dutch roll damps out more quickly closed-loop than
5.xciv
P
open-loop, so a pilot will tend to tolerate somewhat more Posc . Conversely,
av
it can be shown that when the zero lies in the upper right quadrant with respect
to the Dutch roll pole (0 )
90 , the closed-loop damping
decreases when the pilot applies aileron inputs proportional to bank angle error.
The physical explanation for this is that aileron inputs generate yawing
accelerations that tend to excite or sustain the Dutch roll oscillations. Thus, the
Dutch roll damps out less quickly closed loop than open loop, and can even go
unstable closed loop; that is, pilot-induced oscillations can result. In this case a
P
pilot's tolerance of Posc tends to reduce.
av
-360
1 = 270 -270
AS STEP Positive
Dihedral
-180
1 = 0 X 1 = 180
Negative
-90 Dihedral
1 = 90 1
270 0 90 180 270
360
X X
(a) (b)
Figure 5.49b
MIL-F-8785B
2. Differences in Difficulty of Rudder Coordination - Significant differences in the

Posc
Pav requirements also occur because of differences in difficulty of rudder
coordination while performing coordinated turn entries or exits. For

180 270 , normal coordination may be effected, that is, right
rudder pedal for right rolls. Thus, even if large roll rate oscillations occur in
Posc
rudder-pedal-free rolls (the conditions under which the Pav tests are
conducted), sideslip oscillations can be readily minimized by use of rudder
5.xcv
pedals so that roll rate oscillations do not occur. On the other hand, for
0 90 it is necessary to cross control to effect coordination, that
is, left rudder pedal with right aileron. Since pilots do not normally cross
control (and if they must, have great difficulty in doing so) for
0 90 , oscillations in sideslip, and hence oscillations in roll rate,
either go unchecked or are amplified by the pilot's efforts to coordinate.
P
3. Differences in Average Roll Rate - The third reason why the Posc requirements
av
P
vary so significantly with is that the average roll rate, Posc for a given
av
aileron input, varies significantly with . For positive dihedral, adverse yaw-
( )
due-to aileron 180 tends to decrease average roll rate whereas proverse
( )
yaw-due-to aileron 0 tends to increase average roll rate. As a matter of
fact, proverse yaw-due-to aileron is sometimes referred to as "complementary
yaw" because of this augmentation of roll effectiveness. Thus, for a given
P
amplitude of Posc , Posc will be greater at = 180 than it will be at
av
= 0 .
In summary, the parameters that have been chosen in the specification to describe

and specify the coupling that exists between sideslip and roll for moderate to high
d
P
response ratios are Posc and . These parameters were chosen as being measurable
av
parameters which most simply, directly, and accurately reflect the important flying qualifies
considerations. The measurements are taken from the p and traces which are obtained
from sensitive instrumentation.
5.2.3 Lateral-Directional Characteristics in Turning Flight
One of the most important considerations in the investigation of lateral-directional
flying qualities is the ease with which the pilot can enter and maintain turning flight. The
longitudinal flying qualities associated with turning flight were discussed earlier. The
lateral-directional characteristic of most concern to the pilot in turning flight is the
5.xcvi
coordination required of lateral and directional control during turn entries and steady turns.
The pilot desires to keep the ball of the needle-ball instrument as close to the center of its
race as possible during these evolutions. If the ball remains centered, the pilot, passengers,
and objects in the airplane are not subjected to uncomfortable sideward accelerations. As
shown in Figure 5.50, a balance of the forces acting on the ball is attained or the airplane is
in a coordinated turn, when:
g sin = Vr eq 5.60
Where:
2
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft sec .
= bank angle, radians.
V = airplane true airspeed, ft sec .

r = airplane yaw rate, radians sec .
Center
of
Turn
g sin Vr
Radius r

of Turn
Coordinated Turn: Vr = g sin

(r = cos , if is small, cos 1.0; r )
Figure 5.50
The Airplane in a Coordinated Turn
5.xcvii
This relationship is appropriate only for fairly small bank angle turns ( =30
degrees or less) since the angular turn rate, , becomes largely pitching motion instead of
yawing motion as the bank angle approaches 90.
With the concept of the coordinated turn in mind, consider now the so-called "two-
control turns"; i.e., "aileron only turns" and "rudder only turns."
5.2.3.1 AILERON-ONLY TURNS

In the steady (constant bank angle) aileron-only turn, an expression for the aileron
position required for equilibrium can be easily obtained as a function of the nondimensional
rb .
yaw rate, 2V For a symmetrical airplane (C n 0
= 0, C l 0 = 0, C y 0 = 0 , no)
yawing moments due to lateral control deflection Cn = 0 , and no influence of inertia
a
terms on yawing and rolling moments, the equilibrium equations for an aileron-only turn
may be written as follows:
qS sin = W Vr
g qS eq 5.61
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n r (2Vrb ) = 0 eq 5.62
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l a + C l r
a
( 2Vrb ) = 0 eq 5.63
From the rolling moment equation, the aileron requirement can be derived as
follows:
a Equilibrium = C 1
l a
{C lr ( 2V ) l
rb + C

} eq 5.64
In order to eliminate the sideslip variable, an expression for sideslip is obtained

from the yawing moment equation:
( 2V )
Cn
= C r rb eq 5.65
n
5.xcviii
By substituting this expression for sideslip and by appropriate manipulation and

differentiation, the aileron required in a steady aileron-only turn may be presented as
follows:
{C }
d a Equilibrium
= C 1C C n C l C n r
( )
rb lr eq 5.66
d l n
2V a
Notice that the term in braces is the same combination of stability derivatives which
dictated whether the spiral mode was convergent, neutral, or divergent. If this term is
positive, the spiral mode is divergent, and the pilot will be required to hold "top-aileron" or
"out-of-turn-aileron" in an aileron-only turn. If it is negative, the spiral mode is
convergent, and the pilot will hold "bottom-aileron" or "in-turn-aileron" in the aileron-only
turn. Obviously, if it is zero, the aileron requirement is zero. The balance of forces and
moments in the steady aileron-only-turn is presented in Figure 5.51.
Relative Wind

Cn

Cn r ( 2rbV ) ( )
Cl r 2rbV
r Cl
Constant
The Aileron Requirement Depends

on the Spiral Characteristics
Figure 5.51
The Airplane Established in the Steady Aileron-Only Turn
5.xcix
From this illustration, the following rationalization may be made. If directional stability is
strong, the sideslip developed in the aileron-only turn will be fairly small. Therefore, the
( )
rolling moment due to sideslip Cl will be relatively small unless the airplane exhibits
a large value of C l . Thus, strong directional stability generally results in an unstable, or
divergent, spiral mode. Conversely, strong positive dihedral effect (large negative C l )
generally results in a convergent spiral mode.
During the aileron-only turn, the airplane generally develops sideslip toward the
direction of turn (Figure 5.53). If the airplane exhibits normal positive sideforce
characteristics11 , sideforces are generated which "slide" the airplane away from the center
of the turn. Thus, the airplane in the aileron-only turn will fly on a larger radius of turn
(Figure 5.53). If bank angle and airspeed are maintained constant, the larger radius of turn
results in a lower yaw rate. This creates an unbalance in the acceleration components acting
on the ball in the needle-ball instrument such that it assumes a position toward the center of
the turn (g sin > Vr in the aileron-only turn). If the sideslip were reduced, the aileron-
only turn would approach the coordinated turn in which the ball is centered.
11 If the airplane exhibits weak sideforce characteristics, such that the derivative C y approaches zero, the
ball position (and seat-of-the-pants) loses its significance as an indicator of the perfection of the turn.
The pure all-wing tailless airplane exhibits essentially zero sideforce characteristics. In these airplanes, the
pilot would have no indication that large sideslip angles had developed during turns unless a sideslip
indicator were installed in the cockpit. Thus, the importance of providing good positive sideforce
characteristics is again emphasized.
5.c
Path of Airplane
Relative Wind
in Coordinated
Turn
Center of 0
Turns
Radius of
Coordinated Turn Relative
Rad
Aile ius of Wind
ron-
Tur Only
n Toward
Airspeed and Bank angle are the same Inside of
in both cases. Thus, the sideslipping Turn
airplane with larger radius of turn has
a lower yaw rate. The ball of the needle-
ball instrument therefore rides toward Path of Airplane
the inside of the turn. in Aileron-Only
Turns
Figure 5.52
Comparison of Typical Coordinated and Aileron-Only Turn
5.2.3.2 RUDDER-ONLY TURNS

Bank angle response to a rudder-only control input depends on the magnitudes and
signs of the following stability derivatives:
Dihedral effect, C l
Rolling moment due to yaw rate, C lr
Rolling moment due to rudder deflection,C l

r
The rolling moment due to rudder deflection is generally so minute that it has no
apparent influence on the roll response. However, in airplanes with high vertical tails, the
effect of C l may be detected as an initial hesitation of the roll response or a roll
r
response resulting in a bank angle change opposite to the rudder input (left bank angle
change with right rudder, and vice-versa).
5.ci
Soon after the rudder-only input, the airplane responds through the Dutch roll mode
of motion12 and a yaw rate is developed. Obviously, if the rolling moment due to yaw rate
derivative carries its normal sign (positive), the airplane should begin to roll in the same
direction as the rudder input. Additionally, sideslip is developed - such that left sideslip is
generated by a right rudder input - and the airplane responds in roll due to its dihedral
effect. If dihedral effect is positive ( C l exhibits a negative sign), the rolling moment due
to sideslip will cause a bank angle change in the same direction as the rudder input. Thus,
the roll response to a rudder-only input is due almost exclusively to the combined effects of
the rolling moments generated by yaw rate, C lr , and sideslip, C l (Figure 5.54).
Obviously, the influence of these derivatives cannot be separated during the rudder-only
turn unless one of the derivative is known to be zero.
Relative
Wind
Cl r ( 2rbV ) Cl rr (Generally Small)
r Right Rudder
Input
P
Cl
Right Rudder Input
Figure 5.53
Typical Airplane Response to a Rudder-Only Input
In the steady (constant bank angle) rudder-only turn, an expression for the rudder
position required for equilibrium may be obtained as a function of the nondimensional yaw
rb . For a symmetrical airplane C
rate, 2V (
n0 = 0, C l 0 = 0, C y 0 = 0 , no roll due to )
12 This can be proved mathematically, however, the derivation will not be presented here.
5.cii
rudder deflection Cl = 0 , and no influence of inertia terms on the yawing and

r
rolling moments, the equilibrium equations for a rudder-only turn may be written as
follows:
rb + W sin = W Vr
qs g eq 5.67
r
rb = 0 eq 5 .68
r
rb = 0 eq 5.69
From the yawing moment equation, the rudder requirement can be derived as
follows:
rEquilibrium = C 1
n r
{C nr ( 2V ) n
rb + C
}
eq 5.70
In order to eliminate the sideslip variable, an expression for sideslip is obtained

from the rolling moment equation:
Cl
= C r 2V
rb eq 5.71
l
By substituting this expression for sideslip, and by appropriate manipulation and

differentiation, the rudder required in a steady, rudder-only turn may be expressed as:
d rEquilibrium
d ( )
rb
2V
= C 1C
nr l {C lr C n C l C n r } eq 5.72
Notice that the term in braces is again the same combination of stability derivatives
which dictated the nature of the spiral mode. If this term is positive, the spiral mode is
divergent, and the pilot will be required to hold "top-rudder" or "out-of-turn" rudder-only
turn, and vice-versa.
5.ciii
5.2.3.3 COORDINATED TURNS

In the steady (constant bank angle) coordinated turn, expressions for rudder and
aileron position and sideslip angle required for equilibrium can be derived as functions of
rb . Assuming a symmetrical airplane and no influence of
the nondimensional yaw rate, 2V
inertia terms on the yawing and rolling moments, the equilibrium equations for a
coordinated turn may be written as follows:
r
( 2V
rb
) = 0

g qS ) eq 5.73
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n r + C n a + C n r
r a
( 2V
rb
) = 0 eq 5.74
r a
( 2Vrb ) = 0 eq 5.75
The rudder requirement in the coordinated turn may be obtained by a determinant

solution which reduce to the following if we assume C n = 0 :
a
Cy Cy r
Cn r
Cn
r Equilibrium = C
(2Vrb ) eq 5.76
y C y
r
Cn C n
r
Solving the determinant, rearranging terms and differentiation yields the following
expression:
Cyr
Cy C n
= C r
( 2Vrb ) C eq 5.77
d n r C y y r C n
Cn r

5.civ
The part of the above expression contained in braces is generally very nearly equal
to unity. Therefore, the rudder requirement in a coordinated turn is needed mainly to
overcome the yaw rate damping, C n r , which acts in opposition to the established yaw rate.
Obviously, the rudder requirement varies inversely with rudder control power, C n . For
r
a coordinated turn to the right (positive yaw rate), an analysis of the last expression reveals
that the rudder requirement is negative (trailing edge right), which is generated by right
rudder pedal deflection. Thus, the pilot applies rudder pedal deflection toward the direction
of turn in a coordinated turn; this analytical analysis is substantiated by actual flight
experience.
An approximation for the sideslip in the coordinated turn may be obtained from the
yawing moment equation by making the following substitution and assumption:
( 2Vrb )
Cn
rEquilibrium = C r
n r
C n = 0 eq 5.78
a
From the yawing moment equation:
Cn
C n + C n C r
r nr
( 2V
rb
) + C nr ( 2V
rb
) = 0
=
Cn
= 0 eq 5.79
Thus, in the coordinated turn, the sideslip is approximately zero. In reality, the
sideslip in the coordinated turn is generally never quite equal to zero, however, it is usually
very small.
The aileron requirement in the coordinated turn may be obtained from the rolling
moment equation by making the following substitutions:
( 2Vrb )
Cn
rEquilibrium = C r Equilibrium = 0 eq 5.80
n r
5.cv
Thus:
Cn
C l C r
r n r
( 2V
rb
) + Cl
a
= C r 1 C rC
( )
eq 5.81
rb
d 2V l a lr n r
The portion of the last expression contained in braces is generally very nearly equal
to unity, unless the airplane has a high vertical tail. Therefore, the aileron requirement in
the coordinated turn is generated by the necessity to counteract the rolling moment due to
yaw rate, C lr . For a coordinated turn to the right (positive yaw rate), an analysis of the
last expression reveals that the aileron requirement is positive (right aileron trailing edge
down), which is created by left cockpit control deflection. Thus, the pilot applies lateral
cockpit control deflection opposite from the turn direction in the coordinated turn. In
actuality, this aileron requirement is generally very small.
5.2.4 Influence of Center of Gravity Movement

Movement of the airplane center of gravity (CG) has rather small effects on lateral-
directional characteristics, particularly when compared with the profound effects
experienced in the longitudinal case. Of course, yawing moment contributions are slightly
modified by CG movements which change the magnitude of the moment arm. However,
the parameter measured in flight test work as an indication of the yawing moments
d
generated by the sideslip, dr , is not noticeably affected by CG movement. This is due to
the fact that a change in CG position alters the rudder control power, C n , at
r
approximately the same rate that directional stability, C n is modified. Therefore, the
center of gravity position utilized for flight test investigations of lateral-directional

characteristics is not critical; however, if possible, the most aft operational CG positions are
generally utilized.
5.cvi
5.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES-LATERAL-

DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES

Any rigorous flying qualities investigation must begin with thorough preflight
planning. The lateral-directional area of investigation is no exception to this rule. Only by
clearly defining the purpose and scope of the investigation can a plan of attack or method of
test be formulated.
Preflight planning must begin with research. All available information concerning
the airplanes lateral-directional characteristics should be reviewed. The conformation of
the airplane should be studied in relation to its influence on lateral-directional flying
qualities. Of course, preflight planning must include a thorough study of the lateral-
directional control system-encompassing stability and control augmentation if installed.
Much useful information may be gained from conferences with pilots and engineers who
are familiar with the airplane.
The particular tasks to be investigated must be determined and clearly understood

by the flight test team. These tasks, of course, depend on the mission of the airplane. It is
particularly important during the investigation of lateral-directional flying qualities to
determine if these tasks will be performed in instrument flight (IFR) conditions or merely
visual flight (VFR) conditions in operational use. Certain undesirable characteristics can be
accepted for VFR missions, but are not acceptable for IFR missions. The availability of an
automatic flight control system or autopilot for pilot relief must also be considered. If
stability or control augmentation is installed, the consequences of augmentation failures
must be given due consideration.
Knowledge of the mission tasks allows determination of appropriate test

conditions-configurations, altitudes, centers of gravity, trim airspeeds, and gross weights.
Test conditions must be commensurate with the mission environment of the

airplane. Center of gravity position is not particularly critical for lateral-directional tests.
Tests at normal operational CG positions for a test loading are generally adequate;
however, if feasible, the most aft operational CG positions should be utilized. Lateral-
directional characteristics may be altered by various combinations of external stores.
5.cvii
Asymmetric store loadings may seriously degrade lateral-directional flying qualities; these
conditions should be investigated on any airplane which may carry asymmetric stores in
operational use.
with only production cockpit instruments and portable instrumentation-hand held force
program of quantitative nature. Special sensitive cockpit instruments are also very useful,
not only aiding in rapid data acquisition, but also aiding in stabilization for equilibrium test
points. The parameters to be recorded and the ranges and sensitivity of test instrumentation
will vary somewhat with each test program.
example of a lateral-directional stability and control data card is shown in Figure 5.55.
Most test pilots desire to modify data cards to their own requirements or construct data
cards for each test. At any rate, the data cards should list all quantitative information
desired and should be easy to interpret in flight. Blank cards should be used for
appropriate qualitative pilot comments.
5.cviii
LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY AND CONTROL RECORD CARD NUMBER
BUREAU NUMBER T. O. GROSS WEIGHT DATE
T. O. CG
GEAR DOWN ____ MAC GEAR UP____ MAC T. O. TIME_________ LAND TIME ___________
EXTERNAL LOAD NG CONFIGURATION
TRIM AIRSPEED MACH _______ POWER______ ALT ________ TRIM DIR_______ LAT_______
BREAKOUT CONTROL SYSTEM MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
FRICTION
D.R._____ CN_____ LAT_____CN _____ DIR ________________ LAT _______________
D.R._____ CN_____ LAT_____CN _____ DIR ________________ LAT _______________
RUDDER STEADY HEADING S DESL PS
PEDAL CN DR FR Oa Fa F Fe IAS R. D.
DEP ERROR R. C.
TRIM 0
SHOT 0 0 0
zR R L L L
zL L R R R
R L L L
L R R R
R L L L
L R R R
FR R L L L
FL L R R R
FUEL _____________
TRANSIENT METHOD REMARKS
FUEL ________ CN ________

SPIRAL STABILITY
DEGREES FUEL ____________
R
TIME SECONDS O 5 10 15 20 25 30
DEGREES L
DUTCH ROLL CHARACTERISTICS
METHOD
HALF-CYCLE
CN PERIOD AMPLITUDE RATIO
TRIM SHOT
FUEL _______
EASE OF TRIM TRIMMABILITY TRIM RATES

TO ZERO FORCES TRIM SENSITIVITIES
LONG TERM TRIM HOLDING LOCATION OF TRIM DEVICES
Figure 5.54
Lateral-Directional Stability and Control Record
5.cix

The mere measurement of lateral-directional stability and control characteristics,
although important, will have little meaning unless the test pilot can relate the influence of
these characteristics on mission accomplishment. Therefore, a portion of the lateral-
directional flying qualities evaluation must be devoted to performing or simulating the
mission tasks under investigation. While performing these tasks, the test pilot forms the
essential qualitative opinion of the lateral-directional flying qualities and should assign a
"pilot rating." This opinion will be based on the amount of attention and effort the pilot
must devote to "just flying the airplane." Due regard should be given during this phase of
the evaluation to the following considerations:
1. Whether the mission task will be performed in VFR and IFR weather or strictly
VFR conditions.
2. The amount of time and effort the pilot must devote to duties other than "just
flying the airplane" - duties such as setting up a weapons system,
coordinatingmultiplane tactics, communicating with other aircraft or a
controlling station, etc.
3. The availability of an autopilot or automatic flight control system for pilot relief.
4. If stability or control augmentation are installed, the consequences of their

failure.
The test pilot's qualitative opinion of the airplane's lateral-directional flying qualities
in relation to selected mission tasks is the most important information to be obtained.
5.3.2.1.1 Lateral-Directional Trimmability

Trimmability is conveniently evaluated during the qualitative phase of the
investigation. Lateral-directional trimmability is indicated by the ease with which lateral
and directional control forces are reduced to zero in wings-level, steady heading flight and
the ability of the airplane to maintain a trimmed condition. It is directly influenced by the
5.cx
major static lateral-directional stability characteristics: directional stability, dihedral effect,

and sideforce characteristics. If the airplane is difficult to trim in wings-level, steady-
heading flight and does not readily maintain the trimmed condition, the reason could very
well be weak or negative static directional stability and/or dihedral effect. Weak sideforce
characteristics may result in the pilot inadvertently trimming the airplane into a wings-level,
steady-heading sideslip if the ball of the needle-ball instrument is the only cue available for
trimming. Of course, lateral-directional trimmability is also influenced by the rate of
operation and sensitivity of the lateral and directional trim system as well as the physical
location and ease of operation of the trim devices in the cockpit.
Trimmability, and especially long-term trim holding, will be affected by the

mechanical characteristics of the airplane's control system. For example, an airplane with
poor, nonabsolute lateral control centering will be difficult to trim to wings-level, steady
flight, and will not readily return to its trimmed condition following a lateral input.
The trimmability determination is qualitative. The test pilot should attempt to trim
the airplane precisely in wings-level, steady-heading flight by using the ball of the needle-
ball instrument as a cue for trimming. The inherent sideslip in the trimmed condition
should then be noted if a sideslip indicator is available. The controls of the airplane should
then be released to evaluate the airplane's ability to maintain the trimmed condition.
After trimming the airplane, the test pilot may utilize two "qualitative test
techniques" which should provide further information about the later-directional
characteristics. (These techniques may also be utilized for a quick evaluation of a particular
configuration if insufficient flight time is available for quantitative measurements.)
5.3.2.1.2 Rudder-Only Turns

The airplane should be trimmed for wings-level, steady-heading flight. Maintaining
trim constant, the pilot then enters and maintains turns by use of rudder-only inputs. The
bank angles utilized during this evaluation should not be excessive since the directional
control system alone cannot be expected to generate and maintain turns at large bank angles
where the turn is manifested more by pitching motion than by yawing motion. Turns with
bank angles up to 30 degrees are generally considered adequate. Airspeed should be
maintained at trim with longitudinal control or trim inputs (if necessary) and allowed to
5.cxi
vary for a portion of the evaluation. The lateral control system floating characteristics
should be noted, if appropriate. If aileron float is observed, rudder-only turns should be
performed with the ailerons restrained in the trim position as well as with controls free.
The information available from the rudder-only turn test is considerable and is
presented below. The information generally considered to be most important is indicated
by an asterisk.
*1. Suitability of the directional control system as an alternate lateral control
system. The pilot may desire or may be required to use rudder-only turns in
certain circumstances, such as:
a. Cruising flight during which the pilot's hands are occupied with other
tasks.
b. Flight conditions during which lateral control inputs generate

uncomfortable yawing moments.
c. Emergency situations involving lateral control system malfunctions.
*2. Strength of the dihedral effect, as indicated by the rolling motion when
sideslip is induced by the rudder input. However, the test pilot must keep in
mind that the roll response to a rudder input depends not only on dihedral
( )
effect, but also on the rolling moments generated by yaw rate Cl r , and
rudder deflection Cl . The relative significance of C lr increases with

r
increasing wing span and decreasing speed. At typical STOL approach

speeds, it may be a very important derivative.
3. Qualitative indication of Dutch roll frequency and damping. Since the roll
response to a rudder input is manifested through the Dutch roll mode of
motion, the pilot must excite the Dutch roll during rudder-only turns.
4. Nature of the spiral mode of motion, as indicated by the rudder position

required in the steady (constant bank angle) rudder-only turn.
5.cxii
5.3.2.1.3 Aileron-Only Turns

The airplane should be trimmed for wings-level, steady heading flight. Maintaining
trim constant, the pilot then enters and maintains turns with aileron-only inputs. Turns
with bank angles up to 45 degrees are generally considered adequate. The rate of control
input and amount of control deflection should be varied. Airspeed should be maintained at
trim with longitudinal control or trim inputs (if necessary). The directional control system
floating characteristics should be observed, if appropriate. If rudder float is observed,
aileron-only turns should be performed with rudders fixed and rudders free.
The information available from the aileron-only turn is presented below, with the
information generally considered to be most important indicated by an asterisk.
*1. Ease of entering and maintaining coordinated turns. During vigorous

maneuvering tasks requiring rapid bank angle changes and turn reversals, the
airplane which requires little rudder coordination will, all else being equal, be
more acceptable to the pilot than the airplane which requires extensive use of
the rudder.
2. Yawing moments generated by lateral control deflection and roll rate, as

indicated by the motion of the airplane's nose, the turn needle, the heading
indicator, or a sideslip gauge during the entry into the aileron-only turn.
3. Dutch roll excitation during a bank angle control task with aileron-only inputs.
4. Nature of the spiral mode of motion, as indicated by the aileron requirement in

the steady (constant bank angle) aileron-only turn.
After performing the qualitative phase of the evaluation, the test pilot should have
some ideas as to the particular characteristics which make the airplane easy or difficult to
fly. Use of the quantitative techniques described below hopefully allows the test pilot to
substantiate his qualitative opinion. The results of all the qualitative and quantitative tests
must be correlated in order for the test pilot to accurately analyze the lateral-directional
characteristics.
5.cxiii

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics of the lateral-directional control system have a major
influence on lateral-directional flying qualities. The mechanical characteristics to be
evaluated are defined as follows:
1. Breakout, including friction: The lateral or directional cockpit control force

from the trim position required to initiate movement of the respective control
surface.
2. Freeplay: The lateral or directional cockpit control motion from the trim
position required to initiate movement of the respective control surface.
3. Centering: The ability of the lateral or directional control system to return to and
maintain the original trimmed position when released from any other position.
4. Control System Oscillations: Oscillations in the lateral-directional control

system resulting from external or internal disturbances.

Friction in the lateral and directional control system is unavoidable, however, it
should be kept as low as possible. Some amount of breakout force is generally beneficial,
but too much results in undesirable characteristics. Breakout forces allow the pilot to rest
his hand and feet on the control stick and rudder pedals without introducing inadvertent
lateral and directional control inputs - this characteristic is particularly important in turbulent
air. However, breakout forces must be suitably matched to the lateral and directional
control forces experienced after overcoming the breakout forces.
It should be obvious that breakout force can never be measured alone, unless there
is zero friction force. Therefore, breakout forces, including friction, are measured at the
trimmed conditions of the test. Directional breakout forces, including friction are measured
or estimated in flight by carefully stabilizing at the trim condition, then applying slow and
smooth rudder force inputs until movement of the rudder control surface is detected.
5.cxiv
Movement of the rudder can be detected by visually observing rudder movement, use of a
rudder position indicator, or by observing airplane response. Lateral breakout forces,
including friction, are measured in flight with the hand held force gauge by carefully
stabilizing at the trim condition, then applying slow and smooth lateral force inputs until
movement of the aileron is detected. This movement can be detected by visually observing
airplane response. When the airplane response is utilized as a cue for rudder or aileron
movement, caution must be exercised because the airplane will require a finite time interval
to respond to the control surface movement. If automatic recording devices are utilized,
breakout forces, including friction, may be measured from the recording traces.
Breakout, including friction, may be measured on the ground for airplanes

equipped with irreversible control systems where control forces are merely functions of
control deflection. However, ground measurements should be checked with inflight
measurements. It is obvious that inflight measurements at the trim condition are the only
means of accurately determining breakout, including friction, for the reversible control
system.
5.3.2.2.2 Freeplay
Freeplay is the lateral and directional control systems should be as small as
possible. Excessive freeplay may cause difficulty in performing precise maneuvers such as
instrument approaches and tracking. Freeplay, expressed in inches or degrees of lateral
and directional cockpit control movement, is measured in flight at the trim condition much
the same as breakout, including friction, was measured. Ground measurements may also
be made for irreversible control systems.
5.3.2.2.3 Centering
The lateral and directional control systems should exhibit positive centering in flight
at any stabilized trim condition. Poor centering can result in objectionable tracking
characteristics and/or large departures in sideslip or bank angle without constant pilot
attention to airplane control. Centering is qualitatively evaluated in flight at the trim
condition by smoothly displacing the lateral and directional cockpit controls to various
positions and observing their motion upon release. Irreversible control system centering
characteristics may be evaluated on the ground.
5.cxv

Oscillations in the lateral and directional control systems, initiated by either external
perturbations or pilot action, should not result in objectionable oscillations in sideslip or roll
rate, nor should there be any objectionable structural vibrations created. Damping of the
respective control systems is measured in flight by abruptly deflecting and releasing the
cockpit controls and observing the resulting motion in the control surface or the cockpit
controls. These abrupt inputs may be described as rudder "kicks" and lateral stick "raps."
Use of automatic recording devices or a cockpit mounted control position indicator aids in
data acquisition. If these are not available, and the pilot is unable to visually observe the
aileron or rudder control surfaces, the test pilot must resort to observing the motion of the
cockpit control stick or rudder pedals. No objectionable oscillations of either the cockpit
controls or the airframe control surfaces should be present during maneuvering flight or in
turbulence. It must be remembered that motion of the cockpit controls may or may not be
good indications of the motion of the aileron or rudder surfaces. Irreversible control
system oscillation characteristics may be checked on the ground; however, these
characteristics should be evaluated in flight to insure there is not coupling between airplane
motion and control system dynamics.
5.3.2.3 MEASUREMENT OF STATIC-LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL

STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS
The steady heading sideslip test technique is conveniently utilized to obtain
important relationships which have a major influence on lateral-directional flying qualities.
It is not performed primarily to determine the feasibility of the maneuver in operational use,
although this determination is obviously a by-product. The information available from the
steady heading sideslip test is considerable and can be divided into primary and secondary
areas of importance.
The primary parameters to be obtained from the steady heading sideslip test are
rudder position, rudder force, aileron position, aileron force, and bank angle. The rudder
position and rudder force variations with sideslip angle, sometimes referred to as
directional stability, rudder-fixed and directional stability, rudder-free, respectively, have a
major influence on the pilot's opinion of the directional "stiffness" of the airplane. These
variations provide absolutely no information about the magnitude of the static directional
stability derivative, C n , unless numerous other parameters, such as directional control
5.cxvi
power, C n , are known. However, if the variations are positive, such that right rudder
r
pedal force and trailing edge right rudder deflection are required in left sideslips, and vice
versa, the directional stability derivative, C n , is known to be at least positive. Positive
rudder position and rudder force variations with sideslip angle are a basic airplane design
requirement which allows the pilot to perform various mission tasks without entering
uncontrollable - and possibly catastrophic - flight conditions. In addition, positive
variations contribute to good lateral-directional trimmability and maintenance of the trimmed
condition. However, rudder control forces and rudder positions required to induce or
control sideslip should not be excessive within the range of sideslip angles required in
normal or emergency operational conditions. The pilot is continually confronted with
situations during which he must use or control sideslip with rudder control or trim inputs.
Some of these situations are: crosswind take-offs and landings, flight with asymmetric
external stores or asymmetric power, rudder-only turns, rudder coordination during turns
and rolling maneuvers, etc. The particular rudder force and position variations desired in
any airplane depend on the mission of the airplane and the multitude of pilot tasks required
in mission accomplishment. Plots of rudder force and position versus sideslip angle
should be essentially linear and should exhibit stable local gradients within a reasonable
sideslip angle variation from trim. For larger sideslip angles, an increase in rudder
deflection should always be required for an increase in sideslip angle. Lightening of the
rudder forces at high sideslip angles may be acceptable; however, the forces should never
reduce to zero or reverse, i.e., no "rudder lock" should be encountered.
Aileron position and aileron force variations with sideslip angle, sometimes referred
to as control-fixed dihedral effect and control-free dihedral effect, respectively, have a
major influence on lateral-directional trimmability and the ease with which the pilot can
control bank angle with rudder inputs. These variations provide absolutely no information
about the magnitude of the dihedral effect, C l , unless numerous other parameters, such
as aileron control power, C l , are known. However, if the variations are negative, such
a
that left lateral control force and left lateral cockpit control position are required in left
sideslips, and vice versa, the stability derivative, C l , is known to exhibit a negative sign.
This results in positive dihedral effect, i.e., the airplane tends to roll opposite to the induced
sideslip. Some degree of positive dihedral effect, as indicated by aileron control force and
aileron position variation with sideslip angle, is desirable for satisfactory lateral-directional
flying qualities. However, positive dihedral effect should not be so strong as to require
5.cxvii
excessive aileron force or deflection to control bank angle in sideslips. In addition, the
variation of aileron control force and position with sideslip angle should be essentially
linear.
Bank angle variation with sideslip angle in steady heading sideslips is indicative of
the sideforce characteristic. Positive sideforce characteristics, as indicated by left bank
angle requirement in left sideslips, and vice versa, are necessary for satisfactory lateral-
directional flying qualities. The usefulness of the ball of the needle-ball instrument as a
valid reference for trimming the airplane (with little inherent sideslip) in wings-level flight
and for performing coordinated turns (with little sideslip) depends on sideforce
characteristics. Airplanes exhibiting weak or zero bank angle variation with sideslip angle
(in steady heading sideslips) are easily inadvertently trimmed and flown in wings-level,
ball-centered steady heading sideslips. The pilot will be perfectly happy with this state of
affairs until the increased drag caused by the inherent sideslip begins to upset his fuel-used
calculations in a long-range-cruise task, or until difficulty is experienced in aligning the
airplane longitudinally with the runway or carrier centerline during night or low-visibility
approaches. Additionally, weak or zero sideforce characteristics result in the ball and "seat-
of-the-pants" feel losing their significance as indications of turn perfection; as a
consequence, large sideslip angles may be developed even though the pilot keeps the ball
centered and feels no sidearm accelerations during turns. In general, an increase in right
bank angle should accompany an increase in right sideslip and an increase in left bank angle
should accompany an increase in left sideslip. It is theoretically possible for a symmetrical
airplane to possess negative trimmed sideforce characteristics, but such an airplane is
unlikely to be encountered in practice, though airplanes in which the sideforce
characteristics are very weak or approach zero do exist. On the other hand, asymmetric
thrust or store drag can easily generate a requirement for bank away from the sideslip angle
for equilibrium.
Secondary parameters obtained from the steady heading sideslip test are
longitudinal control force, rate of descent, and indicated airspeed error. Pitching moments
or longitudinal trim changes generated by sideslip are manifested to the pilot through the
longitudinal control force (and incremental change in elevator or longitudinal control
position) required to maintain airspeed constant in the steady heading sideslip. Excessive
longitudinal trim changes with sideslip angles normally utilized in operational usage would
5.cxviii
place excessive demands on pilot attention and coordination. Large rates of descent and
indicated airspeed errors with sideslip angles employed in operational flight procedures
would be undesirable, if not dangerous, characteristics.
Two test techniques will now be presented for evaluating static lateral-directional
stability characteristics in steady heading sideslips.
5.3.2.3.1 Stabilized Steady Heading Sideslips

The stabilized steady heading sideslip test technique is performed as follows:
condition. If using automatic recording devices, a "trim shot" should be taken
Record appropriate trim data such as power setting, trim settings, trim lateral
and directional control positions, fuel quantity, rate or climb or descent, and
inherent sideslip angle.
2. The first sideslip at each predetermined rudder pedal deflection is performed

solely to determine if any indicated airspeed error is induced by sideslip. This
is accomplished by establishing the sideslip, stabilizing, then quickly returning
the controls to trim and noting any increase or decrease in airspeed as the
sideslip angle decreases to trim. Airspeed errors which do not exceed
2% VTrim may be neglected. Indicated airspeed is varied to compensate for
significant errors in subsequent sideslips. The proper airspeed to utilize is quite
easily recognized during the test.
3. Establish each stabilized steady heading sideslip by smoothly applying the

predetermined rudder pedal deflection while simultaneously feeding in lateral
and longitudinal control inputs to maintain steady heading and the correct
airspeed. If the airplane exhibits positive directional stability, positive dihedral
effect, and positive sideforce characteristics, the pilot will observe that, in the
stabilized steady heading sideslip, right rudder inputs, left lateral control inputs,
and left bank angle are required with left sideslip angles, and opposite
parameters are required with right sideslip angles.
5.cxix
4. Maintenance of steady heading in the stabilized sideslip is critical if valid data

are to be obtained from this test. There are several cues available to the pilot for
maintenance of a steady heading. There are the turn needle, the directional
indicator, and visual references. A steady heading sideslip may best and most
easily be established by using primarily external references with final cross
checking against the directional gyro and the turn needle.
5. If using automatic recording devices, take a picture of the stabilized steady

heading sideslip. Appropriate cockpit data should then be recorded. Since the
parameters to be recorded are considerable, a suggested order of noting and
recording data is as follows:
a. Rudder pedal force. If estimating rudder forces, mentally note the force as
soon as the sideslip is stabilized before the leg becomes fatigued.
b. Rudder position (either estimated or from control position indicators).
c. Lateral control force. This parameter may be measured with a hand held
force gauge.
d. Aileron position (if available) or lateral cockpit control position. Cockpit

control position may be measured roughly with various portable
instrumentation - tape measure, calibrated string, calibrated yoke, etc. - if no
cockpit indicator is available.
e. Bank angle.
f. Sideslip angle. (A quite accurate method for estimating sideslip if no

sideslip indicator is available is presented in paragraph 6.)
g. Longitudinal control force and vertical speed. Longitudinal control forces

may be measured with the hand held force gauge.
5.cxx
6. If a sideslip indicator is not available in the cockpit, the directional indicator may
be used to estimate sideslip angels. While stabilized in the steady heading
sideslip, note the airplane heading after recording all parameters except sideslip.
Then, quickly return the controls to trim and stabilize in the original wings-level
condition. Again, note the airplane heading. The difference between the
heading noted in the sideslip and the heading noted after releasing the sideslip is
approximately the sideslip angle induced in the steady heading sideslip.
7. Steady heading sideslips are normally performed at increments of one-quarter

rudder deflection, alternating direction of rudder inputs until full rudder
deflection sideslips are performed in both directions. Sideslip angles should be
increased until:
a. Full rudder pedal deflection is reached.
b. Rudder forces reach 250 pounds.
c. Maximum aileron control or deflection is reached.
Obviously, if "rudder lock" or other unusual circumstances are encountered, the test may
be terminated short of these limits.
8. Altitude should be within + 2000 feet of the predetermined test altitude during
the measurements. Since increased drag will be generated on the airplane
during the sideslips, it may be expeditious to start a series of sideslips above the
predetermined test altitude.
5.3.2.3.2 Transient Steady Heading Sideslips

If automatic recording devices are available, the transient technique may be utilized
to quickly obtain static lateral-directional characteristics. It is also a good "quick look"
qualitative technique even without automatic recording devices. It is performed as follows:
1. Stabilize and trim carefully at the desired flight condition. Record a "trim shot"
with the automatic recording devices. Record appropriate cockpit data.
5.cxxi
2. Actuate the automatic recording devices and very smoothly and steadily enter
the steady heading sideslip. Using constant rate rudder inputs, increase sideslip
slowly, simultaneously applying lateral control inputs and banking in order to
maintain steady heading. Use longitudinal control inputs, if necessary, to
maintain constant trim airspeed.
3. Increase the rudder input to full deflection (or other limiting factors), then
decrease rudder input at the same slow rate. After returning the airplane to the
original trim condition, continue by applying rudder in the opposite direction to
full deflection, then back to trim.
4. Actuate the event marker at various sideslip angles or rudder deflections, if

desired, to aid in data reduction. Deactivate the instrumentation after returning
to the original trim conditions.
5. For the optimum results from this test, the rate of change of sideslip must be
very slow; 12 degree per second or less yields excellent data.
6. Maintenance of steady heading is again critical for this test. The test pilot must
continually cross-check all references available in order to keep the heading
constant throughout the process.
5.3.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF DYNAMIC LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL

STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS - THE SPIRAL MODE
5.3.2.4.1 Spiral Stability

Characteristics of the spiral mode of motion have some influence on overall lateral-
directional flying qualities, although the influence is generally small in relation to other
contributions. The pilot generally is satisfied if the spiral mode is neutral, convergent, or
slightly divergent. However, if the spiral is very divergent, such that bank angle changes
resulting from external disturbances or inadvertent control inputs build rapidly, the pilot is
required to devote some attention to controlling the spiral motion.13 Therefore, the time
13 Obviously, an automatic flight control system or autopilot can relieve the pilot of this duty.
5.cxxii
duration which the pilot can devote to other duties are correspondingly shortened. A very
divergent spiral mode can make long range cruising flight and instrument approaches or
departures extremely frustrating for the pilot, particularly in turbulent air.
A divergent spiral mode normally is accompanied by longitudinal trim changes

resulting from airspeed increases. These airspeed changes may cause corresponding
(
changes in some speed-dependent stability derivatives Cl , C l r ) which may alter the
spiral characteristics. Different spiral characteristics may be observed if airspeed is allowed
to vary instead of restraining it at trim.
Propeller-driven airplanes may exhibit different spiral characteristics in left and right
turns. This phenomenon may be attributed to various peculiarities of propeller-power
flight, such as the manner in which the slipstream impinges on the components of the
airplane and the change in slipstream pattern with sideslip direction.
The characteristics of the spiral mode to be determined are the nature of the motion
(convergent, neutral, or divergent) and the rate of convergence or divergence (if
applicable). These characteristics may be obtained very simply from a time history of bank
angle after the spiral motion is excited. The test is performed as follows:
1. Stabilize and trim very precisely in the desired configuration at the desired flight
condition.
2. Restrain the lateral control rigidly in the trim position and establish a small bank
angle (at least 5 degrees, but not more than 20 degrees) by one of the following
means: a very small rudder input, a slight power reduction on one engine of a
multiengined airplane, opening a cowl flap or oil cooler door on one engine of a
multiengined airplane. Lateral control inputs are usually not used to establish
the bank angle because of the difficulty in returning the lateral control to trim
and the subsequent significant rolling moments generated. However, this is not
a hard and fast rule as in some airplanes it may be easier to ensure the return of
the ailerons to a precise trimmed position than to do the same with the rudder;
for example, if the centering is obviously better in the aileron circuit. Clearly
the important point is to minimize, or eliminate if possible, any contamination of
the spiral mode with residual control deflections. After establishment of the
5.cxxiii
steady bank angle, return the rudder pedals, power setting, cowl flap, or oil
cooler to the original trim position and release the cockpit controls. Commence
recording a time history of bank angle, utilizing a 60 second sweep stopwatch
and the attitude gyro. When sufficient data is obtained, recover to wings-level
trim conditions and repeat the procedure with opposite bank angle.
3. By releasing the cockpit controls completely, the pilot observes the combined
effects of the spiral mode, longitudinal trim change, and control system
characteristics on the spiral motion. This motion is often seen in the operational
environment when the pilot releases the control stick to perform other tasks in
the cockpit. If pure spiral mode data is desired, trim airspeed should be
maintained with longitudinal control inputs.
4. Precise initial trim, particularly lateral trim and smooth air are necessary if valid
quantitative data are to be obtained from this test.
5.3.2.5 MEASUREMENT OF DYNAMIC LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL

STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS - THE DUTCH ROLL MODE
Since the airplane responds in yaw through the Dutch roll mode (just as it responds
in pitch through the short period oscillation), every time it is disturbed in yaw, either
externally or by pilot inputs, the Dutch roll will be excited. The pilot seldom needs to make
appreciable rudder inputs except for certain special conditions such as flight with
asymmetric power (or stores), crosswind landing, controlling bank angle by means of
rudder, etc. Nonetheless turbulence and pilot control inputs (especially lateral inputs if
significant aileron yawing moments exist) will continually excite the Dutch roll
inadvertently. Therefore, it is frequently referred to as a "nuisance" or "annoyance" mode.
When the Dutch roll is excited, the resulting oscillations in sideslip, bank angle, and lateral
motion must be suppressed by one or a combination of the following: aerodynamic
characteristics of the airplane, stability augmentation, pilot control inputs. Damping,
frequency, and roll-to-yaw ratio of the Dutch roll, or lateral-directional oscillation, have
profound effects on overall lateral-directional flying qualities. During critical mission tasks
requiring precise flight path control, precise tracking, and/or rapid maneuvering, a
satisfactory combination of Dutch roll characteristics is mandatory for satisfactory mission
accomplishment.
5.cxxiv
Unfortunately, difficulty is experienced in defining and describing satisfactory

combinations of Dutch roll damping, frequency, and roll-to-yaw ratio. The optimum
combination for a particular airplane obviously depends on the mission of that airplane and
the various mission tasks involved. Additionally, pilot technique has a large influence on
the acceptability of particular characteristics since the pilot can use any combination of
lateral and directional control inputs. The pilot's technique thus influences the pilot's
opinion. The generalizations which follow concerning the influence of various Dutch roll
parameters must be accepted as generalizations only, since they may not be appropriate to a
particular situation.
5.3.2.5.1 Dutch Roll Damping

The damping of the Dutch roll motion is probably the most important Dutch roll
characteristic to be considered. Over a wide range of Dutch roll frequencies and roll-to-
yaw ratios, the pilot will probably find the lateral-directional dynamics acceptable if the
Dutch roll motion is well damped. The parameter, d , is the damping ratio of the second-
order lateral-directional, or Dutch roll, motion. Its value strongly affects the time or
dynamic response of the airplane to a rudder or aileron input or lateral gusts. The
following rationalizations may be made concerning the influence of various Dutch roll
damping ratios on lateral-directional flying qualities.
1. For very low or low damping ratios - the lateral-directional oscillation may be
easily excited by pilot control inputs or external disturbances. Once excited, the
yawing, rolling, lateral translational motion tends to persist for a relatively long
period of time. This persistent motion can cause extreme discomfort and induce
airsickness in passengers and crew of transport airplanes as well as degrade
aiming accuracy for high-altitude bombing tasks in heavy or tactical bombers.
When the pilot attempts to maneuver vigorously and simultaneously maintain an
air-to-air or air-to-ground tracking picture, the lightly damped Dutch roll motion
may completely preclude precise weapons delivery, particularly in rough air.
During the landing approach in instrument or visual conditions, serious heading
control problems can be generated if the damping ratio of the Dutch roll motion
is too low. The pilot will probably desire to attempt to suppress the motion
with lateral or directional control inputs if the damping ratio approaches zero.
The success the pilot realizes in personally damping the Dutch roll will depend
5.cxxv
largely on the frequency of the motion and other factors such as the roll-to-yaw
ratio and the phase relationship between the roll and yaw components of the
motion.
2. For low to moderate Dutch roll damping ratios - the lateral-directional oscillation
may be excited but will be very noticeably damped, although still apparent. The
pilot should be able to perform maneuvers involving precise heading and bank
angle control with little difficulty attributable to Dutch roll damping. During
vigorous maneuvering involving large, repeated lateral and directional control
inputs, noticeable and possibly objectionable yawing and rolling oscillations
may be generated. The pilot will probably feel no need to augment natural
Dutch roll damping with control inputs since the motion subsides fairly rapidly
if the controls are merely fixed or released.
3. For moderate to heavy Dutch roll damping ratios - the lateral-directional

oscillation may not even be apparent to the pilot. The pilot will probably feel
very secure in maneuvering the airplane vigorously since no noticeable
oscillations in yaw or roll are generated. If the Dutch roll damping is very
heavy, the airplane will be slow responding to rudder inputs or external
disturbances. The pilot may find this sluggish directional response
objectionable during maneuvering. In addition, heavy damping of the Dutch
roll and heavy yaw rate damping (large C n r ) are generally analogous,
therefore, the pilot may find that the rudder requirement in coordinated turns is
excessive if the Dutch roll is too heavily damped.
5.3.2.5.2 Dutch Roll Frequency

The parameter, d d , is the damped frequency of the second-order, lateral-
directional mode of motion. If it is a real, positive number, it is directly related to the
frequency, or quickness, with which the airplane responds to a rudder input or lateral gust
disturbance. Obviously, this damped frequency has a major influence on lateral-directional
flying qualities. However, the damped frequency is dependent on damping ratio as well as
the undamped natural frequency. Therefore, Dutch roll characteristics are conveniently
5.cxxvi
expressed in terms of the undamped natural frequency, n d , and, of course, the damping
ratio, d . The following generalizations may be made concerning the effect of various
Dutch roll natural frequencies on lateral-directional flying qualities.
1. For very low to low n d values - the pilot may experience large sideslip
excursions when yawing moments are generated by lateral control inputs, roll
rate, rudder inputs, lateral gusts, etc. This is due to the close relationship
between Dutch roll natural frequency and directional stability. Since low n d
and low directional stiffness are generally analogous, the pilot will probably
expend considerable effort in maintaining a desired heading for low frequency
Dutch roll situations. Because of the slow initial response associated with the
low frequency motion, the pilot may experience difficulty in determining the
steady state or final magnitude of the motion. This lack of predictability makes
precise and rapid heading corrections virtually impossible. Because of the low
directional stiffness, the pilot will use frequent rudder inputs in order to
compensate, i.e., the pilot becomes a stability augmenter. Increasing the Dutch
roll damping ratio probably will not improve the situation measurably if the
frequency is very low; the primary objectionable feature associated with the
very low frequency is not the oscillatory motion but the weak directional
stiffness. If the frequency is a bit higher, increasing the Dutch roll damping
may improve the situation somewhat. For some missions and mission tasks,
very low Dutch roll natural frequencies may be tolerable, as long as at least
some level of positive directional stability is present, i.e., n d > 0 . If the
airplane is always maneuvered slowly and smoothly, the pilot will probably not
object to the slow initial response. The very large transport, passenger, or
heavy bomber airplanes, with very large yawing moments of inertia, may be
characterized by very low Dutch roll natural frequencies. Since these airplanes
do not require extensive maneuvering for mission accomplishment, low Dutch
roll natural frequencies may have no derogating influence.
2. For medium to high n d values - the response of the airplane for turns and
heading corrections is generally satisfactory, while the sensitivity to lateral gusts
should not be excessive. Because of the corresponding medium to high
directional stiffness, the pilot finds that few rudder inputs are required to control
5.cxxvii
sideslip. Directional trimmability is also enhanced. Every correction made

during the trimming tasks takes less time and comes to a completion faster. This
gives the pilot the feeling that he knows exactly what trim correction is
necessary. In other words, the airplane's directional trim point is well defined
and corrections to the trim point are quickly accomplished.
3. The very high Dutch roll natural frequency - may cause the airplane to be
oversensitive and responsive directionally to rudder inputs and lateral gusts.
During precise maneuvers requiring close control of heading or nose position,
the very high frequency Dutch roll can precipitate annoying, uncomfortable,
rapid excursions in sideslip, roll, and lateral translation. If the pilot tries to
damp a very high frequency, lightly damped Dutch roll motion with control
inputs, he is likely to get out of phase with the rapid oscillations, reinforce
them, and drive the motion divergent.
5.3.2.5.3 Roll-to-Yaw Ratio

The parameter, , is the ratio of the bank angle envelope to sideslip angle envelope
during the Dutch roll motion, or simply the roll-to-yaw ratio. Roll-to-yaw ratio has some
influence on pilot technique during bank angle control tasks and rolling maneuvers, and
may significantly influence the pilot's opinion of the maneuvering capabilities of the
airplane during these tasks. The degree of roll disturbance or the sensitivity of the airplane
in roll to rudder inputs and lateral gusts is directly proportional to this parameter. The
following generalizations may be made concerning the influence of various magnitudes of
roll-to-yaw ratios on overall lateral-directional flying qualities. (Roll-to-yaw ratio of the
Dutch roll motion will be further discussed in a subsequent section on rolling performance
and roll handling qualities.)
1. If the roll-to-yaw ratio is low - the Dutch roll motion is manifested more in
yawing than in rolling. If the ratio is very low, so that the motion approaches
pure "snaking," the response of the airplane to lateral gusts will be largely
heading changes. The pilot may feel compelled to control this gust response
during maneuvers requiring precise heading control, and the rudders will be the
5.cxxviii
control utilized. With low roll-to-yaw ratios, the rolling moments generated by
yaw rate and sideslip angle excursions will be small, therefore, the Dutch roll
influence on rolling performance will probably be small.
2. For medium roll-to-yaw ratios - some rolling motion will be generated by yaw
rate and sideslip angle excursions. If significant aileron yawing moments or
yawing moments due to roll rate exist, the pilot will probably be compelled to
coordinate aileron inputs with rudder inputs to keep sideslip excursions small,
minimize oscillatory variations in roll rate, and realize maximum rolling
performance from the airplane.
3. If the roll-to-yaw ratio is high - considerable rolling moments will be generated

by sideslip and yaw rate excursions. Rolling performance and lateral handling
qualities may be seriously impaired unless the pilot utilizes rudder coordination
effectively during maneuvering. The airplane will be very responsive and
sensitive in roll to lateral gusts and rudder inputs; bank angle response to
turbulent air may be very objectionable, particularly during maneuvering which
requires precise bank angle control. As the roll-to-yaw ratio increases, the pilot
will probably demand increased Dutch roll damping. This is due to the pilot
usually being more sensitive to roll response then sideslip response.
5.3.2.6 DUTCH ROLL REQUIREMENTS

The results of pilot opinion investigations based on in-flight and ground simulator
tests have revealed that there are combinations of Dutch roll frequency, damping, and roll-
to-yaw ratios which provide satisfactory lateral-directional flying qualities. These
investigations showed that the product of the damping ratio and the undamped natural
frequency, d nd , should be within the limits listed in Table 5.1.
5.cxxix
Table 5.1
Flight Phase Min d nd * Min n d
Level Category Class Min d * rad/sec rad/sec
A (CO and GA) IV 0.4 - 1.0
I, IV 0.19 0.35 1.0

A
1 II, III 0.19 0.35 0.4**
B All 0.08 0.15 0.4**
C I, II-C, 0.08 0.15 1.0
IV
II-L, III 0.08 0.10 0.4**
2 All All 0.02 0.05 0.4**
3 All All 0 - 0.4**
* The governing damping requirement is that yielding the larger value of d ,
except that a d of 0.7 is the maximum required for Class III.
** Class III airplanes may be excepted from the minimum n d requirement,
subject to approval by the procuring activity, if the requirements of 3.3.2

through 3.3.2.4.1, 3.3.5, and 3.3.9.4 are met.
Note: Values of d etc. in MIL-F-8785C are quoted to two decimal places.

Such accuracy may be obtainable with special instrumentation; however, that
will not usually be the case and, where trace records cannot be read to better than
about 5%, results which imply an accuracy of 0.5% are clearly unjustifiable.

The effects of a high ratio can sometimes have a significant influence on mission
tasks. Relatively large bank angle excursions resulting from sideslip can make tracking
tasks or level flight in turbulence very difficult especially in airplanes with low Dutch roll
frequency and/or damping. In an attempt to improve the analysis of these problems in

airplanes with high ratios, an additional parameter has been analytically determined from
5.cxxx
the results of pilot opinion investigations. This parameter is the product of the square of

the undamped natural frequency of the Dutch roll and the ratio, 2n d ( ) d.

If the
value of 2n d ( ) d is greater than 20 (rad/sec) , then the minimum values of

2
d nd as
shown in Table I should be increased by the following values:
(
Level 1 d nd = .014 2n d / d 20 )
Level 2 d nd = .009 ( 2nd / d 20 )
Level 3 d n d = .005 ( 2n d / d 20 )
with n d in rad/sec. eq 5.82
5.3.2.6.1 Techniques for Exciting Dutch Roll Motion
for Quantitative Measurements

Two methods will be introduced for obtaining quantitative Dutch roll
characteristics. The method utilized for a particular flight test will depend on the
characteristics of the airplane, the requirements against which tested, and the preference of
the individual test pilot.
The rudder pulsing technique excites the Dutch roll motion nicely, while
suppressing the spiral mode if performed correctly. In addition, this technique can be used
to develop a large amplitude oscillation which aids in data gathering and analysis,
particularly if the Dutch roll is heavily damped. It is performed as follows:
condition. If using automatic devices, take a "trim shot."
2. Smoothly apply alternating left and right rudder inputs in order to excite and
reinforce the Dutch roll motion. Restrain the lateral cockpit control at the trim
condition or merely release it. Continue the cyclic rudder pulsing until the
desired magnitude of oscillatory motion is attained, then smoothly return the
5.cxxxi
rudder pedals to the trim position and release them or restrain them in the trim
position. Simultaneously, activate the automatic recording devices and observe
and record appropriate parameters.
3. The frequency with which the cyclic rudder inputs are applied depends on the
frequency and response characteristics of the airplane. The test pilot must
adjust the frequency of rudder pulsing to the particular airplane. The maximum
Dutch roll response will be generated when the rudder pulsing is in phase with
the airplane motion, and the frequency of the rudder pulses is approximately the
same as the natural (undamped) frequency of the Dutch roll.
4. The test pilot should attempt to terminate the rudder pulsing so that the airplane
oscillates about a wings-level condition. This should effectively suppress the
spiral motion.
5. Obtaining quantitative information on Dutch roll characteristics from cockpit

instruments and visual observations requires patience, particularly if the motion
is heavily damped. However, if a sensitive sideslip indicator is available in the
cockpit, the test pilot should be able to obtain a half-cycle amplitude ratio from
the sideslip excursions. From this parameter, an approximate damping ratio can
be easily obtained. The time required for a half or full cycle can be measured
with a one - or three-second sweep stopwatch. From these times, the
approximate damped period, damped frequency, and undamped natural
frequency can be derived, if desired . If a sideslip indicator is not available,
the turn needle of the needle-ball instrument can be observed to obtain
approximate half-cycle amplitude ratio and damped period.
6. The roll-to-yaw ratio of the Dutch roll motion is extremely difficult to obtain
accurately without automatic recording devices. The motions are generally
phased so that the maximum roll and sideslip excursions do not occur
simultaneously. Therefore, merely noting the maximum roll excursion to
See Analysis of Second Order Responses in the Introduction to this manual.
5.cxxxii
maximum sideslip excursion for a given cycle will probably yield erroneous
results . However, the test pilot should be able to obtain a rough idea of the
roll-to-yaw ratio by observing the path of the airplane wingtip on the horizon
during the Dutch roll oscillations. (A wing-mounted boom or other protrusion,
or a dot drawn on the side of the canopy may also be used.) If the Dutch roll is
manifested in pure "snaking", the roll-to-yaw ratio is, of course, zero and the
wingtip will move only in the horizontal plane. If the roll-to-yaw ratio if 1:1,
the wingtip will describe a circle on the horizon, etc. (Figure 5.58). If the
Dutch roll motion is heavily damped, the wingtip will describe some form of
distorted spiral. Under these conditions, the best possible estimate of roll-to-
yaw ratio may be no better than "greater than 1:1," "approximately 1:1" or "less
than 1:1."
7. If automatic recording devices are available, the entire Dutch roll motion should
be recorded and analyzed later for accurate quantitative information.
13 See Analysis of Second Order Responses in the Introduction to this manual.
5.cxxxiii

=0

= 0.5:1

= 1:1
Moving Viewing Point

= 3:1

= 5:1
Figure 5.55
Paths of Airplane Wingtip on Horizon During Dutch Roll Motion
The steady sideslip release can also be used to excite the Dutch roll; however, the
difficulty in quickly returning the controls to trim and the influence of the spiral mode often
precludes the gathering of good quantitative results. The rudder pulsing technique usually
produces much better Dutch roll data. The steady sideslip release technique is performed as
follows:
condition. If using automatic recording devices, take a "trim shot."
2. Establish a steady heading sideslip of a sufficient magnitude to obtain sufficient

Dutch roll motion for analysis. Utilize maximum allowable sideslip, full
rudder, or a comfortable rudder force input. Stabilize the sideslip carefully and
activate the automatic recording devices. Quickly, but smoothly, return all
cockpit controls to trim and release them (controls-free Dutch roll) or restrain
them at the trim position (controls-fixed Dutch roll). (Both methods should be
utilized.)
5.cxxxiv
5.3.3 Dutch Roll Influence on Roll Performance During

Precision Maneuvering
The Dutch roll motion can have a significant influence on roll performance during precision
maneuvering. If the Dutch roll influence is severe, the pilot will find it difficult or even
impossible to precisely and accurately select a desired bank angle during airborne tracking
tasks. The parameter used to quantitatively evaluate this Dutch roll influence is the ratio of
P osc 14
the oscillatory component of roll rate to the average component of roll rate, Pav . The
phase angle, , was discussed previously in the Theory section. The requirements are
presented in Figure 5.56a.
1.1
1.0
Flight Phase
.9 Category B
.8 Level 2
Level 1
.7
.6
Flight Phase
Posc
Pav
.5 Categories A&C
.4 Level 2
Level 1
.3
.2
.1
Positive
0
Dihedral -40 -80 -120 -160 -200 -240 -280 -320 -360
(Deg) When P Leads by 45 to 225
Negative
Dihedral -180 -220 -260 -300 -340 -20 -60 -100 -140 -180
(Deg) When P Leads by 225 through 360 to 45
Figure 5.56a
Roll Rate Oscillation Limitations
14 P osc
Pav - a measure of the ratio of the oscillatory component of roll rate to the average component or roll
rate following a rudder-pedals-free step aileron control command:
Posc P1 + P 3 2P2
d 0.2: PAV = P1 + P 3 + 2P2
Posc P1 P 2
d > 0.2: PAV = P1 + P 2
where p1, p 2, and p3 are roll rates at the first, second, and third peaks, respectively.
5.cxxxv
Before collecting quantitative data on the influence of the Dutch roll on roll
performance during precision maneuvering, preliminary tests must be conducted to
accurately determine: (1) the period of the Dutch roll oscillation, t d , and (2) the amount of
aileron deflection required to produce a 60 degree bank angle change in 1.7 t d seconds.
Once these data are known, the test is performed as follows:
condition. If using automatic recording devices, take a "trim shot."
2. Activate automatic recording devices and abruptly apply a step aileron command
up to the magnitude which causes a 60 degree bank angle change in 1.7 td
seconds. A chain stop or premeasured block can be used by the pilot in the
cockpit to accurately attain the required control stick deflection.
3. The record of the roll should be analyzed after the flight for quantitative data.
The pilot's qualitative evaluation of the Dutch roll influence on roll performance
should be performed during typical mission tasks.
5.3.4 Adverse and Proverse Yaw Effects on Precision

Maneuvering
Obviously, there must be limits on the amount of proverse or adverse sideslip that
is generated during maneuvering flight. Especially during precise tracking tasks, the pilot
desires that the airplane be flown without excessive aileron and rudder coordination. The
more coordination that is required, the more difficult the pilot's job to stabilize quickly and
precisely on a desired flight path.
For small inputs like those used in normal airborne tracking tasks, the parameter
used to quantitatively determine the sideslip generated following aileron control commands
is the ratio of sideslip, , to a nondimensional constant, k. The denominator k is defined
as the ratio of commanded bank angle change in a give time to the required bank angle
change, where the time interval and the required bank angle change are obtained from Table
IXa, paragraph 3.3.4 of MIL-F-8785C, defining roll performance requirements.
5.cxxxvi
[ t ] command . (see Figure 56b).

k =
[t ] requirement
16
14 All Flight Phase
Categories
12 Level 2
(Deg)
10
All Flight Phase
8 Categories B&C
Max/k
Level 1
6
Flight Phase

4 Category A
Level 1
2
0
0 -40 -80 -120 -160 -200 -240 -280 -320 -360
(Deg)
Figure 5.56b
Sideslip Excursion Limitations
P
A similar technique to that for measuring Posc may be used; however, the
av
specification requirement only holds for small aileron deflections, i.e., up to those required
to cause a 60 degree bank angle change in t d or 2 seconds, whichever is the longer. The
constant k is then determined for each maneuver as the ratio of the bank angle actually
obtained in time t to the bank angle required by paragraph 3.3.4 of MIL-F-8785C in the
same time t. Note that in general this time t will not be equal to t d or 2 seconds.
The pilot's qualitative evaluation of the adverse or proverse sideslip characteristics

should be performed during typical mission tasks.
5.3.5 Determination of Phase Angle from Flight Test

Records
An example of how to determine the phase angle, , from flight test records is
presented in Figure 5.56c.
5.cxxxvii
Right
4
= -303
2 - Deg
2nd Minimum
Max
1st Maximum
tn 1 = 2.95 Sec
0
2 3 4 5 6
Time - Sec
-2
Left
Right
AS
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time - Sec
Figure 5.56c
Determination of Phase Angle
Since the first local maximum of the Dutch roll component of the sideslip response
occurs at + = 2.95 seconds,
= 360
T t n + ( n 1) 360 = 360
3.5 (2.95) = 303 eq 5.83
d

brief, rough qualitative report of the lateral-directional flying qualities exhibited during the
mission tasks under evaluation. This report should be written while the events of the flight
are fresh in the pilots mind. Qualitative pilot opinion, appropriately related to the mission
tasks under evaluation, will be the most important part of the final report.
5.cxxxviii
Appropriate data should be selected to substantiate the pilot's opinion. The data
presentation introduced here is only suggested and may be modified as desired by the test
activity. No matter what method is used, it should be clear, concise, and complete.
5.3.6.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LATERAL-

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics may be presented as shown previously in the discussion
of "Test Procedures and Techniques - Nonmaneuvering Tasks" in the Longitudinal Flying
Qualities Section. Merely modify the presentations to encompass the lateral and directional
control systems.
5.3.6.2 STATIC LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS
Static lateral-directional stability characteristics are normally presented as plots of
rudder force and position, lateral control force and aileron position, bank angle, and
longitudinal control force versus sideslip angle. Rate of climb or descent and airspeed error
may be presented, if these parameters are significant. Cockpit control position and/or
surface control position may be utilized, depending on the data available. Typical data
presentation schemes are shown in Figures 5.57 and 5.58. The data for Figure 5.58 were
derived from automatic recording traces of a transient sideslip technique. If automatic data
reduction facilities are available, sufficient data points may be extracted to "shot gun" the
data. It is apparent that obtaining the same plots by manual data reduction would be
extremely laborious.
Discussions of static lateral-directional stability characteristics in the report of the

test must be worded with care. The steady sideslip test results indicate the sign, but not the
magnitude of directional stability, C n , and dihedral effect, C l . (Actually, if very
unusual stability augmentation or control system gadgetry is utilized, the tests may not even
indicate the sign of the stability derivatives.) However, the test results are still extremely
important from a flying qualities standpoint. The language of the report should reflect
clearly the parameters which were used as indications of the static lateral-directional
characteristics. For example, the following introductory sentences might be used in the
report: "Directional stability, as indicated by the variations of rudder force and position with
5.cxxxix
sideslip angle in steady heading sideslips, was positive in all configuration tested;" "The
variation of lateral control force and aileron position with sideslip angle in steady heading
sideslip indicated positive (or negative) dihedral effect," etc.
Right
Limits :13 Right
Right
Rudder Position (R)

100 20 13 Left
Rudder Force ( )
Left Left
Sideslip Angle () Sideslip Angle ()
10
(Pounds)
(Pounds)
50 (Degrees) (Degrees)
4 8 12 4 8 12
0 0
12 8 4 12 8 4
50 10
Left
Left
Right Right
100 20
Right Aileron Position ( )

Right
TED
10 10
Aileron Force ( )
Left Left Sideslip Angle ()

Sideslip Angle ()
(Degrees)
(Degrees)
(Pounds)
5 (Degrees) 5
4 8 12 4 8 12
0 0
12 8 4 12 8 4
5 5
TEU
Left
Right Right
10 10
Right
15
Pull
Angle of Range ()
10 Left Sideslip Angle () 10 Left

(Degrees)
(Pounds)
5 (Degrees) 5
Control Force
Longitudinal
4 8 12
0 0
12 8 4 12 8 4 4 8 12
5 Sideslip Angle ()
5
Push
(Degrees)
10 Right 10 Right
Left
15
Figure 5.57
Static Lateral-Directional Stability Characteristics
Model ________ Airplane

BuNo ___________
Configuration Power Approach Gross Weight: 15,450 Lbs

Loading: Long Range Attack CG: 24.2% MAC
Trim: 125 KIAS, 5,000 Ft Stab Aug: On
5.cxl
MODEL __________ AIRPLANE

BuNo __________
PILOT: _______________ TRIM: .71M, 30,000FT
CONFIGURATION: CRUISE GROSS WEIGHT: 16,440 LBS
LOADING: C CG: 18.2% MAC
DATE: 20 OCTOBER 1968 STAB AUG: OFF
Figure 5.58
Static Lateral-Directional Stability Characteristics
5.3.6.3 DYNAMIC LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS - SPIRAL STABILITY
Spiral stability data are effectively presented as a plot of bank angle versus time.
Appropriate specification limits may be shown on the plot. A typical time history is shown
in Figure 5.59.
5.cxli
20
15
10
5
Bank Angle []
(Degrees)
5
MIL SPEC 8785C
Limits
10
15
20
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (Sec)
Figure 5.59
Spiral Stability
Model _______Airplane
BuNo __________
Configuration: Power Approach Gross Weight: 16,700 Lbs

Loading: Alfa CG: 27.2% Mac
Trim: 135 KIAS, 7500 Ft Stab Aug: On
5.3.6.4 DYNAMIC LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS - DUTCH ROLL CHARACTERISTICS
The presentation of Dutch roll characteristics will be dictated by the amount of data
available. If the scope of the evaluation is limited, Dutch roll characteristics are effectively
presented in tabular form. An example is show in Figure 5.60. If the Dutch roll motion
was recorded on oscillograph, magnetic tape, or telemetry, the actual trace, appropriately
annotated, may be presented in the report. Sideslip angle is the most desirable parameter to
use in determining Dutch roll frequency and damping, since it exhibits the pure Dutch roll
response better than any other parameter. However, yaw rate may be utilized if the sideslip
trace is not useable. Sideslip angle and bank angle traces should be utilized to determine
5.cxlii
roll-to-yaw ratio; however, yaw rate and roll rate may be utilized as back-up parameters. In
order to clearly illustrate the procedure for determining roll-to-yaw ratio, the bank angle and
sideslip angle traces from typical oscillograph traces have been reproduced in Figure 5.60.
Trim
Airspeed Gross nd 2
nd ( ) d n d
Altitude (KIAS, CG Weight Stab (rad/ d (rad/ (rad/

Configuration (ft) IMN) (%MAC (lbs) Aug sec) 2 sec)
sec)
)
Cruise (CR) 30,000 .65 22.8 19000 ON 1.4 0. 2.5:1 4.8 0.25
2
Power (P) 10,000 450/.80 23.2 21700 ON 4.3 0. 1.2:1 21.4 0.60
1
Power
Approach (PA) 10,000 145 19.2 15500 OFF 2.2 0. 3:1 14.5 0.62
3
Figure 5.60
Airplane Dutch Roll Characteristics
5.cxliii
10
90
45
5
0
45
0
90
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Bank Angle
5
Envelope of Bank Angle Envelope = 27
Subsidence Envelope = 45
Envelope of Sideslip Subsidence

Time (Seconds)

Bank Angle (Degrees)

10
Sideslip Angle
= 2.7:1
5.cxliv
= 3.5:1
Sidestep Angle (Deg)

1. Draw the subsidence envelopes of sideslip and bank angle.
Envelope = 13 Envelope = 10
2. Using the envelopes, derive the roll angle and sideslip angle at the same time along the horizontal axis.
3. Compute the roll-to-yaw ratio. (Note that the roll-to-yaw ration changes in this example. This is a
common phenomenon which may be influenced by difficulty in drawing precise envelopes.)
Determination of /
4. Note that the roll and sideslip excursions reach maximum values at different times, they are not in phase.
Thus, merely noting peakEnvelope Sideslip Subsidence
roll toofsideslip excursion for a given cycle will not yield the correct roll-to-yaw
ratio since the roll-to-yaw ratio is defined as the ratio of the en of roll angle and sideslip angle.
v
(In this example, roll and sideslip are out of phase by only approximately 0.3 second.)
el
o
p
es
Figure 5.61
Determination of Roll-to-Yaw Ratio of Dutch Roll Motion
If the flight test team desires to show the variation of Dutch roll characteristics with
airspeed or Mach number, a plot similar to that shown in Figure 5.62 may be utilized.
When discussing Dutch roll characteristics in the body of the report, or when presenting
appropriate data, the condition of the stability augmentation, if installed, must be explicitly
stated.
Yaw Damper Off
Altitude Average Gross Average

Symbol ft Weight - lb CG - % Mac
10,000 13,500 16.7
40,000 14,900 19.9
1.2
(Rad/Sec)
.8
d n d
.4
.3
Damping Ratio
.2
.1
d
8
d (Rad/Sec)
Undamped Natural
4
Frequency
n
4
Roll to Yaw
3
Ratio
/
2
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Mach Number
Figure 5.62
Dutch Roll Characteristics
5.cxlv
05.3.6.5 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL TRIMMABILITY, RUDDER-

ONLY TURNS, AND AILERON-ONLY TURNS
The determination of trimmability as presented herein is based on the test pilot's
qualitative opinion. Therefore, a qualitative discussion of trimmability in the technical
report is appropriate. The results of other tests may be used to substantiate the qualitative
opinion of lateral-directional trimmability.
The results of rudder-only turn and aileron-only turn tests are probably best blended
into discussions of static or dynamic lateral-directional characteristics. The writer should
make every effort to correlate the qualitative and quantitative results of all the tests
conducted in order to present a meaningful picture of the airplane's lateral-directional flying
qualities.

Requirements for static and dynamic lateral-directional flying qualities are contained
in the following applicable paragraphs of Military Specification, MIL-F-8785C, of
5 November 1980, hereafter referred to as the Specification.
3.2.3.7 Longitudinal control in sideslips
3.3.1 Lateral-directional mode characteristics (except 3.3.1.2)
3.3.2 Lateral-directional dynamic response characteristic (subparagraphs 3.3.2.1,

3.3.2.2.1, 3.3.2.4.1, 3.3.2.6)
3.3.3 Pilot-induced oscillations
3.3.4.5 Rudder-pedal-indicted rolls
3.3.5 Directional control characteristics (subparagraphs 3.3.5.1, 3.3.5.2)
3.3.6 Lateral-directional characteristics in steady sideslips
3.3.7 Lateral-directional control in crosswinds
5.cxlvi
3.3.8 Lateral-directional control in dives
3.5.2 Mechanical characteristics (control system)

Detail Specification. Comments concerning only those portions of the Specification which
require some interpretation are presented below.
3.3.2.2.1 The intent of this paragraph is to insure that there will

be no objectionable roll oscillations while executing
small, precise lateral inputs such as would be used in
air-to-air or air-to-ground tracking tasks. The damped
period (td) of the Dutch roll must be known before
quantitative data can be obtained to determine
compliance with this paragraph.
3.3.2.4.1 The intent of this paragraph is to limit the amount of

adverse or proverse sideslip following small lateral
control inputs such as would be used in tracking tasks.
Again, the damped period of the Dutch roll must be
known to determine Specification compliance.
3.3.7.2.1 This paragraph specifies that satisfactory directional

control using either rudder, aileron or a combination of
both shall be maintained at 50 knots or above during
takeoff and landing rollout.
5.cxlvii
5.5 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES - GLOSSARY

Roll-To-Yaw Ratio Ratio of bank angle envelope to sideslip angle
envelope during Dutch roll oscillation.
Adverse Yaw Yawing moments created act so as to rotate the nose

of the airplane opposite to the direction of roll. The
term "adverse" does not, in itself, denote unfavorable
flying qualities.
Proverse Yaw Yawing moments generated act so as to rotate the

nose of the airplane toward the direction of roll. The
term "proverse" does not necessarily indicate
favorable flying qualities.
Roll Mode Time Constant Time required for the roll rate to reach 63.2 percent of
the steady state roll rate following a step input of
lateral control.
Coordinated Turn A turn in which a balance of sideward accelerations

acting on objects in the airplane is attained; a "ball-
centered" turn.
5.6 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES - REFERENCES

Manual, Volume II, Stability and Control, by Courland D. Perkins, Professor,
2. Airplane Performance, Stability and Control, by Courland D. Perkins,

3. Analysis of Several Handling Quality Topic Pertinent to Advanced Manned

Aircraft, Systems Technology, Inc., AFFDL-TR-67-2, June, 1967.
5.cxlviii

Comparison with Flight Measurements, by C. G. B. Mitchell, Royal Aircraft
Establishment, Ministry of Aviation, Farnborough, Hants, RAE Technical Report 66275,
August, 1966.
5. Computer Programmes to Calculate the Response of Flexible Aircraft to

Gusts and Control Movements, by C. G. B. Mitchell, Ministry of Technology,
Aeronautical Research Council, London, Current Paper No. 957, October, 1966.

Dynamic Characteristics From Flight Data, by Chester H. Wolowicz, NASA Flight

8. Development of Satisfactory Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities in the

Landing Approach, by Robert L. Stapleford, Donald E. Johnston, Gary L. Teper, and
David H. Weir, Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, California, NASA CR-239, July
1965.

10. Evaluation of Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities of Piloted Reentry

Vehicles Utilizing Fixed-Base and Inflight Evaluations, by J.I. Meeker, Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, NASA CR-778, May, 1967.
5.cxlix
11. Experience with Shinbrot's Method of Transient Response, by B. R. A.

Lacashire, AGARD Report 549 - Part II, 1966.
12. Features of Large Transport Aircraft Affecting Control During Approach and
Landing, by W. J. G. Pinsker, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Bedford, England.

14. Flying Qualities Requirements for United States Navy and Air Force Aircraft,
by William Koven and Richard Wasicko, AGARD Specialist Meeting on Aircraft Stability
and Control, Brussels, Belguim, April, 1961.
16. Inflight Evaluation of Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities for the Fighter

Mission, by James I. Meeker and G. Warren Hall, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.,
Buffalo, New York, AFFDL-TR-67-98, October 1967.
17. Inflight Simulation and Pilot Evaluation of Selected Landing Approach

Handling Qualities of a Large Logistics Transport Airplane, by Donald W. Phoads, Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, AFFDL-TR-67-51, July, 1967.
18. Lateral-Directional Flying Qualities for Power Approach: Influence of Dutch

Roll Frequency, by Edward Seckel, James A. Franklin, and George E. Miller, Princeton
University, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Report No. 797, September,
1967.
5.cl
19. Lecture Notes on Lateral-Directional Stability, by F. D. Newell and Michael

Parrog, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. TB-
1961-F-1, July 1965.
20. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Pilot Airplanes MIL-F-8785C, of 5

November 1980.
21. Modern Flight Dynamics, by W. Richard Kokl, Systems Engineer, United

Aircraft Corporation. Publisher: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1961.

23. Proposal for a Revised Military Specification, "Flying Qualities of Piloted

Airplanes" (MIL-F-8785 ASG), With Substantiating Text, by C. J. Mazza, William
Becker, Marshall Cohen, and Alvin Spector, U. S. Naval Air Development Center,
Johnsville, Pennsylvania, NADC-ED-6282, January, 1963.
24. A Review of Recent Research on Handling Qualities, and its Application to

the Handling Problems of Large Aircraft, by P. L. Bisgood, Ministry of Aviation,
Aeronautical Research Council, London, R & M. No. 3458, June 1964.

Book "C".
Force Base, California, AFFTC-TIH-77-1, revised February 1977.
5.cli
28. Substantiation Information for Selected Lateral-Directional Requirements,

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Report No. BM-2238-F-1, May, 1967.
5.7 ROLLING PERFORMANCE THEORY
5.7.1 General
The rolling performance and associated roll handling qualities of the airplane
directly influence the ease and quickness with which the pilot can make direction changes
and wing position corrections. Both these evolutions obviously involve the ability to
change and control bank angle. The pilot must be able to change flight direction at will and
the most expeditious means of doing so is to roll, then pull back on the stick or yoke.
Therefore, the maneuverability of the airplane is directly related to rolling performance as
well as longitudinal maneuvering characteristics discussed earlier.
The ability to make wing position changes and corrections is particularly critical in
close proximity to the ground. During takeoffs and landings in turbulent and/or crosswind
flight conditions, the pilot must be provided with adequate control of wing position. A
natural and stringent design requirement on rolling performance is thus in the low airspeed,
low altitude, takeoff and landing flight condition.
The pilot's opinion of the rolling performance and associated handling qualities
depends on several characteristics; the most important of which are the initial response of
the airplane to a lateral control input and the subsequent rolling velocity or roll rate attained.
The rolling motion generated by a lateral control input is generally contaminated by yawing
and pitching motion which may degrade handling qualities significantly. Obviously, the
lateral control forces required in rolling the airplane and mechanical characteristics of the
lateral control system also influence pilot opinion.
Much of the language used in this discussion of rolling performance has been
previously introduced in the Lateral-Directional Theory section earlier in the manual. The
reader should refer to that section for derivations and explanations of stability derivatives
5.clii
and other terms and expressions, if necessary. The classic, single degree of freedom roll
mode of motion has also been previously introduced. This discussion of roll response will
begin by expanding that discussion of the single degree of freedom roll.
5.7.2 Single Degree of Freedom Roll Response

An expression for the single degree of freedom roll response or the pure roll
response to a lateral control input can be derived by considering the simple lateral-
directional equations for sideforce, yawing moment, and rolling moment. Since the roll
maneuver is a nonequilibrium or nonsteady-state motion during the initial acceleration to
steady state roll rate, inertia terms must be included in the expressions:
mu0 + mu0 r
r
eq 5.84
rb
r a 2V
pb
+ C n p 2V = qSb
1 I r
yy eq 5.85
rb
r a 2V
pb 1
+ Clp = I p eq 5.86
2V qSb xx
For the pure roll case, the rolling moment equation is the only equation which need be
considered. Additionally the following terms are assumed to be small and can be omitted
for the single degree of freedom roll:
rb eq 5.87
r
5.cliii
Thus, the single degree of freedom roll may be expressed as follows:
I XX pb
p qSb C l p 2V C l a = 0 eq 5.88
T a
or
C l qSb C l qSb
p
p I b
2VT p a
I XX a = 0 eq 5.89
XX
or
p L p p L a a = 0 eq 5.90
Where:
p = rolling acceleration; radians per second per second.
p = roll rate; radians per second.
Lp = rolling acceleration per increment of roll rate, or roll damping; rad/sec2
per rad/sec, or 1/sec.
La = rolling acceleration per increment of lateral control deflection, or lateral
control sensitivity; rad/sec2 per radian, or 1/sec2.
a = lateral control deflection; radians.
These differential equations may be solved15 to yield a time solution in roll rate,
which is presented as follows:
p (t ) =
Laa
Lp {e Lpt
1} eq 5.91
15 The solution is quite laborious and may be found in appropriate technical literature.
5.cliv
Where:
p (t) = the roll rate at any time, t.
This expression describes the classic exponential buildup of roll rate from zero to
steady state after a step lateral control input. The fact that the roll rate does buildup at an
exponential rate will be used later to analyze the results of in-flight tests. The last
expression is sometimes presented as follows:
{
p ( t ) = p ss 1 e t/ R } eq 5.92
Where:
pss = steady state roll rate; radians per second
R = roll mode time constant, or the time for the roll rate to reach 63.2 percent
of the steady state roll rate after a step lateral control input; seconds.
This analytical development can now be explained in meaningful, practical terms.

First of all, it is important to realize that the lateral control system is utilized to generate roll
rate, as the last equations imply, and is not used to directly command bank angle. The
bank angle attained depends on the length of time the lateral control input is held (Figure
5.63). The pilot finds this type of roll control quite natural in most conventional airplane
designs. Consider now the initial response of the airplane to the lateral control input. At
the very instant the pilot makes the control input, there is no roll rate, p, so there is no
resistance to the roll acceleration from L p . Therefore, the initial roll acceleration will be the
maximum roll acceleration (Figure 5.64). An expression for this initial roll acceleration
may be derived as follows:
p L p p L a a = 0 eq 5.93
however, at t = 0, p = 0, therefore:
p t = 0 = L a a eq 5.94
5.clv
Obviously, this initial roll acceleration is quite important to the pilot's opinion of the
maneuverability of the airplane. The initial roll acceleration for maximum lateral control
deflection, L a a MAX , has been proposed as one criterion by which to measure or
classify airplane rolling performance.
Aileron Input, a
(Degrees)
0
(Degrees/Second)
Roll Rate, p
0
Bank Angle,
(Degrees)
0 1 2 3 4
Time, t
(Seconds)
Figure 5.63
Airplane Response to Aileron Input
5.clvi
Pss
Roll Rate, p
Slope = Initial Roll Acceleration
pt = 0 = L a
a
0
Time, t
Figure 5.64
Roll Rate Response to Step Lateral Control Input
5.7.2.1 STEADY STATE ROLL RATE

As the roll rate increases after a lateral control input, the resistance to the rolling or
roll damping contribution, L pp , increases. When the roll damping contribution equals the
lateral control power contribution, L a a , there is no unbalance of accelerating
contributions. Therefore, the roll acceleration, p , is zero, and the steady state roll rate,
pss , is attained (Figure 5.65). An expression for the steady state roll rate is derived as
follows:
p L p p L a a = 0

La a
pss = Lp eq 5.95
Obviously, the steady state roll rate attained with various magnitudes of lateral control
deflection is quite important to the overall rolling performance.
5.clvii
pss
Roll Rate, p
L a
pss = a
Lp
Time, t
Figure 5.65
Steady State Roll Rate
The maximum steady state roll rate, expressed in nondimensional form 16 , was frequently
used in the past as a measure of the airplane's rolling performance. It is defined as follows:
( )
Cl
pb
2VT Max = C a a Max eq 5.96
lp
Where:
p = maximum steady state roll rate attainable with full lateral control
deflection; radians per second.
b = wing span; feet
VT = true airspeed, feet per second
This single criterion for rolling performance is quite poor, at best, since it does not take into
consideration rolling acceleration. In addition, it is an unrealistic requirement for airplanes
capable of very high true airspeeds (particularly if their wing span is small).
16 pb is actually the helix angle described by the wingtip during a rolling maneuver.
2V
5.clviii
5.7.2.2 ROLL MODE TIME CONSTANT

The roll mode time constant, R , influences the manner in which the roll rate builds up and
subsides after lateral control movements are made (Figure 5.66). It is a rather important
parameter affecting not only roll acceleration and deceleration but the technique the pilot
utilizes in controlling bank angle. Its value is solely dependent on roll damping, L p :
R = L1 eq 5.97
p
The roll mode time constant is typically 1 second or less. It is a parameter which has been
proposed as one criterion for measuring rolling performance. Measurement of the
parameter in-flight requires sensitive instrumentation, good piloting technique, and
analytical manipulation of the data derived.
pss Imaginary
Roll Rate, p
Axis
63.2% pss
X
Real
X X
0 R 1 2 Axis
L p = 1
Step Aileron Input R
X
0 1 2
Time, Seconds
Figure 5.66
Roll Mode Time Constant
5.clix
5.7.3 Influence of Various Parameters on Roll

Characteristics
The variation of pss , and R , with various parameters will now be presented. It
should bee remembered that, for this theoretical discussion, each parameter is varied in turn
while holding all other parameters constant. The equations utilized to make the
rationalizations which follow are:
L
pss = L a a eq 5.98
p
4 I 4 I
R = L1 or R = xx
or R = xx
eq 5.99
p Cl p VT Sb 2 Cl p ssl VeSb 2
5.7.3.1 LATERAL CONTROL DEFLECTION

Steady state roll rate classically varies directly with the magnitude of the lateral
control input. Obviously, the roll mode time constant is not influenced by this parameter
(Figure 5.67).
a
Constant VT Max
Constant Hp
Constant Ixx 3 a
Max
Roll Rate, p
1 a
2 Max
1 a
4 Max
R
Time, t
Figure 5.67
Classic Variation of Roll Characteristics with Lateral Control Deflection
5.clx
5.7.3.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA IN ROLL

It is important to note that variation in rolling moment of inertia have no influence
on steady state roll rate. However, the roll mode time constant varies directly with I xx
(Figure 5.68). Thus, airplanes with large roll inertias (full tip tanks, heavy wing stores,
large wings, etc.) may be capable of significant steady state roll rates yet exhibit poor roll
acceleration and deceleration. Steady state roll rate alone is an inadequate indicator of
rolling performance.
pss
Roll Rate, p
Increasing Ixx
Constant VT
Constant Hp
Constant a
R R R R
1 2 3 4
Time, t
Figure 5.68
Typical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Rolling Moment of Inertia
5.7.3.3 ALTITUDE
If altitude is varied at a constant true airspeed, steady state roll rate remains constant
while the roll mode time constant increases with increasing altitude (Figure 5.69).
5.clxi
pss
Roll Rate, p
Increasing Hp
Constant VT
Constant Ixx
Constant a
R R R R
1 2 3 4
Time, t
Figure 5.69
Classical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Altitude
(Constant True Airspeed)
The influence of varying altitude at a constant equivalent airspeed is quite different

as shown in Figure 5.70. Although the roll mode time constant still increases with altitude
increase, steady state roll rate also increases because true airspeed increases.
Increasing Hp
pss
3
pss
Roll Rate, p
2
pss
1
Constant Ve
Constant Ixx
Constant a
R R R
1 2 3
Time, t
Figure 5.70
Typical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Altitude (Constant Ve )
5.clxii
5.7.3.4 AIRSPEED
Steady state roll rate varies directly with true airspeed and the roll mode time
constant varies inversely with true airspeed (Figure 5.71).
Increasing VT
Pss3
Constant Altitude
Constant Ixx Pss2
Roll Rate, p
Constant a
Roll Rate, Pss
Steady State
Pss1
Constant Altitude
Constant Ixx
Constant a
TR TR TR
3 2 1
True Airspeed, VT Time, t
Figure 5.71
Classical Variation of Roll Characteristics with True Airspeed
5.7.4 Real Airplane Response to Lateral Control Inputs

The actual airplane response to a lateral control input is almost invariably somewhat
different from that predicted by the classic single degree of freedom analysis. These
differences may be attributable to the Dutch roll influence, roll coupling, and aeroelastic
effects.
5.7.4.1 DUTCH ROLL EXCITATION DURING ROLLING

MANEUVERS
The degree of excitation of the Dutch roll motion and the resultant influence on
rolling performance depend on several factors. The most important of these parameters are:
directional stability, yawing moments developed with lateral control deflection and roll rate,
Dutch roll frequency, damping and roll-to-yaw ratio, and dihedral effect. Obviously,
several of these factors are directly related and it is impossible to present discussions of all
possible combinations of characteristics. However, several combinations are of particular
interest.
5.clxiii
5.7.4.1.1 High C n , Low C l , Low C n , and C n p

a
Initially, consider an airplane with relatively strong directional stability, little

adverse or proverse yaw, and weak dihedral effect. The strong directional stability should
result in minimum sideslip excursions during rolling maneuvers. The small sideslip angles
which are developed have little influence on rolling performance due to weak dihedral
effect. (Because of the weak dihedral effect, the roll-to-yaw ratio of the Dutch roll motion
will probably be low.) Thus, for this combination of characteristics, Dutch roll influence
on rolling motion is insignificant. The airplane may be maneuvered with little rudder
coordination, and the pilot will probably find roll response excellent if the steady state roll
rate and roll mode time constant are satisfactory. The response curve of this airplane would
closely approximate the single degree of freedom case (Figure 5.72).
2
1
3
Roll Rate, p
Time, t
1 Single degree of freedom roll response.
2 High C n , low C l , low C n , low C np .

a
3 Low C n , high C l , high C n , high Cn p .

a
4 Low C n , very high C l , very high C n , and C np .

a
Figure 5.72
Typical Influence of Various Characteristics on Roll Response
5.clxiv
5.7.4.1.2 Low C n , Low C l , High C n , and C n p

a
Next, consider an airplane with relatively low directional stability, high yawing
moments generated by lateral control deflection and roll rate, yet relatively low dihedral
effect. These conditions would probably result in a low roll-to-yaw ratio. During rolling
maneuvers in this airplane, aileron yawing moments, C n , and yawing moments
a
generated by roll rate, C n p , would most likely generate significant sideslip excursions.
While these excursions would probably have rather small effects on rolling performance
per se due to the low dihedral effect, roll handling qualities may be seriously degraded.
The pilot may experience such undesirable characteristics as oscillations of the nose on the
horizon during turns or by a lag or initial reversal in yaw rate (or "turn rate") during a turn
entry. The latter phenomenon would be particularly objectionable in instrument flight
conditions.
5.7.4.1.3 Low C n , High C l , High C n , and C n p

a
The combination of relatively weak directional stability, strong dihedral effect, and
significant yawing moments generated by lateral control deflection and roll rate can result in
serious roll handling qualities problems. These conditions would probably result in a
Dutch roll motion of rather high roll-to-yaw ratio. The Dutch roll motion will be excited
during roll maneuvers because of the relatively large adverse or proverse yawing moments.
If the yawing moments are adverse, the sideslip generated will have the same sign as the
roll rate, i.e., in a roll to the right, the sideslip will be to the right of the airplane's nose,
etc. It can readily be seen that adverse yaw combined with large positive dihedral effect
(large negative C l ) can severely degrade rolling performance (Figure 5.72). If the Dutch
roll motion is lightly damped, the roll response may be oscillatory (Figure 5.72). In severe
cases, very large positive dihedral effect and very large sideslip angles generated by
adverse yawing moments, the roll rate may actually be diminished to zero or reverse
(Figure 5.72). Acceptable rolling performance may be regained in these cases by
appropriate rudder coordination during rolling maneuvers. However, the rudder inputs
would have to be large, quick, and precisely timed to alleviate the worst situation shown in
Figure 5.72. Under stress of actual operational conditions, the pilot probably would not be
able to devote sufficient attention to rudder coordination in this case.
5.clxv
5.7.4.2 ROLL COUPLING

Roll coupling may be defined as pitching and yawing motions which are induced by
inertial and kinematic effects during high rate rolls. These motions may be of a sufficient
magnitude to overcome the stability of the airplane; spectacular departures into
uncontrollable flight conditions are a possible consequence. Under conditions of high
dynamic pressure, these excursions may generate forces and accelerations which exceed the
design strength of the airframe.
There are actually three factors which tend to destablize the airplane during rolling
maneuvers. These factors could never occur singly in actual flight conditions. Their
influence may be additive and aggravate the resultant motion or act in opposition and
alleviate divergent tendencies. These three factors are: inertia coupling17 , kinematic
coupling, and the I xz effect.
The mathematical relationships required to describe such grossly nonlinear motions

as roll coupling are extremely complex and are omitted in this presentation. The primary
purpose of this discussion is to provide a practical understanding of the factors contributing
to roll coupling.
5.7.4.2.1 Inertia Coupling

The inertia distribution of an airplane may be represented by pairs of concentrated
masses, as shown in Figure 5.73. For clarity in the top pictorial presentation, the rolling
inertia pairs (represented by i xx ) are shown in the plane of symmetry of the airplane vice in
the wing plane. However, this has no effect on the resultant motion. Note that in the top
picture of Figure 5.73, if roll rate, p, and yaw rate, r, are present simultaneously, a
resultant angular velocity , is created. The airplane then rotates (rolls and yaws) about an
axis which is represented by the resultant angular velocity vector, 1 . The yawing inertia
pairs, represented by i zz are consequently subjected to centrifugal forces which generate a
nose up pitching moment, M y1 . The rolling inertia pairs, represented by i xx , are also
17 Roll coupling has frequently been incorrectly referred to as inertia coupling, since inertia effects have a
predominant influence on the motion. However, the phenomenon is best described simply as roll
coupling.
5.clxvi
subjected to centrifugal forces. However, their contribution is a nose down pitching

moment, M y2 . The nose up pitching moment, M y1 , is generally predominant since the
moment of inertia in yaw, I zz , is usually larger than the moment of inertia in roll, I xx . (If
the airplane is rolling left and yawing left, the predominant pitching moment will still be
nose up. If the airplane is rolling left and yawing right, or vice versa, the resultant pitching
moment will be nose down.)
In the bottom picture of Figure 5.73, the influence of simultaneous roll rate, p, and
pitch rate, q, is shown. The resultant angular velocity, 2 , is created and the airplane then
rotates (pitches and rolls) about the resultant angular velocity vector. The pitching inertia
pairs, I yy , are consequently subjected to centrifugal forces which generate a yawing
moment to the right, M Z1 . The rolling inertia pairs, represented by I xx , are also subjected
to centrifugal forces. However, their resultant yawing moment, M Z2 , is in opposition of
M Z1 . The yawing moment, M Z1 , is generally predominant since the moment of inertia in
pitch, I yy , is usually larger than the moment of inertia in roll, I xx . (If the airplane is
rolling left and pitching nose up, the resultant yawing motion will still be nose right. If the
airplane is rolling right and pitching nose up or vice versa, the resultant yawing motion will
be nose left.)
It can readily be rationalized that the moments generated by inertia effects could be
reduced to zero (see Figure 5.73) if the rolling moment of inertia, I xx , was equal to the
yawing and pitching moments of inertia, I zz and I yy , respectively. Thus, inertia coupling
depends on mass distribution. The larger the yawing and pitching moments of inertia
become in comparison to the rolling moment of inertia, the more fertile become the
circumstances in which inertia coupling can develop.
5.clxvii
My
1
My
2
ixx izz Angular Velocity in Roll, p
izz ixx
1 = Resultant Angular
p2 + Velocity, 1
Angular Velocity r 2
in Yaw, r
Angular Velocity 2
in Pitch, q + q
2
p
=
2
ixx
Mz 1 Resultant Angular
iyy Velocity, 2
Mz 2 Angular Velocity
iyy
in Roll, p
ixx
Symbols i yy represent pitching moment of inertia, I yy

Symbols i xx represent rolling moment of inertia, I xx
Symbols i zz represent yawing moment of inertia, I zz
Top airplane is rolling right and yawing right.
Bottom airplane is rolling right and pitching
down.
Figure 5.73
Generation of Inertia Coupling Moments
Consider now the evolution of the modern high performance airplane shape and
mass distribution (Figure 5.74). In order to accommodate the increasing loads and
equipment of the high performance airplane behind a minimum of frontal area, fuselages
have become more and more elongated and densely loaded all along their axis. The low
aspect ratio, thin wing planforms have been utilized to decrease transonic and supersonic
5.clxviii
drag. As a result, moments of inertia in pitch and yaw, I yy and I zz , have been increasing
steadily with corresponding decreases in moment of inertia in roll, I xx . A comparison of
inertia characteristics of World War II vintage airplanes with present day high performance
airplanes reveals the following typical ratios:
1939 - 45 Airplanes Modern High Performance Airplanes

Iyy: Ixx = 4:3 Iyy: Ixx = 10:1
Izz: Ixx = 4:3 Izz: Ixx = 10:1
Airplane of Modern High Performance

1939 - 45 Period Airplanes
0.
Hatching denotes regions of concentration of primary masses within the airplanes
Figure 5.74
Comparison of Airplane Mass Distribution
Thus, it is easy to realize that inertia coupling has become increasingly more pronounced on
modern, high performance airplane designs.
5.clxix
The tendency of the airplane to diverge in yaw or pitch due to inertia coupling is
resisted by the directional stability, C n , and angle of attack stability, C m . Based on
inertia coupling considerations only, expressions for critical roll rate, PCRIT , defined as the
roll rate at which directional or longitudinal instability will be encountered, may be written
as follows:
Cm qSc Cn qSb
I yy I zz
PCRIT1 ~ I xx I zz eq 5.100 PCRIT2 ~ I yy I xx eq.101
I yy I zz
Note that critical roll rate varies directly with angle of attack stability and directional
stability. As moments of inertia in pitch and yaw increase proportionately to the moment of
inertia in roll, critical roll rate is decreased (the denominator in both expressions approaches
one).
5.7.4.2.2 Kinematic Coupling

Kinematic18 coupling may be considered as an actual interchange of angle of attack
and sideslip during a rolling maneuver. This coupling results entirely from geometric
considerations.
The interchange of angle of attack and sideslip is illustrated in Figure 5.75. In the
top picture of Figure 5.75, the airplane is rolled from an initial positive angle of attack
which results in a sideslip of equal magnitude after 90 degrees of roll. The bottom picture
of Figure 5.75 shows the result of initiating a roll with inherent sideslip. After 90 degrees
of roll, the sideslip is transformed to angle of attack. It is obvious that, in actuality, the
aerodynamic stabilities of the airplane in pitch and yaw, C m and C n , will oppose the
introduction of any angle of attack and sideslip excursions which differ from a trimmed,
equilibrium condition. However, the airplane's capacity to prevent these excursions
18 Kinematics is a branch of mechanics which deals with motion in the abstract without reference to the
force or mass.
5.clxx
depends on the natural frequencies19 of the airplane in pitch and yaw as well as the
imposed roll rate. The roll rate dictates the rate at which the angle of attack and sideslip
interchanges are being imposed on the airplane dynamic system, i.e., the roll rate
determines the "disturbance rate." As long as this disturbance rate is relatively low, the
airplane dynamic system is able to cope with the disturbance inputs in angle of attack and
sideslip, and the motion is stable. However, if the roll rate is high enough in relation to the
airplane natural frequencies, the airplane system may be forced to accept cyclic inputs of
angle of attack and sideslip with which it cannot contend and a pure divergence in pitch or
yaw results. Thus, the relationships between the magnitudes of C m , C n , and roll rate
are of extreme importance in determining the resultant airplane response. As C m and

C n decrease, with resultant decreases in natural frequencies in pitch and yaw, and as roll
rate increases, the possibility of saturating the airplane system with cyclic angle of attack
and sideslip interchange increases.
p p
1
1
p
p
2 2
Figure 5.75
Kinematic Coupling
19 The natural frequencies in pitch and yaw are directly related to angle of attack stability, C m , and
directional stability, C n , respectively.
5.clxxi
5.7.4.2.3 The I xz Parameter

Three products of inertia appear in the equations of motion for a rigid airplane.
They are I xy , I yz , and I xz . By virtue of typical airplane conformation, the products of
inertia, I xz is almost invariably not equal to zero. If I xz is not equal to zero, it means that
the X axis of the airplane is not aligned with the principle inertial axis (see Figure 5.76).
1
4
m
1
4
m
X
1
4
m
1 x
4
m
The mass distribution of the airplane can be represented by

two crossed dumbbells, each bell being a quarter of the total
mass. The dumbbells are crossed exactly in their centers at
the CG of the airplane. The products of inertia I xy , I yz and
I xz can be thought of as measures of the uniformity of the
mass distribution about the Y axis, Z axis, and X axis
respectively. By virtue of airplane symmetry about the Y
and Z axes:
I xy = 0
I yz = 0
However, note that the mass distribution about the X axis is

not symmetrical, therefore
I xz 0
There exists an axis, denoted by x, about which the product

of inertia, I xz , would be equal to zero. This axis is called
the principle inertial axis.
5.clxxii
Figure 5.76
Product of Inertia and Principle Inertial Axis
When an airplane is rolled about an axis which does not coincide with its principle
inertial axis, centrifugal forces are generated which tend to cause the airplane to diverge
(Figure 5.77). The magnitudes of the forces and moments created are functions of the rate
of roll, p, and the numerical value of I xz relative to the actual axis of roll. This
phenomenon is easily visualized by considering a symmetrical rod to represent the
distributed mass along the length of the fuselage. If this rod is subjected to rotation about
an axis which is inclined to the rod at some small angle, the centrifugal forces and moments
created tend to cause the rod to increase its displacement from the axis of rotation (i.e.,
become a flyweight).
F2
X Axis
Principle
Inertial Axis
F1
Figure 5.77
Ixz Effects on Rolling Motion
Again, the airplane's ability to counteract the influence of mass distribution on roll
handling qualities depends on the aerodynamic stabilities of the airplane in pitch and yaw.
5.7.4.2.4 The Pilot's Contribution to Roll Coupling

The pilot is capable of inducing roll coupling difficulties by improper piloting
technique or by a lack of appreciation for the flight restrictions imposed on the airplane.
Theoretically, the pilot could override the influence of roll coupling during the rolling
maneuver by applying suitable coordinated rudder and elevator inputs. A typical computer
study program reveals that the pilot would be required to make control inputs as shown if
Figure 5.78. Obviously, it would be exceedingly difficult to achieve the required control
5.clxxiii
movements in the short time interval since the control inputs are not related to readily
perceptible flight sensations. More than likely, the pilot attempts at coordination would be
ill timed and reinforce the departures in angle of attack and sideslip.
Rate of Roll, p
1 2
Time, Seconds
a tor
Elev
e, r 1 2
er
Time, Seconds
dd
Ru
Figure 5.78
Typical Pilot Control Inputs Required to Overcome Roll Coupling Effects
5.7.4.2.4 Conclusions Concerning Roll Coupling

Combinations of inertia coupling, kinematic coupling, and product of inertia effects
may result in unstable motions during rolling maneuvers. The problem may be
compounded by adverse or proverse yawing moments generated during the rolling
maneuver or by improper piloting technique. The pilot cannot reasonably be expected to
cope with the sudden divergences in angle of attack and sideslip. Therefore, the only
solution to the roll coupling problem is to attempt to prevent the possibilities of
encountering it. The airplane designer may provide increased aerodynamic stability in yaw
5.clxxiv
or pitch. This may be done by increasing the size of the vertical tail or by providing
suitable artificial stability augmentation. In addition, appropriate airplane operational
limitations are published: roll rate limits, bank angle change limits, lateral control deflection
limits, rolling pull-out and rolling pushover limits, etc. The operational pilot must be
suitably educated in the problems associated with roll coupling; no pilot would intentionally
break rolling limitations imposed on his airplane if he understood the possible
consequences.
5.7.4.2.5 Aeroelastic Effects

The actual variation of rate of roll with airplane true airspeed may fall short of that
predicted by rigid wing theory, especially at high airspeeds. This is due to the effects of
wing twist and wing bending. When the trailing edge aileron is deflected, the wing tends
to twist so as to unload itself, i.e., attempt to decrease to forces and moments being applied
to the wing structure (Figure 5.79). Obviously, wing twist would reduce the rate of roll
attainable with a given lateral control deflection.
If the airplane has swept wings, wing bending may be a factor in rolling
performance (Figure 5.80). The chord line of the wing with sweepback makes an angle
with the airplane centerline, yet the wing bends perpendicular to the airplane centerline.
Swept wing bending, in response to moments created by lateral control deflection, thus
changes the effective wing angle of attack. These changes tend to reduce the rate of roll
attainable with a given lateral control deflection.
5.clxxv
Elastic
Axis
Lw
Aerodynamic Center
Elastic
Center L
a
L a = force generated by deflecting aileron trailing edge up.
L w = wing lift vector excluding L a .
Due to the aileron deflection, a moment is created which

tends to twist the wing structure (leading edge up in this
case). The wing will tend to twist about its elastic center, a
point in the section about which torsional deflection occurs.
Obviously, if the wing twists in this manner, the rolling
moment is somewhat decreased, therefore rolling
performance is decreased.
Figure 5.79
Wing Twist During Rolling Motion
5.clxxvi
CL
Aileron Trailing Edge Down
p
Wing Bending
Right Wing
Effective in Angle of Attack is Reduced

on Upgoing Wing
Reduction in Angle of Attack Tends to

Reduce Roll Rate
Figure 5.80
Influence of Wing Bending on Rolling Performance of a Swept-Wing Airplane
The typical influence of wing twist and wing bending is shown in Figure 5.81. If
the airspeed is high enough, a point may be reached where the combined effects of wing
twist and wing bending will counter the rolling moment generated by aileron deflection.
This airspeed, at which lateral control is completely negated by aeroelastic effects, is called
the "aileron reversal speed", Vr . It is extremely important, obviously, for the airplane
designer to insure that the wings are sufficiently rigid to cause Vr to be greater than any
airspeed at which the airplane will be operated.
5.clxxvii
+
No Aeroelastic
Effects
Rate of Roll, p
a = a
Max
Aeroelastic
Effects
True Airspeed, VT +
Figure 5.81
Typical Influence of Aeroelastic Effects on Rolling Performance
5.7.5 Lateral Control Forces

Lateral control forces are generated by the requirement for the pilot to move the
lateral control system to the position for equilibrium in the rolling maneuver. If the lateral
control system is irreversible, lateral control forces are merely a function of lateral control
position, i.e.:
Fa = K 1 a (linear feel spring system) eq 5.102
or
Fa = K 2 qa ("q feel" system) eq 5.103
where K1 and K 2 are constants describing the characteristics of the system, such as
strength of the feel spring, gearing ratio, etc.
However, if the lateral control system is reversible, the pilot control force
requirements will be a function of hinge moments developed. These hinge moments
depend on lateral control system design, dynamic pressure, and the imposed rate of roll.
The aileron float angles developed during roll maneuvers may be substantial for the
5.clxxviii
reversible control system. An expression for the floating angle of the aileron may be
developed as follows. If the hinge moment coefficients are considered linear functions of
angle of attack and aileron deflection, the total hinge moment coefficient may be expressed:
C ha = C h a + C ha Ave eq 5.104
a
Where:
C h = aileron hinge moment coefficient variation with aileron deflectionat zero
a
angle of attack
C h = aileron hinge moment coefficient variation with wing angle of attack at

zero aileron deflection
Ave = average increment of angle of attack due to the rolling velocity

(Figure 5.83)
From Figure 5.83:
py
Ave = eq 5.105
V
If C ha is zero, a is the aileron float angle, a Float which may the be expressed as:
Ch
a Float = C
h a
py'
V = C
h
Ch
a
( 2y'b ) ( 2Vpb ) eq 5.106
Thus, float angle in the steady state roll is proportional to roll rate, p.
5.clxxix
Airplane CL
y' = Distance of Spanwise Location

of Center of Mass of the Aileron
from the Airplane Centerline
y'
Relative Wind
at Section
V
y'
p
py' py'
Ave
py'
SIN Ave =
VRelative
py'
For Small Angles; Ave =
V
Figure 5.82
Generation of Angle of Attack Changes During Rolling Maneuvers
Since the pilot must apply lateral control forces to move the aileron from its float
position to the equilibrium position, the analytical expression for lateral control forces in the
reversible system is as follows:
Fa = K C h
a
{
q S a c a a Equilibrium aFloat } eq 5.107
Where:
K = a constant describing the characteristics of the system, radian per foot.
Sa = area of the aileron, square feet.
ca = average aileron chord, feet.
5.clxxx
Now since:
Cl p pb
a Equilibrium = C 2V (steady state roll) eq 5.108
l a
and:
a Float = C
h
Ch
a
( 2y'b ) ( 2Vpb ) eq 5.109
lateral control forces in the reversible control system may be expressed as:
Fa = Vp K
4 {
C h a S c
a a b
Cl p

Cl a
+ Ch
a
}
C h 2y'
b eq 5.110
or, for a constant altitude, merely:
Fa = K 1 Vp (H p = constant) eq 5.111
Since roll rate varies directly with true velocity, lateral control forces vary
essentially as the true velocity squared. Therefore, for the reversible control system, there
may very well be some true airspeed beyond which the lateral force gradient exceeds
acceptable limits. The airplane designer must be very careful to provide aerodynamic
balance which insures reasonable lateral control forces in the usable airspeed range of the
airplane. This is a most difficult design problem, thus boosted lateral control systems or
completely irreversible lateral control systems are common on airplanes with significant
airspeed capabilities.
The last equation can be utilized to show the degree of degradation of rate of roll at
high airspeeds where the pilot is unable to apply full lateral control because of excessive
forces. For a constant altitude situation, assume the pilot can apply a maximum lateral
control force of 30 pounds. For this case:
pV = K 2 eq 5.112
5.clxxxi
Therefore, the rate of roll will decrease hyperbolically with airspeed after the pilot is
denied maximum lateral control deflection by the force restraint (Figure 5.83).
If the response of airplanes with reversible and irreversible lateral control systems is
compared, the airplane with the irreversible control system may seem to be more
responsive.
+
pV = K2 Cl
a
p = C 2V

b a Max
lp
Rate of Roll, p
n
c tio
e fle
D
r on
ile
A
Pilot Cannot Apply a Beyond ll
Fu the
a Obtained with the Pilots Maximum
Force Capacity. Therefore, p Decreases
Hyberbolically with Increase in V T
+
True Airspeed, VT
Figure 5.83
Rolling Performance May Be Limited by Force
Requirements for the Reversible Control System
Considering only the aerodynamic hinge moments, this is because, for the same lateral
force input, the aileron deflection in the reversible system will not be as large because the
float angle has not had a chance to develop. The float angle develops as a function of roll
rate (Figure 5.84a). In order to generate the same initial response in roll rate, the reversible
control system will require more force initially (Figure 5.84b). In any case, the airplane
equipped with a reversible lateral control system which exhibits some measure of aileron
float may seem less sensitive and responsive to lateral force inputs.
5.clxxxii
+ Irreversible +
Roll Rate, p
Roll Rate, p
Reversible p (t) = Constant
Time, t + Time, t +
+ +
Aileron Deflection
Aileron Deflection
Irreversible a = Constant
a
a
Step Input Step Input
Reversible
Time, t + Time, t +
+ +
Lateral Control
Lateral Control
Fa = Constant
Force, Fa
Reversible
Force, Fa
Step Input
Irreversible
Time, t + Time, t +
(a) (b)
Figure 5.84
Possible Response Characteristics with Reversible
and Irreversible Control Systems
5.8 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES ROLLING

PERFORMANCE

A thorough investigation of rolling performance and associated roll handling
qualities must begin with careful preflight planning. The purpose and scope of the
formulated.
5.clxxxiii
Preflight planning must begin with research. This includes a study of the airplane
and a thorough study of the lateral control system-including stability and control
augmentation if installed. All available information on roll handling qualities should be
reviewed. Much useful information may be obtained from pilots and engineers familiar
with the characteristics of the airplane.
The flight test team should give due consideration to roll restrictions imposed on the
test vehicle. During rolling performance tests, the airplane may be pushed near its
boundaries of controllability. Flight testing in suspected regions of roll coupling warrants a
cautious, methodical approach and must be accompanied by thorough computer studies that
stay current with flight data.
The particular mission tasks to be investigated must be determined and clearly

understood by the flight test team. Knowledge of the mission and the associated tasks
allows determination of appropriate test conditions - configurations, altitudes, centers of
gravity, trim airspeeds, and gross weights. Test conditions must be commensurate with
the mission environment of the airplane. Center of gravity position is not particularly
critical for rolling performance tests. Tests at normal operational CG positions for a test
loading are generally adequate; however, if feasible, the most aft operational CG positions
should be utilized. Rolling performance may be altered markedly by various combinations
of external stores and/or rolling moments of inertia. The external or internal stores loading
which results in the maximum rolling moment of inertia, I xx , should be carefully
investigated. Asymmetric store loadings may also seriously impair rolling performance;
these conditions should be investigated on any airplane which may carry asymmetric stores
in operational use.
with only production cockpit instruments and portable instrumentation-hand held force
program of quantitative nature. Special sensitive cockpit instruments are also very useful.
The parameters to be recorded ant the ranges and sensitivities of test instrumentation will
vary somewhat with each test program.
5.clxxxiv
example of a rolling performance data card is shown in Figure 5.85. Since the pilot may be
recording different parameters for each test condition, the use of different data cards for
each test condition may be mandatory. The data cards should list all quantitative
information desired and should be easy to interpret in flight. Blank cards should be used
for appropriate qualitative pilot comments.
5.clxxxv
ROLLING PERFORMANCE RECORD CARD NUMBER
T.O. CG
GEAR DOWN ____% MAC GEAR UP ____ % MAC T.O. TIME ________ LAND TIME ________
EXTERNAL LOADING ALT
CONFIGURATION POWER
BREAKOUT & FRICTION CONTROL SYSTEM MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS FREEPLAY
CN __________
CN __________
ROLLING PERFORMANCE
FUEL START _______________________ END _____________________
V0 Pss*
DIR
CN OF F
ROLL
t*
M
OAT___________ OAT___________
vo__________ vo__________
*CROSS OUT PARAMETER NOT REQUIRED
Figure 5.85
Rolling Performance Data Card
5.clxxxvi

Rolling performance and associated roll handling qualities must be evaluated in
relation to their influence on various mission tasks. Therefore, the test pilot must devote a
portion of the flight test time to performing or simulating the mission tasks which have
been selected. The pilot's qualitative opinion of the maneuvering capabilities of the airplane
depends, to a substantial extent, on rolling performance. Due consideration should be
given during this phase of the test to the following points:
1. Whether the mission tasks will be performed in VFR and IFR weather, or
strictly VFR conditions.
2. The availability of an auto-pilot or automatic flight control system for pilot

relief.
3. If lateral-directional stability or control augmentation systems are installed,

the consequences of their failure.
The test pilot's qualitative opinion of the rolling performance and roll handling
qualities in relation to the selected mission task is the most important information to be
obtained. Therefore, this phase of the test must not be overlooked. Use of the quantitative
test techniques described below hopefully allow the test pilot to substantiate his qualitative
opinion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LATERAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics of the lateral control system have been previously
introduced in the "Test Procedures and Techniques" for lateral-directional flying qualities.
Therefore, test techniques for measuring mechanical characteristics of the lateral flight
control system will not be restated. This discussion is mainly concerned with the direct
influence of mechanical characteristics on roll handling qualities.
5.clxxxvii

Friction in the lateral control system, if substantial, can contribute to poor centering
and poor roll sensitivity for small lateral force inputs. Therefore, pure friction should be
kept as small as possible. Some lateral control breakout force is generally beneficial. It can
contribute to good lateral control centering and it tends to reduce the tendency for the pilot
to make inadvertent lateral inputs. Breakout forces tend also to reduce "roll sensitivity"
about a trimmed condition, which may eliminate pilot-induced-oscillations in roll for certain
flight conditions. However, breakout forces must obviously be maintained at a judicious
level.
Breakout forces should be suitably matched to the lateral control force variation
with lateral control position. A combination of large lateral breakout force and shallow
lateral force gradient results in artificial nonlinearity in lateral control force requirements.
This situation generates very poor roll control feel when the pilot attempts to maneuver
precisely with small lateral inputs.
5.8.2.2.2 Freeplay
Freeplay in the lateral control system should be as small as possible. Excessive
freeplay results in difficulty in performing precise bank angle control tasks with small
lateral control inputs.
5.8.2.2.3 Centering
Positive centering of the lateral control system allows the pilot to stop a developed
roll rate (in order to establish a desired bank angle) merely by relaxing left or right lateral
control force.

Oscillations of the lateral control surface and lateral control system, initiated by
either external perturbations or pilot inputs, should not be noticeable during any bank angle
control tasks or rolling maneuvers.
5.clxxxviii
5.8.2.3 FACTORS AND PARAMETERS INDICATING ROLLING

PERFORMANCE
The specific technique employed in the flight test program can be easily
comprehended if the parameters commonly used as quantitative measures of rolling
performance and roll handling qualities are clearly understood. Therefore, these factors
and parameters are summarized here.
5.8.2.3.1 Rate of Roll, p

The steady state roll rate pss , obtainable with various magnitudes of lateral control
deflection obviously influences the pilot's opinion of the maneuvering capabilities of the
airplane. The time required to make bank angle changes or bank angle corrections is
directly related to this characteristic.
pb
A parameter computed using steady state roll rate, 2V , was frequently utilized in
T
the past as a quantitative measure of an airplane's rolling performance. The concept of the
roll helix angle, or "non-dimensional roll rate" ( ),

pb
2VT as an indicator of rolling
performance was justified on the basis that pilots desire an increase in roll rate with faster
airspeeds and also desire that small airplanes be capable of higher roll rates than large
( ) pb
airplanes. Thus, by specifying a minimum 2V , higher roll rates are required as true
T
airspeed increases and wing span decreases. However, if true airspeed is very high and the
airplane's wing span is very small, steady state roll rates which exceed maximum useable
pb
roll rates are required to meet the minimum 2V of some specifications.
T
pb
Another parameter computed using steady state roll rate, 2 , has also sometimes
been utilized as a measure of the rolling performance of fairly large airplanes in the
approach and landing phases of mission accomplishment. This parameter is actually the
pb
vertical velocity of the wing tip during a rolling maneuver. By stating a minimum 2 , the
attempt is made to provide adequate rolling performance to counteract the influence of the
maximum vertical gusts experienced in close proximity to the ground.
5.clxxxix
Steady state roll rate, wing tip helix angle, and wing tip vertical velocity are easily
determined or computed from flight tests. However, they are obviously incomplete
indicators of rolling performance since the influence of roll acceleration and deceleration is
not considered.
5.8.2.3.2 Roll Mode Time Constant, R

The roll mode time constant R , is the time in seconds for the roll rate to build to
63.2 percent of its steady state value following a step input of lateral control deflections. It
is obviously a measure of the roll acceleration or deceleration following lateral control
position changes, thereby influencing the pilot's opinion of the maneuvering capabilities of
the airplane. However, its value can also affect the piloting technique utilized in bank angle
control tasks.
For an airplane with a relatively short roll mode time constant, the lateral control
system is a "roll rate commanding" system. The pilot applies the lateral control input, the
steady state roll rate is quickly attained, and the pilot holds the input until the desired bank
angle is approached, then takes it out to stop the roll rate at the desired bank angle. The
pilot finds this type of roll control natural and satisfactory from a technique point of view
(Figure 5.86).
5.cxc
Right
60
30
Bank Angle,
Degrees
0
30
Left
60
Right
Roll Rate, p
Deg/Sec
Left
Right
2
Lateral Control Deflection
0
Inches
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Time, Seconds Time, Seconds
1
Left
Short Roll Mode Long Roll Mode

Time Constant Time Constant
Figure 5.86
Typical Influence of R on Roll Control Techniques
If the roll mode time constant is too long, the initial roll response to a lateral control
input may be sluggish, thus impairing quick and precise maneuvering capabilities. The
pilot may resort to forcing or driving the initial response he desires by applying large initial
inputs of lateral control deflection. However, this technique is generally unacceptable,
since the roll rate continues to accelerate or build up, and therefore is difficult to stop.
Lateral control inputs essentially command roll acceleration vice roll rate when the time
constant is large. During the response time of interest to the pilot - one or two seconds
5.cxci
following a lateral control input - the roll rate exhibits a constant change. Therefore, the
pilot has an uncomfortable or insecure feeling about both the magnitude of the final roll rate
and the magnitude of the bank angle excursion. In flying an airplane with this
characteristic, the pilot generally pulses the lateral control system to get the roll started, then
leads with a pulse in the opposite direction to stop the roll. This type of roll control
requires increased pilot attention and adaptability (Figure 5.86).
The results of flying qualities investigations have revealed that the roll mode time
constant should be no greater than one second for high maneuverability airplanes in flight
phases or tasks which require precision tracking or precise flight path control. For all
airplanes in all phases of mission accomplishment, a roll mode time constant greater than
1.4 seconds generally results in objectionably sluggish roll response and requires a change
in piloting technique. Determination of the roll mode time constant from in-flight tests
requires special sensitive automatic recording devices (oscillograph, magnetic tape,
telemetry, etc.) and a special data analysis procedure to be presented later.
5.8.2.3.3 Bank Angle Change in a Given Time, t
The bank angle change in a given time parameter, t , is probably the best single
indicator of rolling performance. It depends both on steady state roll rate, pss , and the roll
mode time constant, R . In addition, when the bank angle change is timed from the
initiation of the pilot's lateral force application, t , will reflect any freeplay, lost motion,
flexibility, or lag in the lateral control system. By basing the parameter on bank angle
changes which are representative of operational maneuvers, rolling performance is
expressed in direct and meaningful terms. Determination of the bank angle change in a
given parameter can be easily and accurately made from flight tests with automatic
recording devices. It can be approximately measured using only cockpit instruments and
portable instrumentation.
5.8.2.3.4 Lateral Control Force, Fa

Lateral control forces required to obtain the rolling performance necessary for
various mission tasks should be comfortable for the pilot. Forces of too large or too small
a magnitude cause objectionable sluggishness or sensitivity in response to small lateral
control inputs. The maximum and minimum forces which are acceptable in any airplane
5.cxcii
depend on the mission of the airplane. In general, lower lateral control forces are desirable
for high maneuverability airplanes, and increased lateral control forces are required and
desired in low maneuverability airplanes. If the airplane is equipped with a wheel or yoke
type cockpit controller, higher lateral control forces may be accepted since the pilot is able
to apply both hands, thus larger forces to the control.
The measurement of lateral control forces during rolling maneuvers is difficult

unless automatic recording devices are available. If a hand-held force gauge is used to
measure lateral control forces, care must be take to ensure that the control does not reach
the limit stops during measurement.
5.8.2.3.5 Lateral Cockpit Control Position

The lateral cockpit control movements required to generate rolling performance
necessary for various mission tasks should neither be to small or too large. If the pilot is
continually striking the lateral control stops in order to obtain acceptable rolling
performance, he probably feels insecure and uncertain about the maneuverability of his
airplane. However, the pilot should be able to obtain full lateral control deflection if needed
without interference from his body or his flight equipment. For airplanes equipped with
wheel or yoke type cockpit controls, the lateral cockpit control movement required to
generate satisfactory rolling performance should not necessitate inordinate arm motion.
More than 60 to 90 degrees of wheel or yoke throw in either direction is generally
considered excessive.
5.8.2.3.6 Dutch Roll Influence
The degree of excitation of the Dutch roll motion and the resultant influence on
rolling performance and roll handling qualities depends on many factors. For optimum
rolling characteristics, the pilot should visually detect little or no Dutch roll motion during
rolling maneuvers required in operational mission tasks. If the Dutch roll is excited to a
significant degree, it will probably be manifested in one of two ways, depending on the
roll-to-yaw ratio of the motion.
For airplanes exhibiting relatively low roll-to-yaw ratios, corresponding to weak

dihedral effect, Dutch roll excitation during rolling maneuvers is noted as sideslip
excursions. Rolling performance, in terms of steady state roll rate or bank angle change in
a given time, is probably not seriously affected by these sideslip excursions. However, the
5.cxciii
sideslip per se is important since it precipitates oscillations of the nose of the airplane
during turns and/or a lag or initial reversal in turn rate during a turn entry. The amount of
sideslip acceptable during bank angle control tasks depends on the phase angle of the
sideslip, i.e., whether the sideslip is adverse or proverse. Adverse sideslip is actually
easier for the pilot to counteract; "natural" rudder coordination - rudder application in the
same direction as the lateral control input and turn - can be utilized. However, if the
sideslip is proverse, the rudder coordination required to reduce sideslip is difficult and
unnatural, since cross controlling is necessary. During rapid maneuvering, most pilots
unconsciously apply rudder in the same direction as the lateral control input and turn even
though they are aware that proverse yawing moments and proverse sideslip is being
generated. This seriously complicates the sideslip excursion problem.
The second way in which the Dutch roll motion is manifested during rolling
maneuvers is more direct, and possibly, more detrimental. For airplanes exhibiting
relatively moderate to high roll-to-yaw ratios, corresponding to significant dihedral effect,
Dutch roll excitation may enhance or impair rolling performance in terms of steady state roll
rate or bank angle change in a given time. Whether the rolling performance itself will be
enhanced or impaired is dependent on both the sign of the dihedral effect and the direction
of the yawing moment and sideslip excursions. Additionally, the excitement of a moderate
to high roll-to-yaw ratio , Dutch roll motion during bank angle tracking tasks may result in
oscillations in roll rate response (see Figure 5.72.). This oscillatory roll response can
severely impair roll handling qualities, generating overshooting of and oscillations about
the desired bank angle during rolling maneuvers and generally precluding accurate and
precise bank angle control. The degree of Dutch roll excitation which can be accepted again
depends on the sign of the effective dihedral and whether the generated yawing moment
and sideslip are adverse or proverse. If the airplane exhibits positive dihedral effect,
adverse yawing moments and sideslip actually enhance Dutch roll damping during tight,
precision bank angle control tasks. Conversely, proverse yawing moments and sideslip
tend to cause decreased Dutch roll damping in this situation. Flying qualities investigations
have revealed that the degradation in roll handling qualities is proportional to the amount of
roll rate oscillation, Posc , about some mean or average value, pave , and the phase angle,
, of the Dutch roll component of sideslip, i.e., whether the sideslip is adverse or
proverse.
5.cxciv
Exact quantitative parameters indicating the Dutch roll influence on rolling

performance and roll handling qualities can be measured only with automatic recording
devices. However, the test pilot may be able to determine the direction and magnitude of
the sideslip excursions during rolling maneuvers from a cockpit mounted sideslip indicator.
5.8.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ROLLING PERFORMANCE

Although the actual technique utilized in obtaining rolling performance parameters is
easily understood, the test pilot will probably realize difficulty in generating accurate,
repeatable data without extensive flight test experience and practice. The difficulty
associated with obtaining accurate quantitative parameters increases with decrease in
available instrumentation. The specific approach to the rolling performance test is
determined by several general considerations, which must be discussed prior to proceeding
to the actual techniques involved.
1. The time required for the test pilot to establish the lateral control input to initiate
the roll must be as small as possible. The input should approximate a step
input. If the time required to accomplish the input exceeds one-half second,
some of the parameters of interest, such as roll mode time constant and bank
angle change in a given time, may be impossible to determine accurately or
meaningfully. The test pilot should strive for inputs which are accomplished
within a time interval of 0.2 second for the most representative test results. The
use of both hands on the control stick or yoke may facilitate snapping the lateral
control quickly to the desired position.
2. Lateral control deflection utilized for each roll should be increased in

incremental steps until full lateral control defection is reached. Obviously, the
test should be terminated short of maximum control defection if flight
restrictions prohibit use of full control deflection or if unusual airplane
responses, such as roll coupling tendencies or excessive sideslip excursions are
encountered. The flight test team may desire to utilize some sort of lateral
control deflection restrictor if exact partial lateral control deflection points are
desired or if severe airplane response is anticipated with large lateral control
inputs. In most cases, only full lateral control deflection is required for
repeatable cockpit control position and the use of control deflection restrictors is
not necessary. Nevertheless, the test pilot should use appropriate partial lateral
control deflections as a build up to full deflection rolls at each test condition.
5.cxcv
Generally, one-quarter increments are utilized, although one-half of all

deflection increments may be used if no unusual airplane response is expected.
The test pilot can estimate these incremental lateral control deflections quite
accurately, particularly if the partial deflection inputs are practiced on the ground
to establish the lateral stick or yoke positions required. Correlation of stick or
yoke position with various markings and flight instruments in the cockpit is
very helpful.
3. The direction of roll should be alternated so that the influence, if any, of roll
direction on rolling performance may be ascertained. This influence is generally
more pronounced in propeller-driven airplanes. Therefore, left and right rolls
should be performed in these airplanes with the same lateral control input, i.e.,
left and right rolls with one-half lateral control deflection, then left and right
rolls with full lateral control deflection. Since rolling performance in pure jet
airplanes is usually not influenced by the direction of roll, left and right rolls
may be performed in these airplanes with consistently increasing control
deflection.
4. The airplane should be in a trimmed, unaccelerated flight condition prior to the

initiation of the roll. The test pilot should make every attempt to keep the
longitudinal control position at the trim position throughout the roll. No effort
should be made to counteract pitching moments generated during high rate rolls,
since the pilot is likely to augment the motion, vice stop it. (Techniques for
investigating roll coupling will be presented later.)
5. The use of rudders during the rolling performance tests will vary with the
airplane type and mission, as well as the flight conditions under consideration.
In general, rudders should remain free for high maneuverability airplanes
(Class IV) and for all carrier-based airplanes in Category C flight phases (levels
1 and 2). For low to medium maneuverability airplanes, the rudders may be
used to reduce adverse sideslip (sideslip retarding roll rate) providing the rudder
inputs are simple, easily coordinated, and consistent with normal piloting
technique for the mission and task under evaluation. Rudder inputs should not
be employed to produce proverse sideslip which could augment rolling
performance.
5.cxcvi
6. The bank angle change through which the roll is allowed to continue depends
on roll restrictions, test conditions, and data desired. In general, rolls should be
commenced from wings level, zero roll rate conditions. However, if the bank
angle changes is limited by roll restrictions or test conditions (airspeeds near
stall, high lift configurations, excessive sideslip excursions), the roll may be
initiated from an established bank angle so as to roll through wings level to an
opposite bank angle. Thus, the airplane is always upright throughout the
maneuver.
7. If the rolling performance tests are to be performed between very low airspeeds
near stall to near maximum airspeeds, the test should commence at airspeeds
near the center of the spectrum and proceed to the end points. This procedure
allows the flight conditions generally considered most critical to be approached
with an adequate build-up program.
8. Lateral control forces will be difficult to obtain without automatic recording

devices. The hand-held force gauge is usually too cumbersome and annoying
to utilize for inflight measurements. Additionally, the hand-held force gauge
floating pointer would indicate the transient lateral force applied during the
sharp control input vice the steady state control force of interest. For
irreversible lateral control systems where lateral force is merely a function of
lateral stick position, the lateral control forces may be accurately measured on
the ground with the hand-held force gauge. For other types of lateral control
systems, the test pilot may need to resort to estimating lateral control force
requirements during flight tests. When measuring or estimating forces required
for full deflection, the control should be placed just short of the stop. If the
control is against the stop, the force measured will be whatever the pilot decides
to apply.
9. The test pilot should be able to note the direction of sideslip excursions during
rolling maneuvers merely from the response of the airplane. If a cockpit
mounted sideslip indicator is available, the magnitude of the adverse or proverse
sideslip can be determined. Sensitive automatic recording devices are necessary
if parameters such as roll rate oscillations and the phase angle of the Dutch roll
component of sideslip are to be determined.
5.cxcvii
10. Two methods may be employed to obtain the desired trim airspeeds of the
test. The primary method is merely to utilize the power setting required for
the airspeed and altitude combination. An alternate method may be used in
propeller-driven airplanes to eliminate the influence of power variation on roll
characteristics. The power used is that required to maintain a level flight trim
airspeed midway between the maximum and minimum airspeed of the test
spectrum. Other airspeeds are then attained by trimming in climbs and
descents with the power setting remaining constant.
11. Altitude variance during rolling performance tests should not exceed +2000
feet from the selected base altitude for the tests.
The specific method utilized to obtain various rolling performance parameters

depends on the parameters themselves as well as the amount of instrumentation available.
Specific techniques will now be presented for test conducted with and without extensive
instrumentation.
5.8.2.4.1 Automatic Recording Devices

If a complete package of automatic recording instrumentation is available, all
rolling performance parameters may be obtained from the recording traces. The test pilot
merely performs the rolls as follows:
condition.
2. Actuate the automatic recording devices and perform the roll.
3. After completing the roll, recover to erect flight, deactivate the automatic
recording devices, and prepare for the next roll.
5.cxcviii
5.8.2.4.2 Portable Instrumentation and Cockpit Mounted

Instruments
Several of the parameters needed to completely describe rolling characteristics
cannot be determined with only cockpit instruments and portable instrumentation.
However, some approximate, yet meaningful, data can be obtained. The general
procedures for the test remain the same, with the following specific procedures
recommended for certain situations.
If the parameter required is steady state roll rate, pss , the following approach may
be utilized.
1. When a rate of roll indicator is available in the cockpit, the test pilot merely rolls
through a bank angle change large enough for the roll rate to reach steady state.
The value of the roll rate is noted from the indicator.
2. If no roll rate indicator is installed, the test pilot must compromise by obtaining
an average roll rate computed from a timed bank angle change. The average roll
rate will closely approximate the actual steady state roll rate if the bank angle
change is as large as possible and if the period during which the roll rate is
building up is not timed. For example, a left roll could be initiated from a 45
degree right bank angle. The timing would start at wings level and end after a
360 or 180 degree bank angle change. The attitude indicator and a one- or
three-second sweep stopwatch may be employed to obtain and t . The
average roll rate can be computed after the flight.
If the parameter required is bank angle change in a given time, t , the following
approach may be utilized.
1. The parameter, t , may be approximately determined with a one- or three-

second stopwatch and the attitude gyro. The test pilot may desire to set up for
this test so as to roll about a wings level condition. The data required is merely
the time necessary to accomplish the bank angle change under consideration.
Timing should start at the initiation of the lateral force input. From the and
the t data, approximate values of t may be extrapolated by assuming a
5.cxcix
linear bank angle-time relationship. This is obviously not a correct assumption, since this
relationship is nonlinear during the time interval prior to the roll rate reaching steady state.
Therefore, the t obtained by this method is only approximate.
2. If the purpose of the test is to check against a specification requirement, such as

t = 90 degrees in 1.3 seconds, it is only necessary to time the roll through the
bank angle change under consideration. If the bank angle change is
accomplished in a time interval equal to or less than the specified time, the
requirement is met.

Violent roll coupling should never be encountered during any maneuver which
conceivably could be utilized in a operational mission task. Some pitching and yawing
motion, not directly attributable to pilot control inputs or yawing moments generated by
lateral control inputs or roll rate, may be expected during rolling maneuvers. However,
these motions should not generate sideslip and angle of attack excursions large enough to
exceed structural limits or result in uncontrollable flight conditions, such as roll auto-
rotation. The yawing and pitching experienced during rolling maneuvers utilized in typical
mission tasks should not be severe enough to impair the satisfactory completion of the
tasks. High maneuverability airplanes may be particularly susceptible to the detrimental
effects of roll coupling.
Flight testing for maximum rolling performance under conditions favorable for roll
coupling, or flight testing specifically to determine if roll coupling may be encountered,
require cautious, methodical approaches. The following general guidelines are offered for
planning and conducting these test programs:
1. Thorough computer studies, based on known or assumed values of stability

derivatives should be conducted prior to commencement of flight tests. The
studies should be continued along with the flight tests, systematically being
updated with flight test data.
5.cc
2. Complete airplane instrumentation with automatic recording devices is

mandatory if the results of these tests are to be analyzed properly. Telemetry
and real-time data processing should be employed, if available. A qualified
engineering observer, with communications to the test pilot, should monitor the
flight test records continually at the telemetry station.
3. Thorough rolling performance tests should be conducted from unaccelerated

flight conditions initially. (Violent roll coupling has been encountered during
these tests on some airplanes.)
4. Assuming that no roll coupling is encountered during rolls from unaccelerated

flight conditions, the test program may proceed into rolls initiated form
accelerated flight conditions. The applied normal acceleration should be
increased or decreased to maximum and minimum values consistent with
operational piloting tasks. Generally, rolls from flight conditions where applied
normal acceleration varies from 0 g to .8 NL are considered adequate.
However, airplane structural limits may restrict the scope to lower g levels.
Initial normal acceleration should be increased or decreased from 1 g in small
increments in a planned build-up program to maximum and minimum values.
At each point (1.5g, 0.5g, 2.0g, 0.0g, etc.), partial lateral control deflection
rolls should be utilized in a methodical build-up program to maximum
performance rolls. These rolls may be initiated from steady turning flight,
wings level pull-ups, or push-overs. The techniques utilized to establish the
desired value of normal acceleration should be similar to those described earlier
for longitudinal maneuvering stability tests.
5. If violent roll coupling is encountered, the pilot should make no attempt to

control the yawing and pitching motion with rudder and elevator inputs. The
pilot's attempts would probably be ill-timed and augment the violent
excursions. The recommended procedure on encountering violent roll coupling
is to stop the roll by use of lateral control movements and neutralize the
longitudinal and directional controls.
5.cci
6. Flight tests should be terminated when the test pilot, the observing engineer in
telemetry, or the computer studies predict or indicate that the nest roll may
exceed the "critical limit" of controllability. The only means of determining the
exact critical limit, or course, is to exceed it, which is obviously not a required
or desired approach.

brief, rough qualitative report of the rolling performance and associated roll handling
qualities exhibited during the mission tasks under evaluation. This report should be written
while the events of the flight are fresh in the pilot's mind. Qualitative pilot opinion,
appropriately related to the mission tasks under evaluation, will be the most important part
of the final report.
Representative data should be selected to substantiate the pilot's opinion. Several

suggested data presentation schemes will be introduced. No matter what method is used, it
should be clear, concise, and complete.
5.8.3.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LATERAL

CONTROL SYSTEM
Mechanical characteristics may be effectively presented in tabular form as
previously discussed and illustrated in Test Procedures and Techniques - Non-
maneuvering Tasks (Longitudinal Flying Qualities).
5.8.3.2 ROLLING PERFORMANCE

Rolling performance data may be presented as plots of steady state roll rate, and/or
bank angle change in a given time versus airspeed or Mach number. Usually, only full
lateral control deflection or maximum rolling performance is presented since full deflection
is generally the only repeatable lateral control position utilized during the flight tests.
However, partial control deflection data may be presented, if desired. Applicable minimum
specification requirements are normally superimposed on the rolling performance plots.
Typical data presentation is shown in Figure 5.87.
5.ccii
Flight Phase CO
Full Lateral Control Deflection
2 Left Rolls
Right Rolls
Time to Roll Through 90 (Sec)

Spec Max
1.3 Level 2
Level 1
1
VMAT
1.4 Vs
0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Indicated Mach Number (IMN)
Flight Phase PA
Full Lateral Control Deflection
Left Rolls
Right Rolls
Time to Roll Through 30 (Sec)
3.0
Spec Max
2.0 Level 3
Level 2
1.3
1.0 Level 1
Min.
Approach
Airspeed VMAX (PA)
0
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Indicated Airspeed (KIAS)
Figure 5.87
Rolling Performance in Configurations CO and PA
5.cciii
If lateral control force and sideslip data are available from the flight tests, these
parameters may be presented with other rolling performance data (Figure 5.88). Lateral
control forces may also be plotted versus lateral control deflection; this procedure is
particularly appropriate for the irreversible lateral control system in which lateral control
forces are merely a function of lateral control position.
Stability
Roll Direction Gross Weight (Lb) CG (%Mac) Augmentation
Lt Rt
50,200 33.9 On
50,200 33.9 Off
Spec. Limits
(Level 1)
30
Lateral Control Force (Lb)
Breakout + Friction = 2.5 Lb

Spec. Maximum
20
10
Spec. Minimum
0
Max Adverse Sideslip (/K)
10
8 Spec. Maximum
6
(Deg)
0
140 180 220 260 300
Calibrated Airspeed - KT
Figure 5.88
5.cciv
Rolling Performance in Configuration Power
If automatic recording devices have been available for the flight tests, more
sophisticated data analysis and data presentation techniques may be employed. In
particular, the flight test team may desire to present the roll mode time constant, R , the
P
degree of roll rate oscillation, expressed as Posc , and the time required for the pilot to apply
ave
the lateral control deflection (Figure 5.89). The latter parameter is a good indication of the
P
quality of the data. Techniques for determining the roll mode time constant and Posc will
ave
be discussed in subsequent paragraphs.
5.ccv
Full Abrupt Lateral Control Deflection Rudder Pedals Free

Limits Mil Spec 8785B
Left Roll
Right Roll
Stab Aug On Stab Aug Off

.6
.4
Stick Deflection
Full Lateral
Time to
Sec
.2
400
300
Rate of Roll
200
Deg/Sec
Peak
100
2
1
to 60 Angle of
Bank Change
0
Time
Sec
270
180
90
Bank Change
in 1.7 Sec
Angle of
0
Deg
.4
P Osc / P Ave
.3
.2
.1
1.5
1.0
Time Constant
Roll Mode
0.5
Sec
0
.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Mach Number
Figure 5.89
Rolling Performance in Configuration Cruise
Model __________ Airplane

BuNo __________________
5.ccvi

The influence of roll coupling, if any, on mission accomplishment should be
discussed in the technical report. The operational pilot rightly deserves sufficient
information on the behavior of the airplane during rolling maneuvers to allow roll coupling
to be avoided. Violent roll coupling, if encountered, may be illustrated with one or more
time histories of the motion of the airplane during the maneuver. A time history showing
violent roll coupling is present in Figure 5.90. Additional parameters may be shown if
desired.
5.8.3.4 QUANTITATIVE INDICATIONS OF DUTCH ROLL

INFLUENCE
If automatic recording traces are available for roll handing qualities analysis, the
degree of Dutch roll excitation during rolling maneuvers may be determined in quantitative
terms. Flying qualities investigations have revealed that requirements can and should be
placed on the degree of Dutch roll excitation during moderate bank angle change maneuvers
such as turn entries. These requirements, although designed to be generally applicable for
all combinations of Dutch roll characteristics, are specifically aimed at different Dutch roll
responses. This approach is justified on the basis that Dutch roll excitation is manifested in
different ways depending on the roll-to-yaw ratio of the motion.
5.8.3.4.1 Low Roll-to-Yaw Ratio

For low roll-to-yaw ratios of the Dutch roll motion, sideslip excursions in
themselves cause a degradation in roll handling qualities. Therefore, restrictions have been
proposed on the maximum amount of sideslip experienced during large amplitude rolls
(Figure 5.91).
5.8.3.4.2 Sideslip Excursions

Following a yaw-control-free step roll control command, the ratio of the sideslip
increment, , to the parameter k shall be less than the values specified herein. The roll
command shall be held fixed until the bank angle has changed at least 90 degrees.
5.ccvii
300
Rwd
250
Maximum Permissible
Rate of Roll
200
150
Deg/Sec
of Roll
Rate 100
50
0
Lwd
50
30
Lt
20
Deg/Sec
of Yaw
10
Rate
10
Rt
20
30
Anu
20
of Pitch
Deg/Sec
10
Rate
10
And
20
3
2
1
0
Acceleration
Normal
-1
G
Structural Design
-2 Limit
-3
-4
-5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, Seconds
Figure 5.90
Roll Coupling During a Full Aileron Deflection Right Roll
5.ccviii
Model_____________Airplane
BuNo__________________
Loading: A Gross Weight: 12,650 Lbs.

Configuration: Dive CG: 13.25% MAC
Trim: 350 KIAS, 10,000 Ft. Stab Aug: On
5.ccix
Adverse Sideslip Proverse Sideslip

Flight Phase (Right roll command (Right roll command
Level Category causes right sideslip) causes left sideslip
1 A 6 degrees 2 degrees
B&C 10 degrees 3 degrees
2 A11 15 degrees 4 degrees
max - maximum change in sideslip at the c.g., occurring within two seconds
or one half-period of the Dutch roll, whichever is greater, for a step roll-
control command
k - ratio of "commanded roll performance" to "applicable roll performance

requirement" of Spec paragraphs 3.3.4 or 3.3.4.1 where:
(a) "Applicable roll performance requirement", (t) requirement, is

determined form 3.3.4 and 3.3.4.1 for the Class, Flight Phase
Category and Level under consideration.
(b) "Commanded roll performance" (t) command, is the bank angle

attained in the stated time for a given step roll command with yaw
control pedals employed as specified in 3.3.4 and 3.3.4.1
( t )command
K =
( t ) requirement
Figure 5.91
Sideslip Excursion Limitations
5.8.3.4.3 Moderate to High Roll-to-Yaw Ratios

For moderate to high roll-to yaw ratios of the Dutch roll motion, excessive Dutch
roll excitation during rolls may generate oscillatory roll rate response. A degradation in roll
handling qualities may result. Therefore, restrictions have been made on the amount of roll
rate oscillation experienced during abrupt rolling maneuvers (Figure 5.97). (If the phase
angle cannot be determined, a phase angle of -240 degrees should be assumed for airplanes
exhibiting adverse sideslip, and a phase angle of -60 degrees should be assumed if the
sideslip is proverse.)
5.ccx
1.1
1.0
Flight Phase
.9
Category B
.8 Level 2
.7
Level 1
.6
OSC
AV
P
Flight Phase
P
.5 Categories A & C
.4 Level 2
Level 1
.3
.2
.1
0
-40 -80 -120 -160 -200 -240 -280 -320 -360
(Deg) When Leads by 45 to 225

-180 -220 -260 -300 -340 -20 -60 -100 -140 -180
(Deg) When Leads by 225 Through 360 to 45

Use this Scale if Airplane Exhibits Positive Dihedral Effect
Use this Scale if Airplane Exhibits Negative Dihedral Effect
Where:
p osc
pAV - a measure of the ratio of the oscillatory component of roll rate to the
average component of roll rate following a yaw-control-free step aileron

control command:
p p + p 2 p2
d 0.2 : pOSC = p1 + p 3
AV 1 3 + 2 p2
p p p
d 0.2 : pOSC = p1 + p2
AV 1 2
where p1 , p2 , and p3 are roll rates at the first, second, and third peaks,
respectively.
- phase angle expressed as a lag for a cosine representation of the Dutch roll
oscillation in sideslip. (See Figure 5.56c)
5.ccxi
p
1 p
3
Roll Rate, p
(Deg/Sec)
p
2
Time, Sec
Figure 5.92
Roll Rate Oscillation Limitations
5.8.4 Control Force Coordination

Control forces required in normal maneuvering of the airplane should be of relative
magnitudes which "feel" normal to the pilot. This is obviously a qualitative evaluation
which the test pilot can perform while maneuvering the airplane through typical mission
tasks. The elevator, aileron, and rudder forces and displacement sensitivities as well as
breakout forces should be compatible so that intentional inputs to one control axis will not
cause inadvertent inputs to another. If the pilot is aware or conscious of a markedly
different effort being applied to one control axis, control force coordination may be poor.
Certain specifications may state quantitative guidelines for the control forces
required during coordinated maneuvers. The most common ratio utilized is 2:7:1 for
longitudinal, directional, and lateral control forces, respectively. This ratio is applicable to
all maneuvers normally required in the airplane's mission.
Quantitative requirements for control force coordination may be checked as follows:
1. Trim the airplane in level flight in the Power configuration at altitudes

representative of the mission environment.
2. Maneuver the airplane to be at the trim airspeed and altitude in a dive.
5.ccxii
3. As the trim airspeed is approached, perform a rolling pullout to simultaneously

attain target normal acceleration and roll rate. Utilize rudder inputs, as
necessary, to maintain coordinated flight.
4. As target normal acceleration and roll rate are attained, note longitudinal, lateral,
and directional control forces.
Control force coordination should also be evaluated qualitatively in the Power

Approach configuration during actual approaches.
5.8.4.1 ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION OF THE ROLL MODE

TIME CONSTANT
The roll rate response to a step input of lateral control is characterized by an
exponential increase in roll rate until a steady state value is attained. This response may be
represented by the following relationship:
{
p (t ) = p ss 1 e t/ R } eq 5.113
By appropriate manipulation of the last expression, a technique may be evolved by

which the roll mode time constant, R may be determined from flight test records. The roll
rate response to a step lateral control input may be rewritten as:
p (t ) = p ss pss e t/ R eq 5.114
5.ccxiii
This relationship indicated that p (t) can be graphically represented as the summation of the
two parts of the expression (Figure 5.93).
Roll Rate, p
pss
0
0 Time, t
pss
Roll Rate, p
-t
pss e R
x1 x2
x3 x4
0
0 Time, t
pss
Roll Rate, p
x3 x4
x1 x2 -t
pss pss e R
= p (t )
0
0 Time, t
Figure 5.93
Roll Rate Response to Step Lateral Control Input
(Note that the "total" roll rate response curve, p (t), is merely a mirror image of the curve
described by pss e t / R ).
Consider now the part of the roll rate response represented by the middle plot of
Figure 5.98 and the following expression:
t
R
X(t) = p ss e eq 5.115
5.ccxiv
If the logarithm is taken of both sides of this equation, the following results:
ln X ( t ) = ln p ss t eq 5.116
R
or:
ln X(t) = K 1 Kt eq 5.117
2
Thus, there is a linear relationship between ln X(t) and t. Therefore, if the expression:
X( t ) = p ss e t/ R eq 5.118
is plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper, with X(t) as the logarithmic axis and t as the
linear axis, a straight line is generated (Figure 5.99). This the crucial point which allows
the determination of R from actual flight record of rolling maneuvers. With the theoretical
background presented above, the practical aspects of the manipulation of the flight test data
should be easily comprehended.
10
9
8
X (t) Deg Per Second
7
t
6 R
X ( t) = pss e
5
1
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Time, t (Seconds)
Figure 5.94
t
Xt p ss e R Plotted on Semi-Log Paper
5.ccxv
The roll mode time constant, R , may be determined as follows:
(A sample exercise is presented in Figure 5.95).
Steady State a
Roll Rate Reaches 10
Aileron Deflection
Steady State
X (t)
Pss Pss
X(t) = 1.5
X(t) = .4
X(t) = .6
5
X(t) = 1.8
X(t) = .7
X(t) = 1.0
X(t) = 2.2
X(t) = 1.2
Roll Rate
X(t) = 2.7
Time, Seconds
1.5 1.0 0
0.5
14
13
X(t)1 = 3.0
12
11
X(t)2 = .368 3.0 = 1.104

10
9
X(t)
8
7
6
5 t2 = 0.94 Sec
t1 = 0.45 Sec
4
1
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Time, Seconds
Figure 5.95
Determination of R from Oscillograph Trace of a Rolling Maneuver
5.ccxvi
1. From the automatic recording trace of the roll maneuver, determine the steady
state roll rate.
2. Using the portion of the roll rate trace past the point where the lateral control
surface deflection reaches steady state, determine several X(t) and time values.
The parameter, X(t), is the difference between the steady state roll rate and the
roll rate at any given time. The portion of the roll rate trace prior to the point
where the lateral control reaches steady state cannot be utilized since that portion
is not characterized by an exponential increase in roll rate. It is not necessary to
express the X(t) values (vertical scale) in actual units of degrees per second.
Any convenient vertical scale may be utilized since the variation of the X(t)
parameter with time is the only characteristic of concern. The horizontal scale
must be actual time in seconds, although the starting, or zero, point's location
on the trace is not critical.
3. Plot the X(t) and corresponding times on semilogarithmic graph paper. The
vertical logarithmic scale must be the X(t) axis, while the horizontal, linear scale
must be the time axis.
4. Fair a straight line through the points defined by the X(t) and t values on the
semilog paper.
5. For a convenient X(t)1 value on the semilog paper, determine a corresponding

time, t 1 . Compute 0.368 X(t)1 , which may be called X(t) 2 . The value 0.368
is used as a multiplication factor (instead of .0632) because X(t) is measured
from steady state roll rate not from zero roll rate. Determine a time, t 2 ,
corresponding to X(t) 2 on the semilog paper.
6. Compute the roll mode time constant as follows:
R = t 2 t1 eq 5.119
The results of this procedure will be rather accurate if the test pilot uses a good
technique during the inflight test and if the Dutch roll motion is not evident in the roll
response. The test pilot must make a very quick lateral control input and must hold the
5.ccxvii
input constant during the roll rate increase to steady state. Full lateral control deflection
rolls are not required; partial deflection rolls may be utilized if the partial input can be made
quickly and held constant.
If Dutch roll excitation causes oscillatory roll rate response, data analysis will be
more tedious and accuracy of the results will be derogated. When the roll rate is
oscillatory, engineering judgement must be utilized to determine the steady state roll rate
and to "fair" an approximate single degree of freedom roll rate response curve. The
procedures shown in Figure 5.100 and described earlier may then be followed.

Requirements for rolling performance and associated roll handling qualities are
contained in the following applicable paragraphs of Military Specification MIL-F-8785C of
5 November 1980, hereafter referred to as the Specification.
3.3.1.2 Roll mode
3.3.2 Lateral-directional dynamic response characteristics
3.3.4 Roll control effectiveness
3.4.3 Cross-axis coupling in roll maneuvers
3.4.4 Control harmony (including 3.4.4.1)
3.5.2 Mechanical characteristics of control systems
3.5.3 Dynamic characteristics
3.5.4 Augmentation systems
5.ccxviii
3.3.2.2.1 Additional Roll Rate Requirements for

Small Inputs
p
The parameter posc is used for determining the Dutch roll influence on roll
av
performance during precise tracking tasks. Large lateral control deflections and roll rates
should not be used to measure this parameter.
3.3.2.4 Sideslip Excursions

The table contained in this paragraph (page 24 of Spec) is used to determine
adverse/proverse yaw Spec compliance during the tests listed in paragraph 3.3.4. The

"adverse sideslip" and "proverse sideslip" referred to in the table are the parameter k .
3.3.2.4.1 Additional Sideslip Requirements for

Small Inputs
Compliance with Figure 5.6 of the Spec should be made during precise tracking
tasks. Large lateral control deflections and roll rates should not be used during these tests.
3.3.4 Roll Control Effectiveness

The airspeed and altitude requirements to determine compliance with Table IX are
listed according to the flight phase in Table l of the Spec (page 7).
3.3.4.1.1 Air-to-Air Combat
3.3.4.1.2 Ground Attack with External Stores
The requirements of these paragraphs take precedence over Table IX of the Spec.
5.ccxix
5.10 ROLLING PERFORMANCE - GLOSSARY
Single Degree Rolling motion during which the airplane is allowed to roll
of Freedom Roll but not allowed to yaw or pitch; pure roll response.
Roll Mode Time Time required for the single degree of freedom roll rate to
Constant, R reach 63.2% of the steady state roll rate following a step
lateral control input.
Steady State Roll Roll rate attained when the roll damping contribution equals
Rate, pss the roll control power contribution for a constant lateral
control input.
pb Helix angle described by the wingtip of a rolling airplane;

Roll Helix Angle, 2V
T
sometimes referred to as the non-dimensional roll rate.
Roll Coupling Pitching and yawing motions induced by inertial and

kinematic effects during high rate rolls.
Elastic Center A point in the wing section about which torsional deflections
occurs.
Aileron Reversal Airspeed at which the combined effects of wing twist and
Airspeed, Vr wing bending counteract the rolling moment generated by
lateral control deflection.
Wingtip Vertical Vertical velocity of the wingtip of a rolling airplane;

pb sometimes used as a measure of the rolling performance of
Velocity, 2
large airplanes in the approach and landing phases of mission
accomplishment.
Bank Angle Change In The bank angle attained in a predetermined time interval
A Given Time, t following a step input of lateral control; time is measure from
the initiation of the pilot's lateral control force application.
5.ccxx
5.11 ROLLING PERFORMANCE-REFERENCES

2. Airplane Performance, Stability, and Control, by Courtland D. Perkins,

3. Analysis of Several Handling Quality Topics Pertinent to Advanced Manned

4. Criteria For Acceptable Representation of Airplane Dynamic Responses in

Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. BM-1642-F1, September, 1962.
5. Determination of Lateral Control Requirements at Low Airspeeds, Report No.

2, Final Report, by Lcdr. W. Spangenberg, USN and Mr. G. A. Patterson, U.S. Naval
Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, Report No. FT212-222, 19 July 1963.

David H. Weir, Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, California, NASA CR-239, July,
1965.
7. Dynamics of Flight, Stability, and Control, by Bernard Etkins, Professor of

5.ccxxi

Vehicles Utilizing Fixed-Base and In-Flight Evaluations, by J.I. Meeker, Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, NASA CR-778, May 1967.

Landing, by W.J.G. Pinsker, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Bedford, England.

Translation F-442, April,1967.
by William Koven and Richard Wasicko, AGARD Specialists Meeting on Aircraft Stability
and Control, Brussels, Belgium, April 1961.
12. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Technique, Empire Test Pilot's
13. In-Flight Evaluation of Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities for the Fighter

14. In-Flight Simulation and Pilot Evaluation of Selected Landing Approach

Handling Qualities of a Large Logistics Transport Airplane, by Donald W. Rhodes, Cornell

University, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Report No. 797, September
1967.
16. Lecture Notes on Lateral-Directional Stability, by F.D. Newell and Michael

Parrag, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. TB-
1961-F-1, July, 1965.
5.ccxxii

1961.
18. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-8785C, 5

November 1980.

20. A Pilot Opinion Study of Lateral Control Requirements for Fighter-Type

Aircraft, by Brent Y. Creer, John D. Stewart, Robert B. Merrick, and Fred J. Drinkwater,
III, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, NASA Memorandum 1-29-59A,
March 1959.
21. The Provision of Adequate Lateral Control Power for Landing Approach
Conditions, by Mr. G.A. Patterson and Lcdr. W. Spangenberg, USN, U.S. Naval Air
Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland.
22. A Review of Recent Research on Handing Qualities and Its Application to the
Handling Problems of Large Aircraft, by P.L. Bisgood, Ministry of Aviation, Aeronautical
Research Council, London, R. & M. No. 3458, June 1964.
23. Stability and Control, Empire Test Pilot's School Ground School Notes,
Book "C".

5.ccxxiii
26. A Study of Conventional Airplane Handling Qualities Requirements - Part I

Roll Handling Qualities, by I.L. Ashkenas, Systems Technology, Inc., AFFDL-TR-65-
138, Part I.
27. Substantiation Information for Selected Lateral-Directional Requirements, Cornell

5.12 MISCELLANEOUS LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL TESTS
5.12.1 Introduction
Certain miscellaneous lateral-directional tests, not previously introduced, are
presented in this section. Crosswind takeoffs and landings are generally the most
significant of the tests to be introduced.
5.12.2 Lateral-Directional Control During Crosswind

Takeoffs, Approaches, and Landings
A crosswind is defined as a wind blowing across the direction of movement of an
airplane; i.e., a wind blowing across, as across a runway. The most important influence of
a crosswind is to tend to drive the airplane sideways and change its direction of movement.
Thus, the concern of the test pilot while performing crosswind evaluations is the directional
controllability of the airplane under crosswind conditions. The operational pilot must be
afforded sufficient lateral-directional control to consistently and safely perform takeoffs and
landings in crosswind components representative of operational conditions.
5.12.2.1 DIRECTIONAL GROUND STABILITY

Directional ground stability is the capability of the airplane to maintain a straight
ground path under representative wind conditions. Directional ground stability in a
crosswind is actually degraded by strong directional stability, since the strong directional
stability increases the tendency of the airplane to "weather-cock." However, the typical
landing gear placement - two main gears located laterally in line and nose gear or a tail
wheel - contributes to the maintenance of a straight ground path under crosswind
conditions. Directional ground stability is increased by increasing the reaction of the
nosewheel or tailwheel with the runway surface. From an airplane design viewpoint,
5.ccxxiv
increasing the lateral displacement of the main landing gear and increasing the longitudinal
displacement of the third gear increases directional ground stability. Pilot technique also
influences directional ground stability. Maximum resistance to "weather-cocking" is
achieved by holding full nose-up longitudinal control in tailwheel airplanes and full nose-
down longitudinal control in nosewheel configured airplanes. If the "weather-cocking"
tendency of the airplane cannot be counteracted by all available means, the airplane will
leave the runway on the side from which the wind is blowing (upwind side).
Directional ground stability is insidiously influenced by dihedral effect. Rolling

moments are generated by the sideslip imposed on the airplane during crosswind takeoffs,
and landings (Figure 5.96). These rolling moments tend to roll the airplane about the
downwind point of contact (downwind landing gear). Thus, the weight of the airplane and
the lateral placement of the main landing gear have a large effect on the "lateral ground
stability" of the airplane. Widely spaced main landing gear obviously enhances the lateral
ground stability. From a pilot technique viewpoint, maintenance of full nose-down
longitudinal control provides maximum lateral ground stability by decreasing the lift
coefficient, thus increasing the weight vector acting in opposition to the roll excursion
(Figure 5.96).
Rolling Moment
Generated by Crosswind
Left Sideslip
is Generated
Downwind
Landing Gear W
The rolling moment about the downwind

point of contact (Generated by the cross-
wind) is opposed by moments generated
by airplane weight and lateral control
inputs.
Figure 5.96
Lateral Ground Stability
5.ccxxv
If the rolling moment generated by the crosswind cannot be overcome by all

available means, the upwind wing will rise. The "lateral ground stability" problem can then
quickly become a "directional ground stability" problem. The increased friction generated
by the downwind landing gear generates a yawing moment toward the downwind side of
the runway. Pilot brake applications may only complicate the situation, since upwind brake
applications result in little or no braking action, while downwind brake applications are
extremely effective. If the pilot is unable to maintain directional control of the airplane via
all available means, the airplane will depart the runway on the downwind side.
5.12.2.2 CROSSWIND APPROACH TECHNIQUES

The pilot's major concern during the crosswind approach is to keep the airplane
track superimposed over the runway centerline extended. This may be accomplished
utilizing either of two well-known techniques or a combination of the two.
5.12.2.2.1The Sideslipping Approach

When executed correctly, the sideslipping approach technique results in the airplane
heading and ground track being identical to the runway heading. The airplane is merely
flown in a steady heading sideslip; the angle of sideslip is determined by the airspeed and
the crosswind component (Figure 5.97). Bank angle, rudder, and lateral control inputs are
generally required to compensate for sideforce, yawing, and rolling moments, respectively.
The sideslip may be maintained through touchdown if the landing gear is sufficiently strong
and if wingtip and/or external store clearance permits. Otherwise, the pilot may desire to
level the wings just prior to touchdown and complete the landing.
5.ccxxvi
Runway
Crosswind
Airspeed
Angle
of
Sideslip
Figure 5.97
Sideslipping Technique for Cross-Wind Approaches
Although the sideslipping approach allows the pilot to easily determine if the track
is along the extended runway centerline, displacements from the desired track are difficult
to correct. A simple change in bank angle generates a lateral displacement. This maneuver
is not easily performed, however, due to the "crossed controls" condition and the necessity
for maintaining a precise flight path. The pilot generally resorts to continually adjusting the
magnitude of the sideslip in order to make track corrections. As a consequence, trimming
the control forces to zero in the sideslip is unrealistic. During a long approach, the lateral
and directional control forces may become tiring, particularly in the large airplane which
may require considerable forces.
Lateral and directional control inputs required during the sideslipping approach
leave correspondingly less control deflections available to counteract gusts. The
sideslipping technique is particularly unsuitable for the instrument approach; a steady
heading sideslip is extremely difficult to establish and maintain without external references.
5.ccxxvii
This significant advantage of the sideslipping technique is the easy transition from
approach to landing. The pilot merely holds the sideslip through the touchdown or levels
the wings just prior to touchdown.
5.12.2.2.2The Crabbing Approach

The crabbing approach again result in the airplane ground track lying along the
runway centerline extended. However, the airplane is headed or "crabbed" into the
crosswind so that the sideslip angle is zero (Figure 5.98). In the equilibrium condition,
bank angle and lateral-directional control inputs are zero. In some airplanes, e.g., T-38, F-
4, touchdown in the crabbed attitude is recommended but, in others, the pilot must align the
airplane with the runway heading prior to touchdown unless the airplane is equipped with
crosswind landing gear.
Runway
Crosswind
Airspeed
Crab
Angle
Figure 5.98
Crabbing Technique for Cross-Wind Approaches
5.ccxxviii
The crabbing technique presents the pilot with few difficulties other than those
already present during the approach. The airplane is flown in a rather normal manner with
wings level; errors in airplane track are corrected with simple turning maneuvers. During
visual approaches, the pilot's view of the runway may be slightly degraded in airplanes
with side-by-side seating. However, the crabbing technique is consistent with instrument
approach conditions; the airplane is merely flown in the confidential manner until visual
contact with the runway is established.
The major and important disadvantage of the crabbing technique is the transition
required in landing if the crab angle must be removed before touchdown to align the
airplane with the runway centerline. The control coordination may be quite difficult and the
timing of the maneuver must be precise. The pilot workload is thus increased substantially
during a critical phase of flight.
5.12.2.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES

Certain preliminary investigations should be conducted before the actual crosswind
tests.
5.12.2.3.1Preliminary Investigations
The flight test team must determine the maximum permissible bank angle which will
provide clearance between the airplane wingtip or external stores and the runway surface.
This is a simple problem in geometry (Figure 5.99). The bank angle so determined may
restrict the crosswind capabilities of the airplane or result in the utilization of a particular
crosswind technique.
5.ccxxix

MAX
max = Maximum permissible bank angle which may safely be utilized

while in close proximity to the ground. In this example, wingtip
clearance is utilized. External store clearance should also be
considered, if applicable.
Figure 5.99
Geometric Maximum Permissible Bank Angle
The largest sideslip angle which can be generated in an intentional steady heading
sideslip corresponds to the maximum crosswind component which can be counteracted
during a sideslipping approach. This relationship is shown in Figure 5.100. Steady
heading sideslip tests in Configurations Power Approach and Land at Representative
Approach airspeeds will provide the largest obtainable sideslip angles. These sideslip
angles may then be utilized to compute crosswind components. This procedure does not
consider the additional control authority necessary to counteract turbulence and gusts
during the approach. Further, it must be emphasized that these crosswind components are
applicable only to the approach phase. Significantly less crosswind may conceivably cause
intolerable control problems during the landing rollout.
5.ccxxx
Cross-Wind Component
Max = Maximum sideslip angle

generated by maximum rudder
deflection at minimum approach
airspeed.
Airspeed
Max
Figure 5.100
Absolute Maximum Cross-Wind for the Sideslipping Approach
The determination of minimum speeds at which the rudder and lateral control
devices are sufficiently effective to provide directional and lateral control on the runway
completes the preliminary tests. In general, a low airspeed at which the rudder is effective
for directional control enhances crosswind handling qualities. The same generality cannot
be applied to the aileron effectiveness minimum speed; for example, widely spaced main
landing gear may result in the ailerons being effective for bank angle control only at high
speeds on the runway, yet provide excellent lateral ground stability. The results of these
tests must be analyzed logically in relation to airplane design and the availability of nose-
wheel or tailwheel steering and wing spoiler or flaperon pop-up devices.
Rudder effectiveness minimum speed may be determined as follows:
1. Under essentially zero crosswind conditions, align the airplane with the runway
heading in configuration Takeoff.
2. Apply full rudder in one direction and begin the take-off roll.
5.ccxxxi
3. A speed will be attained at which the airplane begins to respond to the

directional control input. This is the rudder effectiveness minimum speed in the
take-off configuration. The rudder input should be quickly revered as the initial
response is noted in order to verify that rudder effectiveness minimum speed
has been attained. After the minimum speed is ascertained, continue with a
normal takeoff.
4. If a light crosswind component is present, the rudder input should initially be

made opposite to the direction from which the crosswind is blowing. Rudder
effectiveness minimum speed will easily be recognized as the speed at which the
rudder input counteracts the weather-cocking tendency of the airplane. Note
that some airplanes with tricycle landing gear exhibit negative weather-cock
stability on the ground. In this event, reverse the direction of rudder
application.
5. The above test should also be performed during the landing rollout. In this
case, the initial rudder input must be cautiously made and of a small magnitude.
(Alternate applications will be helpful in keeping the airplane near the runway
centerline.) As speed decreases, the rudder inputs must be increased in
amplitude. The speed at which full rudder deflection is just barely effective for
directional control is the rudder effectiveness minimum speed during landing.
Aileron effectiveness minimum speed may be determined as follows:
1. Under essentially zero crosswind conditions, align the airplane with the runway
heading in configuration Takeoff.
2. Initiate the take-off roll; simultaneously begin smooth pulsing of the lateral
control from full deflection to full deflection.
3. A speed will be attained at which the airplane begins to respond to the lateral
control inputs. This is the aileron effectiveness minimum speed in the Takeoff
configuration. After the minimum speed is ascertained, continue with a normal
takeoff.
5.ccxxxii
4. The above test should also be performed during the landing rollout. Small
alternating lateral control inputs are smoothly increased in amplitude as speed
decreases. The speed at which full lateral control deflection is just barely
effective for roll control is the aileron effectiveness minimum speed during
landing. (This speed may be quite high if pop-up spoilers or flaperon pop-up
devices are installed.)
5.12.2.3.2Crosswind Tests
After completion of the preliminary tests and procedures, the test program can be
expanded to include actual crosswind takeoffs and landings. Accurate analytical
estimations of maximum crosswind components for a particular airplane and configuration
are almost impossible; therefore, the crosswind flight tests must be conducted utilizing a
build-up program. Initial tests should be performed with small crosswind components. As
familiarity is gained, the components may be systematically increased in increments of 5
knots or less until the limits are determined.
The following guidelines and general information should aid in planning and
conducting the crosswind tests:
1. Crosswind tests should be terminated when maximum allowable crosswind

components are reached (if limits are published by higher authority) or if lateral
or directional control becomes marginal. Initiating a takeoff or landing in a
crosswind which exceeds the airplane capabilities may result in the airplane
departing the runway with catastrophic consequences. An intolerable situation
may be rectified if the pilot can abort the takeoff or convert a full stop landing
into a touch-and-go. However, the test pilot should not be required to resort to
these measures. An adequate build-up program will preclude the inadvertent
entry into dangerous flight conditions.
2. Initial tests should be conducted with all relevant airplane systems operative.
Degraded system operation may be investigated later, if appropriate. These
tests might be aimed at the determination of maximum recommended crosswind
components for engine-out condition, wing spoilers or flaperon pop-up
inoperative conditions, or flight control system malfunctions.
5.ccxxxiii
3. One of the most important aspects of the crosswind evaluation is the

formulation of optimum techniques for crosswind takeoffs, approaches, and
landings. The optimum techniques should be explicitly stated in a technical
report and published as recommended operational procedures in the pilot's
handbook.
4. Applicable specification conformance or non-conformance should be

ascertained during these tests.
5. One of the most frustrating aspects of crosswind testing is the availability of

useable crosswinds . This factor may require offsite testing to obtain suitable
crosswinds.
6. The turbulence and gustiness usually associated with high surface wind
conditions tends to complicate the test pilot's task. These factors may,
additionally, restrict the airplane's capabilities or influence optimum piloting
technique.
7. The test pilot should be aware of possible complications generated by lateral

ground stability problems. For example, if the downwind main landing gear is
equipped with micro-switches which activate nosewheel steering, spoiler or
flaperon pop-up, anti-skid braking, etc., these features may not be available
because of insufficient weight on the gear.
8. The condition of the test airplane's tires should be checked frequently during
crosswind tests.
9. The possibility of blowing tires during crosswind tests is high. The test pilot
should plan an exact course of action to be followed in the event a tire fails.
Availability, capacity, and location of arresting gear should be given due
consideration.
5.ccxxxiv
5.12.3 Lateral-Directional Trim Changes

Lateral-directional trim changes are generally not a significant as the previously
introduced longitudinal trim changes. Usually, no flight test time is specifically allocated
for their determination. These trim changes can be evaluated during other tests, such as
climbs and descents. However, the test pilot must be continually alert for excessive lateral
and/or directional trim changes. "Short-term" lateral-directional trim changes might be
associated with configuration changes, power changes, external stores separation, bomb
bay door operation, rocket or missile firing, etc. "Long-term" trim changes, such as lateral
and/or directional trim changes during level accelerations or decelerations, climbs, dives,
etc. should not be seriously objectionable or impair tactical maneuverability or weapons
delivery.
5.12.4 Irreversibility of Lateral-Directional Trim Systems

Lateral and directional trim systems should maintain given settings indefinitely
unless intentionally changed by the pilot. This characteristic may be quickly evaluated by
subjecting the systems momentarily to large hinge moments, then checking the lateral-
directional trim of the airplane.
The lateral trim system may be checked for irreversibility as follows:
1. Stabilize and trim the airplane precisely at a high equivalent airspeed (low
altitude, near maximum operational airspeed).
2. Perform an abrupt roll utilizing maximum allowable lateral control deflection.

Continue the roll to attain a maximum allowable bank angle change.
3. Stabilize the airplane carefully at the original flight condition. If the airplane is
still in trim laterally, the lateral trim system is irreversible.
4. Perform this test utilizing rolls in both directions.
5.ccxxxv
The directional trim system may be checked for irreversibility as follows:
1. Stabilize and trim the airplane carefully at a medium airspeed, such as the
airspeed for maximum range in configuration Cruise. A medium airspeed has
been arbitrarily chosen; a larger sideslip angle may be generated at a medium
airspeed than at a very high airspeed.
2. Perform a steady heading sideslip utilizing full rudder deflection or maximum

allowable sideslip angle.
3. Return the airplane smoothly and slowly to the original stabilized condition. If
balanced flight conditions still exist, as evidenced by the ball position in the
needle-ball instrument, the directional trim system is irreversible.
4. Perform this test utilizing both left and right sideslips.
5.ccxxxvi
CHAPTER SIX
ASYMMETRIC POWER
PAGE
6.1 THEORY 6.1
6.1.1 General 6.1
6.1.2 Steady Straight Flight on Asymmetric Power 6.1
6.1.2.1 The Directional Control Problem 6.1
6.1.2.2.1 No Sideslip 6.4
6.1.2.2.2 No Bank Angle 6.5
6.1.2.2.3 No Rudder Requirement 6.7
6.1.2.2.4 The Lateral Control Problem 6.10
6.1.3 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Conditions 6.11
6.2 REGAINING CONTROL FOLLOWING SUDDEN ENGINE

FAILURE 6.12
6.2.1 Engine Failure During Flight 6.12
6.2.2 Engine Failure During Takeoff 6.15
6.3 ASYMMETRIC POWER PROBLEMS AT HIGH AIRSPEEDS 6.15
6.4 DEFINITIONS RELEVANT TO ASYMMETRIC POWER 6.16

6.4.1 Critical Engine 6.16
6.4.2 Minimum Control Ground Speed, Vmcg 6.17
6.4.3 Minimum Control Airspeed, Vmca 6.17
6.4.4 Safety Speed 6.18
6.4.5 Refusal Speed 6.18
6.4.6 Minimum Continue Speed 6.19
6.4.7 Critical Engine Failure Speed 6.21
6.4.8 Minimum Trim Airspeed 6.21
6.5 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES: ASYMETRIC POWER 6.22

6.5.2.1 Preliminary Tests 6.25
6.5.2.1.1 Check-Stalls 6.25
6.5.2.1.2 Sideslip 6.26
6.5.2.1.3 Failure Simulation 6.26
6.5.2.1.4 Critical Engine 6.27
6.5.2.2 Control in Steady Flight with Asymmetric
Power: Minimum Trim and Minimum Control
Airspeeds in Equilibrium Flight 6.28
6.5.2.2.1 Minimum Trim Airspeed 6.28
6.5.2.2.2 Static Minimum Control Airspeed 6.29
6.5.2.2.3 Qualitative Investigation 6.31
6.5.2.3 Control Immediately Following an Engine
Failure: Minimum Control Airspeeds with
Sudden Engine Failures 6.32
6.5.2.4 Minimum Control Ground Speeds with Sudden
Engine Failures 6.35
6.5.2.4.1 Safety Speed 6.36
6.5.2.5 Approach and Landing Characteristics with
Asymmetric Power 6.36
6.7 REFERENCES 6.43

CHAPTER SIX
FIGURES
PAGE
6.1 Yawing Moment Due to Asymmetric Power 6.2
6.2 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Sideslip 6.5
6.3 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Bank Angle 6.7
6.4 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Rudder Deflection 6.9
6.5 Rolling Moment Due to Asymmetric Power 6.11
6.6 Asymmetric Power Equilibrium Flight Conditions Right Engine Failed 6.12
6.7 The Sudden Engine Failure 6.13
6.8 Refusal Speed Varies Directly with Length of Runway 6.19
6.9 Refusal Speed Higher than Minimum Continued Speed 6.20
6.10 Minimum Continue Speed Higher than Refusal Speed 6.20
6.11 Critical Engine Failure Speed and Critical Field Length 6.21
6.12 Extrapolation of Minimum Control Airspeed to Sea Level 6.34
6.13 Static Asymmetric Power Characteristics (Left Engine Secured, Propeller
Feathered) 6.38
6.14 Time History of Simulated Left Engine Failure in Configuration Take-Off 6.39
CHAPTER SIX
EQUATIONS
PAGE
N T = FN y p eq 6.1 6.2
550p BHP
FN Prop = eq 6.2 6.3
V
550p BHP C L y p 550 p BHP y p

C nT = = eq 6.3 6.3
Prop V W b V qSb
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r + C L = 0 eq 6.4 6.3

r
FN yp
YAWING MOMENT CL + C n + C n r = 0
W b r
eq 6.5 6.3
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l a = 0 eq 6.6 6.3

a
yp
FN W C L
rEquilibrium = b (ZERO SIDESLIP) eq 6.7 6.4
Cn
r
Cy r
r
rEquilibrium = (ZERO SIDESLIP) eq 6.8 6.4
CL
Cy 0
FN yp F yp
Cn CL _ N C L C y
W b W b
rEquilibrium = =
Cy Cy Cn C y C y C n
r r r
Cn b Cn
r
eq 6.9 6.6
F yp
N CL
rEquilibrium = W b (ZERO BANK ANGLE)
C y C n
C n 1 r
r

C C
n r y
eq 6.10 6.6
C y r
= r
(ZERO BANK ANGLE) eq 6.11 6.6
C y
y
FN W CL p b
= (ZERO RUDDER) eq 6.12 6.7
C n
C y
CL
L0 L i yp
CL + C l + C l a = 0 eq 6.14 6.10
W b a
1 L L i yp
a Equilibrium = 0 CL + C l eq 6.15 6.10
C l W b
a
CHAPTER SIX
ASYMMETRIC POWER FLYING QUALITIES
6.1 THEORY
6.1.1 General
The asymmetric power flying qualities problem is invariably a lateral-directional
control problem. Yawing and/or rolling moments generated by the asymmetric power
condition must be counteracted by airplane stability and pilot control inputs. Although
asymmetric power control problems are generally confined to the low airspeed flight
regime, serious airplane departures from controlled flight may be encountered with
asymmetric engine failures at very high airspeeds. Asymmetric flying qualities may also
result from the asymmetric carriage of external or internal stores.
Basically, two aspects of flight on asymmetric power must be considered:
1. Regaining of control immediately following failure of one or more engines.
2. Maintaining control in steady flight with one or more engines inoperative.
The steady or equilibrium flight condition with asymmetric power will be

considered first. (Note: Most of the stability derivatives and symbols utilized in this
discussion have been introduced previously. Therefore, many of these derivatives and
terms will not be redefined here.)
6.1.2 Steady Straight Flight on Asymmetric Power
6.1.2.1 THE DIRECTIONAL CONTROL PROBLEM

Flight on asymmetric power is characterized by a yawing moment generated by the
asymmetric condition (Figure 6.1). It is important to consider the factors influencing the
magnitude of this yawing moment since the degree of difficulty associated with asymmetric
6.1
power flight is generally directly related to this parameter. If the inoperative engine is
assumed to generate no thrust or drag, the yawing moment generated by the asymmetric
condition, N T , may be developed as follows (Figure 6.1):
N T = FN y p eq 6.1
Where:
FN = thrust developed by operative engine, pounds.
yp = distance from center of gravity to asymmetric thrust vector measured in

wing plane, feet.
In non-dimensional form, the yawing moment coefficient, C nT , may be expressed:
NT FN y p
Cn T = =
qSb qSb
W
or for level flight = C L :
qS
F y
Cn T = N C L p
W b
FN Inoperative
Zero Thrust
NT yp
Figure 6.1
Yawing Moment Due to Asymmetric Power
Note that the asymmetric power yawing moment coefficient increases with increase
in operative engine thrust, distance of operative engine from airplane center of gravity, and
increase in lift coefficient (or decrease in airspeed).
Expressions for the thrust, FN , developed by the operative engine will be different
for jet and propeller-driven airplanes. For the jet, the thrust is simply FN . However, for
the propeller-driven airplane:
550p BHP
FN Prop = eq 6.2
V
Where:
550 = horsepower constant, foot-pounds/second.
p = propeller efficiency factor.
BHP = brake horsepower, HP.
V = airplane true airspeed, feet per second.
Thus, for the propeller-driven airplane:

C nT = = eq 6.3
Prop V W b V qSb
The equilibrium equations for sideforce, yawing moment, and rolling moment may
now be written as follows for the asymmetric power condition, ( Cn a and Cl r are
assumed to be zero for simplicity):
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r + C L = 0 eq 6.4
r
FN yp
YAWING MOMENT CL + C n + C n r = 0 eq 6.5
W b r
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l a = 0 eq 6.6

a
(Note: Operative engine is assumed to be the port engine. If the starboard engine
were operative, the asymmetric power yawing moment would be negative.)
Since the directional control problem with asymmetric power is of interest at

present, expressions will be derived for the rudder required for steady heading, equilibrium
flight under three flight conditions.
6.1.2.2.1 No Sideslip
If the pilot maintains zero sideslip, and expression for the rudder requirement may
be obtained easily for the yawing moment equation:
yp
FN W C L
rEquilibrium = b (ZERO SIDESLIP) eq 6.7
Cn
r
Several important relationships may be gathered from the last equation:
1. The rudder requirement increases with increasing asymmetric thrust, FN .
2. The rudder requirement increases with increasing lift coefficient (decreasing

airspeed).
3. The rudder requirement increases with lateral engine placement from the center
of gravity.
4. The rudder required for equilibrium is inversely proportional to rudder control

power.
Note that for zero sideslip, some bank angle must be used to balance the sideforce
generated by the rudder input. From the sideforce equation:
C y r
r
rEquilibrium = (ZERO SIDESLIP) eq 6.8
CL
For a positive asymmetric yawing moment (starboard engine inoperative), trailing
edge left (positive) rudder deflection is required; thus, a negative (left) bank angle is
necessary to maintain equilibrium flight (Figure 6.2). In most cases, the bank angle
requirement is fairly small (approximately 5 degrees).
=0
FN
Inoperative
NT
Y r
W SIN W SIN

Y r
N r
D = Drag in Line of Flight

NT = N r W SIN = Y r
Minimum Drag Since = 0

Y r
FN D
W SIN
Force Polygon Ball Will Not

Be Centered
Figure 6.2
Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Sideslip
6.1.2.2.2 No Bank Angle
If the pilot maintains zero bank angle, an expression for the rudder requirement for
equilibrium, steady heading flight may be obtained via a determinant solution of the
sideforce and yawing moment equations:
Cy 0
FN yp F yp
Cn CL _ N C L C y
W b W b
rEquilibrium = = eq 6.9
r r r
Cn b Cn
r
F yp
N CL
rEquilibrium = W b (ZERO BANK ANGLE) eq 6.10
C y C n
C n 1 r
r
C n r C y

The only difference between the equation and the one derived for zero sideslip is the
term in braces. This term can be rationalized as increasing the rudder requirement over the
zero sideslip case; the increased rudder requirement will be necessary to balance the
sideforce due to sideslip, C y .
For zero bank angle, the sideslip required for equilibrium may be obtained from the
sideforce equation:
C y r
= r
(ZERO BANK ANGLE) eq 6.11
C y
If the asymmetric yawing moment is positive, the rudder requirement is positive,

therefore, the sideslip angle must be positive (right sideslip). The balance of moments and
forces is shown in Figure 6.3.
N
Relative
Wind
NT
FN
Y r
FN SIN
D = Drag in Line of Flight

Y
Y
(Shown Looking Directly into Relative Wind)
Y r
N r
N r = NT + N Y r = Y + F N SIN
Larger T Requirement Than = 0

More Drag Than = 0
Y
D FN
Y r
Ball Will Be Centered
Force Polygon
Figure 6.3
Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Bank Angle
6.1.2.2.3 No Rudder Requirement

It is possible to balance the airplane in steady heading equilibrium flight under
asymmetric power with zero rudder required. From the yawing moment equation, the
sideslip required to balance the asymmetric yawing moment may be obtained:
y
FN W CL p b
= (ZERO RUDDER) eq 6.12
C n
For a positive asymmetric yawing moment, the sideslip requirement is negative (left
sideslip). The sideslip angle required for this condition is generally quite large, particularly
at low airspeeds, high operative engine power, and with low directional stability.
The bank angle required to balance the sideforces for the zero rudder deflection
condition may be obtained from the sideforce equation:
C y
= (ZERO RUDDER) eq 6.13
CL
For a positive asymmetric yawing moment, the sideslip angle must be negative;
therefore, the bank angle must be negative (left bank angle). This bank angle is generally
quite large (approximately 15 degrees) at low airspeeds. The balance of forces and
moments is show in Figure 6.4.
At first glance, the equilibrium condition shown if Figure 6.4 might seem to be a
desirable state of affairs since the pilot is required to hold no rudder input. However, the
drag is high, there is a possibility of losing directional control due to vertical tail stalling,
and the flight condition is uncomfortable because of the large side acceleration due to
gravity. Usually, the pilot will achieve equilibrium in a flight condition somewhere
between the conditions shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3. (The operative engine will be
banked down about 3 degrees and there will be a small sideslip from the inoperative engine
side. If the directional trim system is sufficiently powerful, the rudder force requirement
for steady heading flight can be trimmed to zero.)
Relative
Wind
FN
NT
Inoperative FN SIN
Engine

W SIN
Y
W SIN Y
D = Drag in Line
of Flight
W
N (Shown Looking Directly
into Relative Wind)
N = NT W SIN = Y + FN SIN
Large and required; more drag than = 0 or = 0.
Potentially dangerous since vertical tail may stall due to large ; very
uncomfortable for pilots and passengers because large generates large

side acceleration due to gravity.
FN D
W SIN
Force Polygon Ball Will Not Be Centered
Figure 6.4
Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Rudder Deflection
6.1.2.2.3 The Lateral Control Problem
Lateral controllability under equilibrium asymmetric power conditions is generally
not as severe as the directional control problem. For pure-jet airplanes, minimum control
speeds are almost always based on directional controllability. However, for propeller-
driven airplanes under asymmetric power conditions, the differences in slipstream over the
wings may generate large rolling moments (Figure 6.5). If the wings are almost
completely immersed in propeller slipstream, the rolling moment generated by the
asymmetric power condition may limit minimum airspeeds. Sideslip from the operative
engine side coupled with positive dihedral effect (negative C l ) complicates the lateral
control problem. The lateral control requirement to counteract the rolling moments
generated by asymmetric power and sideslip may be obtained from the equilibrium rolling
moment equation:
L0 L i yp
CL + C l + C l a = 0 eq 6.14
W b a
(Note: If the asymmetric power rolling moment is in the left-wing-down direction,

the first term of the equation will be preceded by a negative sign.)
1 L L i yp
a Equilibrium = 0 CL + C l eq 6.15
C l W b
a
LT
Lo
yp yp Li
Higher dynamic pressure over wing with operative engine

generates unbalanced lift vectors and rolling moment, L T ,
toward inoperative engine wing
L T = L 0 y p L i y p = y p (L 0 L i )
LT yp ( L 0 L i ) L Li yp
C lT = = = 0 CL
qSb qSb W b
Figure 6.5
Rolling Moment Due to Asymmetric Power
6.1.3 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Conditions

The previously discussed directional and the lateral control problems with
asymmetric power will result in various equilibrium states. If an airplane displays
conventional lateral-directional stability derivatives as shown on page V-33, the equilibrium
flight conditions resulting from the failure of a right engine will be as shown in Figure 6.6.
Several things should be noted in Figure 6.6. Control of the airplane may be
limited by either rudder or aileron. Although the rudder deflection required is reduced if the
airplane is banked into the operating engine, high bank angles may be uncomfortable to the
pilot and may be geometrically restricted in the take-off and landing environment.
Furthermore, in order to maintain a constant vertical velocity with increasing bank angles,
C L must be increased with the resulting increase in induced drag and stall speed while
increasing sideslip angles will result in higher form drag. These performance and control
considerations will determine the optimum equilibrium flight condition and this optimum
will probably be specified as a function of bank angle since that is the most obvious
parameter to the operational pilot.
Bank Angle ()
Right
0
Left
Right
Deflection (r)
Rudder 0
TEU Left
Deflection (a)
Right Aileron
0
TED
Left 0 Right
Sideslip Angle ()
Figure 6.6
Asymmetric Power Equilibrium Flight Conditions Right Engine Failed
6.2 REGAINING CONTROL FOLLOWING SUDDEN ENGINE

FAILURE
6.2.1 Engine Failure During Flight

When the pilot intentionally secures as engine in flight, the transient motions are
generally mild and easily controlled if adequate control authority is available. However,
sudden engine failures may occur under low altitude, low airspeed, high power flight
conditions in a high lift or high drag configuration, such as during take-off or wave-off.
The sudden engine failure in these cases may generate severe, potentially divergent rolling
and/or yawing transients. The pilot may induce a similar situation by sudden application of
asymmetric power to initiate a wave-off from an engine-out-approach.
The same factors which cause lateral-directional control problems in steady
asymmetric flight conditions also are applicable to the sudden or dynamic engine failure.
However, the control authorities required to arrest the motion following a sudden engine
failure are usually larger than the control authorities necessary to maintain equilibrium
flight. The severity of airplane response following a sudden engine failure is difficult to
predict by theoretical analysis; the pilot delay time in recognizing the asymmetric power
condition and applying appropriate control inputs influences the magnitude of the rolling
and yawing motions. Actual flight test of critical conditions is the only means of
establishing safe flight boundaries. The following hypothetical situation may aid in
understanding some of the problems encountered with sudden engine failures (Figure 6.7).
Rolling
Moment
Relative Wind
Thrust

Yawing v
Moment
Thrust r
Inoperative
Engine
Windmill Drag
Effective
Rolling a
Moment
Figure 6.7
The Sudden Engine Failure
1. Assume the airplane is in a critical phase of flight, take-off configuration, take-
off power on all engines, just after lifting off the runway.
2. The pilot experiences a sudden power failure on the left outboard engine.
Because of the surprise factor, the pilot does not immediately react to the
situation. The large yawing moment generated by the asymmetric power causes
a large sideslip angle to develop from the operative engine side. If the sideslip
angle reaches large enough proportions, the vertical tail may stall. An increase
in drag accompanies the increase in sideslip, compounding an already
(possibly) serious performance deficiency.
3. A rolling moment toward the inoperative engine will probably be generated by

the yaw rate. This rolling moment will be increased if the airplane exhibits
positive dihedral effect. Propeller-driven airplanes may rapidly diverge in roll
due to slipstream effects, particularly if the wings are completely immersed in
slipstream prior to the engine failure.
4. The pilot will likely apply large rudder and lateral control inputs to attempt to
arrest the yawing and rolling motion. The large rudder input increases the
tendency for the vertical tail to stall and may result in "rudder lock" if the control
system is reversible. The lateral control input may generate an adverse yawing
moment which increases the yawing moment toward the inoperative engine
side. The large lateral control deflection, coupled with the rolling velocity, may
cause the down-going wing to exceed stall angle of attack.
5. If the pilot is unable to achieve equilibrium flight with full lateral and directional
control inputs, a power reduction on the operative engine side and/or an
increase in airspeed will be required to prevent catastrophic consequences.
Obviously, these measures may not be possible in a low altitude, marginal
performance flight condition.
6.2.2 Engine Failure During Take-off
Engine failure on the ground during a take-off run is always a dynamic situation
since the pilot must either abort his take-off or continue to accelerate to a lift-off airspeed.
The ground minimum control speed will differ from the flight minimum control airspeed
because of several things.
1. The inability to use bank angle and restrictions on the use of sideslip.
2. The moment arms for the vertical stabilizer and rudder are changed since they
are taken from the airplane center of gravity in flight but generally act from the
main landing gear while on the ground.
3. Additional yawing moments are produced on the ground by the landing gear
and vary with the amount of side forces and differential longitudinal forces on
the landing gear, the amount of steering used, and the runway condition.
4. Cross wind components essentially determine the take-off sideslip angle. Since
the airplane must, in general, maintain the runway heading during take-off, the
cross wind, in conjunction with the airplane's ground speed, will determine the
magnitude of the sideslip and whether it is helping or hindering directional
control of the airplane during a sudden engine failure.
6.3 ASYMMETRIC POWER PROBLEMS AT HIGH AIRSPEEDS

For the high performance, multiengined airplane, the failure of an engine or engines
at high airspeed may be a more serious consequence than engine failure at low airspeeds.
Asymmetric engine failure at high airspeeds may generate sideslip excursions large enough
to exceed sideslip limitations and cause structural damage or catastrophic component
failures.
For proper jet engine operation at very high Mach Numbers (over 2.0), the engine
inlet shock wave pattern must be fashioned to provide the correct pressure in the engine for
the given engine speed. If a disturbance (pressure of temperature fluctuation, abrupt power
lever movement, etc.) upsets the shock pattern-pressure relationship, the shock wave may
actually be expelled from the engine inlet. This phenomenon, known as "inlet unstart," can
cause severe pressure fluctuations, compressor stalls, and engine failure. When engines
are located in close proximity, one "inlet unstart" may trigger "inlet unstarts" on adjacent
engines.
Asymmetric power problems at high airspeeds in high performance multiengined

airplanes may be compounded by reduced directional stability at high supersonic Mach
numbers and high altitude. These problems may result in limiting maximum airspeed or
Mach numbers as functions of engine thrust settings. Another possible solution is to fail
the corresponding engine on the opposite wing automatically in the event of engine failure
in a flight condition where asymmetric thrust is catastrophic.
6.4 DEFINITIONS RELEVANT TO ASYMMETRIC POWER

Terminology used to describe airspeeds and conditions associated with asymmetric
power flight is not standard throughout the aviation industry. The differences between
civilian and military regimes are particularly noteworthy. When describing asymmetric
power problems, the speaker or writer must be very careful to define the terminology of the
presentation so that no misunderstanding is possible. The following definitions are
generally considered to be standard by most flight test activities.
6.4.1 Critical Engine

The critical engine is that engine of a multiengined airplane, the failure of which
produces the most critical condition to the pilot. The most critical condition will probably
occur at high thrust and low airspeed (high C L ) as is the situation during take-off or wave-
off. Under this condition, lateral or directional control cannot be regained and maintained
following a sudden engine failure below a certain airspeed. The critical engine is the engine
for which this minimum airspeed is higher than that associated with failure of any other
engine. The critical engine may generally be predicted for a propeller airplane. Providing
that the airfoil surfaces (wings, vertical, and horizontal stabilizers) are symmetrically
attached to the fuselage and that the available control surface deflections are symmetric, the
critical engine may be predicted from several factors: (1) as the angle of attack increases
(high C L ), the down-going propeller blade sees a relatively higher local angle of attack
than the up-going blade, which results in moving the thrust vector laterally on the propeller
disk toward the down-going blade side, and (2) air flow swirl about the fuselage created by
the rotating propeller(s) can affect the flow at the vertical tail so as to create a sideslip angle
in one direction or the other, depending on the direction of the rotation of the propeller(s).
For clockwise rotation of the propeller(s) (as viewed from the rear), the above effects
usually result in the left outboard engine being the critical one.
For jet-powered airplanes, the differences observed between flying qualities with
left or right engine(s) inoperative are usually small enough to be attributed to differing
maximum of idle thrust between the engines. Thus, the critical engine is not clearly defined
by asymmetric flying qualities considerations. For these cases, other considerations, such
as hydraulic or electrical power generated by individual engines and the consequences of
loss of various airplane functions, may be used to determine the critical engine.
6.4.2 Minimum Control Ground Speed, V mcg
The minimum control ground speed is the lowest speed at which directional control
can be maintained on the ground when the critical engine fails during the take-off roll. The
allowable deviation from the runway centerline and the pilot technique utilized influence the
value of this speed.
6.4.3 Minimum Control Airspeed, V mca
The minimum control airspeed is the lowest airspeed at which control of the
airplane is possible with the critical engine inoperative. It may be defined by an equilibrium
or static condition in which the critical engine has been failed prior to approaching the
minimum conditions. It may also be defined by a sudden or dynamic condition in which
the critical engine is failed at various airspeeds approaching the minimum conditions. For
both cases, Vmca may be limited by lateral or directional control deflection available to
counteract rolling or yawing moments and/or the control forces involved. At any rate, there
will be a different static and dynamic minimum control airspeed for each:
1. Power setting utilized on the operative engine(s).
2. Configuration.
3. Condition of the inoperative engine(s) (feathered or wind-milling).

4. Bank angle utilized in the static condition.
5. Pilot if limited by control force requirements.
6.4.4 Safety Speed

Safety speed is defined as the lowest possible airspeed on a multiengine airplane at
which the average pilot can maintain steady, straight flight without loss of altitude in the
take-off configuration in the event of a sudden, complete failure of the critical engine. The
pilot may make full use of all flight controls, may make configuration changes (retract
landing gear, flaps, etc.), and the propeller of the failed engine may be manually feathered
after allowing a suitable delay for an average pilot to regain steady, straight flight and
identify the failed engine. Use of automatic feathering systems is permitted; however, the
power on the operating engine(s) may not be reduced and no trim inputs may be utilized.
Generally, it is the airspeed which should be attained after take-off before any attempt is
made to climb (a pilot's handbook number). Safety speed may be established based on
stability and control or performance characteristics, or both. The take-off safety speed for
civil airplanes (transport category), commonly referred to as V2 , depends on both flying
qualities and performance. Generally, there is a different safety speed, or V2 , for each flap
setting used for takeoff; it may also vary with gross weight.
6.4.5 Refusal Speed

Refusal speed is defined as the maximum ground speed from which the airplane can be
brought to a full stop in the remaining runway available after failure of the critical engine.
This speed depends on stopping technique (maximum effort is normally utilized) as well as
the length of the runway. Refusal speed is low for short runways and high for long
runways (Figure 6.8). It is also sometimes called Accel/Stop speed, Emergency Distance
speed, or Vstop .
Normal High Refusal
All Engine Speed
Acceleration
Ground Speed
Low Refusal
Speed
Engine Out
Max Effort Stop
Short Runway Long Runway
Runway Length
Figure 6.8
Refusal Speed Varies Directly with Length of Runway
6.4.6 Minimum Continue Speed

Minimum continue speed is the minimum ground speed to which an airplane can
accelerate on the take-off roll, lose the critical engine, and continue the take-off with engine
failed, becoming airborne just at the far end of the runway. This speed varies inversely
with runway length; i.e., it is relatively low for long runways, etc. It is frequently referred
to as Engine-Out Go Speed or Vgo . If minimum continue speed is less than refusal speed,
there is a safe band within which the pilot can either continue the take-off safely or abort
the take-off safely (Figure 6.9). However, if refusal speed is less than minimum continue
speed, there is a "dead man zone" within which the pilot can neither continue the take-off
without running off the end of the runway nor abort the take-off without running off the
end (Figure 6.10).
Refusal Speed
Take-Off Speed
Ground Speed
All Engine
Safety Acceleration
Band Engine-Out
Go Acceleration
or
Stop
Engine-Out
Max Effort Stop
Min Continue
Speed Long Runway
Runway Length
Figure 6.9
Refusal Speed Higher than Minimum Continued Speed
All Engine
Acceleration
Take-Off Speed
Engine-Out
Ground Speed
Acceleration
Deadman Min Continue
Zone Speed
Can't Go
or Stop Refusal
Safely Speed Engine-Out
Max Effort Stop
Insufficient Runway
Runway Length
Figure 6.10
Minimum Continue Speed Higher than Refusal Speed
6.4.7 Critical Engine Failure Speed
If refusal speed and minimum continue speed are equal, the runway distance
required to complete the take-off is equal to the distance required to stop. This speed is
sometimes referred to as the Critical Engine Failure Speed or Decision Speed (V1 ) . The
total runway distance required to accelerate to this speed, then stop or go after the engine
failure, is called the Critical Field Length (Figure 6.11).
All Engine
Operation Take-Off Speed
No
Safety
Ground Speed
Band
Engine Out {Acceleration

Max Effort Stop
Critical Engine
Failure Speed
Just Enough Runway
Critical Field Length
Runway Length
Figure 6.11
Critical Engine Failure Speed and Critical Field Length
6.4.8 Minimum Trim Airspeed

Minimum trim airspeed is the minimum airspeed at which steady heading flight can
be maintained without pilot control force inputs with the critical engine inoperative. A
different minimum trim airspeed exists for each configuration, power setting on operative
engine(s), condition of inoperative engine, and bank angle (if limiting factor is directional
trim). Minimum trim airspeed is most appropriately applied to an engine-out cruise
condition with power for level flight or engine-out climb with normal rated power on the
operative engine(s) and the inoperative engine feathered. These conditions relate to the
problem of operation for relatively long periods during climb or cruise with an engine out.
6.5 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES ASYMMETRIC
POWER

A safe, yet rigorous, investigation of asymmetric power flying qualities must be
conducted on all airplanes which may be expected to encounter asymmetric power.
Thorough preflight planning is mandatory for these tests. The purpose and scope of the
formulated.
Preflight planning must start with research. The airplane must be studied carefully -
the flight test team can probably predict (roughly) the airplane's reaction to asymmetric
power merely by looking at the airplane. Of course, a study of the lateral-directional
control system is essential. All available information on normal lateral-directional flying
qualities, rolling performance, and asymmetric power flying qualities and performance
should be reviewed. Much useful information may be obtained by conversations with
pilots and engineers familiar with the airplane. Additionally, the following points should
be considered:
1. The function and influence of various flap settings; i.e., the airplane lift-to-drag
ratio for various flap settings.
2. The consequences of engine-out operation of electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic

systems. Emergency electrical and/or hydraulic units may be required in the test
airplane, particularly if a situation may arise where no normal electrical or
hydraulic power is available.
3. The ability of the electrical system to carry the combined load of propeller
feathering and landing gear or flap retraction.
Although the basic considerations of flight with asymmetric power are the same for
both military and civil airplanes, the emphasis attached to the asymmetric power flying
qualities varies. In the civil case, safety is the most important factor; the airplane must meet
rigid minimum requirements before it is placed in operational commercial use. The same
emphasis on safety will probably be applicable to large military transport airplanes as well.
For the commercial transport category airplanes, extensive ground and flight tests must be
( )
performed to determine safety speeds (V2 ) , refusal speeds Vstop , minimum continue
( )
speeds Vgo , critical engine failure speeds (V1 ) , and critical field lengths. Based on these
tests, the commercial transport airplane is certificated to operate from various runway
lengths with various combinations of gross weights and center of gravity positions. The
military transport airplane may be required to satisfy similar requirements. In many cases,
the military transport has already been certificated as a commercial transport, and the
minimum requirements for military operations already satisfied.
For the majority of military multiengine airplanes, operational effectiveness, vice

safety, may be the most important design factor, particularly for combat aircraft. This fact
lays a heavy burden on the test pilot designated to conduct asymmetric power tests on
military airplanes. The test pilot must attempt to safely evaluate all asymmetric power
conditions which may confront the operational pilot. If possible, the flight test team should
attempt to extrapolate the results of the test to future service modifications, such as
increased gross weight, increased engine output, etc.
Testing the engine-out characteristics of a military, multiengine airplane should

include at least the following:
1. Determine the critical engine in the most critical configuration (probably take-off
or wave-off).
2. Determine normal take-off acceleration (ground speed versus runway distance).
3. Determine take-off acceleration with the critical engine failed.
4. Determine abort deceleration with the critical engine failed.
5. Determine the minimum control ground speed with the critical engine failed.
6. Determine the minimum control airspeed, both static and dynamic.
7. Determine the minimum trim airspeed in pertinent configurations (probably

Engine Out Power and Engine Out Cruise (Power of maximum range)).
8. Evaluate approach, landing, and wave-off characteristics with asymmetric

power.
The test conditions - altitude, configurations, center of gravity, and trim airspeeds -
must be determined. Test conditions should commensurate, as much as possible, with the
mission environment of the airplane. However, safety considerations dictate the
investigations of asymmetric power flying qualities be performed in such a manner that the
most critical conditions are approached with a reasonable build-up program. Altitude for
conducting initial tests wherein engines are actually secured should never be less than 4000
feet above ground level. After adequate build up and with written permission from higher
authority, the altitude restrictions may be relaxed so that engines may be secured in the very
low altitude environment. Generally, simulated failures yield equally valid results at very
low altitudes with much less risk. The airplane gross weight utilized for asymmetric power
flying qualities investigations should be the lightest normal service loading for the
configuration of interest. The light weight provides the best asymmetric power
performance characteristics as well as allowing the maximum airplane response to a sudden
engine failure. Additionally, for tests involving banking to balance the airplane under
asymmetric power conditions in level flight, the bank angle required is inversely
proportional to airplane gross weight. Center of gravity positions are not particularly
critical for asymmetric power investigations; however, the most aft operational center of
gravity positions should be utilized if feasible.
scope of the investigation. A good, meaningful qualitative investigation can be performed
with only cockpit and hand-held instruments. If accurate quantitative information is
needed, automatic recording devices should be utilized. For initial tests on a new airplane,
or for test on airplanes which may exhibit severe characteristics, telemetering pertinent
parameters to a ground station may be required. A qualified engineering observer, with
communications to the test pilot, should continually monitor the flight test records.
The final step in preflight planning is the preparation of pilot data cards. These data
cards are best constructed from blank cards for each particular test. The cards should list
all quantitative information desired and should be easy to interpret in flight. Adequate
space should be provided for pilot comments.

When assessing the asymmetric power flying qualities of multiengine airplanes, the
mission of the airplane and the influence of engine failure(s) on that mission must be
considered. The failure of one or more engines asymmetrically generally results in an
emergency condition. The primary mission of the airplane can usually not be accomplished
in this situation; therefore, the mission reverts to regaining control of the airplane, cruising
to a suitable landing spot, and accomplishing a safe carrier or filed landing. The pilot
cannot expect flying qualities under asymmetric power conditions to be particularly
pleasant; however, the pilot rightly expects acceptable characteristics which permit the
airplane to be at least controllable. Some airplanes may, however, be designed to carry
stores asymmetrically or to shut down engines asymmetrically for increased endurance and
should therefore retain pleasant flying qualities even in these configurations.
6.5.2.1 PRELIMINARY TESTS

Certain preparatory tests are necessary before the asymmetric power tests are
performed.
6.5.2.1.1 Check-Stalls
The airplane should not be stalled with asymmetric power until the stall
characteristics and asymmetric power characteristics have been determined. A stall speed
should, therefore, be determined for each test configuration with all engines at idle power.
In subsequent asymmetric power tests, the stall speed should be regarded as minimum
speeds; if the stall speed is reached prior to reaching minimum control speed, the
asymmetric power investigation should be terminated. (This rule may be unduly restrictive
for airplanes with the wings immersed in propeller slipstream. If so, additional check-stalls
should be performed in theses airplanes with symmetric power representative of the test
configuration.)
6.5.2.1.2 Sideslip
It is most important to determine if the airplane is prone to vertical tail stall or rudder
lock prior to embarking on asymmetric power tests. Therefore, for each test configuration,
steady heading sideslips, up to maximum permissible or obtainable sideslip angle, should
be performed with symmetric power. The airspeed generally used for this test is
approximately 1.4 times the stall speed previously determined for the configuration. The
variation of indicated airspeed error and angle of attack with sideslip angle should also be
noted because of the obvious impact of these characteristics of safety of flight with
asymmetric power.
6.5.2.1.3 Failure Simulation

Power settings should be determined which simulate the drag characteristics of a
failed jet engine or the drag characteristics of both a windmilling and a feathered propeller.
These simulated power settings are convenient and relatively safe means of conducting
asymmetric power testing and will be used by operational pilots for engine-out training.
Since these drag characteristics will obviously vary with airspeed, a representative airspeed
and configuration should be used to determine the simulation. This should be done both
with propeller windmilling and with the propeller feathered for propeller airplanes.
Determination of the simulation power setting will in general be an iterative process as
follows:
1. Determine a static minimum control airspeed in the representative configuration

(probably Power Approach) using idle thrust for jets and throttle closed,
propeller windmilling for propeller airplanes.
2. Increase airspeed to a safe margin (at least 1.4 times the minimum control
airspeed just determined) and secure the critical engine.
3. Carefully slow to approximately 1.2 times the previously determined minimum

control speed and stabilize in level flight using power from the operative
engine(s). This airspeed should be representative of take-off and approach
airspeeds.
4. Without changing power on the operative engine(s), restart the secured engine
and vary its power so as to re-stabilize in level flight at the airspeed determined
in paragraph 3. This power setting should then be a good failure simulation.
5. Continue asymmetric power testing using the failure simulation to more

precisely determine the minimum control airspeeds, etc.
6.5.2.1.4 Critical Engine

Several assumptions may generally be made in determining the critical engine. If
we assume that the take-off configuration is representative of the most critical
configuration, that idle thrust or idle power is approximately the same as that from a failed
engine, and that the engine with the highest minimum control speed in a dynamic failure
will also have the highest minimum control speed in a static case, then the critical engine
may be determined as follows:
1. Determine a static minimum control airspeed, wings level, in the take-off

configuration using idle power on the left outboard engine and maximum power
on the remaining engines. Trim should probably remain at the take-off setting
as this is the most representative case.
2. Alternate the test with the right outboard engine. The idle and maximum power
settings used above should be adjusted slightly to ensure that the exact same
power asymmetry exits in each direction so that thrust differences caused by
engine trim at maximum power do not affect the test.
3. The engine with the highest minimum control airspeed may then be assumed to
be the critical engine.
6.5.2.2 CONTROL IN STEADY FLIGHT WITH ASYMMETRIC
POWER: MINIMUM TRIM AND MINIMUM CONTROL
AIRSPEEDS IN EQUILIBRIUM FLIGHT
The pilot will generally be able to cope with sudden failures under normal cruise
flight conditions with little difficulty. Therefore, the primary purposes of asymmetric
power flying qualities investigations under cruise conditions are:
1. To determine the degree of difficulty the pilot will encounter in a long-range

cruise task with asymmetric power.
2. To provide a "build-up" to more demanding and critical tests in take-off and

wave-off flight conditions.
Obviously, an infinite number of minimum trim and minimum control airspeeds

could be determined as the result of variations in configuration, power setting, and bank
angle. The test pilot should determine appropriate conditions, in which to evaluate these
minimum trim airspeeds. For minimum trim airspeed determinations, several obvious
conditions would include engine-out climb and engine-out cruise. Engine-out climb initial
conditions would be: critical engine simulated failed (and feathered for propeller airplane),
maximum continuous (normal rated) power on the operating engine(s), and zero bank
angle. Engine-out cruise would require: critical engine simulated failed (simulated
feathered for a propeller airplane), power set on operating engine(s) to provide level flight
at engine-out maximum range airspeed, and zero bank angle. Since the drag due to sideslip
may be reduced by flying in a slight bank, it may be advisable to determine the minimum
trim airspeed in the above configuration using the bank angle for minimum drag. It is
obviously desirable to be able to climb, hands off, at the optimum maximum range engine-
out climb airspeed and to cruise, hands off, at the maximum range engine-out cruise
airspeed.
6.5.2.2.1 Minimum Trim Airspeed

The minimum trim airspeed may be determined as follows:
1. Stabilize in the desired configuration at approximately twice the stall speed

determined in the preliminary tests.
2. Establish the critical engine in a simulated feathered condition and the other
engine(s) at the desired power setting.
3. Trim all control forces to zero in steady heading flight, initially maintaining zero
bank angle.
4. Smoothly and slowly reduce airspeed by means of longitudinal control inputs

while maintaining steady heading flight. Continue to trim all control forces to
zero as the airspeed decreases.
5. Eventually an airspeed will be reached where one or the other of the lateral or
directional trimmers is at its limit. Below this airspeed, the pilot cannot trim all
control forces to zero in steady straight flight. This is the minimum trim
airspeed for the test conditions and the limiting trim axis (lateral or directional)
should be noted.
6. If the limiting trim axis was directional, the test may be continued by applying a
small bank angle (usually 5 degrees) towards the good engine.
7. Care must be exercised to obtain data only when the airplane is stabilized in
unaccelerated flight conditions. Primarily, outside visual references should be
used to maintain bank angle as desired and zero yaw rate; cockpit instruments
should be cross-checked frequently. The ball of the needle-ball instrument
should be perfectly centered in its race during wings level tests. It is an
excellent indicator of lateral accelerations resulting from unbalanced lateral
forces.
8. Altitude variance during the determination of minimum trim airspeeds should

not exceed +1000 feet from the test altitude.
6.5.2.2.2 Static Minimum Control Airspeed

The test pilot must carefully define both configuration and trim settings for static
minimum control airspeed testing. In general, the primary interest should be in critical
flight evolutions such as take-off and wave-off. Trim controls may be left at some
specified setting during static minimum control testing or may be used to their full range as
required depending on what the test pilot determines is most representative. The most
critical condition will usually be the take-off case. When testing for this condition, the trim
settings should be those normally recommended for take-off. Static minimum control
airspeed may be determined as follows.
1. For the initial determination of Vmc (static), stabilize at approximately twice the
stall airspeed in the desired configuration and set the desired asymmetric power
(simulate the failed engine using the previously determined power setting).
Subsequent investigation of Vmc (static) may be made by stabilizing initially at
approximately 1.4 times the Vmc previously determined.
2. Smoothly and slowly reduce airspeed by means of longitudinal inputs while

using lateral and directional controls to maintain steady, straight flight with zero
bank angle. If testing for the engine failure after take-off case, trimmers must
remain at the settings recommended for take-off with symmetric thrust. If
desired, stabilize at predetermined airspeed intervals (3-5 KIAS increments) and
record estimated or measured control forces and deflections; otherwise continue
to decelerate at a rate which should not exceed 0.5 KIAS/second.
3. Eventually, an airspeed will be reached where either full directional or full

lateral control surface deflection is required to maintain steady heading, wings
level flight. In some cases, the strength capacity of the pilot will be reached
prior to full control deflection. This airspeed, below which steady heading,
wings level flight cannot be maintained, is the minimum control airspeed for the
test conditions. This airspeed and the limiting factor (usually directional or
lateral control deflection or force) should be noted.
4. If the limiting factor is directional control deflection or rudder force

requirements, minimum control airspeed can be reduced by banking toward the
operating engine(s). (Obviously, different minimum control airspeeds could be
determined for each bank angle utilized. Empirically, 5 degrees of bank has
generally been used as an approximation to the optimum bank angle considering
both performance and flying qualities.) If appropriate, minimum control
airspeed and limiting factor with 5 degrees of bank should be determined.
5. If at any point during the minimum control airspeed tests, the pilot loses lateral
or directional control of the airplane, control may be regained by increasing
airspeed and reducing power on the operative engine(s) (or increasing power on
the simulated inoperative engine).
6. After determining minimum control airspeeds with the critical engine in a

simulated feathered condition, the airspeeds may be checked with the critical
engine actually secured and the propeller actually feathered.
7. The static minimum control airspeed does not imply that the airplane is unsafe to
fly at a lower airspeed either by slightly reducing the power asymmetry or by
accepting a resulting yaw rate. If the power asymmetry is maintained, the
airplane may or may not be safe to fly below the minimum control airspeed
depending upon whether the departure from controlled flight is a mild (but
steady) yaw rate or it is more violent or radical.
6.2.5.2.3 Qualitative Investigation

After the quantitative tests described above, the test pilot should conduct a
qualitative investigation of the flying qualities exhibited at representative cruise airspeeds
with asymmetric power. The pilot should be able to trim all control forces to zero at these
airspeeds without undue effort. Turns and heading changes, representative of maneuvers
required in instrument or visual cruise conditions, should be performed to determine if
excessive pilot coordination, control forces, or control movements are required. Generally,
bank angle changes of up to 30 degrees from wings level are considered adequate for most
maneuvering on asymmetric power.
6.5.2.3 CONTROL IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING AN ENGINE
FAILURE: MINIMUM CONTROL AIRSPEEDS WITH SUDDEN
ENGINE FAILURES
The difficulty the pilot experiences in maintaining control of the airplane following
sudden, asymmetric power failures increases with the following factors:
1. Increase in the operating engine power output. For a constant throttle or power
lever position (assume full or maximum), engine thrust usually increases as
altitude decreases.
2. Decrease in airspeed.
3. Decrease in excess power available for climb and acceleration.
Thus, the take-off and wave-off flight conditions, characterized by high power
settings, low airspeeds, low altitude, and high drag configurations, are generally the most
critical for the investigation of sudden engine failures. The asymmetric power flying
qualities in these conditions should allow the average operational pilot to regain and
maintain control of the airplane at all airspeeds representative of operational procedures.
Minimum dynamic control airspeed for the average pilot experiencing a sudden
failure of the critical engine may be determined as follows:
1. Stabilize at approximately twice the stall speed (or 1.4 times the static minimum
control speed) determined in the preliminary tests in the desired configuration at
a safe test altitude. Power should be maximum obtainable or allowable on all
engines and trim should be set for a symmetric power take-off (take-off
configuration) or for a normal symmetric power approach (wave-off
configuration).
2. Smartly reduce the power on the critical engine to minimum power, simulating a
sudden failure. The test pilot should pause a reasonable time interval to account
for the surprise factor of a sudden engine failure under operational conditions.
Engine failure cues should be determined (yaw, roll, audio, or cockpit
instrument) and a suitable reaction delay time should then be specified and used
for continued testing. In no case should recovery control inputs be applied until
1 second has elapsed, a 20 degree bank angle change has occurred, or the
sideslip limit is reached (whichever occurs first). After the time delay, steady,
straight flight conditions should be regained at the original stabilized airspeed.
Longitudinal, lateral, and directional control inputs may be used as required to
effect the recovery to controlled flight.
3. The test pilot should note control forces and positions required while regaining
control and to maintain steady, straight flight with less than 5 degrees of bank.
If automatic recording devices are available, the entire maneuver, from "power
chop" to steady, controlled flight, should be recorded.
4. Reduce the airspeed at which engine failure is simulated by small increments

(5-10 KIAS) and repeat steps 2 and 3. An alternative method of build-up would
be to make several power chops at each stabilized airspeed starting with a very
slow power reduction (approximately a static condition), resetting symmetric
power, and incrementally increasing the speed of the power reduction until it
becomes a true power chop.
5. Eventually an airspeed will be reached where control can barely be regained or

where, in the test pilot's opinion, the aircraft motions following the engine
failure and while control is begin regained become unacceptable. Full control
defection requirements may not be a good indication that limiting conditions
have been reached since the pilot may elect to use full deflections at speeds
higher than Vmc (dyn) to quicken the recovery; however, excessive control
forces or excessive pilot skill and coordination requirements may well define a
limit. The limiting factor must be specifically defined by the test pilot. It must
also be noted that by definition, Vmc (dyn) cannot be lower than Vmc (static)
for the same conditions.
6. Based on the test results, the minimum dynamic control airspeed must be
decided upon. Such factors as ease of regaining and maintaining control,
control forces and deflections required, and reaction time allowed must be taken
into account. The airspeed recommended must allow an adequate safety margin
for average pilot skill and proficiency.
7. If control of the airplane is lost during these tests, the pilot may regain control
by increasing airspeed and reducing power on the operative engine(s) (or
increasing power on the simulated inoperative engine). Particular caution
should be exercised at slower airspeed test points since exaggerated nose-up
pitch attitudes will be required to stabilize with symmetrical power at the slow
airspeeds. Therefore, airspeed decrease may be quite rapid after power
reduction on the critical engine.
8. After the minimum dynamic control airspeed is decided upon, the airspeed may
be checked by actually failing the critical engine and feathering the propeller at
the minimum airspeed.
The static and dynamic minimum control airspeeds determined at altitude may be
extrapolated to sea level as shown in Figure 6.12.
10
8
(Ft. 1,000)
Altitude

6
Predicted Sea
4 Level Value
2
S.L.
75 80 85 90 95 100 105
Airspeed
(KIAS)
Figure 6.12
Extrapolation of Minimum Control Airspeed to Sea Level
The maximum power available at each altitude during the flight tests should be
carefully noted and engine thrust or power available curves as a function of altitude should
be consulted to ensure that no asymmetric thrust anomalies occur in the extrapolation
altitude band.
6.5.2.4 MINIMUM CONTROL GROUND SPEEDS WITH SUDDEN

ENGINE FAILURES
Minimum control ground speed testing is extremely critical and should generally be
conducted after the test pilot is familiar with asymmetric power flying qualities in flight.
The build-up to the minimum control ground speed must be slow and deliberate since there
is no altitude and only limited area in which to recover control of an airplane following
engine failure. Consideration must be given to runway length and width, arresting gear,
brake temperatures, air crew escape system parameters and airfield crash and rescue
equipment. Various methods may be used for minimum control ground speed testing
depending upon the engine type, flight controls, and mission of the airplane; however, the
following method may be used as a guide.
1. In the take-off configuration set the critical engine at a simulated failed power.
Slowly accelerate with full rudder into the operating engines by adding power
on the operating engine(s). Maintain directional control and accelerate down the
runway by modulating the operating engine(s) until an airspeed is reached
where full asymmetric power is controllable. This will be the minimum control
ground speed. During the acceleration the ailerons should be neutral,
asymmetric braking should not be used, and nose wheel steering should be
used only if its use is recommended for normal take-offs. During initial tests,
the crosswind should be zero or slightly into the operating engine(s). As the
test pilot becomes more familiar with asymmetric power on the ground, the
minimum control speed tests should be conducted with increasing crosswind
components into the critical engine.
2. An alternate method would be to initially accelerate using symmetric power.

The power on the critical engine would then be slowly reduced, while slowly
applying rudder up to full rudder into the operating engines until an airspeed
was reached where the airplane could be controlled with the power on the
critical engine reduced to its failed simulation setting. This speed would be the
minimum control ground speed.
3. Once the minimum control ground speed has been determined it should be
verified by conducting power chops of the critical engine from a symmetric
power take-off configuration. A safe build-up in airspeed and power chop
quickness should be utilized just as in dynamic minimum control airspeed
testing.
6.5.2.4.1 Safety Speed

Safety speed allows for failure of the critical engine in configuration take-off
followed by configuration changes to reduce drag and conversion to a climb without loss of
altitude. Thus, safety speed will be the higher airspeed of:
1. Minimum control ground speed.
2. Minimum dynamic control airspeed in configuration take-off.
3. That airspeed from which a climb can be initiated with the critical engine failed,
after allowing for any deceleration, which the average pilot might experience
during engine failure and subsequent propeller feathering and configuration
change, without loss of altitude.
6.5.2.5 APPROACH AND LANDING CHARACTERISTICS WITH

ASYMMETRIC POWER
The final phase of the asymmetric power investigation involves the determination of
approach and landing characteristics. From these tests, the acceptability of asymmetric
power flying qualities during VFR and IFR approaches and filed and carrier landings is
determined. Additionally, optimum techniques for these evolutions may be derived and/or
recommended techniques may be evaluated. The following points should be kept in mind
while evaluating approach and landing characteristics with asymmetric power.
1. The critical engine may be placed in a simulated feathered condition vice actually
secured. (For propeller-driven airplanes, the propeller control should be placed
to full increase or maximum RPM on final approach in case a symmetric power
wave-off is necessary.)
2. Standard traffic patterns and altitudes need not be adhered to; steep turns should
be avoided.
3. Excessive crosswinds and turbulence unduly increase pilot workload for initial
tests. Close attention to the crosswind must be given during each separate
portion of the evaluation.
4. The tendency for the airplane to swerve toward the operative engine(s) with
power reduction at field touchdown may be diminished by smooth power
reduction, rudder inputs, braking, and nosewheel steering (if available). This
swerve tendency may be particularly pronounced on twin-engine turboprop
airplanes. For this type, initial power reduction at field touchdown should be
only to FLIGHT IDLE. After counteracting initial swerve, the operative engine
may be brought to GROUND IDLE. Use of reverse thrust asymmetrically may
result in loss of directional control. (However, symmetrical reversing may be
employed by using the symmetric operative engines on four-engine airplanes.)
6.5.3 POSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES

brief, qualitative report of the asymmetric power flying qualities. This report should be
written while the events of the flight are fresh in the pilot's mind. The test pilot's
qualitative opinion will be the most important portion of the final report of the asymmetric
power flying qualities.
Asymmetric power characteristics in steady, equilibrium flight conditions are

effectively presented as plots of pertinent control forces and positions versus airspeed
(Figure 6.13). For dynamic characteristics (sudden engine failures), time histories should
be presented if automatic recording devices were utilized (Figure 6.14).
The terminology used in the technical report regarding minimum speeds and
conditions must be explicitly defined. Expressions utilized to describe airspeeds and
conditions associated with asymmetric power are not standard throughout the aviation
industry. Thus, when describing the test results, the writer must be extremely careful to
precisely define each expression which possibly could be misinterpreted.
6 - 2 Rudder Selected
20 Rudder Selected
Minimum Rudder
Trim Speed with Minimum Control Speed
Artificial 20 Rudder Selected 6 - 2 Rudder Selected
Stall Warning
Rt
20
10
Pedal Force Pedal Position

0
RtRudder
Lt
In
10
200
100
0 Rudder
Lt
Lb
100
20
10
Position
Rudder
Deg-Rt
0
Rt
20
10
Wheel Position Wheel Force
0
RtLateral
Lt
Lb
10
10
0
10
Lt
Lateral
Deg
20
Rt
10
0
BankLt
Angle
10
Deg
ofRt
10
0
of Sideslip
10
Lt
Angle
Deg
20
0
5
Deg-Ted
of Attack Elevator
Deg-Anu Position
10
20
10
0
Angle
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190

Equivalent Airspeed-KT
Model ____________ Airplane
BuNo ______________
Pilot: ________________ Date: 2 December 1966
Configuration: P (Single Engine) Loading: Normal Transport
Figure 6.13
Static Asymmetric Power Characteristics
(Left Engine Secured, Propeller Feathered)
Gross Weight - 42,350 Lb
CG Position - 33.2 MAC
Stability Augmentation - On
Power Chopped to Flight Idle
Rt
4
Rudder Pedal
Position
2
In
0
RtLb Lt
2
4
200
Pedal Force
100
Rudder
0
Rt Lt
100
200
20
Position 10
Rudder
Deg 0
RtLb Lt
10
20
Aileron Wheel Aileron Wheel
60
40
Force
0
Lt
40
60
Rt
40
20
Position
Deg
0
Lt
20
40
Rt
100
of Bank
Angle
80
Deg
0
Lt
80
100
Rt
40
of Sideslip
20
Angle
Deg
0
Lt
20
40
120
Calibrated
Airspeed
110
Kt
100
90
80
56
Thousand SHP Hundred Ft
Altitude
Pressure
54
52
50
48
4
Engine SHP
3 Right
2
1 Left
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Model_____________Airplane
BuNo ________________
Pilot: __________________ Date: 2 December 1966
Configuration: Takeoff Loading: Normal Transport
Figure 6.14
Time History of Simulated Left Engine Failure in
Configuration Take-Off
Requirements for asymmetric power flying qualities are contained in the following
applicable paragraphs of Military Specification MIL-F-8785C of 5 November 1980,
hereafter referred to as the Specification.
3.3.9 Lateral-directional control with asymmetric thrust.
3.3.9.1 Thrust loss during take-off run.
3.3.9.2 Thrust loss after take-off.
3.3.9.3 Transient effects.
3.3.9.4 Asymmetric thrust- rudder pedals free.
3.4.2.1.3.1 One-engine-out stalls.
3.4.2.2 Post-stall gyrations and spins.
3.4.8 Transients following failures.
3.4.9 Failures.
3.4.10 Control margin.
3.6.1.1 Trim for asymmetric thrust.

Detail Specification. Some comments to assist in interpretation of the requirements in the
paragraphs listed above may be helpful and are presented below.
3.3.9 Lateral-directional control with asymmetric thrust - This is a general

paragraph which contains the all-important sentence, "following sudden
asymmetric loss of thrust from any factor the airplane shall be safely
controllable." Any dangerous characteristic exhibited under any
representative operational flight condition is a violation of the requirement.
Additionally, the requirements stated in 3.3.9.1 through 3.3.9.5 must be
met.
3.3.9.1 Thrust loss during take-off run - Normally, no asymmetric tests

will be made on the take-off run at TPS.
3.3.9.2 Thrust loss after take-off - This paragraph refers to a sudden

failure of the critical engine (worst case) in the take-off
configuration. The pilot must be able to achieve and maintain
straight flight following the sudden failure at all airspeeds above
Vstop + 10 knots. No configuration change is permitted other
than operation of automatic devices, such as autofeather. The
bank angle used in the steady equilibrium condition must not
exceed 5 degrees and rudder and aileron forces are to be within the
stated limits with trim set for symmetric power take-off.
3.3.9.3 Transient effects - Note that no response to the simulated engine

failure is permitted for at least 1 second.
3.3.9.4 Asymmetric thrust - rudder pedals free. This paragraph describes

a maneuver utilized as a indication of the static directional stability
in the worst asymmetric condition. Trim is set for wings level
steady heading flight at a speed of 1.4Vmin with symmetric
normal rated power. After failure of the critical engine (a propeller
may only be feathered if the automatic feathering system normally
operates in the configuration under test) the pilot must be able to
maintain straight flight at this and all higher speeds by banking
without making any rudder inputs and allowing the airplane to
sideslip. For most airplanes as speed is increased above 1.4Vmin
the test will become progressively less demanding. However, for
certain airplanes the problem may become more acute at very high
speeds.
3.4.2.1.3.1 One-engine-out stalls - This

paragraph requires that in the
event of a stall occurring at or
above Vmc (as might be the
case, for example, with a
heavy airplane) the resulting
stall shall be recoverable.
Power may be reduced on the
good engine(s) during
recovery if required.
3.4.2.2 Post-stall gyrations and spins- - This paragraph effectively

specifies that no concessions will be permitted for airplanes with
asymmetric thrust in the entry to and recovery from post-stall
gyrations and spins, though power may be reduced on the good
engine(s) as required during recovery. These test will not normally
be conducted at TPS.
3.4.8 Transients following failures - This paragraph refers to airplane motions

following any airplane system or component failure. Failures resulting in
asymmetric thrust are adequately covered under 3.3.9 and no additional
requirements are stated here.
3.4.9 Failures - The relevant requirement in this paragraph is that the pilot shall be
provided with immediate and easily interpreted indications of a failure
resulting in asymmetric thrust. The requirement related to dangerous flying
qualities is covered in 3.3.9.
3.4.10 Control Margin - With regard to the reference to "transients from failures in
the propulsion ... and other relevant systems," this paragraph really says the
same things as paragraphs 3.3.9 to 3.3.9.5.
3.6.1.1 Trim for asymmetric thrust - This paragraph requires that in the worst
asymmetric case it shall be possible to trim elevator, aileron, and rudder
forces to zero at all level flight cruise speeds from best range speed for the
engine-out configuration to the maximum speed obtainable with normal
rated thrust on the functioning engine(s). Or, in other words, minimum
trim speed should be less than maximum range speed for the engine-out
configuration.
6.7 LIST OF REFERENCES

1. Advisory Group For Aeronautical Research and Development, Flight Test

Professor and Chairman, Aeronautical Engineering Department, Princeton University, and
3. Background Information and User Guide for MIL-F-8785B(ASG); "Military

Specification - Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes," by C.R. Chalk, T.P. Neal, T.M.
Harris, F.E. Prichard, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York,
Technical Report AFFDL-TR-69-72, August 1969.
4. Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport

Category Airplanes, Federal Aviation Agency, Washington, D.C.
5. Flight Testing of Aircraft by M. G. Kotick, et al., NASA Technical Report

TT F-442, April, 1967.
6. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Technique, Empire Test Pilots'
7. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes MIL-F-8785C, of

5 November 1980.

Book "C."

CHAPTER SEVEN
TRANSONIC-SUPERSONIC FLYING QUALITIES
PAGE
7.2 THEORY 7.1
7.2.1 General 7.1

7.2.1.1 Transition From Subsonic to Supersonic Flight 7.1
7.2.2 Air Compressibility Effects 7.2
7.2.2.1 Aerodynamic Center Movement 7.2
7.2.2.2 Reduction in Lift and Change in Downwash 7.5
7.2.2.3 Control Effectiveness and Hinge Moments 7.5
7.2.2.4 Changes in Lift Curve Slope and Stability Derivatives 7.6
7.2.2.5 Miscellaneous Compressibility Phenomena 7.9
7.2.3 Elastic Deformation of the Airplanes Structure 7.10
7.2.4 Airplane Conformation and Mass Distribution 7.11
7.2.5 Reduction of Air Density at High Altitudes 7.12

7.3.2 Flight Test Technique 7.14
7.3.2.1 General 7.14
7.3.2.2 Preliminary Deceleration Test 7.15
7.3.2.3 Typical Transonic Characteristics 7.15
7.3.2.4 Transonic Investigations (Initial) 7.17
7.3.2.5 Transonic Investigations (Proven Airplane) 7.19
7.3.2.6 Typical Supersonic Characteristics 7.20
7.3.2.7 Supersonic Investigations 7.21
7.i
7.5 GLOSSARY 7.23
7.6 REFERENCES 7.24
7.ii
CHAPTER SEVEN
FIGURES
PAGE
7.1 Typical Flow about a Wing Section in Transitioning from Subsonic to
Supersonic Flow7.3
7.2 Aerodynamic Center Variation with Mach Number 7.4
7.3 Trailing Edge Control Surface in Transonic Flow 7.5
7.4 Typical Variations of Control Power and Hinge Moment Coefficients with
Mach Number 7.6
7.5 Lift Curve Slope Variation with Mach Number 7.7
7.6 Possible Variation of Directional Stability and Control Power with Mach
Number 7.8
7.7 Typical Influence of Increasing Normal Acceleration on Directional Stability 7.9
7.8 Possible Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslipping a Swept-Wing Airplane
at Transonic Mach Numbers 7.10
7.9 Possible Influence of Elastic Deformation Directional Stability 7.11
7.10 Typical Transonic Longitudinal Trim Change 7.16
7.11 Abrupt Increases in Normal Acceleration may be Encountered During
Transonic Deceleration 7.17
7.12 Transonic Characteristics 7.22
7.iii
CHAPTER 7
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Airplanes designed to fly operationally at transonic and supersonic airspeeds
generally experience few of the instabilities which were encountered in the first
experimental supersonic types. Knowledge of the transonic-supersonic regimes has been
utilized to develop airplane conformations suited to the high Mach number operating
environment. Thus, these regimes are no longer ones to be entered only inadvertently or
with apprehension. Rather, the airplane capable of operating transonically and
supersonically with satisfactory stability and control characteristics has obvious tactical,
strategic, and logistics advantages.
The same standard test techniques presented previously may be utilized in the
transonic-supersonic testing environment. However, several peculiarities of the stability
and control characteristics of the supersonic airplane must be understood in order to
effectively conduct a test program in this environment. Additionally, the approach to
transonic-supersonic flight testing may be somewhat different than the approach to
subsonic flight testing.
7.2 THEORY
7.2.1 General
7.2.1.1 TRANSITION FROM SUBSONIC TO SUPERSONIC

FLIGHT
Various components of the airplane structure are subject to local velocities which
may be lower or higher than the airplane velocity. As the airplane's airspeed increases, a
Mach number will be attained at which some component of the airplane is subjected to local
sonic velocity. This free-stream Mach number at which a local Mach number of 1.0 is
attained at any point on the airplane is called the critical Mach number (Figure 7.1). There
exists a Mach number band within which regions of both subsonic and supersonic flow are
7.1
present on the airplane. This Mach number band is called the transonic region or transonic
regime. The transonic region for a particular airplane obviously depends on its design
characteristics.
The flying qualities of airplanes operating in the transonic-supersonic flight regime

are generally characterized, to some degree, by various peculiarities not normally
encountered in subsonic flight. These peculiarities may be attributable to one or more of
the following factors:
1. Air compressibility effects.
2. Elastic deformation of the airplane structure.
3. Airplane conformation and mass distribution.
4. Reduction of air density at high altitudes.
Each of these factors, and its possible influence on flying qualities will be discussed
in turn.
7.2.2 Air Compressibility Effects

Compressibility is defined as that property of a substance which causes its density
to increase with increase in pressure. In aerodynamics, this property of air is particularly
manifested at high airspeeds. Compressing the air about an airplane may generate
buffeting, control surface buzz, trim changes, and other phenomena not ordinarily
encountered at low airspeeds. These phenomena are commonly know as compressibility
effects and may be attributed to various peculiarities encountered at transonic and
supersonic Mach numbers.
7.2.2.1 AERODYNAMIC CENTER MOVEMENT

In the transonic region, the formation of shock waves on the wing surface and the
resulting separated flow (Figure 7.1) causes movement of the wing aerodynamic center.
The magnitude of the aerodynamic center movement depends on the design parameters of
the wing (Figure 7.2).
7.2
Subsonic Flow
Subsonic
M = 0.75
Local Velocity Reaches

Sonic Velocity
Subsonic Critical Mach Number
M = 0.80 M = 0.80
Supersonic
Flow Normal Shock Wave
Subsonic Flow
Subsonic
M = 0.85 Separated Flow
Supersonic
Flow
Normal Shock
Waves
Subsonic
M = 0.90
Separated Flow
Supersonic
Flow
Normal Shock
Waves
Just Subsonic
M = 0.95
Separated Flow
Supersonic Oblique Shock

Flow Waves
Supersonic Supersonic
M = 1.05
Supersonic
Flow
Subsonic Flow
Bow Wave
Figure 7.1
Typical Flow About a Wing Section in Transitioning
from Subsonic to Supersonic Flow
7.3
Aerodynamic Center Location on Root Chord

Delta Wing AR = 2
.6
AR =
.4 AR = 4
C
Xac
.2 AR = 2
Denotes a Rectangular
0 Flat Plate Airfoil
-.2
1 2 3
Mach Number, M
Figure 7.2
Aerodynamic Center Variation with Mach Number
The aft shift of the aerodynamic center results in an increase in longitudinal stability
at a constant Mach number or an increase in angle of attack stability. (The aft shift of the
aerodynamic center is analogous to moving the airplane center-of-gravity forward.) This
change in stability can contribute to several characteristics which influence the flying
qualities associated with transonic and supersonic flight regimes. The most well-known of
these characteristics is the transonic longitudinal trim change. The transonic longitudinal
trim change is manifested by increasing longitudinal pull forces and increasing trailing edge
up elevator deflection required to stabilize at higher transonic Mach numbers with a
constant longitudinal trim setting. This trim change also contributes to the common
increase in normal acceleration for a fixed longitudinal control pull force and elevator
deflection while decelerating through the transonic regime at a constant longitudinal trim
setting, generally know as transonic pitch-up.
7.4
In the pure supersonic flight regime, the primary effect of the aerodynamic center
shift is simply the increase in longitudinal stability. This can contribute to high longitudinal
maneuvering control forces and/or the inability to obtain maximum useable load factors
(design limit normal acceleration) in supersonic flight.
7.2.2.2 REDUCTION IN LIFT AND CHANGE IN DOWNWASH

During accelerations through the transonic regime, a reduction of lift from the wing
occurs because of the shock wave formation and subsequent airflow separation (Figure
7.3). Since downwash behind the wing is a direct function of wing lift, a reduction in
downwash also occurs while accelerating through the transonic regime. The reduction in
downwash generates an increased angle of attack at the horizontal tail, which requires the
pilot to apply additional trailing edge up elevator deflection to maintain altitude. Therefore,
this factor also contributes to the transonic longitudinal trim change.
Supersonic
Flow Normal
Shock Waves
Separated Flow
Figure 7.3
Trailing Edge Control Surface in Transonic Flow
7.2.2.3 CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS AND HINGE MOMENTS

The effectiveness or control power of the conventional trailing edge control surface
(rudder, aileron, elevator) is particularly susceptible to transonic and supersonic influence.
In the transonic flight regime, the trailing edge surface may be operating in a region of
separated flow behind the normal shock wave, since the flow forward of the shock is
supersonic. Thus, the control power, or the change in pitching, yawing, or rolling moment
created per incremental change in control deflection, may be decreased.
7.5
The control power of the conventional trailing edge control surface decreases also at
supersonic airspeeds. Because the flow over the wing, horizontal stabilizer, or vertical
stabilizer is supersonic, the deflection of a trailing edge control surface generates little
change in the aerodynamic loading over the wing or stabilizer (Figure 7.4). These
phenomena have resulted in the use of the all-moving stabilizer, wing spoiler control
surfaces, and irreversible power control systems on most modern supersonic airplanes.
The all-moving stabilizer control power also decreases supersonically; however, the
reduction is generally not as severe as for the trailing edge control.
Trailing Edge Control

Hinge Moment Coefficient
and Hinge Moment Coefficient

Trailing Edge Control Surface
Stabilizer Control
Power Coefficient
Control Power
Trailing Edge Surface
M < 1.0 Control Power Coeficient
M >1.0
Pressure Distribution
1 2
Mach Number, M
Figure 7.4
Typical Variations of Control Power and Hinge Moment
Coefficients with Mach Number
7.2.2.4 CHANGES IN LIFT CURVE SLOPE AND STABILITY

DERIVATIVES
Differences in subsonic and supersonic pressure distributions over wing, horizontal
tail, and vertical tail surfaces lead to significant changes in the effectiveness of the surfaces.
These changes are the result of the typical reduction in lift cure slope at supersonic
7.6
airspeeds (Figure 7.5). Essentially, the variation in lift curve slope indicates that the
aerodynamic surface becomes less sensitive to angle of attack or sideslip changes at high
Mach numbers. The implications are several and significant:
1. The damping of the longitudinal short period and lateral-directional Dutch roll
motions may be decreased.
2. Control power of the all-moving stabilizer may be reduced.
3. Directional stability, Cn may be reduced drastically.
and Vertical Tail Lift

Wing Horizontal Tail
Curve Slopes
(w, t, v)
1 2 3
Mach Number, M
Figure 7.5
Lift Curve Slope Variation with Mach Number
The reduction of directional stability at high Mach numbers can be a particularly

serious phenomenon. Because directional control power, C n , generally decays with
r
Mach number as does directional stability, C n , the rudder position variation with sideslip
angle, dr
d is not a good indication of the decay in directional stability. The pilot may feel
perfectly secure with the dr

d gradient exhibited by the airplane, although directional
7.7
stability may be dangerously low (Figure 7.6). The directional stability in supersonic flight
decreased further with increasing lift coefficient, angle of attack, or normal acceleration
(Figure 7.7). This is caused by:
1. A reduction in dynamic pressure at the vertical tail, due to the turbulent wing
and fuselage wake at high angles of attack.
2. Strong vortex shedding from sharp-nosed fuselages at high angles of attack.
The decrease in lift curve slope and associated changes in stability derivatives have
contributed to the requirement for stability augmentation systems in most modern
supersonic airplanes.
C nr
C n
,
C n
C n
r
d
d r
1 2 3
Mach Number, M
Figure 7.6
Possible Variation of Directional Stability and Control Power with Mach Number
7.8
Directional Stability
C n n = 1.0
n = 2.0
n = 3.0
n = 4.0
n = 5.0
0 1 2 3
Mach Number
Figure 7.7
Typical Influence of Increasing Normal Acceleration on Directional Stability
7.2.2.5 MISCELLANEOUS COMPRESSIBILITY PHENOMENA

Miscellaneous phenomena which may be observed in the transonic flight regime are:
1. Buffeting of fuselage, wings, and empennage due to separation induced by

shock wave formation.
2. Abrupt lateral-directional trim changes due to asymmetric shock wave formation

on wings and aft fuselage.
3. Unusual roll response to rudder inputs. The airplane may roll opposite to the
direction of rudder input because the forward moving wing will be subjected to
a slightly higher Mach number and, possibly, more shock-induced separation.
On a swept-wing airplane, the change of effective sweep angles in sideslipping
flight contributes to negative dihedral effect in the transonic regime (Figure
7.8).
7.9
Relative Wind
Vectors
Left Wing Right Wing

Effective Sweep Angle Effective Sweep Angle
is Increased is Reduced
Critical Mach Number Critical Mach Number
is Increased is Decreased
More Shock-Induced
Separation
Rolling Moment
Figure 7.8
Possible Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslipping
a Swept-Wing Airplane at Transonic Mach Numbers
4. Unusual roll response to small lateral control inputs. The airplane may roll
opposite to the direction of lateral control input (for small lateral inputs). If the
airplane is equipped with spoiler-type lateral controls, this effect may be
attributed to boundary layer regeneration (vortex generator effect) for very small
spoiler deflection. The energizing of the boundary layer can reduce the
magnitude of shock-induced separation, actually increasing the lift on the wing.
5. Very high frequency control surface oscillations. These oscillations, generally

called control surface "buzz," may be caused by control surface immersion in
separated flow behind the shock wave or by shock wave formation and
movement on the control surface. Prolonged, large magnitude, control surface
buzzing could conceivably result in structural failure of the control surface.
7.2.3 Elastic Deformation of the Airplane Structure

Elastic deformation of the airplane structure, or aero-elastic effects, are likely to
have some influence on transonic and supersonic flying qualities. The flexible structure of
the airplane will bend or deform in response to applied moments so as to tend to reduce the
7.10
moments or "unload itself." Thus, aero-elastic effects may be manifested by a decrease in

stabilizing influence of the horizontal and vertical tail. This results in a reduction in
damping of all perturbed motions, as well as a reduction in static stability. An example of
how elastic deformation can reduce static directional stability is shown in Figure 7.9.
Directional Stability
60,000 Ft

40,000 Ft
Cn
Decreasing Hp
20,000 Ft
1 2 3
Mach Number, M
Figure 7.9
Possible Influence of Elastic Deformation Directional Stability
The most significant influence of aero-elasticity may be in the area of rolling

performance. Wing torsional deflections which occur with aileron usage may be
considerable. The result may be a drastic reduction in lateral control effectiveness at high
Mach numbers. This subject is more thoroughly discussed in the Rolling Performance
Theory.
It should be remembered that aero-elastic effects occur as a function of dynamic

pressure for a given Mach number. Therefore, high altitude flight at a given Mach number
will be relatively free of aero-elastic effects when compared to low altitude flight.
7.2.4 Airplane Conformation and Mass Distribution

Peculiarities of the aerodynamic form and mass distribution of the supersonic shape
can generate some unusual stability and control characteristics. In particular, longitudinal
flying qualities may be significantly influenced in many flight regimes by the location of the
7.11
horizontal tail. The low-mounted horizontal tail generally generates more supersonic drag
and operates in a region of disturbed flow from the wing and fuselage at angles-of-attack
below stall. Thus, its effectiveness may be reduced and a more abrupt transonic
longitudinal trim change may be encountered. However, the high-mounted horizontal tail,
which may yield better longitudinal flying qualities over much of the total flight envelope of
the airplane, may precipitate severe "pitch-up" characteristics at high angles-of-attack. A
thorough discussion of the influence of horizontal tail location on stall characteristics may
be found in the Stalls Theory section.
The supersonic airplane is characterized by a concentration of mass within a

relatively long, slender fuselage; this results in large inequities between yawing and
pitching; moments of inertia, and the rolling moments of inertia. Thus, the influence of
inertia on airplane motion is generally more pronounced. The supersonic airplane may be
plagued by roll coupling tendencies which are compounded by reduced longitudinal and
directional stability at high Mach numbers. Roll coupling is discussed more thoroughly in
the Rolling Performance Theory section.
7.2.5 Reduction of Air Density at High Altitudes

The reduction of air density at high altitudes leads to a marked reduction of the
damping moments generated by the airplane in opposition to perturbations. In comparison,
inertial moments are not directly related to air density and therefore remain fairly constant
with altitude increase. Thus, in supersonic, high altitude flight regimes, the airplane may
exhibit lower damping of longitudinal and lateral-directional oscillations as well as lower
roll damping. In order to counteract these adverse tendencies, supersonic airplanes are
normally equipped with stability augmentation systems.
7.3 TEST PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES TRANSONIC-

SUPERSONIC FLYING QUALITIES

Transonic and supersonic investigations must begin with extensive preflight
preparation. The purpose and scope of the investigation must be clearly defined, then a
plan of attack or method of test can be formulated.
7.12
Preflight planning must start with research. The step-by-step process by which
Mach number and maneuvering envelopes of high performance airplanes are enlarged
during prototype flight testing is a joint effort on the part of analytical and flight test
engineers. Abrupt, nonlinear effects often encountered may preclude increasing Mach
number or maneuvers by simple interpolation and extrapolation based on previously
attained conditions. Predictions of flying qualities should be based on wind-tunnel and
theoretical data corrected as necessary by the results of inflight tests. For experimental or
prototype flight testing programs, large scale analog or digital computing equipment is
probably essential to allow the necessary speed and flexibility of computation. For flight
test programs within established flight envelopes which have been demonstrated
structurally and aerodynamically safe, the sophisticated computing equipment may not be
required. However, preflight research should be no less thorough. The design of the
airplane should be studied in relation to its influence on stability and control characteristics.
The flight control system, including stability and control augmentation, should be closely
scrutinized. All available flight test, wind tunnel, and theoretical data should be reviewed.
Much useful information may be gained from conferences with pilots and engineers
familiar with the airplane.
The particular tasks to be investigated must be determined and clearly understood

by the flight test team. These tasks, of course, depend on the mission of the airplane. The
transonic region may be of relatively minor concern for airplanes designed to operate
exclusively at supersonic speeds; accelerations and decelerations through the transonic
regime would obviously require careful study, however. For airplanes designed to operate
for prolonged periods in the transonic regime and for highly maneuverable airplanes
capable of tactical transonic operations, the transonic flying qualities should be of major
concern. The tactical feasibility of maneuvering in the transonic region in a close air-to-air
engagement environment should be established, if applicable. Satisfactory transonic flying
qualities for vigorous maneuvering tasks can provide a tactical advantage for defensive or
offensive purposes; the advantage may revert to the enemy combatant airplane if
unacceptable transonic characteristics exist.
The particular mission tasks to be investigated dictate the test conditions -

configurations, centers-of-gravity, altitudes, gross weights, and trim airspeeds. Test
conditions should be commensurate as much as possible with the mission environment of
the airplane. However, the nature of transonic and supersonic stability and control
7.13
characteristics requires that the most critical conditions be approached with due caution.
Forward center-of-gravity positions should be used for initial tests unless adverse
longitudinal control problems for recovery from high speed dives, etc., are predicted. The
maximum practical altitude should be used for initial tests, to permit the attainment of high
Mach numbers at the lowest dynamic pressure. The amount and sophistication of
instrumentation will depend on the purpose and scope of the evaluation. Automatic
recording devices - oscillograph, magnetic tape, and telemetry - are essential in a long test
program of quantitative nature. Telemetering appropriate parameters to a ground station is
almost mandatory for tests on prototype or experimental models. Qualified engineers, with
communications to the test pilot, should continually monitor the flight test records.
Consideration must also be given to the airspace to be utilized for transonic and
supersonic tests. Only designated areas may be used and the location and size of the area
can have a large influence on the flight test approach utilized.
The final step in preflight planning is the preparation of pilot data cards. Example
data cards presented previously for each area of investigation may be utilized, or data cards
may be constructed to meet the requirements of the individual test program. The data cards
should list all quantitative information desired, should be easy to interpret in flight, and
should allow adequate space for appropriate qualitative pilot comments.
7.3.2.1 GENERAL
The same test techniques described earlier in the manual may be employed in the
transonic and supersonic environment. However, the approach to this testing environment
will be somewhat modified because of various peculiarities of transonic and supersonic
flight.
Classically, the test pilot should desire the same satisfactory flying qualities at
transonic or supersonic speeds as are expected in the subsonic environment. Of course,
various characteristics not normally encountered at subsonic speeds may be anticipated at
transonic and supersonic speeds. However, these peculiarities should not degrade flying
qualities to a degree inconsistent with satisfactory mission accomplishment.
7.14
Due regard must be given to the following considerations in determining the

acceptability of various transonic and supersonic characteristics:
1. Whether the mission tasks will be performed in VFR and IFR conditions or
strictly VFR weather.
2. The availability of an autopilot or automatic flight control system for pilot relief.
3. If stability and control augmentation are installed, the consequences of their

failure.
The pace of the transonic and supersonic investigations depends upon the degree of
familiarity with the flight environment of interest. The pace if initial tests must be very
slow and methodical. As familiarity increases, the pace may be quickened.
7.3.2.2 PRELIMINARY DECELERATION TEST

The test pilot must ascertain the ability to decelerate from transonic and supersonic
airspeeds prior to penetrating into these regions. Therefore, a deceleration check should be
performed at a Mach number just below the Mach number at which compressibility effects
are noted. The effectiveness of all means of deceleration-speed brake extension, power
reduction, etc., should be determined. Both individual and simultaneous actuation of
deceleration means or devices should be performed. Large trim changes associated with
actuation of deceleration devices may generate adverse flying qualities during transonic and
supersonic decelerations; therefore, these trim changes should be noted during this
preliminary test.
7.3.2.3 TYPICAL TRANSONIC CHARACTERISTICS

Stability and control characteristics which may be encountered exclusively in the
transonic flight regime include abrupt changes in longitudinal, lateral, and directional trim
as well as high frequency control surface "buzz". The abrupt change of longitudinal trim in
a narrow range of transonic airspeed is manifested as the "transonic longitudinal trim
change" (Figure 7.10).
7.15
Pull
TED
Elevator Position
.75 .80 .85 .90 .95 1.00 1.05 1.10
Mach Number, M
or
Trim
TEU
Push
Figure 7.10
Typical Transonic Longitudinal Trim Change
The severity of the longitudinal trim change increases with increasing angle of
attack, lift coefficient, or normal acceleration. This can create a sudden increase in normal
acceleration for a constant longitudinal control force and elevator position while
decelerating through the transonic region (Figure 7.11).
Changes in airplane lateral trim transonically may be manifested in small abrupt roll
excursions not generated by lateral control inputs. These excursions may be triggered by
directional trim changes which result in small sideslip excursions. Roll response to sideslip
angles may indicate negative dihedral effect; this phenomenon may be particularly
noticeable on swept-wing designs.
High frequency control surface oscillations or control surface "buzz" are sometimes
encountered in the transonic regime.
7.16
Pull N=5
Teu
N=4
N=3

N=2
Elevator Position
N=1 C A
B
or
.90 .95 1.00 1.05 1.10
Ted Mach Number, M

Push
Considering the static curves if the pilot decelerated from

point A (2g) with a fixed control force and position, the
normal acceleration would tend to increase to 3g at point B
and 4g at point C.
Figure 7.11
Abrupt Increases in Normal Acceleration may be Encountered
During Transonic Deceleration
7.3.2.3 TRANSONIC INVESTIGATIONS (INITIAL)

If little or nothing is known about the transonic behavior of the airplane, the pace of
the transonic investigation will be very slow. After performing the preliminary deceleration
test, the transonic region may be penetrated as follows:
1. At the highest practical altitude, establish the power or combat configuration

with military or maximum power at a Mach number just below transonic
influences. Full power is used so that altitude loss during the test may be
minimized and maximum initial deceleration may be realized with power
reduction.
2. Increase Mach number in steps of approximately 0.01 IMN until transonic

characteristics are first detected.
7.17
3. After encountering the initial transonic characteristics, increase Mach number in

steps of approximately 0.005 IMN. Longitudinal trim settings should not be
altered after penetrating the transonic region unless trimming is required to reach
higher Mach numbers. ("Trimming into" the transonic region may result in
excessive normal acceleration response during deceleration or a lack of
longitudinal response when initiating deceleration.)
4. Stabilize at each incremental Mach number and note appropriate airplane

characteristics. The automatic recording devices are effectively utilized to
quickly gather the airplane response or characteristics in the following manner:
a. Steady, straight stabilized flight.
b. Steady turns at small increments of normal acceleration.
c. Small longitudinal doublet or pulse inputs.
d. Steady sideslips at small increments in sideslip angles.
e. Small directional pulls inputs.
f. Small lateral control deflections.
5. As familiarity with the transonic characteristics of the airplane is gained, the

maneuvers listed above may be methodically increased in magnitude.
6. At predetermined Mach number increments, the test pilot should check

deceleration characteristics. Slow decelerations using only slight power
reduction should be used initially; as familiarity is gained, faster declarations
may be evaluated with simultaneous actuation of all deceleration devices.
7. If control is lost or becomes marginal during the transonic investigation or if

unexpected characteristics are encountered, the test pilot should decelerate to a
subsonic condition and analyze the situation.
7.18
7.3.2.5 TRANSONIC INVESTIGATIONS (PROVEN AIRPLANE)

After initial investigations of transonic behavior or for transonic investigations on
proven airplanes, a faster pace and more vigorous approach may be utilized. After
performing the preliminary deceleration test, the following procedures may be employed:
1. Perform an initial acceleration through the transonic region to obtain an overall

picture of the characteristics exhibited. If longitudinal trim is maintained
constant at the setting for the subsonic starting point, the transonic longitudinal
trim change data may be obtained. The acceleration may be performed by
diving with full power or by a level acceleration with full power for airplanes
with the performance capability. If automatic recording devices are available,
the entire acceleration should be recorded for later analysis.
2. Perform a deceleration through the transonic region using only power

reduction. Note the Mach number at which an increase in normal acceleration
may be expected for a constant longitudinal control force and elevator position.
Record the deceleration with the automatic recording devices, if appropriate.
3. Begin a detailed assessment by stabilizing at predetermined Mach numbers in

the transonic region (0.02 to 0.05 IMN increments). At each stabilized trim
point, briefly investigate the following characteristics:
a. Longitudinal, lateral, and directional trimmability.
b. Longitudinal short period characteristics (small doublet or pulse inputs).

Note any tendencies toward pilot-induced oscillations.
c. Longitudinal maneuvering stability in steady turning flight. Use

approximately the same normal acceleration increment at each test point (for
example, 1-3 g), so that the variation of longitudinal control force per g with
Mach number may be easily noted and presented.
7.19
d. Steady heading sideslips (small).
e. Lateral-directional oscillations (small rudder pulses).
f. Rolling performance with small lateral control inputs and small bank angle
changes.
If automatic recording devices are available, these maneuvers are easily and quickly
recorded for accurate quantitative information.
4. If desired, the maneuvers listed above may be gradually increased in magnitude.
5. Evaluate deceleration characteristics through the transonic region with various

combinations of deceleration means - speed brake extension, power reduction,
etc. In addition, the flying qualities exhibited during decelerations at increasing
values of normal acceleration should be carefully determined. Caution should be
exercised during this phase of the test in order to avoid exceeding structural
limit normal acceleration.
6. For highly maneuverable airplanes capable of tactical transonic operation, a

qualitative investigation should be performed to determine the feasibility of
utilizing the transonic region during typical mission tasks.
7. If control is lost or becomes marginal during the transonic investigation, or if

unexpected characteristics are encountered, the test pilot should decelerate to a
subsonic airspeed and analyze the situation.
7.3.2.6 TYPICAL SUPERSONIC CHARACTERISTICS

At supersonic flight speeds, the following general peculiarities in airplane stability
and control characteristics may be encountered:
1. Increased longitudinal, lateral, and directional control deflections required in all

maneuvering, particularly if control surfaces are trailing edge type.
7.20
2. Increased longitudinal maneuvering control force gradient; reduction in available

normal accelerations with full trailing edge up longitudinal control surface
deflection.
3. Deterioration of transient behavior, i.e., reduced damping of longitudinal and

lateral-directional motions; particularly noticeable at high altitude for airplanes
without stability augmentation.
4. Change in magnitude of the rolling motion in the Dutch roll oscillation (roll-to-
yaw ratio); particularly noticeable in airplanes with no stability augmentation.
5. Weak static directional stability, particularly at high normal acceleration values.
6. Reduction of rolling performance.
7. Tendencies toward roll coupling.
7.3.2.7 SUPERSONIC INVESTIGATIONS

Supersonic investigations may be performed according to the same procedures as
presented for transonic investigations. For initial investigations, the pace must be very
slow and methodical. The operating envelope should be expanded with a step-by-step
process. Computer programs, systematically updated with actual flight test data, should
accompany the test program.
After initial investigations, or for supersonic investigations on proven airplanes, a

faster pace and more vigorous approach may be utilized. An initial acceleration to a Mach
number near the maximum operational Mach number should provide valuable overall
impressions which may be helpful in dividing the remainder of the test into particular
phases. Test techniques presented earlier in the manual are still applicable to the supersonic
flight regime; however, an adequate build-up program must be utilized since exceeding
limits of controllability at supersonic speeds could precipitate catastrophic results.
7.21

rough qualitative report of the transonic and/or supersonic flying qualities. This report
should be written while the events of the flight are fresh in the pilot's mind. Qualitative
pilot opinion, appropriately related to the mission tasks under evaluation, will be the most
important part of the final report.
Appropriate data should be selected to substantiate the pilot's opinion. Data

presentation methods introduced earlier may be utilized for various characteristics of
interest. The transonic longitudinal control force gradients will probably be one of the most
relevant transonic characteristics to be illustrated (Figure 7.12).
Pull
15
Longitudinal Control Force (Fs)
10
5
(Lbs)
0
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05
5 Indicated Mach Number
(IMN)
10
Push
Trim
15
Figure 7.12
Transonic Characteristics
Model _________ Airplane

BuNo ______________
Pilot: ______________________ Gross Weight: 16,700 Lbs
Configuration: Power CG: 23.0 % MAC
Loading: Alpha Altitude: 40,000 - 30,000 Ft
Date: 18 April 1966 Stab Aug: On
7.22

Requirements for transonic and supersonic flying qualities are contained in
applicable paragraphs of Military Specification, MIL-F-8785C, of 5 November 1980,
hereafter referred to as the Specification. Paragraph 3.1.7, Operational Flight Envelopes,
should be used as a guide in determining the flight envelope within which the Specification
is considered applicable.
Relevant exceptions for longitudinal flying qualities in the transonic flight regime
are stated in Specification paragraph 3.2.1.1.1, Relaxation in Transonic Flight, and
paragraph 3.2.1.1.2, Pitch Control Force Variations During Rapid Speed Changes.
7.5 GLOSSARY
Critical Mach Number The free-stream Mach number at which a local Mach
number of 1.0 is attained at any point on the body under
consideration.
Transonic Speed Flow in which regions of both subsonic and supersonic

velocities are present.
Supersonic Of, pertaining to, or dealing with, speeds greater than the
speed of sound.
Compressibility The property of a substance, such as air, by virtue of

which its density increases with increase in pressure.
Compressibility Effects Phenomena encountered by airplanes operating at high

Mach numbers which are attributable to air
compressibility.
Aero-Elastic Effects Effect of aerodynamic forces acting upon an elastic body,

such as an airplane.
7.23
7.6 REFERENCES
2. Aerodynamics of Supersonic Flight, by Alan Pope, Head, Aerodynamics

Department, Sandia Corporation, Publisher: Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York,
Toronto, London.

4. Dynamics of Flight, Stability and Control, by Bernard Etkin, Professor of

Aeronautical Engineering, University of Toronto, Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,

6. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Techniques, Empire Test Pilot's

7. High Speed Stability and Control Problems as They Affect Flight Testing, by
Malcolm J. Agzug, Advisory Group For Aeronautical Research and Development, Report
120, May, 1957.

5 November 1980.

7.24

Book "C."

7.25
CHAPTER 8
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
PAGE
8.2 PURPOSE OF TEST 8.1
8.3 THEORY 8.2

8.3.1 WEIGHT EFFECT 8.6
8.3.2 WIND EFFECT 8.7
8.3.3 DRAG EFFECT 8.9
8.3.4 AIRSPEED EFFECT 8.10
8.4 TEST METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 8.12

8.4.1 SAWTOOTH DESCENT 8.12
8.4.1.1 DATA REQUIRED 8.14
8.4.1.2 TEST CRITERIA 8.14
8.4.1.3 DATA REQUIREMENTS 8.15
8.4.1.4 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 8.15
8.4.2 CHECK DESCENT TEST 8.15
8.4.3 PRECAUTIONARY / FLAMEOUT APPROACH 8.19
8.5 DATA REDUCTION 8.25

8.5.1 SAWTOOTH DESCENT 8.25
8.5.2 CHECK DESCENT 8.32
8.6 DATA ANALYSIS 8.42
8.7 MISSION SUITABILITY 8.43

8.7.1 DESCENT PERFORMANCE 8.43
8.7.2 PRECAUTIONARY/FLAME OUT APPROACH 8.43
8.8 SPECIFICATION COMPLIANCE 8.43
8.9 GLOSSARY 8.44

8.9.1 NOTATIONS 8.44
8.9.2 GREEK SYMBOLS 8.45
8.10 REFERENCES 8.46
8.i
FIXED WING PERFORMANCE
CHAPTER 8
FIGURES
PAGE
8.1 FORCES IN A STEADY GLIDE 8.2
8.2 HODOGRAPH 8.5
8.3 WEIGHT EFFECT ON DESCENT PERFORMANCE 8.7
8.4 TAIL WIND / HEAD WIND EFFECT ON DESCENT PERFORMANCE 8.8
8.5 INCREASED DRAG EFFECT ON DESCENT PERFORMANCE 8.9
8.6 SAWTOOTH DATA CARD 8.13
8.7 CHECK DESCENT 8.16
8.8 OVERHEAD PRECAUTIONARY/FLAMEOUT PATTERN 8.20
8.9 STRAIGHT-IN PRECAUTIONARY/FLAMEOUT PATTERN 8.21
8.10 RATE OF DESCENT VERSUS CALIBRATED AIRSPEED 8.26
8.11 DESCENT ANGLE VERSUS CALIBRATED AIRSPEED 8.27
8.12 RATE OF DESCENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK 8.28
8.13 DESCENT ANGLE VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK 8.28
8.14 CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS TIME TO DESCEND 8.35
8.15 CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS FUEL USED IN

THE DESCENT 8.36
8.16 RATE OF DESCENT AND GLIDE RATIO 8.37
8.17 CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS DISTANCE

TRAVELED DURING THE DESCENT 8.38
8.18 CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS TIME, FUEL USED,

AND DISTANCE DURING THE DESCENT 8.39
8.19 DESCENT PERFORMANCE, CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE

VERSUS TIME FOR A FAMILY OF CALIBRATED AIRSPEEDS 8.40
8.20 AIRSPEED VERSUS GLIDE RATIO 8.41
8.21 OPTIMUM DESCENT SCHEDULE 8.42
8.ii
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
CHAPTER 8
EQUATIONS
PAGE
Fz = L = W cos (Eq 8.1) 8.3
Fx = D = W sin (Eq 8.2) 8.3
L = cos = cot
D sin (Eq 8.3) 8.3
V = V cos
hor T (Eq 8.4) 8.3
Vv = V sin
T (Eq 8.5) 8.3
V V cos
hor = T = cot = L
Vv V sin D
T (Eq 8.6) 8.3
Vv
sin =
V
T (Eq 8.7) 8.3
= sin
-1
( ) Vv
V
T (Eq 8.8) 8.4
= sin
-1
( ) dh/dt
V
T (Eq 8.9) 8.4
L = cot sin-1
D ( ) dh/dt
V
T
(Eq 8.10) 8.4
V cos
Glide Ratio = L = T
D Vv
(Eq 8.11) 8.4
V
GR = L T
D Vv
(Eq 8.12) 8.4
8.iii
V =
T
2 2 2
V sin + V cos =
T T
2
V
2
T
( sin
2
+ cos2 ) (Eq 8.13) 8.5
dV
Fx = W sin - D = W T
g dt (Eq 8.14) 8.10
dV
D = sin - 1 T
W g dt (Eq 8.15) 8.10
dV dV
T T dh
=
dt dh dt (Eq 8.16) 8.10
dV
D = sin - 1 T dh
W g dh dt (Eq 8.17) 8.10
dh = V sin
dt T (Eq 8.18) 8.11
dV
D = sin - 1 T
g V sin
W dh T (Eq 8.19) 8.11
L = cos
W (Eq 8.20) 8.11
1
L = cot V dV
1 - gT
D T
dh (Eq 8.21) 8.11
( ) (dh/dt) 1
L = cot sin-1 V dV
V 1 - gT
D T
T
dh (Eq 8.22) 8.11
GR
L= V dV
1 - gT
D T
dh (Eq 8.23) 8.12
V dV
GR = L 1 - T T
D g dh (Eq 8.24) 8.12
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 8.25) 8.29
8.iv
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 8.26) 8.29
Ta( C ) = Ta ( K ) - 273.15
(Eq 8.27) 8.29
OAT = f Ta, M ( T ) (Eq 8.28) 8.29
Ta = f ( OAT, MT ) (Eq 8.29) 8.29
V
T
Test
=f
(V , H
c Pc
, Ta
) (Eq 8.30) 8.29
V
T
Std
=f
(V , H c Pc
,T
Std ) (Eq 8.31) 8.29
h=H
P
c ref
+ H
Pc ( ) T
Ta
Std (Eq 8.32) 8.29
2
V
T
Test
E =h+
h 2g (Eq 8.33) 8.30
dE
h
Ps =
dt
Test (Eq 8.34) 8.30
( )( )( )
V V
W T T
Test Std
Ps = Ps + Std (T - D)
Std Test W V W Nx
Std T Std
Test (Eq 8.35) 8.30
-1 dh/dt
= sin V
Test T
Test (Eq 8.36) 8.30
DCF = 1+ ( V
T
Std
g
dV
dh
T
) (Eq 8.37) 8.30
( )
Ps
dh Std
=
dt DCF
Std (Eq 8.38) 8.30
8.v
(dh/dt)
-1 Std
= sin V
Std T
Std (Eq 8.39) 8.30
V = Vo + V
i ic (Eq 8.40) 8.32
H =H + H
P Po P
i ic (Eq 8.41) 8.32
T = To + T
i ic (Eq 8.42) 8.32
V = 39.0 M Ta ( K )
T (Eq 8.43) 8.32
W =W -W
f f f
Used Start End (Eq 8.44) 8.32
t
d = V
Tavg 60
(Eq 8.45) 8.32
H
P
Range = d
Sea Level (Eq 8.46) 8.32
8.vi
CHAPTER 8
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines the theory and flight tests to determine aircraft descent
performance. By definition, whenever an aircraft is in an unstalled descent, it is in either a
glide or a dive. For purposes of this manual, a glide is defined as unaccelerated flight at a
descent angle less than or equal to fifteen degrees, while a dive is defined as flight with a
descent angle greater than fifteen degrees. Glides or dives may be either power-on or
power-off maneuvers in different configurations, so a wide range of gliding and diving
performance is possible with any given airplane.
Flight testing of an airplanes descent performance generally involves only the

power-off case where the term power-off is used to define the idle thrust/minimum
torque/minimum power glide performance.
While obtaining descent data in low drag configurations with power-off can be
considered a rather benign flight test, the character of the testing changes dramatically for
tests required to define the flameout landing pattern. And even the benign descent tests
become exciting if an engine or other critical system fails.
8.2 PURPOSE OF TEST
The purpose of this test is to investigate aircraft descent performance characteristics

to determine time, fuel used, and distance traveled. The tests are performed at different
airspeeds and in different configurations to obtain data for the NATOPS manual including:
1. Optimum descent airspeed or Mach number/airspeed schedules.

2. Penetration descent schedules.
3. Precautionary approach patterns.
4. Flameout approach patterns.
8.1
8.3 THEORY
For stabilized, level flight, engine thrust or power is adjusted to balance the
aircrafts drag. If the thrust or power is reduced to zero, the power required to maintain the
aircrafts speed comes from the aircrafts time rate of change of kinetic and potential
energy. The rate of energy expenditure varies directly with the rate of descent and linear
acceleration.
For the discussion of gliding or power-off flight, the thrust or power is assumed to
be negligible, and gliding performance is measured in terms of:
1. Minimum rate of descent (endurance).

2. Minimum glide angle (range).
With an aircraft in a steady power-off glide, the forces on the aircraft are lift, drag
and weight as indicated in figure 8.1.
Lift
Drag
dV
T=
x 0
dt
Weight
Vhor
Lift = W cos
Vv
W VT
Drag = W sin
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1
FORCES IN A STEADY GLIDE
8.2
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
The angle between the flight path and the horizon is called the flight path angle
(); for a glide the flight path angle is negative. The descent (glide) angle is a function of
both the descent rate (dh/dt) and true airspeed (VT).
To evaluate descent performance, the true airspeed is assumed to be constant

(dVT/dt = 0).
In addition to glide angle, descent performance is described in terms of glide ratio

(GR) defined as the ratio of horizontal to vertical velocity.
Since the condition is steady flight (dVT/dt = 0), figure 8.1 (a) shows the forces are
in equilibrium and resolving the forces perpendicular and parallel to the flight path gives:
Fz = L = W cos (Eq 8.1)
Fx = D = W sin (Eq 8.2)
L = cos = cot
D sin (Eq 8.3)
The glide angle () is a minimum when the ratio of lift to drag is a maximum.
Evaluating the vector diagram, figure 8.1 (b), where VT = flight path speed
produces:
V = V cos
hor T (Eq 8.4)
Vv = V sin
T (Eq 8.5)
V V cos
= cot = L
hor T
=
Vv V sin D
T (Eq 8.6)
Vv
sin =
V
T (Eq 8.7)
8.3
= sin
-1
( )
Vv
V
T (Eq 8.8)
= sin
-1
( )
dh/dt
V
T (Eq 8.9)
L = cot sin-1
D ( )
dh/dt
V
T
(Eq 8.10)
Generally measuring horizontal velocity directly is not convenient, so substituting

Vhor = VT cos into Eq 8.6, provides a more usable equation:
V cos
Glide Ratio = L = T
D Vv
(Eq 8.11)
When the glide ratio is greater than 7 to 1, cos is between 0.99 and 1.0. Since the
glide ratio of most tactical aircraft fit this criteria in the low drag, clean configuration, the
equation simplifies to:
V
GR = L T
D Vv
(Eq 8.12)
For small descent angles the horizontal speed (Vhor) is almost the same as the flight
path speed (VT). As the descent angle increases, this approximate identity is no longer
valid.
Resolving the vertical and horizontal velocity components from figure 8.1 (b), and
plotting Vhor against Vv yields a hodograph (Figure 8.2).
8.4
DESCENT PERFORMANCE

V
V Range
End
Vertical Velocity - ft/s

Vv
Vv
min
Horizontal Velocity - ft/s

V
hor
Figure 8.2
HODOGRAPH
On a hodograph, the radius vector from the origin to any part on the plot has a
length proportional to the flight path speed and makes an angle to the horizontal equal to the
actual descent angle ().
1. The vertical axis is: dh/dt = Vv = rate of descent (ROD) = VT sin .

2. The horizontal axis is Vhor = VT cos .
Thus by the Pythagorean theorem, a line drawn from the origin to some point on
the hodograph has a vector length:
V =
T
2 2
V sin + V cos =
T
2
T
2 2
V
T
( sin
2
+ cos2 ) (Eq 8.13)
8.5
Where:
D Drag lb
Fz Force perpendicular to flight path lb
Fx Forces parallel to flight path lb
Flight path angle deg
GR Glide ratio
h Tapeline altitude ft
L Lift lb
t Time s
Vhor Horizontal velocity kn or ft/s
VT True airspeed kn or ft/s
Vv Vertical velocity ft/s
W Weight lb.
The angle made by the resultant velocity vector with the horizontal is . herefore
the hodograph representation gives the:
1. Rate of descent.
2. Horizontal speed.
3. Flight path speed.
4. Flight path angle.
8.3.1 WEIGHT EFFECT
As shown in Eq 8.3, for a given aircraft, the glide angle is determined solely by its
lift-to-drag ratio, which is independent of weight. Note the higher the lift-to-drag ratio, the
shallower the descent angle (assuming no wind). The hodograph in figure 8.3 shows an
aircraft at two different weights.
8.6
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
V V

Range W Range W
1 2
Vv
W
1
W <W W
1 2 2

V
hor
Figure 8.3
WEIGHT EFFECT ON DESCENT PERFORMANCE
L
To fly at the same D (same descent angle) at a higher gross weight, the flight
max
path airspeed increases and the rate of descent increases. At the higher airspeed for the
higher gross weight, the increase in drag is offset by the increased weight component along
the flight path.
8.3.2 WIND EFFECT
The effects of head wind or a tail wind can be resolved by displacing the origin of
the hodograph by the amount of the head wind or tail wind component (Figure 8.4).
8.7

1 2 VT V , Tailwind
3 T
V 2 VT 1
T
1 3
V , No wind
T
2
V , Headwind
T
3
Vv
Vv Vv Vv < <
1 2 3 1 2 3
V <V <V
T T T
1 2 3
Vv < Vv < Vv
1 2 3
V
hor
Figure 8.4
TAIL WIND / HEAD WIND EFFECT ON DESCENT PERFORMANCE
For maximum range in a tail wind, you must fly slower than when flying for range
in the no wind case. The aircraft remains airborne for a longer time, taking advantage of the
tail wind.
When gliding for maximum range in a tail wind jettisoning weight helps. This has
the effect of increasing the endurance and allows the aircraft to gain more advantage from
the tail wind.
In a head wind, the speed for optimum range is greater than the minimum drag
speed and the time for which the aircraft is subject to the adverse wind effect is reduced.
When gliding for maximum range in a head wind, retaining weight helps because
the wind affects the aircraft for a shorter time. To summarize:
1. No wind - weight has no effect on range.

2. Tail wind - jettison weight for best range.
3. Head wind - retain weight for best range.
8.8
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
8.3.3 DRAG EFFECT
As shown in figure 8.5, the effect of increasing drag is to move the hodograph plot
to the left and down where the maximum glide speed occurs at a slower airspeed and at a
higher rate of descent.

1

2 L
D
max Clean
Vv
L
D
B max Landing Configuration

V
hor
Figure 8.5
INCREASED DRAG EFFECT ON DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Understanding this relationship is most important when specifying a precautionary /

flameout landing pattern. In preparing for landing when high drag items like gear, flaps,
and speed brakes are extended, the descent performance of the aircraft jumps from figure
8.5 curve A to curve B. During the transition from the stabilized glide condition in curve B,
to establish a flight path tangential to the runway during the landing flare, kinetic energy is
traded for potential energy. However, once the deceleration is stopped, the rate of descent
is fixed. As might occur with a flare which is too high above the runway, the aircraft would
be at a point where a further decrease in airspeed is not possible due to stall, so the landing
which results might be at an excessive rate of descent.
8.9
8.3.4 AIRSPEED EFFECT
Throughout the previous discussion, the aircraft was assumed to be descending at a

constant true airspeed. Since many descents are done at a decelerating VT (constant Vo) the
effect of dVT/dt 0 is evaluated.
For an aircraft which is not accelerating, as in Eq 8.10, the L/D ratio for an aircraft
in the power-off case could be calculated from measured flight parameters:
L = cot sin-1
D ( ) dh/dt
V
T
(Eq 8.10)
In most cases a descent is flown with dVT/dt decreasing. For the case where Vc =
constant, the true airspeed is decreasing as the aircraft descends. Modifying Eq 8.1 and Eq
8.2 to account for the deceleration and summing the forces along the flight path:
dV
W
Fx = W sin - D = g dtT
(Eq 8.14)
Re-arranging as:
dV
D = sin - 1 T
W g dt (Eq 8.15)
The flight path acceleration dVT/dt can be expressed as:
dV dV
T T dh
=
dt dh dt (Eq 8.16)
Substituting in Eq 8.15 gives:
dV
D = sin - 1 T dh
W g dh dt (Eq 8.17)
8.10
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Since:
dh = V sin
dt T (Eq 8.18)
Further substitution in Eq 8.17 gives:
dV
D = sin - 1 T
W g dh VT sin (Eq 8.19)
The sum of the forces perpendicular to the flight path figure 8.1 (a) (regardless of
flight path acceleration) can be resolved as:
Fz = L = W cos (Eq 8.1)
Or:
L = cos
W (Eq 8.20)
Combining Eq 8.19 and Eq 8.20 produces:
1
L = cot V dV
1 - gT
D T
dh (Eq 8.21)
Expressed in terms of flight parameters which can be measured:
( )
(dh/dt) 1
L = cot sin-1 V dV
V 1 - gT
D T
T
dh (Eq 8.22)
Eq 8.22 is Eq 8.10 modified by the flight path acceleration.
The instantaneous glide ratio, regardless of acceleration or deceleration (dVT/dh

0) is still the ratio of Vv/Vhor forming the descent angle where the glide ratio is cot :
8.11
GR
L= V dV
1 - gT
D T
dh (Eq 8.23)
V dV
GR = L 1 - T T
D g dh (Eq 8.24)
Where:
D Drag lb
Fx Force parallel to flight path lb
Flight path angle deg
g Gravitational acceleration ft/s2
GR Glide ratio
L Lift lb
t Time s
VT True airspeed ft/s
W Weight lb.
The lift-to-drag ratio is a function of the drag polar and is independent of the
descent path. The actual glide ratio is the lift-to-drag ratio modified by the path. In the
VT dVT
example above where the aircraft is decelerating, the quantity (1- g dh ) is greater than
1, which results in the actual glide path angle being less than the aircraft L/D.
8.4 TEST METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
8.4.1 SAWTOOTH DESCENT
The sawtooth descent consists of a series of short descents at a constant observed

airspeed (Vo) covering the range of desired test airspeeds. The altitude band for the descent
is usually 1,000 ft either side of the target altitude for high L/D configurations or as much
as 3,000 ft either side of the target altitude for low L/D configurations. Subsequent flights
evaluate different target altitudes with the same test airspeeds.
8.12
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Establish configuration and thrust/power setting above the desired start altitude.
Allow sufficient altitude for the engine(s) to stabilize at the test thrust/power setting and
stabilize at the desired airspeed before entering the data band.
Although the tolerance on Vo is 1 kn, this must not be achieved at the expense of
a loss of smoothness. If a small airspeed error is made while establishing the descent,
maintaining the off-target speed as accurately as possible is preferred rather than trying to
correct to the target airspeed and risk aborting the entire run. While a photopanel or other
automatic recording device can be used, good results may be obtained with a minimum
number of hand-held data points using a stop watch.
To minimize wind shear, determine the wind direction and magnitude so all descent
testing can be made perpendicular to the average wind in the altitude band being flown.
A typical flight data card is shown in figure 8.6.
Target Vo Vo Initial HP Final HP t Fuel OAT Misc
Figure 8.6
SAWTOOTH DATA CARD
The exact time of entering and leaving the altitude band is recorded by a stopwatch
or an instrumentation system.
Once through the altitude increment, record data, and a initiate climb above the
altitude band for another run. As many points as possible are flown at each altitude.
Record actual in-flight Vo, W, time, fuel counts or fuel remaining, and either
outside air temperature or time of day so temperature can be obtained by other
meteorological methods. The card can be expanded to record other parameters such as
angle of attack, engine RPM, torque, etc. On the back of the data card, keep a running plot
8.13
of observed time to descend versus Vo and before leaving the test altitude, examine the plot
for points which need repeating.
8.4.1.1 DATA REQUIRED
1. Time: Record elapsed time from the beginning of the altitude band to the
end, or two minutes, whichever comes first.
2. Altitude: Record the observed pressure altitude (HP o ) band for each point.
3. Velocity: Record observed airspeed, Vo.
4. OAT or Ta: Record ambient air temperature from on-board instrumentation
at target altitude. (May be obtained from direct observation).
5. Fuel weight: Record the fuel remaining to determine aircraft gross weight.
6. Miscellaneous: Record other information desired such as RPM, angle of
attack, and torque for a turboprop.
Additional data and information associated with the engine management criteria are
important for the descent evaluation. For example:
1. Jet exhaust nozzle position at idle thrust and the minimum thrust setting to
keep the nozzle closed.
2. Heating/air conditioning, pressurization, and anti-ice systems operation at
low poser.
3. Engine and other aircraft systems operation limits at low power settings.
8.4.1.2 TEST CRITERIA
Allow sufficient altitude for the engine(s) to stabilize and the airplane to stabilize at
the desired airspeed before entering the data band. Smoothness is just as important as in
acceleration runs and for the same reasons. If a small airspeed error is made while
establishing the test conditions, it is better to maintain the incorrect speed as accurately as
possible, rather than try to correct it and risk aborting the entire run.
8.14
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
1. Balanced (ball centered) wings level, unaccelerated flight.

2. Engine bleed air system OFF, or operated in a normal flight mode.
3. Stabilized engine thrust/power setting.
4. Stabilize before the altitude band.
5. Altimeter: 29.92, standby.
6. Conduct test 90 to wind direction.
7. Bank angle 10.
8. Heading change 30.
9. Normal acceleration 0.1 g.
8.4.1.3 DATA REQUIREMENTS
1. Test altitude band 1000 ft about a target altitude.

2. Vo 1 kn with smooth corrections.
8.4.1.4 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
As with any descent, the field of view from most aircraft makes it difficult to clear
the area in front and below the test track. This aircraft characteristic combined with the head
down requirement to fly accurate data points may impact lookout doctrine. In multi-place
aircraft, distinct responsibility should be assigned for maintaining an active lookout.
With prolonged operation at low thrust/power settings, the operation of the engine
and other related systems should be evaluated before setting the minimum safety altitude
where the descent testing will be terminated. For most aircraft this can be between 3,000
and 5,000 ft AGL.
8.4.2 CHECK DESCENT TEST
The check descent test is flown to compare the standard day descent performance of
an aircraft in a specific configuration to results predicted from sawtooth descents. The three
main areas of investigation are:
1. Time to descent.
2. Distance traveled.
3. Fuel used.
8.15
In addition, data may be obtained on various engine parameters such as engine

speed, exhaust gas temperature, engine pressure ratio, gross thrust, angle of attack, etc.
These are useful to the analyst but are secondary to the three main parameters. The general
method is to descend the aircraft from just below the maximum ceiling to a minimum safety
altitude while maintaining precisely a predetermined descent schedule. This schedule may
be a minimum rate of descent, maximum range schedule, a schedule recommended by the
manufacturer, or some other descent schedule of interest. Take care to specify the schedule
flown on each descent performance chart.
Record data at approximately equal increments of altitude and include time, speed,
fuel flow, temperature, and any other desired parameters. For most jet aircraft, a
mechanical recording means is necessary to obtain simultaneous reading of the many
parameters of interest.
After the schedule to be flown is determined, data cards are prepared to record the
descent data as in figure 8.7.
t Fuel temp Fuel OAT or Fuel

density Ta remaining
Prior to NA
Start
Start NA NA
Taxi NA NA
Takeoff NA NA
t HP o Vo target Vo actual OAT or Fuel Misc
Ta remaining
Figure 8.7
CHECK DESCENT
8.16
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Adjust target points for instrument error and position error for both the airspeed
indicator and altimeter. If the anticipated rate of descent is low, data are recorded every
1000 to 2000 ft. If the rate of descent is high, every 5000 ft is sufficient.
An area of smooth air, light winds, and stable temperature gradients from ground
level to the aircrafts maximum ceiling is desirable. The test area can be sampled via a
survey balloon or another aircraft for wind and temperature data. Plan the flight to descend
perpendicular to the wind direction.
Since gross weight, fuel weight, and fuel density are important, fuel and weigh the
aircraft prior to commencement of tests. Fuel samples are taken and tested for temperature
and density. Record fuel remaining and time for start, taxi, takeoff, and climb to descent
schedule whenever conditions permit.
During the descent, trim the aircraft. Maintain the descent schedule to within 5 kn,
if possible. A rapid cross-check between external horizon and the airspeed indicator is
required. If the pitch attitude is very steep, it may be necessary to substitute the aircraft
attitude indicator for the external horizon during initial portions of the descent.
Wind gradients appear as sudden airspeed changes. If these affect the descent speed
schedule, a small but immediate attitude correction is necessary. If the wind gradient effect
subsides, apply a counter correction to prevent a speed error in the opposite direction.
At high altitudes, the problem of maintaining a precise speed schedule is difficult. A

slight rate of change of indicated airspeed involves a large rate of change of kinetic energy.
Any undesirable trend is difficult to stop especially with relatively less effective
aerodynamic controls. The best way to cope is to avoid errors by a rapid cross-check,
precise control, and constant attention to trim. If corrections are necessary, avoid over
controlling due to hysteresis in the airspeed indicator.
If the descent must be interrupted, stop the descent at a given pressure altitude,
noting V o, fuel, time, and distance if available. Climb above the altitude at which the
descent was stopped. Maneuver as required and re-intercept the descent schedule as soon
as possible to minimize gross weight change. Intercept the descent using a 1,000 ft overlap
from the break off pressure altitude at the airspeed recorded when the interrupt occurred.
8.17
The test for a turboprop aircraft is identical to the jet test. In this case however,
engine torque and engine shaft horsepower (ESHP) are adjusted in the descent.
Record the following data at each increment, which should be as often as possible,
but no greater than each 5000 ft or 2 minutes, for hand held data:
1. Time (t).
2. Observed airspeed (Vo).
3. Observed pressure altitude (HP o ).
4. Temperature (OAT or Ta).
5. Fuel remaining (Wf), or start and end fuel weight.
6. Distance (d).

2. Engine bleed air system OFF, or operated in a normal flight mode.
4. Stabilize before the altitude band.
6. Conduct test 90 to wind direction.
7. Bank angle 10.
8. Heading change 30.
9. Normal acceleration 0.1 g.
1. Airspeed 5 kn or 0.01 M.
8.18
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
As with the sawtooth descent, the check descent uses prolonged operation at low
thrust/power settings. Therefore, the operation of the engine and other related systems has
to be evaluated before setting the minimum safety altitude where the descent testing will be
terminated. For most aircraft this can be between 3,000 and 5,000 ft AGL.
8.4.3 PRECAUTIONARY / FLAMEOUT APPROACH
A precautionary approach is a special approach profile flown when a malfunction

makes the operation of critical aircraft systems questionable. Some of the circumstances
when a precautionary approach might be appropriate are:
1. Low engine oil pressure.

2. Engine stall.
3. Engine instability (temperature/vibration).
4. Critically low fuel.
5. Engine fire indication.
6. Suspected FOD.
7. Main hydraulic pressure loss.
8. Flight control malfunction.
Generally, the precautionary approach profile is designed to keep the pilot within
the ejection seat envelope as long as possible. Typically the last few seconds of the profile
are out of the envelope, unless the pilot performs a pull up maneuver.
There are also situations during engine out testing or evaluation of new engine
components when the re-light envelope is verified by flight test. Flameout landing pattern
check points need to be identified. Also, in extreme conditions when impossible or
impracticable to abandon the aircraft, a flameout approach may be the only alternative.
With the advent of high fidelity simulators, various precautionary/flameout patterns

can be evaluated before the actual flight test work is done. The ultimate objective of a
precautionary / flameout approach is to make a safe landing reasonably close to the desired
touchdown point. Achieving this result is an iterative combination of a number of factors
defined in figures 8.8 and 8.9. Working from the touchdown point backwards to define the
8.19
approach parameters, the first step is to determine the desired touchdown speed. This speed
is generally dictated by the margin of aircraft control in all axes. The touchdown speed is
also a function of aircraft geometry. An aircraft may be controllable below an airspeed at
which the empennage or tailpipe may contact the runway (F-16). Another constraint on
touchdown speed is tire limit speed. Also, if reducing main gear loads on touchdown is a
factor, a relatively high touchdown speed may be required to increase the control over the
rate of descent at touchdown. Therefore, all these factors: controllability, aircraft geometry,
tire speed, and rate of descent may determine the target touchdown speed.
High Key, Overhead,

Aligned with Runway
High Key,
90 to Runway
Final
Low Key,
180 Position
For High Key, Low Key, Base, And Final Define: Base, 90 Position
- Configuration
- Position with Respect to Runway
- Altitude
- Airspeed
- Wind Correction
- Weight Correction
Figure 8.8
OVERHEAD PRECAUTIONARY/FLAMEOUT PATTERN
8.20
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Final
X Initial
X
X
Extended Centerline
For Initial, Check Point(s), And Final Define:
- Configuration
- Distance From Runway
- Altitude
- Airspeed
- Wind Correction
- Weight Correction
Figure 8.9
STRAIGHT-IN PRECAUTIONARY/FLAMEOUT PATTERN
After determining the touchdown speed, determine the final approach speed. The
minimum final approach speed may be dictated by the ability to flare, or by the ability to
accurately fly to the pre-flare aim point and touchdown near the desired touchdown point.
Approaches with the gear and flaps down can result in steep flight path angles and high
rates of descent. Choose an airspeed which arrests the high rate of descent with some
safety margin. The maximum final approach speed is often dictated by some aircraft
structural or operating characteristic limit. Final approach speed may be limited by
maximum gear down operating speed.
Another problem occurs when the aircraft is flown very close to its maximum L/D
capability (assume L/D > 4). In this case, touchdown accuracy deteriorates because it
becomes more difficult to account for winds and errors made earlier in the pattern prior to
reaching final. For a given length final approach, the shorter time on final yields the better
touchdown accuracy.
The distance and time from flare to touchdown can also define a maximum final
approach airspeed because an extremely long time can adversely affect touchdown
accuracy. The typical target final approach airspeed is roughly midway between the
8.21
minimum and maximum airspeeds and allows about a 10% variance either way. This 10%
adjustment factor allows for airspeed changes caused by gusts or wind shears and makes it
possible to make fine adjustments to the glide slope in order to maintain a constant pre-flare
aim point.
In summary, the final approach airspeed is largely dependent on the aircraft

handling and performance characteristics during the flare, which is the time from the start
of rotation to touchdown attitude. Final approach is flown at a constant, low angle of
attack, which means airspeed is high relative to touchdown speed. At flare initiation, the
angle of attack is increased and held approximately constant. The increased load factor
reduces the rate of descent. The rate of descent is arrested typically by 100 to 200 ft AGL
where another constant glide path is established to touchdown.
The flare attitude is established by determining the altitude required to arrest the rate
of descent using a comfortable pitch rate and increase in load factor (moderate increase in
angle of attack). Cross check altitude to start the flare then rotate the aircraft at a rate which
arrests the descent at the desired altitude above the ground.
The final glide path is shallow, about 3 degrees, with the angle of attack and pitch
attitude slowly increasing as the airspeed bleeds off to touchdown. Unless the aircraft has
been configured prior to or at pattern entry, the final landing configuration is established at
this time. If the landing gear are to be extended during the final glide, gear extension time
and pitching moment changes are important considerations (Space Shuttle).
Other considerations during the final flare and touchdown are the deceleration rate,
the ability to adjust the final sink rate, the changes in stability as the angle of attack
increases, and the field of view (back seat of a trainer). All of these items contribute to the
ease or difficulty in controlling the final touchdown. If the deceleration rate is too high, the
adjustment of the touchdown rate of descent is possible only once. After this one attempt,
any rotation to a higher angle of attack only increases the sink rate because of the large
airspeed loss during the first rotation. This requires the aircraft be landed perfectly on the
first rotation after entering the 3-degree glide slope. At the other extreme, if the deceleration
rate is too low, a long flare covering excessive distance results.
Entry to final sets the minimum low key altitude and airspeed. From this minimum,
a comfortable normal altitude and airspeed for the low key is established. Another
8.22
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
consideration which can dictate a minimum time for the glide or pattern is battery life or
other aircraft emergency system limitations.
The important concept in flying the pattern or gliding to the pattern is to understand
the options for L/D control. These options are: the use of a drag device to dissipate energy,
deviations from the speed for best L/D, and variations in ground track. In general, an
approach is planned so extra altitude must be dissipated because it is much easier to
dissipate extra energy than it is to conserve minimum energy. For example, if the pattern is
entered with very low energy at low key, there is no choice but to fly at or near maximum
L/D in order to reach final approach with enough altitude to push-over and accelerate to an
acceptable flare airspeed. In summary, a pattern entered with enough altitude to require
some energy dissipation is the most comfortable and the most accurate in terms of
touchdown control.
For each of the key checkpoints in the pattern define:
1. Configuration.
2. Altitude.
3. Airspeed.
4. Position with respect to the intended point of landing.
5. Wind corrections.
6. Weight corrections.

2. Engine bleed air system OFF - or operated in a normal flight mode.
8.23
For each of the checkpoints in the pattern:
1. HP o 20 ft.
2. Vo 5 kn.
1. With a high rate of descent, plan for the point in the approach where a flare
must be initiated to safely arrest the descent rate.
2. Dont get slow (check deceleration).
3. Dont get low (check rate of descent).
4. Maintain a good lookout.
5. Dont exceed main gear loads on touchdown.
6. Watch structural loads (airspeed/g) in the landing configuration.
7. Dont exceed tire speed limits.
8. Avoid operating characteristic limits.
Before testing precautionary/flameout approach patterns, review the current

OPNAVINST 3710.7 Series (General Flight and Operating Instructions) and obtain a
waiver if required.
Currently, Paragraph 542 of OPNAVINST 3710.7N states:
1. FLAMEOUT APPROACHES. Actual flameout approaches shall not be

attempted unless it is impossible/impracticable to abandon the aircraft.
2. SIMULATED FLAMEOUT APPROACHES. Simulated flameout
approaches are prohibited.
8.24
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
8.5 DATA REDUCTION
8.5.1 SAWTOOTH DESCENT
Various computer programs can assist in reducing performance data. This section
contains a brief summary of the assumptions and logic which might be used. The treatment
is purposefully generic as programs change over time and new ones are introduced.
Detailed instructions for the particular computer or program are assumed to be available.
The purpose of the sawtooth descent data reduction program is to calculate rate and
angle of descent for any given gross weight, altitude, and temperature based on flight test
data.
From a menu selection, the appropriate choice is made to enter the sawtooth descent
program. Data entry requirements for the program are as follows:
1. Basic data:
a. Type of aircraft.
b. Bureau number.
c. Standard gross weight.
d. Target altitude.
e. Date of tests.
f. Pilots name.
g. Miscellaneous as allowed by the program.
2. For each data point:

a. Initial indicated pressure altitude (ft).
b. Final indicated pressure altitude (ft).
c. Time required (s ).
d. Indicated airspeed (kn).
e. OAT (C) or ambient temp (K).
f. Fuel flow (lb/h).
g. Gross weight (lb).
h. Optional data as allowed by the program.
8.25
The program calculates rate and angle of descent for any weight, altitude and
temperature condition. One method used is to calculate specific excess power (Ps) for each
descent then correct Ps to the desired flight condition using the standard Ps correction
formula.
The program calculates Ps for each data point (each descent), corrects Ps to the
weight, altitude and temperature which was initially specified and calculates the resulting
rate and angle of descent assuming constant calibrated airspeed (Vc) (Figures 8.10 and
8.11).
Vertical Velocity - ft/m
Reference Gross Weight

Altitude
Temperature
Vv
Calibrated Airspeed - kn
Vc
Figure 8.10
RATE OF DESCENT VERSUS CALIBRATED AIRSPEED
8.26
DESCENT PERFORMANCE

Altitude
Descent Angle - deg
Temperature

Vc
Figure 8.11
DESCENT ANGLE VERSUS CALIBRATED AIRSPEED
After these plots have been generalized, usually the ambient conditions can be
changed (weight, altitude, temperature) and the data reduction can be repeated.
Another feature of the computer program is to correlate rate of descent and descent
angle with angle of attack. Example figures 8.12 and 8.13 could be used to determine if
there is an optimum angle of attack for the specified configuration. Generally also available
from sawtooth descent data would be Ps plots vs Mach for the desired ambient conditions.
8.27
Vertical Velocity - ft/m

Altitude
Temperature
Vv
Angle of Attack - units

Figure 8.12
RATE OF DESCENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK

Descent Angle - deg
Altitude
Temperature

Angle of Attack - units

Figure 8.13
DESCENT ANGLE VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK
8.28
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Equations used by the computer data reduction routine.
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 8.25)
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 8.26)
If ambient temperature (K) was entered:
Ta( C ) = Ta ( K ) - 273.15
(Eq 8.27)
OAT = f Ta, M ( T ) (Eq 8.28)
If ambient temperature (C) was entered:
Ta = f ( OAT, MT ) (Eq 8.29)
Test data true airspeed:
V
T
Test
=f
(V , H c Pc
, Ta
) (Eq 8.30)
Standard day true airspeed:
V
T
Std
=f
(V , H c Pc
,T
Std ) (Eq 8.31)
First data point as HP c ref:
h=H
P
c ref
+ H
Pc ( ) T
Ta
Std (Eq 8.32)
8.29
Energy height:
2
V
T
Test
E =h+
h 2g (Eq 8.33)
Test data Ps (from faired Eh versus time curve):
dE
h
Ps =
dt
Test (Eq 8.34)
Standard day Ps:
( )( )( )
V V
W T T
Test Std
Std Test W V W Nx
Std T Std
Test (Eq 8.35)
Test day flight path angle (dh/dt from the curve of h versus time):
-1 dh/dt
= sin V
Test T
Test (Eq 8.36)
(dh/dt)Std is calculated from Ps based on (dVT/dh) equivalent to constant Vc at

standard conditions when dVT/dt 0. Apply descent correction factor (DCF):
DCF = 1+ ( V
T
g
Std
dV
dh
T
) (Eq 8.37)
( )
Ps
dh Std
=
dt DCF
Std (Eq 8.38)
Standard day flight path angle:

(dh/dt)
-1 Std
= sin V
Std T
Std (Eq 8.39)
8.30
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Where:
D Standard drag minus test drag lb
Hpos Altimeter position error ft
TNx Standard net thrust parallel flight path minus test lb
net thrust
Vpos Airspeed position error kn
DCF Descent correction factor
Eh Energy height ft
Std Standard flight path angle deg
Test Test flight path angle deg
HP c Calibrated pressure altitude ft
HP c ref Reference calibrated pressure altitude ft
HP i Indicated pressure altitude ft
MT True Mach number
OAT Outside air temperature C or K
PsStd Standard specific excess power ft/s
PsTest Test specific excess power ft/s
t Time s
Ta Ambient temperature C or K
Ti Indicated temperature C or K
TStd Standard temperature C or K
Vc Calibrated airspeed kn
Vi Indicated airspeed kn
VTavg Average true airspeed kn or ft/s
VTStd Standard true airspeed kn or ft/s
VTTest Test true airspeed kn or ft/s
WStd Standard weight lb
WTest Test weight lb.
8.31
8.5.2 CHECK DESCENT
Descent data for an idle thrust descent is generally presented using test day weight
and atmospheric conditions. For a more exact analysis, the rate of descent can be corrected
to a standard gross weight. For tests conducted with all engines operating normally,
corrections to thrust are generally not considered during the data reduction. However, for
tests performed to establish the criteria for engine-out descents, a correction for thrust
would be required.
The following equations are used in the data reduction:
V = Vo + V
i ic (Eq 8.40)
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 8.25)
H =H + H
P Po P
i ic (Eq 8.41)
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 8.26)
T = To + T
i ic (Eq 8.42)
V = 39.0 M Ta ( K )
T (Eq 8.43)
W =W -W
f f f
Used Start End (Eq 8.44)
t
d = V
Tavg 60
(Eq 8.45)
H
P
Range = d
Sea Level (Eq 8.46)
8.32
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Where:
d Distance nmi or ft
HP ic Altimeter instrument correction ft
Tic Temperature instrument correction C or K
Vic Airspeed instrument correction kn
HP Pressure altitude ft
HP o Observed pressure altitude ft
M Mach number
Temperature ratio
t Time s
To Observed temperature C or K
Vo Observed airspeed kn
WfEnd End fuel weight lb
WfStart Start fuel weight lb
WfUsed Fuel used lb.
8.33
From the observed data compute as follows:
Step Parameter Notation Formula Units Remarks

1 Indicated airspeed Vi Eq 8.40 kn
2 Calibrated airspeed Vc Eq 8.25 kn
3 Indicated pressure HP i Eq 8.41 ft
altitude
4 Calibrated pressure HP c Eq 8.26 ft
altitude
5 Mach number M From Appendix VI
6 Indicated Ti Eq 8.42
temperature
7 Ambient temperature Ta From Appendix VI
8 True airspeed VT Eq 8.43 kn
9 Fuel used WfUsed Eq 8.44 lb
10 Distance d Eq 8.45 nmi
11 Range Range Eq 8.46 nmi
8.34
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Construct a graph of HP c versus time to descend. Fair a smooth curve through the
data and extrapolate to sea level (Figure 8.14).
Service Ceiling
Calibrated Pressure Altitude - ft
Constant Vc
C
P
H
Minimum Safety Altitude
Time - min
t
Figure 8.14
CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS TIME TO DESCEND
8.35
Construct a graph of HP c versus fuel used in the descent. Fair a smooth curve
through the data and extrapolate to sea level (Figure 8.15).
Service Ceiling
Constant Vc
C
P
H
Fuel Weight - lb
W
f
Figure 8.15
CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS FUEL USED IN THE DESCENT
8.36
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
From figure 8.14, graphically measure the indicated rate of descent (dHP c/dt) at
appropriate intervals beginning at the service ceiling. Construct a table for each test airspeed
and interval measured (Figure 8.16).
Altitude Time, t dh/dt VT Glide Ratio

VT
ft s ft/s ft/s
dh/dt
From top of test
altitude (service
ceiling) to
minimum safe
altitude in 2 to
5,000 ft
increments
Figure 8.16
RATE OF DESCENT AND GLIDE RATIO
8.37
Using figure 8.16, construct a graph of the variation of pressure altitude with
distance traveled during the descent (Figure 8.17).
Service Ceiling
Constant Vc
C
P
H
Distance - nmi
d
Figure 8.17
CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS DISTANCE TRAVELED DURING
THE DESCENT
8.38
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Combining figures 8.14, 8.15, and 8.17, the results can be presented either as a
table or as a plot of time, fuel used, and distance for an idle descent from the service ceiling
to sea level (Figure 8.18).
t W d
f
Service Ceiling
Constant Vc
C
P
H
Time - min
t
Fuel Weight - lb
W
f
Distance - nmi
d
Figure 8.18
CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS TIME, FUEL USED, AND
DISTANCE DURING THE DESCENT
8.39
Once this same data has been accumulated for several calibrated airspeeds (Vc), a
family of Vc curves can be plotted (Figure 8.19).
Vc Vc Vc
1 2 3
Service Ceiling
C
P
H
Time - min
t
Figure 8.19
DESCENT PERFORMANCE, CALIBRATED PRESSURE ALTITUDE VERSUS TIME
FOR A FAMILY OF CALIBRATED AIRSPEEDS
8.40
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Combining the glide ratio data from figure 8.16, obtained for each test V c, and for
each altitude, a plot of airspeed versus glide ratio can be made (Figure 8.20).
Constant
Altitude
Glide Ratio
GR
Vc For Best Glide Ratio
Calibrated Airsped - kn
Vc
Figure 8.20
AIRSPEED VERSUS GLIDE RATIO
8.41
Taking the value for best glide ratio at each altitude, the plot in figure 8.21 is
constructed to determine the optimum descent schedule.
Service Ceiling
C
P
H
Vc For Maximum Glide Ratio
Vc
Figure 8.21
OPTIMUM DESCENT SCHEDULE
8.6 DATA ANALYSIS
The analysis of descent data is directed toward determining the optimum descent
schedules to provide maximum range for fuel used for various configurations. Usually the
difference in Vc is not great enough to warrant publishing a schedule; usually a best
compromise Vc is specified.
Another aspect of the data analysis is to determine how sensitive the selected
descent airspeed is to deviations on both the fast and slow side. For example, what
percentage of the maximum range can be achieved if the aircraft is flown 20 kn faster than
the recommended descent airspeed?
8.42
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
8.7 MISSION SUITABILITY
8.7.1 DESCENT PERFORMANCE
Mission suitability conclusions concerning descent performance are not restricted to

optimum performance test results. Test results reflect the performance capabilities of the
aircraft while mission suitability conclusions include the flying qualities and systems
performance associated with specific airspeeds/thrust/power levels. Consideration of the
following items is worthwhile when evaluating descent performance:
1. Field of view.
2. Mission profile requirement.
3. Compatibility of airspeed with the mission and location restrictions.
4. Performance sensitivity for altitude or airspeed deviation.
5. System performance:
a. Pressurization.
b. Anti-ice.
c. Cockpit temperature.
8.7.2 PRECAUTIONARY/FLAME OUT APPROACH
Evaluating precautionary and flameout approaches depend upon the answers to the
following questions:
1. Under what circumstances would a precautionary or flameout approach be

recommended?
2. What training would be required for pilots to successfully complete the
approach?
3. What is the pattern sensitivity to airspeed or altitude deviations?
8.8 SPECIFICATION COMPLIANCE
Generally, there are no specification compliance requirements against which the

descent performance of an airplane must be demonstrated. Specifically, in
NAVAIRSYSCOM Specification, AS-5263, which defines the requirements for
8.43
performance data and mission profiles, the assumption used for the descent phase is no fuel
is consumed and no distance is covered.
An exception exists for propeller airplanes with a published STOL performance

achieved by using a beta range of propeller blade angle for the steep descent flight path. In
this case, the rates of descent and correct beta blade angles need to be checked against the
STOL performance guarantee.
8.9 GLOSSARY
8.9.1 NOTATIONS
AGL Above ground level

d Distance nmi or ft
D Standard drag minus test drag lb
DCF Descent correction factor
HP ic Altimeter instrument correction ft
Tic Temperature instrument correction C or K
TNx Standard net thrust parallel flight path minus test lb
net thrust
Vic Airspeed instrument correction kn
Eh Energy height ft
FOD Foreign object damage
Fx Forces parallel to flight path lb
GR Glide ratio
HP Pressure altitude ft
HP c ref Reference calibrated pressure altitude ft
HP o Observed pressure altitude ft
L Lift lb
8.44
DESCENT PERFORMANCE
M Mach number
MT True Mach number
OAT Outside air temperature C or K
PsStd Standard specific excess power ft/s
PsTest Test specific excess power ft/s
ROD Rate of descent ft/s
t Time s
To Observed temperature C or K
TStd Standard temperature C or K
Vhor Horizontal velocity kn or ft/s
Vo Observed airspeed kn
VTStd Standard true airspeed kn or ft/s
VTTest Test true airspeed kn or ft./s
Vv Vertical velocity ft/s
W Weight lb
Wf Fuel weight lb
WfEnd End fuel weight lb
WfStart Start fuel weight lb
WfUsed Fuel used lb
WTest Test weight lb
W f Fuel flow lb/h
8.9.2 GREEK SYMBOLS

(alpha) Angle of attack deg
(gamma) Flight path angle deg
Std Standard flight path angle deg
Test Test flight path angle deg
(theta) Temperature ratio
8.45
8.10 REFERENCES
1. Dommasch, D.O et al, Airplane Aerodynamics, 4th Edition, Pitman

Publishing Company, N.Y., N.Y., 1967.
2. HP Model 9816 Computer System, USNTPS Fixed Wing Aircraft

Performance User Instructions, March 1985.
3. NAVAIRSYSCOM Specification, AS-5263, Guidelines for Preparation of

Standard Aircraft Characteristics Charts and Performance Data, Piloted Aircraft (Fixed
Wing), 23 October 1986.
4. Naval Test Pilot School Flight Test Manual, Fixed Wing Performance,
Theory and Flight Test Techniques, USNTPS-FTM-No. 104, U.S. Naval Test Pilot
School, Patuxent River, MD, July 1977.
5. OPNAVINST 3710.7N, NATOPS General Flight and Operating

Instructions, 25 August, 1992.
6. Peterson, Aircraft and Engine Performance, USNTPS Textbook,

USNTPS, Patuxent River, MD, 1958.
7. Powell, J.W., Airplane Performance, Fixed Wing Flight Mechanics,

USNTPS Class Notes, USNTPS, Patuxent River, MD, undated.
8. Stinton, D., The Design of the Aeroplane, Van Nostrand Reinhold

Company, N.Y.
9. USAF Test Pilot School Flight Test Manual, Performance Flight Testing
Phase, Volume I, USAF Test Pilot School, Edwards AFB, CA, February 1987.
8.46
CHAPTER 9
TAKEOFF AND LANDING PERFORMANCE
PAGE
9.3 THEORY 9.3

9.3.1 TAKEOFF 9.3
9.3.1.1 FORCES ACTING DURING THE GROUND PHASE 9.4
9.3.1.2 SHORTENING THE TAKEOFF ROLL 9.8
9.3.1.3 AIR PHASE 9.12
9.3.1.4 TAKEOFF CORRECTIONS 9.13
9.3.1.4.1 WIND CORRECTION 9.13
9.3.1.4.2 RUNWAY SLOPE 9.15
9.3.1.4.3 THRUST, WEIGHT, AND DENSITY 9.16
9.3.1.5 PILOT TAKEOFF TECHNIQUE 9.17
9.3.2 LANDING 9.18
9.3.2.1 AIR PHASE 9.19
9.3.2.2 FORCES ACTING DURING THE GROUND PHASE 9.19
9.3.2.3 SHORTENING THE LANDING ROLL 9.20
9.3.2.4 LANDING CORRECTIONS 9.22
9.3.2.5 PILOT LANDING TECHNIQUE 9.24
9.4 TEST METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 9.24

9.4.1 TAKEOFF 9.24
9.4.1.1 TEST TECHNIQUE 9.24
9.4.2 LANDING 9.26
9.4.2.1 TEST TECHNIQUE 9.26
9.5 DATA REDUCTION 9.28

9.5.1 TAKEOFF 9.28
9.5.2 LANDING 9.30
9.6 DATA ANALYSIS 9.32
9.7 MISSION SUITABILITY 9.34
9.i
9.8 SPECIFICATION COMPLIANCE 9.35
9.9 GLOSSARY 9.35

9.9.1 NOTATIONS 9.35
9.9.2 GREEK SYMBOLS 9.37
9.ii
CHAPTER 9
FIGURES
PAGE
9.1 TAKEOFF PATH 9.4
9.2 FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT DURING TAKEOFF 9.5
9.3 FORCE VERSUS VELOCITY 9.8
9.4 LANDING FLIGHT PHASES 9.18
9.5 AERODYNAMIC BRAKING FORCES 9.21
9.6 MAXIMUM WHEEL BRAKING FORCES 9.21
9.7 AERODYNAMIC AND WHEEL BRAKING FORCES 9.22
9.8 GROUND ROLL DISTANCE AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE,

PRESSURE ALTITUDE, AND WEIGHT 9.33
9.9 GROUND ROLL CORRECTIONS FOR WIND AND RUNWAY SLOPE 9.34
9.iii
CHAPTER 9
TABLES
PAGE
9.1 AS-5263 REQUIREMENTS 9.2
9.2 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION VALUES 9.6
9.iv
CHAPTER 9
EQUATIONS
PAGE
R = (W - L) (Eq 9.1) 9.5
( )
S
1 2
1 W
T - D - (W - L) dS = 2 g VTO
0 (Eq 9.2) 9.6
T - D -(W - L) S =1 W
Avg 1 2
g (V )
2
TO
(Eq 9.3) 9.6
2
WV
TO
S =
1 2g T - D- (W - L)
Avg (Eq 9.4) 9.7
Work = T V t (Eq 9.5) 9.9
Tex = T - D - (W - L)
(Eq 9.6) 9.9
2
q = 1 V
2 (Eq 9.7) 9.9
D=C qS
D (Eq 9.8) 9.9
L=C qS
L (Eq 9.9) 9.9
C =C +C
D Dp D
i (Eq 9.10) 9.9
2
C
L
C =
D e AR
i (Eq 9.11) 9.10
2
C
L
C =C +
D e AR
Dp
(Eq 9.12) 9.10
9.v
D= C ( Dp
+
C
e AR
2
L
) qS
(Eq 9.13) 9.10
Tex = T - C ( Dp
+
C
e AR
2
L
) qS- W-C qS ( L )
(Eq 9.14) 9.10
dTex
dC
=
L
( 2C
e AR
L
) q S + ( q S )
(Eq 9.15) 9.10
e AR
C =
L 2
Opt (Eq 9.16) 9.10
(V )+ 50 W
50 ft 2 2
S = (T - D) dS = W -V
2 Lift off 2g 50 TO
(Eq 9.17) 9.12
S =
2
W ( V
2
50
2g
-V
(T - D)
2
TO
+ 50 )
Avg (Eq 9.18) 9.12
V =V - Vw
TOw TO
(Eq 9.19) 9.13
2
WV
TOw
S =
1w 2 g Tex
Avg w
(Eq 9.20) 9.13
( )
2
W VTOw+ Vw
S =
1 2 g Tex
Std
Avg (Eq 9.21) 9.13
( )
Tex 2
Avg w Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w Tex V
Std TOw
Avg (Eq 9.22) 9.13
9.vi
( )
1.85
Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w V
Std TOw
(Eq 9.23) 9.14
S = S + S
2 2w 2
Std (Eq 9.24) 9.14
2
Tex S =1 W
g VTO - W S1 sin
Avg 1 2
SL SL (Eq 9.25) 9.15
2
WV
TO
(T )
S =
1
SL + W sin
2g ex
Avg
(Eq 9.26) 9.15
( )
1
SL
S =
1 2g S
Std 1
SL
1- sin
2
V
TO (Eq 9.27) 9.15
( ) ( )( )
1.3
2.3 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.28) 9.16
( )( )( )
1.6
2.3 0.7 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
2 2 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.29) 9.16
( )( )( )( )
2.6 0.7 0.5
1.9 Pa
W N
Std Test Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std N Pa
Std Test Test Std Std (Eq 9.30) 9.17
( )( )( )( )
2.6 0.8 0.6
1.9 Pa
W N
Std Test Test Test
S =S
2 2 W Std N Pa
9.vii
S =
3
W ( V
2
TD
-
2g
(T - D)
V
2
50
- 50 )
Avg (Eq 9.32) 9.19
(0 - V )
Stop
2
S = T-D-(W - L) dS = 1 W
4 Touchdown 2 g TD
(Eq 9.33) 9.19
2
-W V
TD
S =
4 2g T - D -(W - L)
Avg (Eq 9.34) 9.20
( 2+
E
h
) ( ) E
h
( )
E + 50 E + 50
( )
h h
W
Std Test
S =S
3 3 W Std
Std Test Test (Eq 9.35) 9.23
2 2
V -V
50 TD
E =
h 2g (Eq 9.36) 9.23
( )( )
2
W
Std Test
S =S
4 4 W Std
Vw = Wind Velocity cos (Wind Direction Relative To Runway)

(Eq 9.38) 9.28
Pa
= 9.625
Ta
(Eq 9.39) 9.29
V =V - Vw
TDw TD
(Eq 9.40) 9.30
( )
1.85
V
S =S 1+ w
4 4w V
Std TD (Eq 9.41) 9.30
9.viii
( )
4
SL
S =
4 2gS
Std 4
SL
1- sin
2
V
TD (Eq 9.42) 9.31
9.ix
CHAPTER 9
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Field takeoff and landing tests are important portions of the flight test program for
any aircraft. Generally, during the course of a flight test program, all takeoffs and landings
are recorded for data purposes. Also, a number of test flights may be devoted entirely to
takeoff and landing tests in various configurations including, aborted takeoffs, crosswind
operations, wet/icy runway operations, landings in various configurations, and field
arrested landings. All are accomplished at various gross weights.
The primary emphasis of this chapter is to discuss the conventional takeoff and
landing (CTOL) performance of fixed wing aircraft supported primarily by aerodynamic
forces rather than engine thrust. Discussion of short takeoff and landing (STOL)
performance is limited to two sections of the chapter which discuss methods of shortening
the takeoff and landing distance.
More than most other tests, takeoffs and landings are affected by factors which
cannot be accurately measured nor properly compensated for. Only estimates of the
capabilities of the aircraft are possible within rather broad limits, relying on a statistical
average of numerous takeoffs and landings to minimize residual errors.
For purposes of this chapter, Naval Air Systems Command Specification, AS-
5263, Guidelines For Preparation Of Standard Aircraft Characteristics Charts And
Performance Data Piloted Aircraft (Fixed Wing), is used to establish the criteria for takeoff
and landing performance tests (Table 9.1).
9.1
Table 9.1
AS-5263 REQUIREMENTS
Takeoff Landing
Speeds (1) V at 1.1 times speed V at 1.1 Vs

TO L L
represented by 90% C
Lmax
TO
V at 1.2 Vs V at 1.2 Vs
CL T L
50 50 L
Distance Takeoff ground roll plus distance to Distance from 50 ft to

climb to 50 ft touchdown plus landing roll
Rolling Coefficient 0.025
Braking Coefficient 0.30
Note:
1 Other criteria may apply also
Where:
CLmaxTO Maximum lift coefficient, takeoff configuration
VCL50 Climb speed at 50 ft kn
VL Landing airspeed ft/s, kn
VL50 Landing speed at 50 ft kn
VsL Stall speed, landing configuration, power off kn
VsT Stall speed, transition configuration, power off, kn
flaps down, gear up
VTO Takeoff ground speed ft/s
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part 23 and Part 25 establish different
takeoff and landing criteria than AS-5263. With Department of the Navy acquiring off-the-
shelf FAA certified aircraft, a review and understanding of the FAR is required before
evaluating these aircraft for military missions.
9.2
9.2 PURPOSE OF TEST
The purpose of these tests include:
1. Development/verification of pilot takeoff and landing techniques appropriate

for the test aircraft.
2. Develop flight manual data including:

a. Normal ground roll takeoff distance (time/fuel).
b. Distance, time, and fuel from liftoff to climb intercept.
c. Minimum (short field) ground roll takeoff distance (time/fuel).
d. Obstacle clearance takeoff distance (time/fuel).
e. Takeoff speed.
f. Speed/distances for checking takeoff acceleration.
g. Maximum refusal speed.
h. Emergency braking velocity.
i. Effects of runway condition.
j. Landing speed.
k. Landing ground roll distance.
l. Limit braking velocity for landing.
9.3 THEORY
9.3.1 TAKEOFF
The evaluation of takeoff performance can be examined in two phases, the ground
and air phase. The ground phase begins at brake release, includes rotation, and terminates
when the aircraft becomes airborne. The air phase is the portion of flight from leaving the
ground until reaching an altitude of 50 ft. In the case where stabilizing at a constant climb
speed before reaching 50 ft is possible, the air phase is divided into a transition phase and a
steady state climb phase (Figure 9.1).
9.3
V V V
R TO 50
Start Rotation Lift-Off
50 ft
A B C D
Ground Run To Transition Climb

Rotation
Ground Phase Air Phase

S S
1 2
Figure 9.1
TAKEOFF PATH
Where:
S1 Takeoff distance, brake release to lift off ft
S2 Takeoff distance, lift off to 50 ft ft
V50 Ground speed at 50 ft reference point ft/s
VR Rotation airspeed kn
Since lift off occurs almost immediately after or during rotation for most high
performance aircraft, the ground phase is considered one distance (S1) (Figure 9.1, A to
B). Also, for most high performance aircraft, the transition to a steady climb speed is not
completed before reaching 50 ft, even for a maximum climb angle takeoff. Therefore, the
air phase is considered as one distance (S2) (Figure 9.1, B to D).
9.3.1.1 FORCES ACTING DURING THE GROUND PHASE
The forces acting on the aircraft during the takeoff ground roll are shown in figure
9.2.
9.4
T D
Figure 9.2
FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT DURING TAKEOFF
In addition to the usual forces of lift, weight, thrust, and drag, an aircraft on takeoff
roll is affected by an additional resistance force (R) which includes wheel bearing friction,
brake drag, tire deformation, and energy absorbed by the wheels as they increase rotational
speed. This force becomes smaller as lift increases and the weight-on-wheels is reduced.
This resistance force can be expressed as:
R = (W - L) (Eq 9.1)
Typical values for the coefficient of friction () are shown in Table 9.2.
9.5
Table 9.2
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION VALUES
Surface Typical Values
Rolling, Brakes Off Brakes On

Ground Resistance Wheel Braking Coefficient
Coefficient
Dry Concrete/Asphalt 0.02 0.05 0.3 0.5
Wet Concrete/Asphalt 0.05 0.15 0.3
Icy Concrete/Asphalt 0.02 0.06 0.1
Hard Turf 0.05 0.4
Firm Dirt 0.04 0.3
Soft Turf 0.07 0.2
Wet Grass 0.08 0.2
The arrangement of forces in figure 9.2 assumes engine thrust is parallel to the
runway. For aircraft with engines mounted at an angle, the horizontal component of thrust
is not reduced significantly until the angle becomes quite large. The vertical component of
thrust from inclined engines reduces the effective weight of the aircraft. The mass of the
aircraft, however, must be computed using the actual aircraft weight.
Setting the work done equal to the change in energy produces:
( )
S
1 2
1 W
T - D - (W - L) dS = 2 g VTO
0 (Eq 9.2)
Since none of the terms under the integral are constant during the takeoff roll, an
exact evaluation is virtually impossible. The expression can be evaluated assuming the
entire quantity remains constant at some average value. The integration is simplified and the
expression becomes:
T - D -(W - L) S =1 W
Avg 1 2
g (V )
2
TO
(Eq 9.3)
9.6
Solving for S1:
2
WV
TO
S =
1 2g T - D- (W - L)
Avg (Eq 9.4)
Where:
D Drag lb
L Lift lb
Coefficient of friction
R Resistance force lb
T Thrust lb
W Weight lb.
Examination of the individual forces shows the assumption to be reasonable:
1. The engine thrust can be expected to decrease slightly as speed increases. A

jet engine may enter ram recovery prior to lift off and realize an increase in thrust over that
at lower speed. Propeller thrust will decrease throughout the takeoff roll.
2. Aerodynamic lift and drag increase during the roll in direct proportion to the
square of the airspeed. If the aircraft attitude is changed considerably at rotation, both lift
and drag increase sharply.
3. The coefficient of friction and the aircraft gross weight remain nearly
constant.
The variations in these forces during the takeoff roll are shown graphically in figure
9.3.
9.7
T (Prop)
Lift, Drag, Thrust, Resistance - lb
T (Jet)
L, D, T, R
Tex =T - (D + R)
(Prop) (Prop)
Tex =T - (D + R)
(Jet) (Jet)
D+R
R=
(W -
L)
)
t (L )
Lif Drag (D
0 V
Ground Speed - ft/s TO
Figure 9.3
FORCE VERSUS VELOCITY
In general, the excess thrust (vector sum of T, D and R) at lift off is 80% of its
initial value for a jet aircraft and 40% for a propeller aircraft. For both jets and props, test
data has shown the use of the actual excess thrust at 0.75 VTO as an average value for Eq
9.4 gives reasonable results.
9.3.1.2 SHORTENING THE TAKEOFF ROLL
Eq 9.4 shows ground roll can be shortened by lifting-off at a lower speed, since the
distance increases with the square of the takeoff speed. Defining the takeoff test objectives
as minimizing the ground roll, the aircraft should be lifted-off at CLmax . However, the
aerodynamic drag created by this technique may reduce excess thrust to an unacceptable
level. In extreme cases, rotation to CLmax may reduce excess thrust with the result the
aircraft will not accelerate or may even decelerate. If sufficient thrust is available to
9.8
overcome the drag penalty, high lift slat and flap devices can provide a higher available lift
coefficient.
A second approach to decreasing the takeoff distance (S1) is increasing the thrust
available either by operating the engine above its maximum rated power, such as by water
injection or by use of an auxiliary engine such as JATO (Jet Assisted Takeoff). Thrust
augmentation is of maximum value if it can be used throughout the takeoff roll. If
augmentation is limited to a time shorter than required for takeoff, should the augmentation
be used early or late in the ground roll? Since the energy gained equals the work done,
limited augmentation is most efficient if used to maximize the work done. If the
augmentation provides an increase in thrust (), for a fixed period of time (t), during
which distance (S) is traveled, then S = Vt and the work is:
Work = T V t (Eq 9.5)
Both T and t are fixed by the limitations of the augmenting engine. The work
done can be maximized if V is as large as possible. Therefore, for minimum ground roll,
limited thrust augmentation should be used late, so it will burn out or reach its time limit
just as the aircraft lifts-off.
Excess thrust during the takeoff roll is also dependent on aircraft angle of attack
through both the drag term itself and the inclusion of lift in the wheel force term. If the
optimum value of C L is found, the best angle of attack to maximize excess thrust can be
determined:
Tex = T - D - (W - L)
(Eq 9.6)
2
q = 1 V
2 (Eq 9.7)
D=C qS
D (Eq 9.8)
L=C qS
L (Eq 9.9)
C =C +C
D Dp D
i (Eq 9.10)
9.9
2
C
L
C =
D e AR
i (Eq 9.11)
Substituting Eq 9.11 into Eq 9.10:
2
C
L
C =C +
D e AR
Dp
(Eq 9.12)
Substituting Eq 9.12 into Eq 9.8:
D= C ( Dp
+
C
e AR
2
L
) qS
(Eq 9.13)
Substituting Eq 9.13 and Eq 9.9 into Eq 9.6:
(
Tex = T - C
Dp
+
C
e AR
2
L
) qS- W-C qS ( L )
(Eq 9.14)
Differentiating with respect to CL:
dTex
dC
=
L
( 2C
e AR
L
) q S + ( q S )
(Eq 9.15)
Setting the right side of Eq 9.15 equal to zero, the velocity term (q) drops out and
the value of CL for maximum excess thrust is constant and given by:
e AR
C =
L 2
Opt (Eq 9.16)
9.10
Where:
AR Aspect ratio
CD Drag coefficient
CDi Induced drag coefficient
CDp Parasite drag coefficient
CL Lift coefficient
CLOpt Optimum lift coefficient
D Drag lb
e Oswalds efficiency factor
L Lift lb
Constant
q Dynamic pressure psf
Air density slugs/ft3
S Wing area ft2
T Thrust lb
t Time s
Tex Excess thrust lb
V Velocity ft/s
W Weight lb.
To achieve the shortest takeoff roll, a pilot establishes an angle of attack which
corresponds to CLOpt in Eq 9.16 and maintains CLOpt until the speed permits rotation and
lift off at CLmax . In practice, however, this technique is seldom used because the dangers
of over-rotating, lack of elevator or horizontal tail power, cross wind effects, or possible
aircraft stability problems usually override any gain achieved. At the other extreme, since
CLOpt is quite small for most aircraft, an extremely long takeoff distance results if CLOpt is
held throughout the takeoff roll. As a practical matter, most aircraft are designed so that in
the taxi attitude the wing is near the optimum angle of attack for minimizing the total
resistance throughout takeoff. Therefore, most recommended takeoff techniques involve
accelerating without changing attitude until the speed permits rotation and lift off at the
maximum practical CL available.
9.11
9.3.1.3 AIR PHASE
The equation for ground distance covered in climbing from lift off to 50 ft altitude is
obtained in a manner similar to the ground roll equation except the resistance force no
longer exists and a potential energy term must be included:
(V )+ 50 W
50 ft 2 2
S = (T - D) dS = W -V
2 Lift off 2g 50 TO
(Eq 9.17)
Assuming this quantity remains constant at some average value, the integration of
Eq 9.17 becomes:
S =
2
W ( 2
V
50
2g
-V
(T - D)
2
TO
+ 50 )
Avg (Eq 9.18)
Where:
D Drag lb
S Distance ft
T Thrust lb
W Weight lb.
To minimize the value of S2 for a given weight, a constant speed climb is conducted
at maximum excess thrust, while maximum excess thrust occurs at the speed for minimum
L L
drag, D , most aircraft lift off at an airspeed much slower than for D . As a
max max
practical matter, most high performance aircraft reach 50 ft within seconds while
accelerating from lift off airspeed to climb airspeed.
9.12
9.3.1.4 TAKEOFF CORRECTIONS
9.3.1.4.1 WIND CORRECTION
The velocity in Eq 9.4 is ground speed at lift off, since this defines the energy level
required. The aircraft flies according to the airspeed, which can be considerably different
from ground speed in high winds. Since ground speed and true airspeed are equal in zero
wind conditions, the ground speed required with wind, VTOw is:
V =V - Vw
TOw TO
(Eq 9.19)
Vw is positive for a head wind and includes only the component of wind velocity
parallel to the takeoff direction. From Eq 9.4 and 9.6:
2
WV
TOw
S =
1w 2 g Tex
Avg w
(Eq 9.20)
The subscript, W, indicates a parameter in the wind environment. Substituting Eq

9.19 into Eq 9.20:
( )
2
W VTOw+ Vw
S =
1 2 g Tex
Std
Avg (Eq 9.21)
Dividing Eq 9.21 by Eq 9.20 and rearranging gives:
( )
Tex 2
Avg w Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w Tex V
Std TOw
Avg (Eq 9.22)
The difference in excess thrust due to wind is difficult to determine but it does have
a significant effect on takeoff roll. For steady state winds of less than 10 kn, an empirical
9.13
relationship has been developed that provides the following equation for the correction for
head wind/tail wind components:
( )
1.85
Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w V
Std TOw
(Eq 9.23)
Eq 9.23 does not account for gusts, which may have considerable effect if they
occur near lift off speed. This is one of the reasons wind speed below 5 kn is required
before takeoff data is accepted.
For the air phase, an exact determination of wind velocity is more difficult. The
correction is simple, however, based on the fact that change in distance by wind is:
S = S + S
2 2w 2
Std (Eq 9.24)
Where:
D Drag lb
S2 Change in S2, equal to t Vw ft
L Lift lb
S1Std Standard takeoff distance, brake release to lift off ft
S1w Takeoff distance, brake release to lift off, with ft
respect to wind
S2Std Standard takeoff distance, lift off to 50 ft ft
S2w Takeoff distance, lift off to 50 ft, with respect to ft
wind
T Thrust lb
t Time s
TexAvg Average excess thrust lb
TexAvg w Average excess thrust, with respect to wind lb
9.14
VTOw Takeoff ground speed with respect to wind ft/s

Vw Wind velocity ft/s
W Weight lb.
9.3.1.4.2 RUNWAY SLOPE
The runway slope adds a potential energy term to Eq 9.3:
2
Tex S =1 W
g V -WS sin
Avg 1 2 TO 1
SL SL (Eq 9.25)
The subscript, SL, indicates a sloping runway parameter.
Solving for S1SL:
2
WV
TO
(T )
S =
1
SL + W sin
2g ex
Avg
(Eq 9.26)
Solving Eq 9.4 and 9.26 for average excess thrust, equating the results, and
solving for S1 produces an expression for a standard S1:
( )
1
SL
S =
1 2g S
Std 1
SL
1- sin
2
V
TO (Eq 9.27)
Where:
Runway slope angle deg
S1SL Takeoff distance, brake release to lift off, sloping ft
runway
9.15

W Weight lb.
A fairly large slope is required before data is affected significantly. Low thrust-to-
weight aircraft are affected more than high thrust-to-weight ratio aircraft.
9.3.1.4.3 THRUST, WEIGHT, AND DENSITY
Atmospheric conditions will affect the thrust available from the engine and will
change the true airspeed required to fly a standard weight at a standard lift coefficient. As
the weight changes, the airspeed required to fly at that CL also changes. While an accurate
analysis of these effects results in complex expressions, empirical relationships have been
developed which provide reasonably accurate results.
For jet aircraft:
Ground phase:
( ) ( )( )
1.3
2.3 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.28)
Air phase:
( )( ) ( )
1.6
2.3 0.7 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
2 2 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.29)
The accuracy of Eq 9.28 and Eq 9.29 depends on the determination of net thrust,
TN. Normally values developed from thrust stand data are used.
9.16
For turboprop aircraft with constant speed propellers the correction equations are:
Ground phase:
( )( )( )( )
2.6 0.7 0.5
1.9 Pa
W N
Std Test Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std N Pa
Std Test Test Std Std (Eq 9.30)
Air phase:
( )( )( ) ( )
2.6 0.8 0.6
1.9 Pa
W N
Std Test Test Test
S =S
2 2 W Std N Pa
Std Test Test Std Std (Eq 9.31)
Where:
NStd Standard propeller speed rpm
NTest Test propeller speed rpm
PaStd Standard ambient pressure psf
PaTest Test ambient pressure psf
S1Test Test takeoff distance, brake release to lift off ft
S2Test Test takeoff distance, lift off to 50 ft ft
Std Standard density ratio
Test Test density ratio
TNStd Standard net thrust lb
TNTest Test net thrust lb
9.3.1.5 PILOT TAKEOFF TECHNIQUE
Individual pilot technique can cause a greater variation in takeoff data than all other
parameters combined. Some of the factors which significantly affect takeoff performance
include:
9.17
1. Speed and sequence of brake release and power application.

2. The use of differential braking, nose wheel steering, or rudder deflection for
directional control.
3. The number and amplitude of directional control inputs used.
4. Aileron/spoiler and elevator/horizontal tail position during acceleration.
5. Airspeed at rotation.
6. Pitch rate during rotation.
7. Angle of attack at lift off.
9.3.2 LANDING
The evaluation of landing performance can be examined in two phases, the air
phase and the ground phase. The air phase starts at 50 ft above ground level and ends on
touchdown. The ground phase begins at touchdown and terminates when the aircraft is
stopped (Figure 9.4).
V V
50 TD
Touchdown Stop
50 ft
Final Approach Landing Roll Out

Air Phase Ground Phase
S3 S
4
Figure 9.4
LANDING FLIGHT PHASES
Where:
S3 Landing distance, 50 ft to touchdown ft
S4 Landing distance, touchdown to stop ft
VTD Touchdown ground speed ft/s
9.18
9.3.2.1 AIR PHASE
The equation governing the air distance on landing (S3) is developed similarly to the
takeoff equation:
S =
3
W ( V
2
TD
-
2g
(T - D)
V
2
50
- 50 )
Avg (Eq 9.32)
Where:
D Drag lb
T Thrust lb
W Weight lb.
Examination of Eq 9.32 shows air distance is minimized if touchdown speed is

maintained throughout the final descent (no flare) where V TD = V 50 and a high drag/low
thrust configuration (steep glide path) is used. The structural integrity of the aircraft
becomes the limiting factor in this case.
9.3.2.2 FORCES ACTING DURING THE GROUND PHASE
The forces acting on an aircraft during the landing roll can be depicted similarly to
those shown in figure 9.2 for takeoff. Low power settings and the increase in the
coefficient of resistance due to brake application result in the excess thrust equation:
(0 - V )
Stop
2
S = T-D-(W - L) dS = 1 W
4 Touchdown 2 g TD
(Eq 9.33)
9.19
When using an average value of the parameters the integration of Eq 9.33 becomes:
2
-W V
TD
S =
4 2g T - D -(W - L)
Avg (Eq 9.34)
Where:
D Drag lb
L Lift lb
S Distance ft
T Thrust lb
W Weight lb.
9.3.2.3 SHORTENING THE LANDING ROLL
Touchdown speed is one of the most important factors in the calculation of the
distance required to stop. In addition to weight and speed at touchdown, landing roll can be
influenced by all the factors in the excess thrust term. Thrust should be reduced to the
minimum practical and, if available, reverse thrust should be employed as soon as possible
after touchdown. The logic for early application of reverse thrust is the same as that for late
use of time limited thrust augmentation on takeoff. Additional drag, whether from increased
angle of attack (aerodynamic braking) or deployment of a drag chute, is most effective in
the initial part of the landing roll for two reasons. Not only is a given force most effective at
high speeds, but also the force itself is greater due to its dependence on V2. Runway
surface condition, as well as the mechanical design of the brakes themselves can cause the
value of to vary over a considerable range. The assumption of an average excess thrust is
reasonable as long as the attitude of the aircraft remains almost constant, but not if nose
high aerodynamic braking is used after touchdown. Because aerodynamic braking is
recommended to minimize landing roll for some aircraft, the question arises when is the
most advantageous point to transition from one braking mode to the other. The relative
magnitude of the forces involved are shown in figures 9.5 and 9.6.
9.20
Drag Nose Up
Drag, Thrust, Resistance - lb

Tex
D, T, R
(W-L)
Tex
Thrust Thrust
Drag
V 0
TD Ground Speed - ft/s
Figure 9.5
AERODYNAMIC BRAKING FORCES
Nose Down
(W-L)
Drag, Thrust, Resaistance - lb
2
Tex Tex
(W-L)
2
D, T, R
Drag
Thrust Thrust
Drag
V 0
TD
Ground Speed - ft/s
Figure 9.6
MAXIMUM WHEEL BRAKING FORCES
Notice that 2 (W-L) (where 2 is the coefficient of friction, brakes applied) is

much greater than (W-L) which is the same as takeoff resistance. As shown in figure
9.7, the minimum stopping distance is achieved when aerodynamic braking is employed
only as long as it provides a greater decelerating force than maximum wheel braking. An
9.21
equation could be developed for the appropriate speed at which to make the transition using
Eq 9.14 evaluated for both the aerodynamic braking and wheel braking condition.
However, the resulting expression does not permit generalization of results.
Excess Thrust - lb
Tex
Brakes
Tex
Region A Region B
Tex
Aero
V 0
TD
Ground Speed - ft/s
Region A: Aerodynamic Braking Better

Region B:Wheel Braking Better
Figure 9.7
AERODYNAMIC AND WHEEL BRAKING FORCES
9.3.2.4 LANDING CORRECTIONS
The corrections to standard day conditions for landing data are similar to the
methods used in the takeoff. The wind correction equation and the runway slope correction
equation are identical to those applied to the takeoff performance. The equation for thrust,
weight, and density is the same if reverse thrust is used, but may be simplified if idle thrust
is used by setting the test thrust equal to the standard thrust. The relationships are:
9.22
Air phase:
( 2+
E
h
) ( ) E
h
( )
E + 50 E + 50
( )
h h
W
Std Test
S =S
3 3 W Std
Std Test Test (Eq 9.35)
In Eq 9.35, Eh is the energy height representing the kinetic energy change during
the air phase, expressed as follows:
2 2
V -V
50 TD
E =
h 2g (Eq 9.36)
Ground phase:
( )( )
2
W
Std Test
S =S
4 4 W Std
Where:
Eh Energy height ft
S3Std Standard landing distance, 50 ft to touchdown ft
S3Test Test landing distance, 50 ft to touchdown ft
S4Std Standard landing distance, touchdown to stop ft
S4Test Test landing distance, touchdown to stop ft
9.23
Past data has shown the weight correction to be valid for weights close to standard
weight. In order to obtain data over a wide range of gross weights, a large number of tests
must be conducted at carefully controlled weights at, or near, preselected standard values.
9.3.2.5 PILOT LANDING TECHNIQUE
Pilot technique is more important in the analysis of landing data than in takeoff data.
Some of the factors which significantly affect landing performance include:
1. Power management during approach, flare, and touchdown.

2. Altitude of flare initiation.
3. Rate of rotation in the flare.
4. Length of hold-off time.
5. Touchdown speed.
6. Speed of braking initiation (aerodynamic and/or wheel) and brake pedal
pressure.
7. Use of drag chute, spoilers, reverse thrust, or anti-skid.
9.4 TEST METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
9.4.1 TAKEOFF
9.4.1.1 TEST TECHNIQUE
To obtain repeatable takeoff performance data defining (and using) a repeatable

takeoff technique is necessary.
1. Line up abeam a measured distance marker (runway remaining, Fresnel

lens, etc.).
2. Ensure the nose wheel is straight.
3. Set takeoff power with engine stabilized (if possible), or establish throttle
setting at/immediately after brake release.
4. Simultaneously release brakes and start clock or start clock and release
brakes at a specified time.
5. Use rudder/nose wheel steering for alignment (no brakes).
6. Rotate at a prescribed airspeed to a specific attitude or angle of attack.
9.24
7. Once airborne, change configuration at specific altitude and airspeed.
While hand held data (stopwatch) can provide usable results, automatic recording
devices are desired due to the dynamic nature of the tests.
1. Takeoff airspeed, VTO.

2. Distance to lift off obtained by:
a. Theodolite
b. Runway camera.
c. Paint gun.
d. Observers.
e. Laser.
f. Eyes right - check runway marker.
3. Pitch attitude on rotation/initial climb.
4. Distance to 50 ft / distance to climb airspeed.
5. Time to lift off / 50 ft / climb airspeed.
6. Angle of attack at rotation/climb out.
7. Fuel used, brake release to climb airspeed.
8. Runway wind conditions.
9. Runway temperature.
10. Runway composition / runway condition reading (RCR).
11. Field elevation.
12. Altimeter.
13. Runway gradient.
14. Aircraft gross weight / center of gravity.
15. Power parameters: RPM, EGT.
16. Elevator/horizontal tail position.
1. Establish takeoff trim setting.

2. No brakes (limit use of rudder / nose wheel steering.).
3. Operate engine bleed air system OFF or in normal mode.
9.25
1. Engine stabilized (if feasible).

2. Wind < 10 kn.
3. WTest WStd.
4. Rate of climb from lift off to intercepting climb schedule < 500 ft/min.
1. Build up to define minimum lift off speeds / critical center of gravity etc.
2. Fly the aircraft first. Many parameters to observe/record. Set priorities.
3. Follow the course rules.
4. Dont exceed the gear and flap speed limits.
9.4.2 LANDING
9.4.2.1 TEST TECHNIQUE
Use a repeatable defined technique for:
1. Approach (50 ft above the ground and flare point).

2. Flare (if required).
3. Touch down at a specific point (abeam Fresnel lens, etc.).
4. Aerodynamic braking (if appropriate) - specific attitude.
5. Braking (What speed? What pressure applied?).
6. Use of spoilers, thrust reverser(s), drag chute, anti-skid, etc.
While the landing distance can be measured by direct observation, automatic

recording devices are desired (theodolite, runway camera etc.,) because of the dynamic
nature of the tests.
9.26
1. Distance from 50 ft above the ground through the flare to touch down.
2. Glideslope angle.
3. Distance from touch down to full stop.
4. Runway wind conditions.
5. Runway temperature.
6. Runway composition / runway condition reading.
7. Field elevation.
8. Altimeter.
9. Runway gradient.
10. Aircraft gross weight / center of gravity.
11. Configuration.
12. Power parameters during landing and roll out: RPM, EGT.
Operate engine bleed air system OFF or in normal mode.
1. Wind steady and < 10 kn.

2. WTest WStd.
1. Build up to maximum effort stop landing (normally only demonstrated by

the contractor).
2. Establish precautions against and procedures for:
a. Hot brakes.
b. Brake fire.
c. Blown tire.
d. Brake Failure.
3. Consider the geometry limit of aircraft for aerodynamic braking and sink
rate at touch down.
9.27
9.5 DATA REDUCTION
The data for takeoff and landing performance is generally presented using test day
weight and atmospheric conditions. The data reduction described below provides
corrections to test day takeoff and landing distance to account for:
1. Wind.
2. Runway
3. Thrust, weight, and density.
9.5.1 TAKEOFF
From the pilots data card and/or automatic recording device record:
1. Ground roll distance (brake release to lift off) (ft).

2. Wind velocity and direction relative to the runway (ft/s / degrees).
3. Lift off airspeed Vo (correct for position and instrument error (ft/s).
4. Temperature Ta (K).
5. Weight W (lb).
6. Pressure altitude HP (ft).
7. Runway slope (deg).
The following equations are used in the data reduction:

(Eq 9.38)
V =V - Vw
TOw TO
(Eq 9.19)
( )
1.85
Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w V
Std TOw
(Eq 9.23)
9.28
( )
1
SL
S =
1 2g S
Std 1
SL
1- sin
2
V
TO (Eq 9.27)
Pa
= 9.625
Ta
(Eq 9.39)
( ) ( )( )
1.3
2.3 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.28)
Where:
Pa Ambient pressure psf
runway
respect to wind
Ta Ambient temperature K
9.29

1 Wind component Vw Eq 9.38 ft/s
2 Takeoff ground speed VTOw Eq 9.19 ft/s
3 Ground roll S1Std Eq 9.23 ft Wind corrected
4 Ground roll S1Std Eq 9.27 ft Slope corrected
5 Density ratio Eq 9.39
6 Ground roll S1Std Eq 9.28 ft Thrust, weight,
density corrected;
TN from thrust
stand data
9.5.2 LANDING
From the pilots data card and/or automatic recording device record:
1. Ground roll distance (touchdown to full stop) (ft).

2. Wind velocity and direction relative to the runway (ft/s / degrees).
3. Touchdown airspeed VTD (correct for position and instrument error) (ft/s).
4. Temperature Ta (K).
5. Aircraft weight W (lb).
6. Pressure altitude HP (ft).
7. Runway slope (deg).
The following equations are used in the data reduction.

(Eq 9.38)
V =V - Vw
TDw TD
(Eq 9.40)
( )
1.85
V
S =S 1+ w
4 4w V
Std TD (Eq 9.41)
9.30
( )
4
SL
S =
4 2gS
Std 4
SL
1- sin
2
V
TD (Eq 9.42)
Pa
= 9.625
Ta
(Eq 9.39)
( )( )
2
W
Std Test
S =S
4 4 W Std
Where:
S4SL Landing distance, touchdown to stop, sloping ft
runway
S4w Landing distance, touchdown to stop, with ft
respect to wind
VTDw Touchdown ground speed with respect to wind ft/s
9.31

1 Wind component Vw Eq 9.38 ft/s
2 Touchdown ground VTD Eq 9.40 ft/s
speed
3 Ground roll S4Std Eq 9.41 ft Wind corrected
4 Ground roll S4Std Eq 9.42 ft Slope corrected
5 Density ratio Eq 9.39
6 Ground roll S4Std Eq 9.37 ft Weight, density
corrected
9.6 DATA ANALYSIS
The analysis of takeoff and landing data is directed toward determining the optimum
technique(s) to maximize the capabilities of the test aircraft. Once the data has been
incorporated into figures similar to figures 9.8 and 9.9, takeoff ground roll can be
determined for a given aircraft weight, ambient temperature, pressure altitude, wind, and
runway slope.
9.32
Ambient Temperature (Ta)

Increasing
1
Pressure Altitude (Hp)
Increasing
Gross Weight
Increasing
4
Increasing
Ground Roll
1 Ambient Temperature
2 Pressure Altitude
3 Gross Weight
4 Ground Roll Distance
Figure 9.8
GROUND ROLL DISTANCE AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE
ALTITUDE, AND WEIGHT
9.33
Ground Roll
Increasing
1
Tailwind
Increasing
Wind 0
Effect 2
Increasing
Headwind
UP
Runaway
Slope 0
3
(Percent)
DN
4
Increasing
Ground Roll
1 Ground Roll From Figure 9.8
1 To 2 Wind Correction
2 To 3 Slope Correction
4 Adjusted Ground Roll
Figure 9.9
GROUND ROLL CORRECTIONS FOR WIND AND RUNWAY SLOPE
9.7 MISSION SUITABILITY
The requirements for takeoff and landing performance are specified in the detail
specification for the aircraft. The determination of mission suitability depends largely on
whether the aircraft meets those requirements.
9.34
9.8 SPECIFICATION COMPLIANCE
The takeoff and landing performance is normally covered as a contract guarantee in

the detail specification requirements of each aircraft. For example, based on a standard day,
takeoff configuration, and a specific drag index, the takeoff distance is specified to be not
greater than a certain number of feet. Similarly, for the guaranteed landing performance at a
specified gross weight, configuration, and braking condition, a distance not greater than a
certain number of feet is specified.
9.9 GLOSSARY
9.9.1 NOTATIONS
AR Aspect ratio
CD Drag coefficient
CDi Induced drag coefficient
CDp Parasite drag coefficient
CL Lift coefficient
CLmax Maximum lift coefficient
CLmaxTO Maximum lift coefficient, takeoff configuration
CLOpt Optimum lift coefficient
D Drag lb
S2 Change in S2, equal to t Vw ft
e Oswalds efficiency factor
Eh Energy height ft
L Lift lb
NStd Standard propeller speed rpm
NTest Test propeller speed rpm
PaStd Standard ambient pressure psf
PaTest Test ambient pressure psf
q Dynamic pressure psf
R Resistance force lb
S Distance ft
S Wing area ft2
9.35

runway
respect to wind
S2Test Test takeoff distance, lift off to 50 ft ft
S2w Takeoff distance, lift off to 50 ft, with respect to ft
wind
S3Std Standard landing distance, 50 ft to touchdown ft
S3Test Test landing distance, 50 ft to touchdown ft
S4SL Landing distance, touchdown to stop, sloping ft
runway
S4w Landing distance, touchdown to stop, with ft
respect to wind
T Thrust lb
t Time s
TexAvg w Average excess thrust, with respect to wind lb
TN Net thrust lb
V Velocity ft/s
VCL50 Climb speed at 50 ft kn
VL Landing airspeed ft/s, kn
VL50 Landing speed at 50 ft kn
9.36
VR Rotation airspeed kn
VsL Stall speed, landing configuration, power off kn
VsT Stall speed, transition configuration, power off, kn
flaps down, gear up
VTDw Touchdown ground speed with respect to wind ft/s
W Weight lb
WTest Test weight lb
9.9.2 GREEK SYMBOLS
(mu) Coefficient of friction

2 Coefficient of friction, brakes applied
(pi) Constant
(theta) Runway slope angle deg
(rho) Air density slugs/ft3
Std (sigma) Standard density ratio
9.10 REFERENCES
1. Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, A Halsted Press Book, John Wiley & Sons,
New York 1975.
2. Departments of the Army, Navy, Air Force, Military Specification MIL-C-

5011A, 5 November 1951.
3. Dommasch, D.O. et al, Airplane Aerodynamics, 4th Edition, Pitman

Publishing Company, N.Y., N.Y., 1967.
4. Federal Aviation Regulations Part 23 and Part 25.
9.37
5. Kimberlin, R., Takeoff and Landing Notes, The University of Tennessee

Space Institute, undated.
6. Military Standard Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-STD-1797A

30 January 1990.
7. Naval Air Systems Command Specification, AS-5263, Guidelines For

Preparation Of Standard Aircraft Characteristics Charts And Performance Data Piloted
Aircraft (Fixed Wing), 23 October, 1986.
8. Naval Test Pilot School Flight Test Manual, Fixed Wing Performance,
Theory and Flight Test Techniques, USNTPS-FTM-No. 104, U.S. Naval Test Pilot
School, Patuxent River, MD, July 1977.
9. Roberts, Sean C., Light Aircraft Performance For Test Pilots and Flight
Test Engineers, Flight Research,. Inc. Mojave, CA, 9 July 1982.
10. Stinton, D., The Design of the Aeroplane, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, N.Y.
11. USAF Test Pilot School Flight Test Manual, Performance Flight Testing
Phase, Volume I, USAF Test Pilot School, Edwards AFB, CA, February 1987.
12. USAF Test Pilot School, Performance Phase Planning Guide, USAF Test
Pilot School, Edwards, AFB, CA, July 1987.
9.38
CHAPTER 10
STANDARD MISSION PROFILES
PAGE
10.3 THEORY 10.2
10.4 MISSION PROFILES 10.5

10.4.1 BACKGROUND 10.5
10.4.2 GENERAL NAVY OPERATIONAL MISSIONS (REF 7) 10.8
10.4.2.1 HI-HI-HI (HIGH ALTITUDE SUBSONIC) 10.8
10.4.2.2 FIGHTER ESCORT 10.10
10.4.2.3 ALTERNATE FIGHTER ESCORT 10.12
10.4.2.4 DECK LAUNCHED INTERCEPT 10.14
10.4.2.5 COMBAT AIR PATROL 10.16
10.4.2.6 CLOSE SUPPORT 10.18
10.4.2.7 FERRY/CROSS COUNTRY NAVIGATION 10.20
10.4.2.8 INTERDICTION 10.22
10.4.2.9 ALTERNATE INTERDICTION 10.24
10.4.2.10 HI-LO-HI 10.26
10.4.2.11 LO-LO-LO 10.28
10.4.2.12 LO-LO-LO-HI 10.30
10.4.3 SPECIAL NAVY OPERATIONAL MISSIONS (REF 7) 10.32
10.4.3.1 CARGO AND TRANSPORT 10.32
10.4.3.2 ASW SEARCH 10.34
10.4.3.3 AEW SEARCH 10.36
10.4.3.4 ASW 10.38
10.4.3.5 RECONNAISSANCE 10.40
10.4.3.6 MINELAYING 10.42
10.4.3.7 REFUEL/BUDDY TANKER 10.44
10.4.3.8 FAMILIARIZATION 10.46
10.4.3.9 CARRIER QUALIFICATION 10.48
10.4.3.10 AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING TRAINING 10.50
10.4.3.11 TACTICAL NAVIGATION 10.52
10.4.3.12 WEAPONS DELIVERY/GUNNERY 10.54
10.i
10.4.4 NAVY PILOT TRAINER MISSIONS (REF 6) 10.56

10.4.4.1 FAMILIARIZATION 10.56
10.4.4.2 NIGHT FAMILIARIZATION 10.58
10.4.4.3 BASIC INSTRUMENTS 10.60
10.4.4.4 RADIO INSTRUMENTS 10.62
10.4.4.5 AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 1 10.64
10.4.4.6 AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 2 10.66
10.4.4.7 FORMATION 10.68
10.4.4.8 NIGHT FORMATION 10.70
10.4.4.9 TACTICAL FORMATION 10.72
10.4.4.10 AIR-TO-AIR GUNNERY 10.74
10.4.4.11 WEAPON DELIVERY 10.76
10.4.4.12 WEAPONS DELIVERY - TAC NAV 10.78
10.4.4.13 AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING 10.80
10.4.4.14 FIELD CARRIER LANDING PRACTICE (FCLP) 10.82
10.4.4.15 CARRIER QUALIFICATION 10.84
10.4.5 NAVAL FLIGHT OFFICER TRAINER MISSIONS (REF 2) 10.86
10.4.5.1 LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION - 1 10.86
10.4.5.5 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 1 10.94
10.4.5.6 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 2 10.96
10.4.5.7 RADAR NAVIGATION - 1 10.98
10.4.5.8 RADAR NAVIGATION - 2 10.100
10.4.5.9 LOCAL RADAR - 1 10.102
10.4.5.10 LOCAL RADAR - 2 10.104
10.4.5.11 RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 1 10.106
10.4.5.12 RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 2 10.108
10.5 CONCLUSION 10.110
10.6 GLOSSARY 10.110

10.6.1 NOTATIONS 10.110
10.ii
CHAPTER 10
FIGURES
PAGE
10.1 GENERIC MISSION PROFILE 10.1
10.2 MISSION REQUIREMENTS WHICH DEFINE PERFORMANCE 10.3
10.3 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE PROGRAM 10.4
10.4 HI-HI-HI 10.8
10.5 FIGHTER ESCORT 10.10
10.6 ALTERNATE FIGHTER ESCORT 10.12
10.7 DECK LAUNCHED INTERCEPT 10.14
10.8 COMBAT AIR PATROL 10.16
10.9 CLOSE SUPPORT 10.18
10.10 FERRY/CROSS COUNTRY NAVIGATION 10.20
10.11 INTERDICTION 10.22
10.12 ALTERNATE INTERDICTION 10.24
10.13 HI-LO-HI 10.26
10.14 LO-LO-LO 10.28
10.15 LO-LO-LO-HI 10.30
10.16 CARGO AND TRANSPORT 10.32
10.17 ASW SEARCH 10.34
10.18 AEW SEARCH 10.36
10.19 ASW 10.38
10.20 RECONNAISSANCE 10.40
10.21 MINELAYING 10.42
10.22 REFUEL/BUDDY TANKER 10.44
10.23 FAMILIARIZATION 10.46
10.iii
10.24 CARRIER QUALIFICATION 10.48
10.25 AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING TRAINING 10.50
10.26 TACTICAL NAVIGATION 10.52
10.27 WEAPON DELIVERY/GUNNERY 10.54
10.28 FAMILIARIZATION 10.56
10.29 NIGHT FAMILIARIZATION 10.58
10.30 BASIC INSTRUMENTS 10.60
10.31 RADIO INSTRUMENTS 10.62
10.32 AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 1 10.64
10.33 AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 2 10.66
10.34 FORMATION 10.68
10.35 NIGHT FORMATION 10.70
10.36 TACTICAL FORMATION 10.72
10.37 AIR-TO-AIR GUNNERY 10.74
10.38 WEAPON DELIVERY 10.76
10.39 WEAPONS DELIVERY - TAC NAV 10.78
10.40 AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING 10.80
10.41 FIELD CARRIER LANDING PRACTICE (FCLP) 10.82
10.42 CARRIER QUALIFICATION 10.84
10.43 LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION - 1 10.86
10.47 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 1 10.94
10.48 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 2 10.96
10.49 RADAR NAVIGATION - 1 10.98
10.50 RADAR NAVIGATION - 2 10.100
10.iv
10.51 LOCAL RADAR - 1 10.102
10.52 LOCAL RADAR - 2 10.104
10.53 RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 1 10.106
10.54 RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 2 10.108
10.v
CHAPTER 10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
From the beginning to the end of the flight test process, the flight test team must
have a working knowledge of the mission and mission profiles against which the aircraft is
to be evaluated. This knowledge at the start of the program enables the team to design the
test program to concentrate on the mission specific altitudes, airspeeds, loadings, or other
requirements which are representative of the mission(s).
The preceding chapters discuss in detail the testing required to evaluate specific
performance characteristics. The final step for the flight test team is to assimilate all the
performance data and determine if the aircraft can perform the required mission(s). This
chapter looks at putting all of the performance characteristics together to enable the flight
test team to evaluate an aircraft against a given mission profile (Figure 10.1).
In-Flight Mission Specific

Refueling Requirements
Cruise Air-to Air Combat

Ground Attack
Loiter Weapon Delivery
Reconnaissance
Terrain Following
Climb Antisubmarine Search
Etc.
Descent/
Emergency Descent
Approach
Takeoff Landing/Waveoff
Field/ Field/
Carrier Carrier
Figure 10.1
GENERIC MISSION PROFILE
10.1
10.2 PURPOSE OF TEST
The purpose of this chapter is to present standard mission profiles for:
1. General Navy Operational Missions.

2. Special Navy Operational Missions.
3. Naval Pilot Trainer Missions.
4. Naval Flight Officer Trainer Missions.
10.3 THEORY
Once the Navy has determined specific operational requirements, an aircraft design
team takes this information to develop the aerodynamic, propulsion, and weight elements
that ultimately give the flight test team an aircraft with certain performance characteristics
(Figure 10.2).
10.2
Performance
Takeoff
Climb
Accel Max Speed
Maneuverability Aglity
Range Endurance
Decel Descent
Landing
Aerodynamics Propulsion Weight
Lift
Uninstalled Engine Structure
Drag Performance Systems
Fuel
Propulsion Interaction Engine Installation Weapons
Effects
Trim Effects
Mission
Requirements
Figure 10.2
MISSION REQUIREMENTS WHICH DEFINE PERFORMANCE
Two important performance results determined by the flight test team are:
1. Performance guarantees.
2. Mission suitability.
10.3
Figure 10.3 illustrates the relationship of three key specifications dealing with an
aircrafts performance test and evaluation program.
Aircraft Development Concept
SD-SGS-1 MIL-D-8706B MIL-D-8708(AS)

Detailed Specification Contract Engineering & Test Requirements Demonstation Requirements
Mission Performance Characteristics & Performance Data Navy Technical Eval

Basic Aerodynamic Data
Guaranteed Performance Performance Data Performance Demo
Vmax
Combat Ceiling Standard Aircraft Characteristics Performance Tests
Max A/B Acceleration Chart & Substantiating
Sustained nz Performance Data Report
Specific Excess Power
Specific Range Standard Aircraft Characteristics
Stall Speed Chart & Substantiating
Service Ceiling Performance Data Report
Standard Aircraft Characteristics

Contract Conformance Chart & Substantiating
Performance Data Report
Basis For NATOPS And

Tactical Manual Performance
Figure 10.3
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE PROGRAM
As shown in figure 10.3, the data from the flight test program is used to develop
the standard aircraft characteristics (SAC) charts, which in turn are used as the basis for
NATOPS and Tactical Manual performance data. Also, through testing specific
performance characteristics, the flight data verifies the contract performance guarantees.
While some data presented in flight manuals is based on flight test results, much of
the data is calculated (estimated). It should be noted that the confidence level of these
performance calculations is based on five sources. Since aircraft performance data are
obtained from the marriage of aerodynamic, propulsion, and weight information, the
confidence in the validity of the calculated results is dependent on the accuracy and validity
of the individual components. The confidence level in the validity of the components is in
turn dependent on a number of factors including the degree of development of the aircraft
10.4
or weapons system, the availability of instrumented flight test data and/or the source of the
data used for the calculations. For the most part, NAVAIRSYSCOM performance
calculations are based on the best available data source in the following order of preference:
1. Formal government demonstration data used for showing conformance with

contractual guarantees.
2. Government flight test data (Navy/Air Force evaluations).
3. Contractor flight test data.
4. Wind tunnel data.
5. Empirical estimates and state-of-the-art calculations.
Most performance calculations, especially mission calculation, are based on inputs

from as many of the above sources as possible. It is impractical to obtain flight and wind
tunnel data for all combinations of mission loadings (external stores) throughout the total
aircraft flight envelope. However, the degree of confidence in the results can usually be
assessed from the source of baseline aerodynamic, propulsion, and weight information
used in the calculations.
While much of the performance planning data still exists only as paper charts, with
the introduction of the Tactical Air Mission Planning System (TAMPS) each aircrew will
soon have available computer access to the performance data base for their aircraft. During
the transition from the paper charts to computer software the aircrew needs to know the
source of the performance data and the assumptions made in establishing the computer data
base.
10.4 MISSION PROFILES
10.4.1 BACKGROUND
For each aircraft the Navy flies, SAC charts are developed for at least four (4)
mission types. The SAC charts are intended to provide a concise compilation of physical
characteristics and performance capabilities of an aircraft or weapons system. The first
SAC charts are developed for the clean mission which is intended to show the maximum
capabilities of the aircraft (usually a high-high-profile). The second mission described is the
ferry mission, where the greatest distance attainable on a practicable one-way mission with
maximum authorized fuel and payload (external fuel tanks may be carried and must be
10.5
retained for the duration of the flight). The third mission described by the SAC charts is the
basic mission which takes the performance capabilities of the aircraft and applies the
specific criteria of the mission profiles in AS-5263 (examples presented as sections 10.4.2
and 10.4.3 of this chapter). Finally, the fourth type of mission(s) described are the design
mission(s), defined as the primary missions for which the aircraft was specifically procured
(examples presented as sections 10.4.4 and 10.4.5). These missions are defined in
procurement documents, such as the statement of work, and include the flight profiles,
allowances, fuel (clean or external tanks) and payload. The mission profiles presented in
sections 10.4.2, 10.4.3, 10.4.4, and 10.4.5 are extracted from the reference cited for each
section.
10.6
10.4.2 GENERAL NAVY OPERATIONAL MISSIONS (REF 7)
10.4.2.1 HI-HI-HI (HIGH ALTITUDE SUBSONIC)
5
4
3
6 2
7
1 Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.4
HI-HI-HI
1. Taxi, warm-up, takeoff, and acceleration to best climb speed: fuel allowance
at sea level static equal to 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds afterburner thrust
if afterburner is used for takeoff.
2. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate power to best cruise

altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
3. Cruise Out: to target at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a cruise
climb flight path (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
4. Combat: fuel allowance equal to 5 min at maximum speed with intermediate

thrust at best cruise altitude. No distance is credited (drop bombs, retain mounting
hardware and missiles after combat).
5. Cruise Back: to base at speed and altitudes for best range, using a cruise
6. Descent: descend to sea level (no fuel used, no distance gained).
10.7
7. Reserve: fuel allowance equal to 20 min loiter at sea level at speeds for
maximum endurance with all engines operating plus 5% of initial total fuel (internal plus
external).
a. Mission Time: Items 2 through 6.

b Cycle Time: Items 2 through 7.
10.8
10.4.2.2 FIGHTER ESCORT
3 4
6
8 2
5
9
1 Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.5
FIGHTER ESCORT
at sea level static equal to 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds afterburner thrusts
2. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust to best cruise

3. Cruise Out: to target at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a cruise
4. Descent: descend to 10,000 ft (no fuel used, no distance gained).
5. Combat: fuel allowance equal to 2 min at maximum thrust, Mach 1.0 at

10,000 ft (no distance is credited, missiles are retained).
6. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust from 10,000 ft to

best cruise altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
10.9
external).

b. Cycle Time: Items 2 through 9.
10.10
10.4.2.3 ALTERNATE FIGHTER ESCORT
8
9
4 5
7
3 6
10
11, 12
1, 2 Mission Radius
Figure 10.6
ALTERNATE FIGHTER ESCORT
1. Takeoff: start engines and takeoff allowance equal to 20 min at idle power
and 30 seconds at intermediate power, sea level static.
2. Acceleration: intermediate power acceleration from 150 KCAS to best climb

speed at sea level.
3. Climb: intermediate power climb from sea level to best cruise altitude.
4. Cruise Out: cruise climb at best conditions.
5. Descent: idle power descent to 20,000 ft at Mach 0.8 (credit time, fuel, and
distance).
6. Combat: fuel allowance equal to 4 intermediate power sustained turns at

Mach 0.9 at 20,000 ft and 3 maximum power sustained turns at Mach 0.9 at 20,000 ft.
7. Climb: intermediate power climb from 20,000 ft to best cruise altitude.
8. Cruise Back: cruise climb at best conditions.
9. Descent: idle power descent to 20,000 ft at 250 KCAS (credit time, fuel and
distance).
10.11
10. Descent: idle power descent to 1,200 ft at 250 KCAS (credit time and fuel;
no credit for distance).
11. Carrier Approach: cruise at 150 KCAS for a distance of 12 nmi at 1,200 ft
(credit time and fuel; no credit for distance).
12. Reserve: 100 nmi bingo (no credit for distance). Intermediate power
acceleration from 150 KCAS to best climb speed at sea level.
a. Intermediate power climb from sea level to best profile altitude.

b. Cruise at best profile altitude(s) at best conditions.
c. Idle power descent to 10,000 ft at 250 KCAS (credit time, fuel, and
distance).
d. 10 min at 10,000 ft loiter at maximum endurance speed.
e. Mission Time: Items 3 through 11.
f. Cycle Time: Items 3 through 12.
10.12
10.4.2.4 DECK LAUNCHED INTERCEPT
8 7
6
9
4 5
10
1 2
Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.7
DECK LAUNCHED INTERCEPT
1. Taxi, warm-up, takeoff, and acceleration to Mach 0.3: fuel allowance at sea
level static equal to 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds afterburner thrust if
afterburner is used for takeoff.
2. Acceleration: maximum power acceleration from Mach 0.3 to Mach 0.9 at

sea level.
3. Climb: on course at Mach 0.9 at maximum power to 35,000 ft.
4. Acceleration: maximum power acceleration from Mach 0.9 to Mach 1.35 at

35,000 ft.
5. Dash Out: Mach 1.35 dash at 35,000 ft.
6. Combat: fuel allowance equal to 1 min at maximum power, Mach 1.35 at

35,000 ft (no distance is credited, missiles are retained).

10.13
external).

Note: Dash Mach number and altitude variations should be considered for this
mission.
10.14
10.4.2.5 COMBAT AIR PATROL
8 7
9 4
3
5
6
2
10
1 Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.8
COMBAT AIR PATROL
at sea level static equal 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds afterburner thrust if

altitudes (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
3. Cruise Out: to 150 nmi at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a climb
flight path (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
5. Loiter: loiter at speed for maximum endurance at 35,000 ft (no distance is

credited).
6. Combat: fuel allowance equal that used to accelerate from loiter speed at
35,000 ft to Mach 1.2 plus 2 min at maximum power, Mach 1.2 at 35,000 ft (no distance is
credited, missiles are retained).

10.15
external).

Note: Loiter altitude and combat variations should be considered for this mission.
10.16
10.4.2.6 CLOSE SUPPORT
3
8 6 4
2
5
9
1
Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.9
CLOSE SUPPORT
at sea level static equal 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds afterburner thrust if

3. Cruise Out: to target at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a climb
5. Loiter: loiter for 1 hour at speed for maximum endurance at 5,000 ft (no
distance is credited, drop bombs after loiter, retain mounting hardware and missiles).
6. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate power from 5,000 ft to

8 Descent: descend to sea level (no fuel used, no distance gained).
10.17
external).

10.18
10.4.2.7 FERRY/CROSS COUNTRY NAVIGATION
4
External Fuel
Tank(s) Retained
2
5
1 Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.10
FERRY/CROSS COUNTRY NAVIGATION

3. Cruise Out: to combat range at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a
cruise climb flight path (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
external).

10.19
10.4.2.8 INTERDICTION
3
10 4
8
2
11 7 6
1 5
Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.11
INTERDICTION
1. For taxi, warm-up, takeoff and acceleration to best climb speed: fuel
allowance at sea level static equal 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds afterburner
thrust if afterburner is used for takeoff.

3. Cruise Out: at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a climb flight path
(not to exceed cruise ceiling).
5. Run-in to target: sea level dash for 50 nmi at Mach 0.8 (or maximum speed
at intermediate thrust if less than Mach 0.8).
6. Combat: fuel allowance equal to 5 min at intermediate thrust, Mach 0.8 (or
maximum speed if less than Mach 0.8) at sea level. No distance is credited (drop bombs,
retain mounting hardware and missiles after combat).
7. Run-out from target: sea level dash for 50 nmi at Mach 0.8 (or maximum
speed at intermediate thrust if less than Mach 0.8).
10.20
8. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust from sea level to
9. Cruise Back: at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a cruise climb
external).

10.21
10.4.2.9 ALTERNATE INTERDICTION
10
11
4
5
12 9
3
13, 14
8 7
1, 2 6
Mission Radius
Figure 10.12
ALTERNATE INTERDICTION
1. Takeoff: start engines and takeoff allowance equal to 20 min idle power and
30 seconds intermediate power, sea level static.
2. Acceleration: intermediate power acceleration from 150 KCAS to best climb

speed at sea level.
4. Cruise Out: cruise climb at best conditions.
5. Descent: idle power descent to sea level at Mach 0.8 (credit time, fuel, and
distance).
6. Dash Out: 50 nmi Mach 0.8 dash at sea level.
7. Combat: fuel allowance equal to 3 (4 g) sustained turns at Mach 0.8 at

5,000 ft (drop bombs; retain mounting hardware and missiles) and 1 maximum power
(structural limit) sustained turn at Mach 0.8 at 5,000 ft.
8. Dash Back: 50 nmi Mach 0.8 dash at sea level.
10.22
10. Cruise Back: cruise climb at best conditions.
11. Descent: idle power descent to 20,000 ft at 250 KCAS (credit time, fuel and
distance).
12. Descent: idle power descent to 1,200 ft at 250 KCAS (credit time and fuel,
no credit for distance).
13. Carrier Approach: cruise at 150 KCAS for a distance of 12 nmi at 1,200 ft
(credit time and fuel; no credit for distance).
14. Reserve: 100 nmi bingo (no credit for distance). Intermediate power
acceleration from 150 KCAS to best climb speed at sea level.
a. Intermediate power climb from sea level to best profile altitude.

b. Cruise at best profile altitude(s) at best conditions.
c. Idle power descent to 10,000 ft at 250 KCAS (credit time, fuel, and
distance).
d. 10 min at 10,000 ft loiter at maximum endurance speed.
e. Mission Time: Items 3 through 13.
f. Cycle Time: Items 3 through 14.
10.23
10.4.2.10 HI-LO-HI
3 4
6
8
9 5
1 Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.13
HI-LO-HI

3. Cruise Out: at speeds and altitudes for best range, using a cruise climb flight
path (not to exceed cruise ceiling).

thrust at sea level. No distance is credited (drop bombs, retain mounting hardware and
missiles after combat).
10.24
external).

10.25
10.4.2.11 LO-LO-LO
5 4
3
1 2
Combat Radius
nmi
Figure 10.14
LO-LO-LO
1. Taxi, warm-up, takeoff, and acceleration to best cruise speed: fuel

allowance at sea level static equal to 4.6 min at intermediate thrust plus 30 seconds
afterburner thrust if afterburner is used for takeoff.
2. Cruise Out: at speed for best range at sea level.

4. Cruise Back: at speed for best range at sea level.
maximum endurance with all engines operating plus 5% of initial fuel (internal plus
external).

Note: An alternate LO-LO-LO mission would include a 50 nmi sea level dash to
and from target at Mach 0.8 (or maximum speed at intermediate thrust if less than Mach
0.8).
10.26
10.4.2.12 LO-LO-LO-HI
8
6
9 2 5 4
Combat Radius 3
1
nmi
Figure 10.15
LO-LO-LO-HI
2. Cruise Out: at speed for best range at sea level.
3. Run-in to target: sea level dash for 50 nmi at Mach 0.8 (or maximum speed
at intermediate thrust if less than Mach 0.8).

5. Run-out from target: sea level dash for 50 nmi at Mach 0.8 (or maximum
speed at intermediate thrust if less than Mach 0.8).
10.27
8. Descent: descent to sea level (no fuel used, no distance gained).
external).

10.28
10.4.3 SPECIAL NAVY OPERATIONAL MISSIONS (REF 7)
10.4.3.1 CARGO AND TRANSPORT
3
9 2 7 4
10 5
1 6
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.16
CARGO AND TRANSPORT
at sea level static equal to 4.6 min at intermediate thrust (10 min for propeller aircraft at
normal power) plus 30 seconds afterburner thrust if afterburner is used for takeoff.
2. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust (normal power

for props) to best cruise altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
5. Land at remote base and unload passengers/cargo or pick-up

passengers/cargo (specified by NAVAIRSYSCOM for the particular aircraft).
6. Repeat Step 1.
7. Repeat Step 2.
10.29
10. Reserve: fuel allowance equal to 20 min (30 min for props) loiter at sea level
at speeds for maximum endurance (maximum range for props) with all engines operating
plus 5% of initial total fuel (internal plus external).
a. Mission Time: Items 2 though 9.

10.30
10.4.3.2 ASW SEARCH
4
Search Altitude
5
3
6 2
1
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.17
ASW SEARCH

for props) to search altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
3. Cruise Out: at search altitude at speed for maximum endurance (unless

otherwise limited by handling qualities).
4. Cruise Back: at search altitude at speed for maximum endurance (unless

otherwise limited by handling qualities).

10.31
10.4.3.3 AEW SEARCH
6
7 5
Search Altitude
4
3
2
8
1
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.18
AEW SEARCH

for props) to search altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
3. Cruise Out: at speeds for best range at search altitude (not to exceed cruise
ceiling) to distance specified by NAVAIRSYSCOM.
4. Loiter: loiter for 4 hours at speed for maximum endurance at search altitude
(no distance is gained).

for props) to best cruise altitude (if higher than search altitude, but not to exceed cruise
ceiling.
10.32
plus 5% initial total fuel internal plus external).

10.33
10.4.3.4 ASW
4
3
5
10 8
2
6
11
7
1
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.19
ASW

5. Search: search for 3 hours at speed for maximum endurance at 20,000 ft.
6. Descent: descend to 200 ft (no fuel used, no distance gained).
7. Search: search for 1 hour at speed for maximum endurance at 200 ft.

10.34

10.35
10.4.3.5 RECONNAISSANCE
3 4
10 8
2 5
11 6
1 7
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.20
RECONNAISSANCE

5. Search: search for 3 hours at speed for maximum endurance at 5,000 ft.
7. Search: search for 1 hour at speed for maximum endurance at 200 ft.

for props) from 200 ft to best cruise altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
10.36

10.37
10.4.3.6 MINELAYING
10
3
9 4
11
2
8
12 7
5 6
1
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.21
MINELAYING

5. Penetrate: at maximum continuous power for 300 nmi at 200 ft.
6. Attack: at maximum continuous power for 100 nmi at 200 ft.
7. Release Mines.
8. Escape: on course at maximum continuous power for 300 nmi.

for props) from 200 ft to best cruise altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
10.38

10.39
10.4.3.7 REFUEL/BUDDY TANKER
6
4
3
5
7
2
8
1
Mission Radius
nmi
Figure 10.22
REFUEL/BUDDY TANKER
normal power) plus 30 seconds afterburner thrust if afterburner is used on takeoff.

3. Cruise Out: at speeds and altitudes for best range, using cruise climb flight
path (not to exceed cruise ceiling) to point of rendezvous specified by NAVAIRSYSCOM.
5. Loiter: loiter for 1 hour at speed for maximum endurance to allow for
rendezvous, hookup, and fuel transfer (no distance gained).
6. Climb: on course at best climb speed intermediate thrust (normal power for
props) to best cruise altitude (not to exceed cruise ceiling).
10.40
8. Reserve: fuel allowance equal to 20 min (30 min for props) at sea level at
speeds for maximum endurance (maximum range for props) with all engines operating plus
5% of initial total fuel (internal plus external).

10.41
10.4.3.8 FAMILIARIZATION
5
4
3
6
7, 8
1
50 nmi
Figure 10.23
FAMILIARIZATION
2. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate climb point at speed for
best range at 20,000 ft.
3. Cruise Out: 50 nmi from initial climb point at speed for best range at 20,000
ft.
4. Air work at 20,000 ft: time for air work shall be allocated as follows: 35%
at intermediate thrust (Mach equals corner speed), 45% at speed for maximum range, and
20% at flight idle (no distance gained).
5. Cruise Back: 50 nmi at speed for maximum range at 20,000 ft.
7. Six touch and go landings: fuel allowance equal to 30 min at approach

airspeed in landing configuration and 2 min at intermediate thrust (sea level static).
10.42
external).
a. Mission Time Items 2 through 7.

10.43
10.4.3.9 CARRIER QUALIFICATION
3
10 4
2 8
5
11 6
7
1
100 nmi
Figure 10.24
CARRIER QUALIFICATION
if afterburner is used to takeoff.
2. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust to 20,000 ft.
3. Cruise Out: 100 nmi from initial climb point at speed for best range at
20,000 ft.
5. Loiter: loiter for 15 min at speed for maximum endurance at 5,000 ft.
7. Carrier Work: fuel allowance (for each catapult launch and arrested landing
cycle) equals 4.5 min at approach speed in landing configuration and 30 seconds at
intermediate thrust (sea level static).
20,000 ft.
10.44
9. Cruise Back: 100 nmi at speed for maximum range at 20,000 ft.
external).
a. Mission time: Items 2 through 10.

10.45
10.4.3.10 AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING TRAINING
5
4
3
6 2
1
60 nmi
Figure 10.25
AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING TRAINING
ft.
4. Air work at 25,000 ft: time for air work shall be allocated as follows: 55%
at intermediate thrust (Mach equals corner speed), 30% at 80% intermediate thrust fuel flow
(Mach equals corner speed), and 15% at speed for best range (no distance gained).
5. Cruise Back: 60 nmi at speed for best range.
10.46
external).

10.47
10.4.3.11 TACTICAL NAVIGATION
7
6
3 8
2 4
5
9
1 300 nmi 300 nmi 100 nmi
Range nmi
Figure 10.26
TACTICAL NAVIGATION
3. Cruise: 300 nmi at 300 KTAS at 2,500 ft.
5. Cruise: 300 nmi at 300 KTAS at 500 ft.
6. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust from 500 ft to

20,000 ft.
7. Cruise: 100 nmi from climb point at speed for best range at 20,000 ft.
10.48
external).

10.49
10.4.3.12 WEAPONS DELIVERY/GUNNERY
3
8 6 4
5a
2 Gunnery
9 5b
Weapons Delivery
1
60 nmi
Figure 10.27
WEAPON DELIVERY/GUNNERY
2. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate climb point at speed for
best range at 20,000 ft.
ft.
4. Descent: descend to gunnery altitude (10,000 ft) or weapons delivery

altitude (sea level) (no fuel used, no distance gained).
5 a. Gunnery Option: time for gunnery shall be allocated as follows: 60% at

intermediate thrust (Mach to be designated by NAVAIRSYSCOM), 25% at 80%
intermediate thrust fuel flow (Mach to be designated by NAVAIRSYSCOM), and 15% at
speed for best range (no distance gained).
5 b. Weapons Delivery Option: time for weapons delivery shall be allocated as

follows: 50% at intermediate thrust (Mach to be designated by NAVAIRSYSCOM) and
50% at 80% intermediate thrust fuel flow (Mach to be designated by NAVAIRSYSCOM)
(no distance gained).
10.50
6. Climb: on course at best climb speed at intermediate thrust from gunnery

(10,000 ft) or weapons delivery (sea level) altitude.
7. Cruise Back: 60 nmi from climb point at speed for best range at 20,000 ft.
external).

10.51
10.4.4 NAVY PILOT TRAINER MISSIONS (REF 6)
10.4.4.1 FAMILIARIZATION
2 4 5
6 7 8
1 50 nmi
50 nmi
Figure 10.28
FAMILIARIZATION
1. Engine start, taxi, and takeoff: 15 min at idle thrust plus 1 min at maximum
thrust (both at sea level static).
2. Climb to 20,000 ft with intermediate thrust.
3. Cruise to 50 nmi from initial climb point at 20,000 ft at airspeed for

maximum specific range.
4. Basic Familiarization (FAM) Stage air work (at 20,000 ft):
a. 10 min at maximum thrust (0.7 Mach).

b. 8.7 min at airspeed for maximum specific range.
c. 5.5 min at flight idle.
d. Aerobatics.
e. Stalls.
f. Spins.
g. Slow flight.
h. Unusual attitude recoveries.
10.52
5. Cruise back at 20,000 ft at speed for maximum specific range and descend
to field elevation (cruise back and descent distance 50 nmi).
6. Six touch and go landings with one full stop landing: 30 min at approach
airspeed in landing configuration, 1.6 min at maximum thrust.
7. Taxi/shutdown: 3 min at sea level static idle.
8. Reserve: 20 min at sea level at airspeed for maximum specific endurance.

10.53
10.4.4.2 NIGHT FAMILIARIZATION
3 4
5
2
6 7
8 9
1 50 nmi 50 nmi
Figure 10.29
NIGHT FAMILIARIZATION
1. Engine start, taxi, and takeoff: 15 min as idle thrust plus 1 min at maximum
2. Climb to 20,000 ft with maximum thrust.

4. Night FAM training: 40.2 min at airspeed for maximum specific range at
20,000 ft, 2 min at maximum thrust at 20,000 ft (0.7 Mach).
5. Cruise back at 20,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range and

descend to 3,000 ft (cruise and descent distance 50 nmi).
6. Precision approach (ground controlled approach/instrument landing system

(GCA/ILS)) to touch and go: 2 min (flaps and gear-up) at airspeed for maximum specific
endurance at 3,000 ft, 6 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
7. 6 visual flight rules (VFR) patterns; 5 touch and go, 1 full stop landing: 1.5
min at maximum thrust, 25.5 min at approach airspeed (all in landing configuration).
10.54
8. Taxi/shutdown: 3 min at sea level idle thrust.
9. Reserve Fuel: 20 min at sea level at airspeed for maximum specific

endurance.

10.55
10.4.4.3 BASIC INSTRUMENTS
4 6
3 7
2 8
10 11
1
9 12 13
Figure 10.30
BASIC INSTRUMENTS
3. 5 min at 20,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
4. Climb from 20,000 ft to 30,000 ft with maximum thrust.
5. Basic air work: 4 min at maximum thrust (0.7 Mach) plus 36.5 min at
30,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
6. Descend from 30,000 ft to 20,000 ft at 250 KCAS.
7. 6 min at 20,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific endurance.
8. Descend from 20,000 to 1,500 ft at 250 KCAS.
9. Non-precision approach: 4 min at approach airspeed in landing

configuration.
10. Missed approach: climb to 3,000 ft with maximum thrust.
10.56
11. GCA to touchdown: 2 min at airspeed for maximum specific range (gear
and flaps up), 6 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
13. Reserve fuel: 20 min at sea level at airspeed for maximum specific
endurance.

10.57
10.4.4.4 RADIO INSTRUMENTS
5
11
3 4 6 7
12 13
10
2 8
14
16 17
1 9 15 18 19
Figure 10.31
RADIO INSTRUMENTS
4. Climb from 20,000 ft to 30,000 ft with intermediate thrust.
5. 19.3 min at 30,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
7. 5 min at 20,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific endurance.
8. High altitude (tactical air navigation/automatic direction finder

(TACAN/ADF)) penetration to 1,500 ft.
9. Precision approach (GCA/ILS) in landing configuration: 4 min at approach

airspeed.
10. Missed approach: climb to 25,000 ft.
10.58
11. 13 min at maximum specific range airspeed (enroute alternate).
12. Descend to 20,000 ft at 250 KCAS.
13. 5 min at 20,000 ft at maximum specific endurance airspeed.
14. High altitude penetration (TACAN/ADF) to 1,500 ft (250 KCAS).
15. Non-Precision final approach: 4 min at approach airspeed in landing

configuration.
17. GCA pattern to touchdown: 2 min at airspeed for maximum specific range
(gear and flaps up), 6 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
19. Reserve fuel: 20 min at seal level at airspeed for maximum specific
endurance.

10.59
10.4.4.5 AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 1
4 6 7
3
2 8
10 11 13
12
1 9 14 15
Figure 10.32
AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 1
1. Engine start, taxi,and takeoff: 11 min at idle thrust plus 1 min at maximum
5. Cruise at 30,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
6. Descend to 20,000 ft.
7. Hold at 20,000 ft for 6 min at airspeed for maximum specific endurance.
8. High altitude instrument penetration (TACAN/ADF) to 1,500 ft at 250

KCAS.
9. Non-precision final approach (TACAN): 4 min at approach speed in landing

configuration.
10.60
11. GCA pattern/precision approach (GCA/ILS) to low approach: 2 min at

3,000 ft (gear and flaps up), 6 min at approach speed in landing configuration.
13. GCA pattern/precision approach (GCA/ILS) to full stop landing: 2 min at

3,000 ft (gear and flaps up), 6 min at approach speed in landing configuration.
endurance.

10.61
10.4.4.6 AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 2
4 6 7
3
2 8
10 11
12 13
1 9 14 15
Figure 10.33
AIRWAYS NAVIGATION - 2
3. Cruise for 10 min at 20,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
4. Climb from 20,000 to 35,000 ft with maximum thrust.
6. Descend from 35,000 to 20,000 ft.
7. Hold at 20,000 ft for one min at airspeed for maximum endurance.
8. High altitude penetration (TACAN/Radar Enroute Descent) 250 KCAS from

20,000 to 3,000 ft.
9. Non-precision final approach (TACAN): 4 min approach airspeed in landing

configuration from 3,000 ft to minimum descent altitude (MDA).
10.62
11. GCA Pattern, GCA approach to touch and go: 2 min at 3,000 ft (gear and
flaps up), 6 min at approach speed in landing configuration.
12. VFR pattern to touch and go: 15 seconds at maximum thrust, 4.25 min at
approach airspeed in landing configuration.
13. VFR pattern to full stop: 15 seconds at maximum thrust, 4.25 min at
approach airspeed in landing configuration.
14. Taxi/shutdown: 3 min sea level static idle.
endurance.

10.63
10.4.4.7 FORMATION
3 4
2 5
1 6 7 8 9
60 nmi 60 nmi
Figure 10.34
FORMATION

4. Formation Training: 8 min at maximum thrust, 14.8 min at maximum

continuous thrust, 33.2 min at airspeed for maximum specific range:
a. Break-up and rendezvous.

b. Parade.
c. Lead changes.
d. Cruise.
e. Column.
5. Cruise back at airspeed for maximum specific range at 25,000 ft and

descend to 1,500 ft (cruise back & descent distance totals 60 nmi).
6. VFR field entry to touch and go landing: 4 min at 1,500 ft. 300 KCAS (gear
and flaps up), 1 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
10.64
7. VFR landing pattern to full stop landing: 15 seconds at maximum thrust,

4.25 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
9. Reserve fuel: 20 min at seal level at airspeed for maximum specific

endurance.

10.65
10.4.4.8 NIGHT FORMATION
3 4 5
2 6
8 9 10
1 7 11 12
60 nmi 60 nmi
Figure 10.35
NIGHT FORMATION

4. Formation Maneuvers at 25,000 ft: 1.5 min at maximum thrust, 5.5 min at
maximum continuous thrust, 30.9 min at maximum specific range airspeed.
5. Cruise back at 25,000 ft for return to field at airspeed for maximum specific
range.
6. Section TACAN penetration from 25,000 ft to 1,500 ft at 250 KCAS

(cruise back and TACAN penetration distance total 60 nmi).
7. Section non-precision final approach: 4 min at approach airspeed in landing

configuration.
10.66
9. GCA pattern/precision approach (GCA/ILS) to touch and go: 2 min at

airspeed for maximum specific range (gear and flaps up), 6 min at approach airspeed in
landing configuration.
10. 3 VFR landing patterns (2 touch and gos, 1 full stop): 12.75 min at
approach airspeed in landing configuration, 45 seconds in landing configuration at
maximum thrust.
endurance.

10.67
10.4.4.9 TACTICAL FORMATION
5
2 4
6
1 7
8 9
60 nmi 60 nmi
Figure 10.36
TACTICAL FORMATION
1. Engine start, taxi, ground marshall, and takeoff: 13 min at idle thrust plus 1
min at intermediate thrust (both at sea level static).
3. Cruise to 60 nmi from initial climb point at airspeed for maximum specific
range.
4. Tactical Formation Maneuvers, 20,000 to 30,000 ft: 17 min at maximum

thrust, 15 min at maximum continuous thrust, 22.1 min at airspeed for maximum specific
range.
a. Combat Spread/Loose Duece, called and uncalled turns, break turns,

hard turns.
b. Tactical wing.
c. Vertical maneuvers, vertical reversals, high and lo and Yo-Yos.

descend to 1,500 ft (cruise back and descent distance total 60 nmi).
10.68
6. VFR field entry, break, and landing pattern to touch and go landing: 4 min
at 1,500 ft 300 KCAS (gear and flaps up), 1 min at approach airspeed in landing
configuration.
7. VFR pattern to full stop landing: 15 seconds at maximum thrust, 4.25 min
to approach airspeed in landing configuration.

endurance.

10.69
10.4.4.10 AIR-TO-AIR GUNNERY
3 7
4 6
2 5
8 9
1 10 11
60 nmi 60 nmi
Figure 10.37
AIR-TO-AIR GUNNERY
1. Engine start, taxi, ground marshall,and takeoff: 25 min at idle thrust plus 1
3. Cruise to 60 nmi from initial climb point to gunnery range at airspeed for
4. Descend from 20,000 ft to 10,000 ft (tractor altitude) at 325 KCAS.
5. Gunnery training; flatside gunnery, maneuvering target gunnery: 16.5 min

at maximum thrust, 6 min at maximum continuous thrust, 9.7 min speed for maximum
specific range.

descend to 1,500 ft (climb, cruise, and descent distance totals 60 nmi).
8. VFR field entry, break, and landing pattern to touch and go landing: 4 min
at 1,500 ft 300 KCAS (gear and flaps up), 1 min at approach airspeed and landing
configuration.
10.70
at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
10. Taxi/Shutdown: 3 min at sea level static idle.
endurance.

10.71
10.4.4.11 WEAPON DELIVERY
3 7
4 5 6 8
2
10
1 9
11 12
60 nmi 60 nmi
Figure 10.38
WEAPON DELIVERY
3. Cruise to 60 nmi from initial climb point to area at 20,000 ft at airspeed for
4. Descend from 20,000 ft to 5,000 ft (release altitude) at 400 KCAS.
5. Bombing pattern maneuvers, 13,500 ft to 1,500 ft release speed 400

KCAS, pattern speed 250 KCAS, climb from 5,000 ft to 8,500 ft: 14 min at maximum
thrust (0.45 Mach), 11.5 min at speed for maximum specific range, 5 min at in-flight idle
thrust.
7. Cruise back at 20,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
8. Descend to 1,500 ft (climb, cruise, and descent distance total 60 nmi).
10.72
9. VFR field entry, break, and pattern to touch and go landing: 4 min at 1,500
ft 300 KCAS (gear and flaps up), 1 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
endurance.

10.73
10.4.4.12 WEAPONS DELIVERY - TAC NAV
8 10
3
6 7
2 4 11
1 5 12 13
30 nmi 270 nmi 195 nmi
Figure 10.39
WEAPONS DELIVERY - TAC NAV
1. Engine start, taxi, ground marshall, and takeoff: 10 min at idle thrust plus 1
min at maximum thrust (both at sea level static).
3. Cruise at airspeed for maximum specific range.
4. Descend to 500 ft at 300 KCAS (climb, cruise, descent distance equal to 30

nmi).
5. Low Level Navigation (dead reckoning (D.R.) navigation) at 500 ft and 300
kn for 270 nmi.
6. Pop-up Attack, climb to 8,000 ft with maximum thrust.
7. Roll-in Attack, descend to 4,000 ft with maximum thrust.
9. Cruise back at 35,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific range.
10.74
10. Radar descent to 3,000 ft at 250 KCAS (climb, cruise back and descent
distance totals 195 nmi).
11. Precision Final Approach (GCA/ILS) to touch and go: 2 min at 3,000 ft
(gear and flaps up) at airspeed for maximum specific endurance, 6 min at 1,500 ft (gear and
flaps down) at airspeed for maximum specific endurance.
endurance.

10.75
10.4.4.13 AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING
4
3 5
2
6
7 8
1 9 10
60 nmi 60 nmi
Figure 10.40
AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING
min at maximum thrust (both at sea level static).

4. Air Combat Maneuvering, 10,000 ft to 30,000 ft:
a. Gunsight tracking/high G maneuvering.

b. Loose Duece/tactical wing maneuvering.
c. Offensive ACM maneuvering.
d. Defensive ACM maneuvering.
e. Neutral ACM maneuvering.
f. 19.8 min at maximum thrust (0.65 Mach).
g. 10.1 min at maximum continuous thrust.
h. 9.4 min at airspeed for maximum specific range.
5. Cruise back at 25,000 at airspeed for maximum specific range.
10.76
6. Descend from 25,000 to 1,500 ft at maximum specific range airspeed

(cruise back and descent distance totals 60 nmi).
7. VFR field entry, break, and landing pattern to touch and go: 4 min at 1,500
ft. 300 KCAS (gear and flaps up), 1 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
endurance.

10.77
10.4.4.14 FIELD CARRIER LANDING PRACTICE (FCLP)
2 4
5
1 6 7
25 nmi
Figure 10.41
FIELD CARRIER LANDING PRACTICE (FCLP)

5. FCLP: 34.8 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration at sea level, 2

min in landing configuration at sea level maximum thrust (final FCLP to full stop landing).
a. 6 FCLPs to touchdown.
b. 2 FCLPs to waveoffs.
10.78
7. Reserve fuel: 20 min at sea level airspeed for maximum specific endurance.

10.79
10.4.4.15 CARRIER QUALIFICATION
11
3
2 4 10 12
5
7 8 9
1 13
6 14 15
100 nmi 100 nmi
Figure 10.42
CARRIER QUALIFICATION
4. Descend from 20,000 ft to 5,000 ft (climb, cruise and descent distance

equals 100 nmi).
5. Hold at 5,000 ft at airspeed for maximum specific endurance for 15 min.
6. Descend from 5,000 ft to sea level at 250 KCAS.
7. 2 carrier (CV) touch and go landings: 10 min at approach airspeed in

landing configuration, 5 min at maximum thrust in landing configuration (sea level).
10.80
8. 40 min at approach airspeed in landing configuration (sea level), 5.5 min at

maximum thrust in landing configuration (sea level), 25 min at idle thrust (sea level).
Refuel, add 1640 lb after 2 touch and go, 2 CV arrested landings, 1 CV bolter.
a. 6 CV arrested landings.
b. 5 CV catapult launches.
c. 2 CV bolters/waveoffs.
9. Final CV catapult launch.
12. Descend from 27,000 ft to 1,500 ft at maximum specific range airspeed

(climb, cruise back and descent distance totals 100 nmi).
13. VFR field entry, break, and landing: 2 min at sea level, 300 kn clean, 0.5
min at approach airspeed in landing configuration.
14. Taxi/shutdown: 3 min at sea level.
endurance.

10.81
10.4.5 NAVAL FLIGHT OFFICER TRAINER MISSIONS (REF 2)
10.4.5.1 LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION - 1
3 7
1 2 4 6 8 9 10
5
150 nmi 350 nmi 100 nmi
Figure 10.43
LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION - 1
1. Takeoff allowance for engine start, taxi, takeoff, and acceleration to climb
speed: fuel consumed for 15 min at idle power, plus 1 min at takeoff power, sea level static
conditions, all engines operating.
2. Climb at climb power from sea level to 10,000 ft altitude.
3. Cruise at 10,000 ft altitude at 250 KIAS.
4. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 10,000 ft to 500 ft altitude (total distance
traveled in 2, 3, and 4 shall be at least 150 nmi).
5. Cruise at 500 ft altitude at 300 KTAS for a distance of at least 350 nmi.
6. Climb at climb power from 500 ft to 8,000 ft altitude.
8. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 8,000 ft to sea level (total distance
covered in segments 6, 7, and 8 shall be at least 100 nmi).
9. Instrument approach allowance: fuel equivalent to 8 min at approach power,

approach configuration.
10.82
10. Reserve fuel requirement: the fuel required for a 150 nmi divert capability is
defined as follows:
a. Climb at climb power from sea level to 10,000 ft.

b. Cruise 150 nmi from initial climb point at 10,000 ft altitude at speed
for maximum range.
c. Loiter for 20 min at 10,000 ft at airspeed for maximum endurance
(all engines operating).
d. Mission Time Items 2 through 9.
e. Cycle Time: Items 2 through 10.
10.83
3 7
1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10
120 nmi 350 nmi 400 nmi
Figure 10.44
traveled in segments 2, 3, and 4 shall be at least 120 nmi).
7. Cruise at 40,000 ft altitude at 400 KTAS.
covered in segments 6, 7 and 8 shall be at least 400 nmi, cruise configuration).

10.84
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.85
3 7 11
1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10 12 13 14
100 nmi 175 nmi 130 nmi 175 nmi 100 nmi
Figure 10.45
8. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 16,500 ft to 500 ft altitude.
9. Cruise at 500 ft altitude at 300 KTAS for a distance of at lease 175 nmi.
10.86
11. Cruise at 20,000 ft at 360 KTAS.
12. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 20,000 ft altitude to sea level (total
distance traveled in segments 10, 11 and 12 shall be at least 100 nmi).
13. TACAN approach allowance: fuel equivalent to 8 min at approach power,

defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.87
7
3
6 8
2 4
1 5 9 10
200 nmi 300 nmi 200 nmi
Figure 10.46
covered in segments 6, 7 and 8 shall be least 200 nmi).

10.88
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.89
10.4.5.5 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 1
3 7
2 4 6 8
1 5 9 10
400 nmi 400 nmi
Figure 10.47
INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 1

covered in segments 6, 7 and 8 shall be at least 400 nmi).
10.90

defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.91
10.4.5.6 INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 2
3 3 3 3
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
1 5 5 5 5 6
90 nmi 90 nmi 90 nmi 90 nmi
Figure 10.48
INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION - 2

10.92
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.93
10.4.5.7 RADAR NAVIGATION - 1
Out (First Leg Of Out And In)
3
7
2 4 6 8
5
1 9 10
350 nmi 350 nmi 100 nmi
Figure 10.49
RADAR NAVIGATION - 1
4. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 35,000 ft to 5,000 ft (total distance

5. Cruise at 5,000 ft altitude at 300 KTAS for a distance of at least 350 nmi.
6. Climb at climb power from 5,000 ft altitude to 18,000 ft altitude.
9. TACAN approach allowance: fuel equivalent to 8 min at approach power

10.94
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.95
10.4.5.8 RADAR NAVIGATION - 2
In (Second Leg Of Out And In)

7
3
4 6
2 5 8
1 9 10
100 nmi 350 nmi 400 nmi
Figure 10.50
RADAR NAVIGATION - 2
4. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 18,000 ft to 5,000 ft altitude (total

distance traveled in segments 2, 3, and 4 shall be at least 100 nmi).

10.96
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.97
10.4.5.9 LOCAL RADAR - 1
7
3
4 6 8
2 5
1 9 10
100 nmi 400 nmi 150 nmi
Figure 10.51
LOCAL RADAR - 1

9. Instrument approach allowance: fuel equivalent to 8 min at approach power

10.98
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.99
10.4.5.10 LOCAL RADAR - 2
7
3
6
4 8
2 5
1 9 10
100 nmi 450 nmi 150 nmi
Figure 10.52
LOCAL RADAR - 2


10.100
defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.101
10.4.5.11 RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 1
Fighter - 50% Of Intercept Time

Bogey - 50% Of Intercept Time
3 4 5
2 6
1 7 8
70 nmi 70 nmi
Figure 10.53
RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 1
INTERCEPT ALTITUDE/MACH NUMBER REQUIREMENTS
Block 1: 7,000 ft - 11,000 ft/0.45 Mach

Block 2: 13,000 ft - 17,000 ft/0.50 Mach
Block 3: 18,000 ft - 22,000 ft/0.55 Mach
15 intercepts for Block 1 only
20 intercepts for Blocks 2 and 3
Average flight duration: 2.3 hour for Block 1
2.6 hour for Blocks 2 and 3
Capability to dash an additional 0.1 Mach
for 15% of the profile
speed: fuel considered for 15 min at idle power, plus 1 min at takeoff power, sea level
static conditions, all engines operating.
2. Climb at climb power from sea level to 13,000 ft.
3. Cruise 70 nmi at 13,000 ft.
4. Perform 15 intercepts at intercept altitude for Block 1 and 20 intercepts at

intercept altitude for Blocks 2 and 3: fuel allowance per intercept equivalent to 6 min at
maximum airspeed. No distance gained during the intercepts.
10.102
5. Cruise back at 18,000 ft.
6. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 18,000 ft to sea level.

defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.103
10.4.5.12 RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 2
Fighter -100% Of Intercept Time

Bogey - 100% Of Intercept Time
3 4 5
2 6
1 7 8
70 nmi 70 nmi
Figure 10.54
RIO PATTERN - INTERCEPTS - 2
INTERCEPT ALTITUDE/MACH NUMBER REQUIREMENTS
Block 1: 7,000 ft - 11,000 ft/0.45 Mach

Block 2: 13,000 ft - 17,000 ft/0.50 Mach
Block 3: 18,000 ft - 22,000 ft/0.55 Mach
15 intercepts for Block 1 only
20 intercepts for Blocks 2 and 3
Average flight duration: 2.3 hour for Block 1
2.6 hour for Blocks 2 and 3
Capability to dash an additional 0.1 Mach
for 15% of the profile
speed: fuel considered for 15 min at idle power, plus 1 min at takeoff power, sea level
static conditions, all engines operating.
2. Climb at climb power from sea level to 13,000 ft.
3. Cruise 70 nmi at 13,000 ft.
4. Perform 15 intercepts at intercept altitude for Block 1 and 20 intercepts at

intercept altitude for Blocks 2 and 3: fuel allowance per intercept equivalent to 6 min at
maximum airspeed. No distance gained during the intercepts.
10.104
5. Cruise back at 18,000 ft.
6. Perform a 250 KIAS descent from 18,000 ft to sea level.

8. Reserve fuel requirements: the fuel required for a 150 nmi divert capability
is defined as follows:

for maximum range.
10.105
10.5 CONCLUSION
Keep in mind the development of mission profiles is an evolutionary process.

Advances in technology giving rise to high thrust to weight, low observables, smart
weapons etc., all lead to changes in the way Navy aircraft missions will be defined and in a
broader sense what the role of Naval aviation will be in the future.
10.6 GLOSSARY
10.6.1 NOTATIONS
ACM Air combat maneuvering

ADF Automatic direction finder
AEW Airborne Early Warning
ASW Antisubmarine aircraft
CV Carrier
Cycle time Time of flight from the start of enroute climb
(omitting takeoff time) to stopping engines after
landing
D.R. Dead reckoning
FAM Familiarization
FCLP Field carrier landing pattern
GCA Ground controlled approach
ILS Instrument landing system
MDA Minimum descent altitude
Mission time Time in air (excluding time before start of initial
climb and reserve)
NATOPS Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures
Standardization Program
NAVAIRSYSCOM Naval Air System Command
nz Normal acceleration g
SAC Standard aircraft characteristics
TACAN Tactical air navigation
TAMPS Tactical Air Mission Planning System
VFR Visual flight rules
10.106
10.7 REFERENCES
1. Aircraft Conceptual Design, Course Notes (#Y0606), Lockheed Technical

Institute, Fall 1991.
2. Functional Description For Training Services, Undergraduate Naval

Flight Officer Training System Program, NASC, PMA 200, 3 April 1989.
3. Luter, M., NAVAIRSYSCOM (AIR-53012) Course Notes, (undated).
4. Military Specification (MIL-D-8708(AS)), Demonstration Requirements

for Airplanes, 31 January 1969.
5. Military Standard, MIL-STD-1797A, Flying Qualities of Piloted Aircraft,

30 January 1990.
6. Mission Profiles for Navy Pilot Trainer, (date unknown).
7. NAVAIRSYSCOM Specification, AS-5263, Guidelines for Preparation of

Standard Aircraft Characteristics Charts and Performance Data, Piloted Aircraft (Fixed
Wing), 23 October 1986.
8. Nicolai, L.M., Fundamentals of Aircraft Design, Fairborn, Ohio, E.P.

Domicone Printing Services, 1975.
9. Raymer, D.P,. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Washington,

D.C., American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1989.
10. Roskam, J., Airplane Design (Part I, II and VII), Ottawa, Kansas, Roskam
Aviation and Engineering Corporation, 1988.
10.107
APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY
I
APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY
Adverse Yaw Yawing moments created act so as to rotate the nose of

the airplane opposite to the direction of roll. The term
"adverse" does not, in itself, denote unfavorable flying
qualities.
Aerodynamic Methods of controlling the magnitude of the hinge

Balancing moment parameters.
Aero-Elastic Effects Effect of aerodynamic forces acting upon an elastic body,

such as an airplane.
Aileron Reversal Airspeed at which the combined effects of wing twist and
Airspeed, Vr wing bending counteract the rolling moment generated by
lateral control deflection.
Aperiodic; Deadbeat A motion which does not exhibit periodic oscillations.
Aspect Ratio The ratio of the span of the wing to the mean chord.
Autorotation Uncontrolled rolling or rotating, as in a spin.
Average Stick Force Slope of a line drawn from the 1g point where breakout,
Per G Gradient including friction is overcome to the point under
consideration on the curve of longitudinal control force
versus normal acceleration.
Bank Angle Change In A The bank angle attained in a predetermined time interval
Given Time, t following a step input of lateral control; time is measure
from the initiation of the pilot's lateral control force
application.
I.1
Camber The curvature of the mean line of an airfoil section from

leading edge to trailing edge.
Compressibility The property of a substance, such as air, by virtue of

which its density increases with increase in pressure.
Compressibility Effects Phenomena encountered by airplanes operating at high

Mach numbers which are attributable to air
compressibility.
Critical Mach Number The free-stream Mach number at which a local Mach
number of 1.0 is attained at any point on the body under
consideration.
Damping Progressive diminishing in amplitude. A measure of the

subsidence of the motion when excited.
Damping Ratio Ratio of the damping exhibited to the critical damping.
Deep Stall A flight condition in which the airplane has attained an

angle of attack far higher than the angle of maximum lift
coefficient.
Elastic Center A point in the wing section about which torsional

deflections occurs.
Endplate A plate or surface at the end of an airfoil attached in a

plane normal to the airfoil that inhibits the formation of tip
vortex, thus producing an effect similar to that of
increased aspect ratio.
Float As applied to the control surface of a reversible control

system: to ride in the airstream.
I.2
GLOSSARY
Frequency Number of cycles per unit time. A measure of the

quickness of the motion.
Incidence The acute angle between a chord of an airfoil and the

longitudinal axis of the airplane.
Local Stick Force Slope of the tangent to the curve of longitudinal control
per g Gradient force versus normal acceleration at any point.
Longitudinal A measure of the pitching moment coefficient change per

Control Power degree deflection of the longitudinal control surface.
Maneuvering Tasks Those tasks which result in accelerated flight conditions;

during these tasks, transitions for one equilibrium flight
condition to another are made quickly, and possibly,
somewhat roughly.
Mode of Motion Manner of doing, method. In this case, a method of

changing flight conditions in the airplane's plane of
symmetry.
Neutral Point The location of the center of gravity of an aircraft for

which static longitudinal stability would be neutral. The
neutral point may be described as stick-fixed, stick-
free, elevator-fixed, elevator-free, elevator
position, or longitudinal control force depending on
the manner in which it was determined.
Nonmaneuvering Those tasks during which the transition from one

Tasks equilibrium flight condition to another is accomplished
smoothly and gradually; results in essentially
unaccelerated flight conditions.
Oscillatory Characterized by periodic motion.
I.3
Period Time required per cycle. Inversely proportional to

frequency.
Pilot-Induced-Oscillation A divergent oscillation of the pilot - airplane combination

(PIO) where the airplane alone exhibits at least some degree of
dynamic stability.
Pitch Rate Damping Pitching moment created because of the angular rotation
of the airplane in pitch during curvilinear flight.
Sometime called "damping in pitch" or "viscous damping
in pitch."
Post-Stall Gyrations Random oscillations of the airplane about all axes

following departure from controlled flight.
Proverse Yaw Yawing moments generated act so as to rotate the nose of

the airplane toward the direction of roll. The term
"proverse" does not necessarily indicate favorable flying
qualities.
Reynolds Number A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the

momentum forces to the viscous forces about a body in
motion. Reynolds number decreases with increase in
altitude and increases with increase in true velocity, if the
dimensions of the body remain constant.
Roll Coupling Pitching and yawing motions induced by inertial and

kinematic effects during high rate rolls.
pb Helix angle described by the wingtip of a rolling airplane;

Roll Helix Angle, 2V
T
sometimes referred to as the non-dimensional roll rate.
Roll Mode Time Constant Time required for the roll rate to reach 63.2 percent of the
steady state roll rate following a step input of lateral
control.
I.4
GLOSSARY
Roll Mode Time Time required for the single degree of freedom roll rate to
Constant, R reach 63.2% of the steady state roll rate following a step
Roll-To-Yaw Ratio Ratio of bank angle envelope to sideslip angle envelope

during Dutch roll oscillation.
Shock Stall A stall brought on by compressibility burble; i.e., by

separation aft of a shock wave.
Single Degree Rolling motion during which the airplane is allowed to

of Freedom Roll roll but not allowed to yaw or pitch; pure roll response.
Slat Any of certain long narrow vanes or auxiliary airfoils.

The vane used in an automatic slot.
Slot A long and narrow opening, as between a wing and a

deflected Fowler flap. A long and narrow spanwise
passage in a wing, usually near the leading edge, for
improvement of airflow conditions at high angles of
attack.
Spring Constant As applied to a dynamic system, a measure of the static

restoring tendency.
Static Margin The distance between the actual center of gravity and the
neutral point of the airplane usually expressed as a
percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord.
Steady State Roll Rate, Roll rate attained when the roll damping contribution
pss equals the roll control power contribution for a constant
I.5
Stick-Fixed Maneuvering The location of the center of gravity of an aircraft for

Neutral Point which the gradient of elevator position versus normal
acceleration at constant airspeed would be zero.
Sometimes called the "elevator position maneuvering
neutral point."
Stick-Free Maneuvering The location of the center of gravity of an aircraft for

Neutral Point which the gradient of longitudinal; control force versus
normal acceleration at a constant airspeed would be zero.
Sometime called the "longitudinal control force
maneuvering neutral point."
Supersonic Of, pertaining to, or dealing with, speeds greater than the
speed of sound.
Tail Efficiency A measure of the modification in energy level of the

Factor airflow between the point where the airflow first
encounters the airplane until it reaches the horizontal tail.
Tail Volume A measure of the size and location of the horizontal tail in
Coefficient relation to the size of the wing and the airplane center of
gravity, respectively.
Taper A gradual reduction in chord length from wing root to

wingtip.
Thickness Ratio The ratio of the maximum thickness of an airfoil section

to its chord length.
Transonic Speed Flow in which regions of both subsonic and supersonic

velocities are present.
Undamped Natural The frequency of a dynamic system if zero damping is

Frequency exhibited.
I.6
GLOSSARY
Wingtip Vertical Vertical velocity of the wingtip of a rolling airplane;

pb sometimes used as a measure of the rolling performance
Velocity, 2
of large airplanes in the approach and landing phases of
mission accomplishment.
I.7
APPENDIX II
REFERENCES
II
APPENDIX II
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2
1. Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development, Conference
Proceedings No. 17, Stability and Control, September 1966.

Manual, Volume II, Stability and Control, by Courtland D. Perfins, Professor,
3. Flight Testing of Aircraft, by M.G. Kotick, et al., NASA Technical

Translation F-442, April 1967.

5. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-8785C,

of 5 November 1980.

7. A Piloted Simulation Study of Operational Aspects of the Stall Pitch-Up, by

Maurice D. White and George E. Cooper, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field,
California, NASA Technical Note D-4071, July, 1967.
8. Principles of Aerodynamics, by James H. Dwinnell, Boeing Airplane

Company, Seattle, Washington. Publisher: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, New York, 1949.
II.1
9. A Review of the Stall Characteristics of Swept Wings, by Charles W. Harper

and Ralph L. Maki, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, NASA Technical
Note D-2373, July 1964.
Book C.
12. Supersonic and Subsonic Airplane Design, by Gerald Corning, Professor,

Aeronautical Engineering Department, University of Maryland. Publisher: Edwards
Brothers, inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1953.
13. Zero Rate of Climb Speed as a Low Speed Limitation for the Stall-Free
Aircraft, by W.J.G. Pinsker, British Ministry of Technology Current Paper No. 931, May
1966.
CHAPTER 3
1. AGARD Flight Test Manual, Volume II, Chapter 8, Parts I and II.
2. MIL-S-25015(ASG), Military Specification; Spinning Requirements for

Airplanes.
3. NACA TN 1045, Tail-Design Requirements for Satisfactory Spin Recovery,

of April 1946.
4. NASA Langley Research Center Paper Airplane Spinning by James S.

Bowman.
5. NASA TR R-57, 1960, Status of Spin Research for Recent Airplane Designs.
II.2
REFERENCES
6. NASA TT F 422, Flight Testing of Aircraft, Chapter 9.
7. Spin Testing United States Navy High Performance Airplanes by John A.

Nial, NAWCAD Patuxent River, Maryland.
8. U. S. Air Force Flight Test Center Stability and Control Techniques, Section
4.
CHAPTER 4 - NON-MANUEVERING TASKS



Simulators Used for Pilot Training, by F.D. Newell, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory,

5. Flight Evaluations of the Effect of Variable Phugoid Damping in a KTB-26B

Airplane, by Fred Newell and Donald W. Rhoads, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.,
Buffalo, New York, WADC TR 56-223, Report No. TB-969-F-1, October 1956.
6. Flight Evaluation of Various Phugoid Dynamics and 1/Th1 Values for the
Landing Approach Tasks; by Charles R. Chalk, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.,
Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. TC-1921-F-4, February, 1966.
II.3


9. Investigation of Phugoid Effects on GCA Landings, by Fred Newell, Cornell

Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, WADC TR 57-650, Report No. TB-
1142-F-1, December, 1957.
10. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-

8785B(ASG), 7 August 1969.

Bull, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, Report No. TB-1313-F-
1, December, 1959.

1961.

14. Recommendations For Revision of MIL-F-8785(ASG), Military

Specification - Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, by C. R. Chalk, T. P. Neal, T. M.
Harris, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, Technical Report
AFFDL-TR-67, March, 1967.
Force Base, California, FTC-TIH-64-2004, revised November, 1964.
II.4
REFERENCES

Book C.
18. Substantiation Information For Selected Longitudinal Requirements, Cornell

Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. BM-2238-F-1, May, 1967.
CHAPTER 4 - MANUEVERING TASKS

2. Airplane Performance, Stability and Control by Courtland D. Perkins,

3. Analysis of Frequency and Damping Characteristics of Airplane Longitudinal

Short Period Oscillations, by William B. Rhodes, Flight Test Division, Naval Air Test
Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, FT-TM-1-64, 28 December 1964.

Comparison with Flight Measurements, by C.G.B. Mitchell, Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Ministry of Aviation, Farnborough, Hants, RAE Technical Report 66275, August 1966.
5. Computer Programmers to Calculate the Response of Flexible Aircraft to

Gusts and Control Movements, by C.G.B. Mitchell, Ministry of Technology, Aeronautical
Research Council, London, Current Paper No. 957, October 1966.
II.5

Dynamic Characteristics from Flight Data, by Chester H. Wolowicz, NASA Flight

8. Dynamics of Flight, Stability and Control, by Bernard Etkins, Professor of

9. Experience With Shinbrots Method of Transient Response, by B.R.A.

Lancashire, AGARD Report 549 - Part II, 1966.
10. Flight Investigation of Longitudinal Short Period Frequency Requirements

and PIO Tendencies, by Dante A. Difranco, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.,
Buffalo, New York, AFFDL-TR-66-163, June 1967.
11. Flight Test Evaluations of Airplane Dynamic Longitudinal Stability in the Low
Altitude High Speed Region, Mr. Thomas M. McPherson and Captain Kenneth W. Weir,
USMC, Flight Test Division, Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland.

13. Frequency Response Method of Determining Aircraft Longitudinal Short-

Period Stability and Control System Characteristics in Flight, by Henry A. Klung, Jr.,
Captain, USAF, Aerospace Engineer, AFFTC-TR-66-24, August 1966.
II.6
REFERENCES
15. Investigation of Low Level, High Speed Flight Problems, by Richard C.

Adams, Commander, USN, Flying Qualities and Performance Branch, Flight Test
Division, Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, Society of Experimental Test
Pilots 8th Annual Symposium, 25-26 September 1964.
16. Low Altitude, High Speed Handling and Riding Qualities, by Ralph C.
AHarrah, AGARD Flight Mechanics Meeting, Turin, Italy, April 1963.
17. Maneuverability and Gust Response Problems Associated with Low Altitude,
High Speed Flight, By R.C. AHarrah, AGARD Consultant, AGARD Report 556,
October 1967.
18. Military Specifications, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-8785C,

of 5 November 1980.

Bull, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, Report No. TB-13130-
F-1, December, 1959.

1961.

Book "C".
Force Base, California, FTC-TIJ-64-2004, revised November, 1964.
II.7

25. Study of Some Hand-Computing Techniques to Determine the Approximate

Short Period Mode From Airplane Response, by Benjamin H. Dolbin, Jr., Cornell
Aeronautical Library, Inc., Buffalo, New York, CA FSDM-371, March 1966.

CHAPTER 5 - LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES

Manual, Volume II, Stability and Control, by Courland D. Perkins, Professor,
2. Airplane Performance, Stability and Control, by Courland D. Perkins,

3. Analysis of Several Handling Quality Topic Pertinent to Advanced Manned


Comparison with Flight Measurements, by C. G. B. Mitchell, Royal Aircraft
Establishment, Ministry of Aviation, Farnborough, Hants, RAE Technical Report 66275,
August, 1966.
5. Computer Programmes to Calculate the Response of Flexible Aircraft to

Gusts and Control Movements, by C. G. B. Mitchell, Ministry of Technology,
Aeronautical Research Council, London, Current Paper No. 957, October, 1966.
II.8
REFERENCES

Dynamic Characteristics From Flight Data, by Chester H. Wolowicz, NASA Flight


David H. Weir, Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, California, NASA CR-239, July
1965.


Vehicles Utilizing Fixed-Base and Inflight Evaluations, by J.I. Meeker, Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, NASA CR-778, May, 1967.
11. Experience with Shinbrot's Method of Transient Response, by B. R. A.

Lacashire, AGARD Report 549 - Part II, 1966.
Landing, by W. J. G. Pinsker, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Bedford, England.

by William Koven and Richard Wasicko, AGARD Specialist Meeting on Aircraft Stability
and Control, Brussels, Belguim, April, 1961.
II.9
16. Inflight Evaluation of Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities for the Fighter

17. Inflight Simulation and Pilot Evaluation of Selected Landing Approach

Handling Qualities of a Large Logistics Transport Airplane, by Donald W. Phoads, Cornell

University, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Report No. 797, September,
1967.
19. Lecture Notes on Lateral-Directional Stability, by F. D. Newell and Michael

Parrog, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. TB-
1961-F-1, July 1965.
20. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Pilot Airplanes MIL-F-8785C, of 5

November 1980.
21. Modern Flight Dynamics, by W. Richard Kokl, Systems Engineer, United

1961.

II.10
REFERENCES
23. Proposal for a Revised Military Specification, "Flying Qualities of Piloted

Airplanes" (MIL-F-8785 ASG), With Substantiating Text, by C. J. Mazza, William
Becker, Marshall Cohen, and Alvin Spector, U. S. Naval Air Development Center,
Johnsville, Pennsylvania, NADC-ED-6282, January, 1963.
24. A Review of Recent Research on Handling Qualities, and its Application to

the Handling Problems of Large Aircraft, by P. L. Bisgood, Ministry of Aviation,
Aeronautical Research Council, London, R & M. No. 3458, June 1964.

Book "C".

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Report No. BM-2238-F-1, May, 1967.
CHAPTER 5 - ROLLING PERFORMANCE

2. Airplane Performance, Stability, and Control, by Courtland D. Perkins,

3. Analysis of Several Handling Quality Topics Pertinent to Advanced Manned

II.11
4. Criteria For Acceptable Representation of Airplane Dynamic Responses in

Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. BM-1642-F1, September, 1962.
5. Determination of Lateral Control Requirements at Low Airspeeds, Report No.

2, Final Report, by Lcdr. W. Spangenberg, USN and Mr. G. A. Patterson, U.S. Naval
Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, Report No. FT212-222, 19 July 1963.

David H. Weir, Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, California, NASA CR-239, July,
1965.
7. Dynamics of Flight, Stability, and Control, by Bernard Etkins, Professor of


Vehicles Utilizing Fixed-Base and In-Flight Evaluations, by J.I. Meeker, Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, NASA CR-778, May 1967.

Landing, by W.J.G. Pinsker, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Bedford, England.

Translation F-442, April,1967.
by William Koven and Richard Wasicko, AGARD Specialists Meeting on Aircraft Stability
and Control, Brussels, Belgium, April 1961.
12. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Technique, Empire Test Pilot's
II.12
REFERENCES
13. In-Flight Evaluation of Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities for the Fighter

14. In-Flight Simulation and Pilot Evaluation of Selected Landing Approach

Handling Qualities of a Large Logistics Transport Airplane, by Donald W. Rhodes, Cornell

University, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Report No. 797, September
1967.
16. Lecture Notes on Lateral-Directional Stability, by F.D. Newell and Michael

Parrag, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York, CAL Report No. TB-
1961-F-1, July, 1965.

1961.
18. Military Specification, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, MIL-F-8785C, 5

November 1980.

20. A Pilot Opinion Study of Lateral Control Requirements for Fighter-Type

Aircraft, by Brent Y. Creer, John D. Stewart, Robert B. Merrick, and Fred J. Drinkwater,
III, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, NASA Memorandum 1-29-59A,
March 1959.
II.13
21. The Provision of Adequate Lateral Control Power for Landing Approach
Conditions, by Mr. G.A. Patterson and Lcdr. W. Spangenberg, USN, U.S. Naval Air
Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland.
22. A Review of Recent Research on Handing Qualities and Its Application to the
Handling Problems of Large Aircraft, by P.L. Bisgood, Ministry of Aviation, Aeronautical
Research Council, London, R. & M. No. 3458, June 1964.
Book "C".

26. A Study of Conventional Airplane Handling Qualities Requirements - Part I

Roll Handling Qualities, by I.L. Ashkenas, Systems Technology, Inc., AFFDL-TR-65-
138, Part I.

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. BM-2238-F-1, May 1967.
II.14
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6
1. Advisory Group For Aeronautical Research and Development, Flight Test

Professor and Chairman, Aeronautical Engineering Department, Princeton University, and
3. Background Information and User Guide for MIL-F-8785B(ASG); "Military

Specification - Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes," by C.R. Chalk, T.P. Neal, T.M.
Harris, F.E. Prichard, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., Buffalo, New York,
Technical Report AFFDL-TR-69-72, August 1969.
4. Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport

Category Airplanes, Federal Aviation Agency, Washington, D.C.
5. Flight Testing of Aircraft by M. G. Kotick, et al., NASA Technical Report

TT F-442, April, 1967.
6. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Technique, Empire Test Pilots'


5 November 1980.

II.15
Book "C."

CHAPTER 7
2. Aerodynamics of Supersonic Flight, by Alan Pope, Head, Aerodynamics

Department, Sandia Corporation, Publisher: Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York,
Toronto, London.

4. Dynamics of Flight, Stability and Control, by Bernard Etkin, Professor of

Aeronautical Engineering, University of Toronto, Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,

6. Handling and Performance Exercises Test Techniques, Empire Test Pilot's

7. High Speed Stability and Control Problems as They Affect Flight Testing, by
Malcolm J. Agzug, Advisory Group For Aeronautical Research and Development, Report
120, May, 1957.
II.16
REFERENCES

5 November 1980.


Book "C."

II.17
APPENDIX III
FIGURES
III
APPENDIX III
FIGURES
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Control Movement Required in Changing from One Steady State Flight
Condition to Another 1.9
1.2 Typical Patterns of Pilot Attention and Expenditure of Energy Required
as Functions of Airplane Stability and Control Characteristics 1.10
1.3 An Airplane in Flight is Similar to a Spring-Mass-Damper System 1.11
1.4 The Complex Plane 1.12
1.5 Effect of Increasing Spring Constant 1.13
1.6 Relationship of Position of Roots on Complex Plane to Motion
1.7 Time Response of a Second Order System to a Step Input 1.16
1.8 Typical First Order Response 1.16
1.9 Determination of Damping Ratio for Lightly Damped System 1.18
1.10 Determination of Second Order Response Characteristics for Heavily
Damped Systems 1.19
1.11 Determination of C1 and C1 from Half-Cycle Amplitude Ratio 1.21
1 1
2 10
1.12 Graphical Method for Determining T 1 and C 1 1.22

2 2
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Types of Section Stall 2.4
2.2 Influence of Shape of Lift Curve on Stall Characteristics 2.5
2.3 Typical Influence of Aspect Ratio and Sweepback on Lift Curve Slope 2.6
2.4 Downwash Influence on Section Angle of Attack 2.7
2.5 Typical Influence of Wing Taper on Stall 2.8
2.6 Effect of Boundary Layer Control on Lift Curve 2.10
2.7 Typical Flow Patterns About the Low-Mounted Horizontal Tail 2.12
2.8 Typical Flow Patterns About the T-Tail 2.13
III.1
2.9 Aft-Fuselage Mounted Engines Complicate the T-Tail Airflow

Disturbance at High Angles of Attack 2.14
2.10 Accelerated Stall Time History 2.18
2.11 Normal Stall Time History 2.19
2.12 Typical Flow Pattern Around the Vertical Tail at High Angle of Attack 2.21
2.13 Typical Variations of Lift and Drag Coefficient for the Low Aspect
Ratio Airplane 2.23
2.14 Typical Stall Data Card 2.29
2.15 General Profile of the Controlled Stall Investigation 2.34
2.16 Typical Stall Data Table 2.39
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Typical Lift Slope Curve 3.4
3.2 Balance of Aerodynamic and Inertia Pitching Moments in a Spin 3.4
3.3 Typical Test Instrumentation 3.8
3.4 Airflow Disturbance in Erect/Inverted Spins 3.17
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Airplane Axis System and Plane of Symmetry 4.1
4.2 Relationship of Wing and Tail Angles of Attack 4.7
4.3 Classical Longitudinal Stability Relationships 4.8
4.4 Relationship of Wing Aerodynamic Center to Airplane Center of Gravity 4.9
4.5 Center of Gravity Effects on Static Longitudinal Stability 4.10
4.6 Typical Variations of C mCG Versus C L 4.12
4.7 Classical Variation of C mCG Versus C L for Various Elevator Angles 4.15
4.8 Elevator Position for Zero Pitching Moment Versus Airplane Lift Coefficient 4.16
4.9 Classical CG Effects on Elevator Position Stability 4.17
4.10 Hinge Moment Variation with Angle of Attack 4.19
4.11 Hinge Moment Variation with Control Deflection 4.19
4.12 Effect of Elevator Float on Stabilizing Influence of Horizontal Tail 4.21
4.13 Typical Reduction of Static Longitudinal Stability Due to Freeing Elevator 4.22
4.14 Stick-Fixed and Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability 4.23
4.15 Generation of Longitudinal Control Forces - Reversible Control System 4.24
4.16 Classical CG Effects on Longitudinal Control Force Stability 4.26
III.2
FIGURES
4.17 Methods of Aerodynamic Balance 4.27

4.18 Typical Means of Providing Artificial Longitudinal Control Force Stability 4.29
4.19 Devices in the Irreversible Control System Can Provide Longitudinal
Control Force Stability Even When Elevator Position Instability Exists 4.29
4.20 Forces Created by the Running Propeller 4.30
4.21 Forces Created by the Jet Engine 4.32
4.24 Typical Phugoid Flight Path (Stationary Viewing Point) 4.38
4.25 Typical Phugoid Motion (Moving Viewing Point) 4.39
4.26 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Phugoid and Short Period Modes
of Motion 4.40
4.27 Effect of Aft CG Movement on Phugoid Mode 4.41
4.28 Degeneration of Phugoid Mode into Aperiodic Modes 4.42
4.29 Generation of the Third Longitudinal Oscillatory Mode 4.43
4.32 Possible Effect of Increasing Speed Stability, M u 4.46
4.33 Simple Spring Arrangement and Influence on Static Longitudinal Stability
4.34 Pre-Loaded Downspring Arrangement and Influence on Static Longitudinal
Stability Characteristics 4.47
4.35 Bobweight Arrangement and Influence on Static Longitudinal Stability
4.36 Blow-Down Tab Arrangement and Effect on Static Longitudinal Stability
4.37 Leading and Lagging Tabs 4.49
4.38 Longitudinal Servo Tab Arrangement 4.49
4.39 Pre-Loaded Spring Tab Arrangement 4.50
4.40 Irreversible Longitudinal Control System with Extendable Link 4.50
4.41 Extendable Link Can Provide Artificial Control Force Stability 4.51
4.42 Longitudinal Stability and Control Record for Non-Maneuvering Tasks 4.53
4.43 Longitudinal Control Friction Masking Control Force Stability 4.56
4.44 Addition of Breakout Force to the Longitudinal Control System 4.57
4.45 Poor Matching of Static Longitudinal Stability and Breakout Forces 4.57
III.3
4.46 Use of Automatic Recording Trace for Determination of Longitudinal

Breakout Forces, Including Friction 4.59
4.47 Means of Presenting Flight Path Stability Data 4.62
4.48 Flight Path Stability Data in Configuration PA 4.63
4.49 Typical Longitudinal Control Force Stability Data from a Slow
Acceleration - Deceleration 4.65
4.50 The Trim Speed Band 4.70
4.51 Suggested Table for Presenting Control System Mechanical Characteristics 4.71
4.52 Longitudinal Control Surface Damping Presentation 4.71
4.53 Static Longitudinal Stability Characteristics 4.72
4.54 Static Longitudinal Stability Table 4.74
4.55 Long Period Characteristics 4.75
4.56 Graphical Determination of the Elevator Position Neutral Point 4.78
4.57 Graphical Determination of Longitudinal Control Force Neutral Point 4.79
4.58 Relationships of Unaccelerated and Accelerated Flight 4.86
4.59 The Horizontal Tail Angle of Attack Changes with Pitch Rate 4.88
4.60 Classical Variation of Elevator Position in Maneuvering Flight 4.92
and Pull-Ups 4.92
CG Movement Effects on dne

d
4.62 4.93
Altitude Effects on dne at Constant Ve

d
4.63 4.94
Altitude Effects on dne at Constant Mach

d
4.64 4.95
Effect of Varying Equivalent Airspeed on dne

d
4.65 4.96

4.67 Classical Variation of Longitudinal Control Force in Maneuvering Flight 4.99
and Pull-Ups 4.100
4.69
dF
( )
CG Movement Effects on dne or dns
d
4.100
III.4
FIGURES
4.70 ( )
dF
Altitude Effects on dns at Constant Ve for the Reversible Control
System 4.101
4.71 ( )
dF
Altitude Effects on dns at Constant Mach for the Reversible Control
System 4.102
4.72 For the Reversible Control System Stick Force per g is not Affected
by Changes in Trim Airspeed 4.103
4.73 Affect of Speed Variation from Trim Airspeed on Stick Force per g 4.104
4.75 Effect of Varying Trim Airspeed on Stick Force per g for the Irreversible
Control System Where Fs = K 1 e 4.106
4.76 Compressibility Influence on Maneuvering Stability 4.108
4.77 Bobweight Arrangement and Influence on Longitudinal Control Forces
During Maneuvering Flight 4.109
4.78 Influence of Pre-Loaded Spring Tab on Maneuvering Control Forces 4.110
4.79 Relationship Between Maneuvering Control Forces for Steady and Sudden
Maneuvers for the Reversible Control System 4.112
4.80 Typical Stick Force per g Characteristics for the Closely Balanced or
Overbalanced Elevator-Reversible Control System 4.113
4.81 Bobweight Arrangement Utilizing Bobweights For and Aft of the Airplane
Center of Gravity 4.114
4.84 Typical Short Period Flight Path 4.122
4.85 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Short Period and Phugoid Modes
of Motion 4.123
4.87 Influence of Increasing Airspeed on Longitudinal Short Period and Phugoid
4.89 Effect of Increasing M 4.126
4.90 Longitudinal Stability and Control Record for Maneuvering Tasks 4.129
4.91 Longitudinal Control Friction Effects on Maneuvering Force Gradient 4.131
III.5
4.92 Poor Matching of Longitudinal Maneuvering Force Gradient and Breakout

Forces 4.132
4.93 Graphical Explanation of Local Gradients and Average Gradients of Stick
Force per g 4.136
4.94 Typical Data from Sinusoidal Stick Pumping 4.145
4.95 The Short Period Thumbprint 4.151
4.96a MIL-F-8785B 4.153
4.96b MIL-F-8785B 4.154
4.96c MIL-F-8785B 4.155
4.97 Doublet Input and Airplane Short Period Response 4.158
4.101 Possible Means of Presenting Stick Force per g Data from a Wind-Up
Turn 4.167
4.102 Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Characteristics in Configuration Cruise 4.168
4.103 Longitudinal Maneuvering Stability Table 4.169
4.104 Variation of Stick Forces per g with Altitude and Mach Number 4.170
4.105 Airplane Short Period Characteristics 4.171
4.106 Variation of Airplane Short Period Characteristics with Mach Number 4.172
4.107 MIL-F-8785B 4.174
4.108 Ground Effect 4.182
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Airplane Axis System and Plane of Asymmetry 5.1
5.2 The Sideslip Angle 5.5
5.3 Sideslip Angle and Angle of Yaw 5.7
5.4 Generation of Sideforce Due to Sideslip by the Vertical Tail 5.8
5.5 Generation of Sideforce by the Vertical Tail Due to Roll Rate 5.10
5.6 Generation of Sideforce Due to Yaw Rate 5.11
5.7 Generation of Sideforce Due to Rudder Deflection 5.12
5.8 Gravitational Component of Sideforce Due to Bank Angle 5.13
5.9 Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslip and Geometric Dihedral 5.15
5.10 Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslip and Wing Sweep 5.15
5.11 Typical Variation of Dihedral effect with Lift Coefficient 5.16
III.6
FIGURES
5.12 General Relationships Between Wing Placement and Effective Dihedral 5.16
5.13 Influence of Vertical Tail on Dihedral Effect 5.17
5.14 Possible Influence of Power and Flap Deflection on Dihedral Effect 5.18
5.15 Rolling Moment Generated by Rudder Deflection 5.19
5.16 Generation of Rolling Moment from Aileron Deflection 5.20
5.17 Strip Integration for L and C L 5.21

5.18 Generation of Roll Damping 5.23

5.19 Contribution of the Vertical Tail to Directional Stability 5.24
5.20 Propeller Power Influence on Directional Stability 5.25
5.21 Generation of Yaw Rate Damping from the Vertical Tail 5.27
5.22 Yawing Moment Due to Rudder Deflection-Rudder Power 5.28
5.23 Generation of Adverse Aileron Yawing Moment 5.29
5.24 Yawing Moments Generated by Spoiler Deflection 5.30
5.25 Wing Contribution to Yawing Moment Due to Roll Rate 5.31
5.26 Lateral-Directional Stability Derivatives Summary 5.32
5.27 Rudder Position Required in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.37
5.28 The Vertical Tail Contribution to C n May be Reduced By Rudder Float 5.38
5.29 Rudder Forces Required in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.41

5.30 Rudder Lock Generated by Float Characteristics 5.42
5.31 Rudder Lock Generated by Directional Stability Problem 5.43
5.32 Aileron Position Required in Sideslips 5.45
5.33 Lateral Control Forces Required in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.46
5.34 Sideforce Characteristics 5.48
5.35 Forces and Moments Balanced in Steady Heading Sideslips 5.50
5.36 The Lateral-Directional Determinant 5.52
5.37 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Lateral-Directional Modes
of Motion 5.53
5.38 Nature of the Spiral Mode 5.55
5.39 Single Degree of Freedom Roll Response 5.56
5.40 Typical Dutch Roll Motion 5.61
5.41 Complex Plane Representation of Classic Lateral-Directional 5.62
5.42 Influence of Adding Positive Dihedral Effect 5.63
5.43 Effect of Adding Roll Due to Yaw Rate, L r 5.64
5.44 Influence of Changing Directional Stability on Two Degree of Freedom
Dutch Roll 5.66
III.7
5.45 Effects of Increasing Yaw Rate Damping, N r 5.66

5.46 Dutch Roll Root and Zero Combinations 5.68
5.47 Path of the Lateral-Directional Roots with Increase in Tightness
5.48 Paths of the Lateral-Directional Roots with Increase in Tightness
5.49a MIL-F-8785B 5.72
5.49b MIL-F-8785B 5.73
5.50 The Airplane in a Coordinated Turn 5.75
5.51 The Airplane Established in the Steady Aileron-Only Turn 5.77
5.52 Comparison of Typical Coordinated and Aileron-Only Turn 5.79
5.53 Typical Airplane Response to a Rudder-Only Input 5.80
5.54 Lateral-Directional Stability and Control Record 5.87
5.55 Paths of Airplane Wingtip on Horizon During Dutch Roll Motion 5.112
5.56a Roll Rate Oscillation Limitations 5.113
5.56b Sideslip Excursion Limitations 5.115
5.56c Determination of Phase Angle 5.117
5.59 Spiral Stability 5.120
5.60 Airplane Dutch Roll Characteristics 5.121
5.61 Determination of Roll-to-Yaw Ratio of Dutch Roll Motion 5.122
5.62 Dutch Roll Characteristics 5.123
5.63 Airplane Response to Aileron Input 5.134
5.65 Steady State Roll Rate 5.136
5.66 Roll Mode Time Constant 5.137
5.67 Classic Variation of Roll Characteristics 5.138
5.68 Typical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Rolling Moment of Inertia 5.139
5.69 Classical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Altitude
(Constant True Airspeed) 5.140
5.70 Typical Variation of Roll Characteristics with Altitude (Constant Ve ) 5.140
5.71 Classical Variation of Roll Characteristics with True Airspeed 5.141
5.72 Typical Influence of Various Characteristics on Roll Response 5.142
III.8
FIGURES
5.73 Generation of Inertia Coupling Moments 5.146

5.74 Comparison of Airplane Mass Distribution 5.147
5.75 Kinematic Coupling 5.149
5.76 Product of Inertia and Principle Inertial Axis 5.150
5.77 I xy Effects on Rolling 5.151
5.78 Typical Pilot Control Inputs Required to Overcome Roll Coupling Effects 5.152
5.79 Wing Twist During Rolling Motion 5.154
5.80 Influence of Wing Bending on Rolling Performance of a Swept-Wing
Airplane 5.155
5.81 Typical Influence of Aeroelastic Effects on Rolling Performance 5.156
5.82 Generation of Angle of Attack Changes During Rolling Maneuvers 5.158
5.83 Rolling Performance May Be Limited by Force Requirements for the
Reversible Control System 5.160
5.84 Possible Response Characteristics with Reversible and Irreversible Control
Systems 5.161
5.85 Rolling Performance Data Card 5.164
5.86 Typical Influence of R on Roll Control Techniques 5.169
5.87 Rolling Performance in Configuration CO and PA 5.181
5.88 Rolling Performance in Configuration Power 5.182
5.89 Rolling Performance in Configuration 5.184
5.90 Roll Coupling During a Full Aileron Deflection Right Roll 5.186
5.91 Sideslip Excursion Limitations 5.187
5.92 Roll Rate Oscillation Limitations 5.188
t
5.94 X( t ) = p ss e R Plotted on Semi-Log Paper 5.192
5.95 Determination of R from Oscillograph Trace of a Rolling Maneuver 5.193
5.96 Lateral Ground Stability 5.202
5.97 Sideslipping Technique for Cross-Wind Approaches 5.204
5.98 Crabbing Technique for Cross-Wind Approaches 5.205
5.99 Geometric Maximum Permissible Bank Angle 5.207
5.100 Absolute Maximum Cross-Wind for the Sideslipping Approach 5.208
III.9
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Yawing Moment Due to Asymmetric Power 6.2
6.2 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Sideslip 6.5
6.3 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Bank Angle 6.7
6.4 Equilibrium Asymmetric Power Condition with Zero Rudder Deflection 6.9
6.5 Rolling Moment Due to Asymmetric Power 6.11
6.6 Asymmetric Power Equilibrium Flight Conditions Right Engine Failed 6.12
6.7 The Sudden Engine Failure 6.13
6.8 Refusal Speed Varies Directly with Length of Runway 6.19
6.9 Refusal Speed Higher than Minimum Continue Speed 6.20
6.10 Minimum Continue Speed Higher than Refusal Speed 6.20
6.11 Critical Engine Failure Speed and Critical Field Length 6.21
6.12 Extrapolation of Minimum Control Airspeed to Sea Level 6.34
6.13 Static Asymmetric Power Characteristics (Left Engine Secured, Propeller
Feathered) 6.38
6.14 Time History of Simulated Left Engine Failure in Configuration Take-Off 6.39
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Typical Flow about a Wing Section in Transitioning from Subsonic to
Supersonic Flow7.3
7.2 Aerodynamic Center Variation with Mach Number 7.4
7.3 Trailing Edge Control Surface in Transonic Flow 7.5
7.4 Typical Variations of Control Power and Hinge Moment Coefficients with
Mach Number 7.6
7.5 Lift Curve Slope Variation with Mach Number 7.7
7.6 Possible Variation of Directional Stability and Control Power with Mach
Number 7.8
7.7 Typical Influence of Increasing Normal Acceleration on Directional Stability 7.9
7.8 Possible Rolling Moment Generated by Sideslipping a Swept-Wing Airplane
at Transonic Mach Numbers 7.10
7.9 Possible Influence of Elastic Deformation Directional Stability 7.11
7.10 Typical Transonic Longitudinal Trim Change 7.16
III.10
FIGURES
7.11 Abrupt Increases in Normal Acceleration may be Encountered During

Transonic Deceleration 7.17
7.12 Transonic Characteristics 7.22
III.11
APPENDIX IV
EQUATIONS
IV
APPENDIX IV
EQUATIONS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
M
+ C + K = 0 eq 1.1 1.11
C K
2 + + = 0 eq 1.2 1.12
M M
C + C 2 K
1,2 = 2M M 1.12
2M
eq 1.3
CCRIT = 2M K/ M eq 1.4 1.13
K
n = eq 1.5 1.14
M
C
= eq 1.6 1.14
C CRIT
2 + 2 n + n2 = 0 eq 1.7 1.14
1,2 = n i n 1 2 eq 1.8 1.14

n = eq 1.9 1.17
T1 1 2
IV.1
CHAPTER 2
2nW
VS = eq 2.1 2.14
C L max S
CHAPTER 4
S t lt
V = tail volume coefficient = eq 4.1 4.5
Sw c
qt
t = tail efficiency factor = eq 4.2 4.6
q
dC L t
= at eq 4.3 4.6
dt
dC mCG Xa dC m a d
= + t Vt 1 eq 4.4 4.8
dC L c dCL aw d
Airplane Fuselage
Nacelle
dC mCG X CG
= N0 eq 4.5 4.10
dC L Airplane c
Xa
C mCG = C m ac + C L + C m CG a t t t V eq 4.6 4.12
c Fus
Nac
dC mCG dC L
"Slab Tail" C m i = = t V = a t t V eq. 4.7 4.13
t di t dt
dC mCG dCL dt EFF

Elevator C m = = Vt = a t t V
e d e d t de
eq 4.8 4.13
t = w i w + i t + e eq 4.9 4.14
IV.2
EQUATIONS
Xa
c Fus
Nac
eq 4.10 4.14
dC m

dC L x
e = e C CL eq 4.11 4.15
L = 0 Cm
e
dC
m
d e dC L x
= eq 4.12 4.16
dC L Cm
e
C he = C h t + C h e eq 4.13 4.20
t e
C ht
e Float = t eq 4.14 4.20
C h
e
dC mCG dCm CG d e
= + C m Float eq 4.15 4.20
dC L dC L e dCL
Free Fixed
dC mCG
= X CG N0 eq 4.16 4.21
dC L
Free
dFs W Ch e dCm Ve
= 2K eq 4.17 4.24
e Free
C ht
e Float = t eq 4.18 4.26
C h
e
IV.3
C m
dC m
dCL = C L eq 4.19 4.35

S + Du g
= 0 eq 4.20 4.36
L u /u 0 S
L
S2 + D uS + g u u = 0 eq 4.21 4.37
0
g
n p = undamped phugoid frequency = 2 eq 4.22 4.37
u0
1 CD
p = phugoid damping ratio = eq 4.23 4.37
2 CL
g
p = damped natural frequency 2 eq 4.24 4.37
u0
pp (sec) = .138 u 0 (where u0 is in feet per sec.) eq 4.25 4.37
.707
p L eq 4.26 4.37
D
g (n 1)
pullup = eq 4.27 4.87
V
g
n
1
steady level turn = eq 4.28 4.87
V n
lt 2
MCG = at q t St eq 4.29 4.88
Due to V
IV.4
EQUATIONS
Cm CG l
Cm = = 2a t t V t eq 4.30 4.89
c
c

2V
1 W dC Cm gc
e PullUps = e 0 S
2 dC
m
n +
( n 1)
C m 1
SSL Ve L 4 W
S

e 2 Fixed
eq 4.31 4.89
de 1 W dC gc
= S m
2 dC + C
dn PullUps Cm 1
SSL Ve L 4 W
S
m

e 2 Fixed
eq 4.32 4.90
1 W dC C m gc 1
eSteady Turns = e0
S
m
+ n
1 2 dC
W
2 SSL e
C m V L Fixed 4 S n
e
eq 4.33 4.90
de 1 W dC Cm gc 1
= S m
+ n +
dn Steady Turns 1 2 4 WS n2
2 SSL Ve dC L Fixed
Cm
e
eq 4.34 4.90
W C he dCm V 2 Ch
e
FsPull-Up = K 2 e n + K 12 l t g(n 1)C h
S Cm dCL Free Ve Trim t
e
eq 4.35 4.97
W Ch e dCm V 2 1 Ch
e
FsSteadyTurns = K 2 e n + K 12 l tg n Ch
e
eq 4.36 4.98
dFs W C h e dC m Ch
dn Pull-Up = K S C m dC L + K 2 l t g Ch
1 e

t
e Free
eq 4.37 4.98
IV.5
= K + K 12 l tg 1 + 2 C h e

dn Steady Turn S Cm dCL Free
e
n t

eq 4.38 4.98
Fs = K 1e eq 4.39 4.105
dFs K1 W dC C m gc 1
= S m + 1
dn Steady Turns Cm 1 V e2Trim dCL Fixed 4 WS n2
e 2 SSL
eq 4.40 4.106
Fs = K 2q e eq 4.41 4.107
dFs K2 WS dC C m gc 1
m
= + 1
Cm
e dCL Fixed
eq 4.42 4.107
L
S + 1
0
= 0 eq 4.43 4.118
M S M S M
L L
S2 + M M S M + M = 0 eq 4.44 4.118
u0 u0
1 Pa M 2 X
= 2 S c C L CG N M
I yy c
eq 4.45 4.119
IV.6
EQUATIONS
M = 0
L eq 4.46 4.119
u0 = M
sp = M eq 4.47 4.120
S
C
2 L Cm c2
C m c 2
sp =
2
c N M
C
I yy L
eq 4.48 4.121
Fs
= ( )( )
Fs
n
n
eq 4.49 4.135
CHAPTER 5
Y v = a v ( ) q v S v eq 5.1 5.8
d S
C y = a v 1 v v eq 5.2 5.9
v d Sw
Y r = a v v r q v S v eq 5.3 5.11
S
C y = a v v v v eq 5.4 5.12
r Sw
d S Zv
C l = a v 1 v v eq 5.5 5.17
v d Sw b
L r = Y r Z v eq 5.6 5.19
Zv
C l = Cy eq 5.7 5.19
r r b
IV.7
y2
L a = 2a w a q a
y1
c y dy eq 5.8 5.20
2a w a a y2
C l
a
=
Sw b y1
c ydy eq 5.9 5.21
d
N v = Y v lv = a v 1 q S l eq 5.10 5.24
d v v v
lv d S l
Cn = Cy = a v 1 v v v eq 5.11 5.24
V v b d Sw b
C n = C n + C n eq 5.12 5.25
w, F, N v
lv2
N rv = a v S v q v eq 5.13 5.26
V
Cn S l 2
= = 2a v S V v v2
( )
Cnr eq 5.14 5.26
v 2V
rb w b
N r = av v q v S v l v eq 5.15 5.27
S lv
C n = a v v n v S v b eq 5.16 5.27
r w
SIDEFORCE C y0 + C y + C y r + C L = 0
r
eq 5.17 5.34
YAWING MOMENT C n0 + C n + C n r + C n a = 0
r a
eq 5.18 5.34
ROLLING MOMENT C l0 + C l + C l r + C n a = 0
r a
eq 5.19 5.34
IV.8
EQUATIONS
d r d
SIDEFORCE C y + C y d + C L d = 0
r
eq 5.20 5.34
d r da
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n d + Cn d = 0
r a
eq 5.21 5.34
d r da
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l d + Cl d = 0
r a
eq 5.22 5.34
Cn Cn Cl
C 1 C a C
d r n r la n
= eq 5.23 5.35
d Cn Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
Cl Cl Cn
C 1 C a C
d a l r na l
= eq 5.24 5.35
d Cn Cl
1 Cl a C n r
a r
d
d = C1
L {C y + Cy
r
d r
d } eq 5.25 5.35
Cn
d r
d = C eq 5.26 5.35
n r
Cn Cl
1 C l a C n r eq 5.27 5.36
a r
Cn Cl
1 C a C eq 5.28 5.36
l n
a
Fr = K 1 r (linear feel spring system) eq 5.29 5.37
Fr = K 2q r ("q feel" system) eq 5.30 5.37
IV.9
C h
rFloat = C v v eq 5.31 5.38
h
r
r
{
Fr = K C h q vSr cr rEquilibrium rFloat } eq 5.32 5.39
dFr d d rFloat
= K C h q vSr c r dr eq 5.33 5.39
d r d
Cn
d r
d = C (if the assumption C n = 0 is valid) eq 5.34 5.39
n a
r
( )
Ch
d r Float
d = C v 1 d
d eq 5.35 5.39
h r

( )
Ch Cn C h
dFr
= K C r q vSr cr Cn + r
C
v
1 d eq 5.36 5.40
d n r h r d
(1 )
Cn C h
r v d
Ch d eq 5.37 5.40
r
Cl C l Cn
C 1 Cn
r
C l
d a la
= r
eq 5.38 5.43
d C n C l
1 Cl a C n r
r r
Cl
d a
d = C eq 5.39 5.44
l a
Cn Cl
1 C l a C n r eq 5.40 5.44
a r
C l Cn
1 Cn a Cl eq 5.41 5.44
a
IV.10
EQUATIONS
d
d = C1
L {C y + Cy
r
d r
d } eq 5.42 5.47
Cn
d r
d = C eq 5.43 5.47
n r
d Cy
= C1 C y C r C n eq 5.44 5.47
d L nr
C y = C y + C y eq 5.45 5.47
C n = C n + C n
lv
C n = C n Cy b eq 5.46 5.47
W, F, N v
C y C y
Cn
r
= r
lv = lb eq 5.47 5.47
r Cy v
r b

C y bv
d l
= C1 C y + C y + lb C n
= C1 C y
d
+ lb C n
eq 5.48 5.48
L = 0 Lr = 0 eq 5.49 5.51
S Y 1
(
S S Lp ) = 0 eq 5.50 5.53
N S N r
(
S S Lp ) {S2 + ( Y )
N r S + N + Y N r( )} = 0 eq 5.51 5.53
g
u0 {L N r N L r } eq 5.52 5.54
L l C
b a eq 5.53 5.55
p lp
IV.11
L/ a qSb
La = I XX = Cl I = rolling moment due to lateral control deflection
a XX
(lateral control power) term.

eq 5.54 5.55
R = L1 eq 5.55 5.56
p
{S2 + (Y N r ) S + (N + Y N r )} = 0 eq 5.56 5.57
Pa Sb
n DR = M C n 2 I ZZ eq 5.57 5.57
Sb 3
DR = C n r 8 C I eq 5.58 5.59
n ZZ
(S) =
[
La S2 + 2 n S + n 2 ]
( )( )[ ]
eq 5.59 5.67
a S + T1 S + T1 S2 + 2 d nd S + nd 2
s R
g sin = Vr eq 5.60 5.75
qS sin = W Vr
g qS
eq 5.61 5.76
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n r (2Vrb ) = 0 eq 5.62 5.76
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l
a
a + Clr ( 2Vrb ) = 0
eq 5.63 5.76
a Equilibrium = C 1
l a
{C lr ( 2V ) l
rb + C
}
eq 5.64 5.76
IV.12
EQUATIONS
( 2V )
Cn
= C r rb eq 5.65 5.76
n
{C }
d a Equilibrium
= C 1C C n C l C n r 5.77
( )
rb lr eq 5.66
d l n
2V a
rb + W sin = W Vr
qs g
r
eq 5.67 5.81
rb = 0 eq 5 .68 5.81
r
rb = 0 eq 5.69 5.81
rEquilibrium = C 1
n r
{Cnr ( 2V ) n
rb + C

} eq 5.70 5.81
Cl
= C r 2V
rb eq 5.71 5.81
l
{C }
d rEquilibrium
= C 1C Cn Cl C nr 5.81
( )
rb lr eq 5.72
d n l
2V r
r
( 2V
rb
) = 0

g qS ) eq 5.73 5.82
YAWING MOMENT C n + C n
r
r + C n
a
a + C nr ( 2V
rb
) = 0
eq 5.74 5.82
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l
r
r + C l
a
a + Clr ( 2Vrb ) = 0
eq 5.75 5.82
IV.13
Cy Cy r
C n r
rEquilibrium =
Cn
( 2Vrb ) eq 5.76 5.82
C y Cy
r
C n Cn
r
Cyr
Cy C n
= C r 5.82
( ) rb C eq 5.77
d 2V
n r C y y r C n
Cn r

( 2Vrb )
Cn
rEquilibrium = C r
n r
C n = 0 eq 5.78 5.83
a
Cn
C n + C n C r
r nr
( 2V
rb
) + C nr ( 2V
rb
) = 0
=
Cn
= 0 eq 5.79 5.83
( 2Vrb )
Cn
rEquilibrium = C r Equilibrium = 0 eq 5.80 5.83
n r
Cn
C l C r
r n r
( 2V
rb
) + Cl
a
= C r 1 C rC
( )
eq 5.81 5.84
rb
d 2V l a lr n r
Level 1 d nd = .014 2n d / d 20 ( )
Level 2 d nd = .009 ( 2nd / d 20 )
Level 3 d n d = .005 ( 2n d / d 20 )
with n d in rad/sec. eq 5.82 5.109
IV.14
EQUATIONS
= 360 360
Td t n + ( n 1) 360 = 3.5 (2.95) = 303 eq 5.83 5.116
mu0 + mu0 r
r
eq 5.84 5.131
rb
r a 2V
pb
+ C n p 2V = qSb
1 I r
yy eq 5.85 5.131
rb
r a 2V
pb 1
+ C lp = I p eq 5.86 5.131
2V qSb yy
rb eq 5.87 5.131
r
I XX pb
p qSb C l p 2V C l a = 0 eq 5.88 5.132
T a
C l qSb C l qSb
p
p I b
2VT p a
I XX a = 0 eq 5.89 5.132
XX
p L p p L a a = 0 eq 5.90 5.132
p (t ) =
Laa
Lp {e Lpt
1} eq 5.91 5.132
{
p ( t ) = p ss 1 e t/ R } eq 5.92 5.133
p L p p L a a = 0 eq 5.93 5.133
IV.15
p t = 0 = L a a eq 5.94 5.133
p L p p L a a = 0

La a
pss = Lp eq 5.95 5.135
( )
Cl
pb
2VT Max = C a a Max eq 5.96 5.136
lp
R = L1 eq 5.97 5.137
p
L
pss = L a a eq 5.98 5.138
p
4 I 4 I
R = L1 or R = xx
or R = xx
eq 5.99 5.138
p Cl p VT Sb 2 Cl p ssl VeSb 2
Cm qSc
I yy
PCRIT1 ~ I xx I zz eq 5.100 5.148
I yy
Cn qSb
I zz
PCRIT2 ~ I yy I xx eq 5.101 5.148
I zz
Fa = K 1 a (linear feel spring system) eq 5.102 5.156
Fa = K 2 qa ("q feel" system) eq 5.103 5.156
C h = C h + C h Ave eq 5.104 5.157

py
Ave = eq 5.105 5.157
V
IV.16
EQUATIONS
a Float = C
h
Ch
a
py'
V = C
h
Ch
a
( 2y'b ) ( 2Vpb ) eq 5.106 5.157
a
{
Fa = K C h q S a c a a Equilibrium aFloat } eq 5.107 5.158
Cl p pb
a Equilibrium = C 2V (steady state roll) eq 5.108 5.159
l a
a Float = C
h
Ch
a
( 2y'b ) ( 2Vpb ) eq 5.109 5.159
Fa = Vp { K
4 C h a Sa ca b } Cl p
Cl
a
Ch
ha
2y
+ C b

eq 5.110 5.159
Fa = K 1 Vp eq 5.111 5.159
pV = K 2 eq 5.112 5.159
{
p ( t ) = p ss 1 e t/ R } eq 5.113 5.190
p ( t ) = p ss pss e t/ R eq 5.114 5.190
t
R
X (t) = p ss e eq 5.115 5.191
ln X ( t ) = ln p ss t eq 5.116 5.192
R
ln X(t) = K 1 Kt eq 5.117 5.192

2
X( t ) = p ss e t/ R eq 5.118 5.192
R = t 2 t1 eq 5.119 5.194
IV.17
CHAPTER 6
N T = FN y p eq 6.1 6.2
550p BHP
FN Prop = eq 6.2 6.3
V

C nT = = eq 6.3 6.3
Prop V W b V qSb
SIDEFORCE C y + C y r + C L = 0 eq 6.4 6.3

r
FN yp
YAWING MOMENT CL + C n + C n r = 0
W b r
eq 6.5 6.3
ROLLING MOMENT C l + C l a = 0 eq 6.6 6.3

a
yp
FN W C L
rEquilibrium = b (ZERO SIDESLIP) eq 6.7 6.4
Cn
r
Cy r
r
rEquilibrium = (ZERO SIDESLIP) eq 6.8 6.4
CL
Cy 0
FN yp F yp
Cn CL _ N CL Cy
W b = W b
rEQUILIBRIUM =
r r r
Cn b Cn
r
eq 6.9 6.6
IV.18
EQUATIONS
F yp
N CL
rEquilibrium = W b (ZERO BANK ANGLE)
C y C n
C n 1 r
r

C C
n r y
eq 6.10 6.6
C y r
= r
(ZERO BANK ANGLE) eq 6.11 6.6
C y
y
FN W CL p b
C n
C y
CL
L0 L i yp
CL + C l + C l a = 0 eq 6.14 6.10
W b a
1 L L i yp
a Equilibrium = 0 CL + C l eq 6.15 6.10
C l W b
a
IV.19
APPENDIX V
EQUATIONS
V
APPENDIX V
EQUATIONS
PAGE
CHAPTER 2
P = gc R T
(Eq 2.1) 2.4
dPa = - g dh
(Eq 2.2) 2.4
g dH = g dh
ssl (Eq 2.3) 2.4
=
Ta
T
= ( 1 - 6.8755856 x 10-6 H )
ssl (Eq 2.4) 2.5
( 1 - 6.8755856 x 10 H )
5.255863
P -6
= a =
P
ssl (Eq 2.5) 2.5
( 1 - 6.8755856 x 10 H )
4.255863
-6
= a =
ssl (Eq 2.6) 2.6
Pa = P
ssl ( 1 - 6.8755856 x 10 H ) -6
P
5.255863
(Eq 2.7) 2.6
Ta = -56.50C = 216.65K
(Eq 2.8) 2.6
Pa -5
- 4.80614 x 10 (H - 36089)
= = 0.223358 e
P
ssl (Eq 2.9) 2.6
a -5
- 4.80614 x 10 (H - 36089)
= = 0.297069 e
ssl (Eq 2.10) 2.6
Pa = P
ssl
( 0.223358 e
- 4.80614 x 10
-5
( HP- 36089 ) ) (Eq 2.11) 2.6
V.1
( )
2 2q
V = a PT - Pa = a
T (Eq 2.12) 2.10
2q 2q
Ve = = a = V
T
ssl (Eq 2.13) 2.11
Ve = Ve
Test Std (Eq 2.14) 2.12
-1
( )

2 2 Pa P - Pa
T
V = +1 -1
T -1 a Pa
(Eq 2.15) 2.13
-1
( )

2 Pa qc
V = +1 -1
T -1 a Pa
(Eq 2.16) 2.13
qc = q ( 2 4
1 + M + M + M + ...
4 40 1600
6
) (Eq 2.17) 2.13
-1
( )

2 2 Pssl P - Pa
T
Vc = +1 -1
-1 ssl P
ssl
(Eq 2.18) 2.14
-1
( )

2 Pssl qc
Vc = +1 -1
-1 ssl P
ssl
(Eq 2.19) 2.14
(
Vc = f P - P a = f ( qc )
T ) (Eq 2.20) 2.14
Vc = Vc
Test Std (Eq 2.21) 2.14
V.2
EQUATIONS
1
-1 -1
( )
P' +1
2
T V 1
= a
( )
Pa 2 2
2 V -1
-
+1 a +1
(Eq 2.22) 2.15
3.5
( )
2
qc Vc
= 1 + 0.2 a -1
P ssl
ssl (For Vc assl ) (Eq 2.23) 2.15
( )
7
Vc
166.921 a
qc ssl
= -1
P 2.5
( )
ssl 2
Vc
7 a -1
ssl
(For Vc assl ) (Eq 2.24) 2.15
-1
( )

2 Pa qc
Ve = +1 -1
-1 ssl Pa
(Eq 2.25) 2.17
Ve = V
T (Eq 2.26) 2.17
V V V
M = aT = T T
=
gc R T P
(Eq 2.27) 2.17
-1
( )

P - Pa
2 T
M= +1 -1
-1 Pa
(Eq 2.28) 2.17

-1
P
Pa
T
= ( 1+
-1 2
2
M ) (Eq 2.29) 2.18
V.3
( 1 + 0.2 M )
3.5
qc 2
= -1
Pa
for M < 1 (Eq 2.30) 2.18
qc 7
166.921 M
= -1
( 7M2 - 1 )
Pa 2.5
for M > 1 (Eq 2.31) 2.18
T (
M = f P - Pa , P a = f Vc, H
P ) ( ) (Eq 2.32) 2.19
M =M
Test (Eq 2.33) 2.19
H =H -H
P P Po
ic i (Eq 2.34) 2.22
V = V - Vo
ic i (Eq 2.35) 2.22
H =H + H
P Po P
i ic (Eq 2.36) 2.22
V = Vo + V
i ic (Eq 2.37) 2.22
P = P s - Pa
(Eq 2.38) 2.27
Vpos = Vc - V
i (Eq 2.39) 2.27
pos = H -H
Pc P
i (Eq 2.40) 2.27
pos = M - M
i (Eq 2.41) 2.27
Ps
= f M, , , R e
Pa 1 ( )
(Eq 2.42) 2.28
Ps
Pa 2 (
= f M, )
(Eq 2.43) 2.28
P = f M,
qc 3
( )
(Eq 2.44) 2.28
V.4
EQUATIONS
P = f ( M) (High speed)
qc 4 (Eq 2.45) 2.28
P = f C (Low speed)
qc 5 L ( ) (Eq 2.46) 2.28
P = f M (High speed)
qc 6 i ( )
i (Eq 2.47) 2.29
P = f W, V (Low speed)
qc 7 c ( ) (Eq 2.48) 2.29
W
Std
Vc = Vc
W Test W
Test (Eq 2.49) 2.30
( V ) (Low speed)
P = f
qc 8 c
W (Eq 2.50) 2.30
W
Std
V = V
i i W
W Test Test (Eq 2.51) 2.30
( V ) (Low speed)
P = f
qc 9 i
W
i (Eq 2.52) 2.30
T -1 2
T
=1+ M
T 2 (Eq 2.53) 2.32
2
T - 1 VT
T
=1+
T 2 gc R T
(Eq 2.54) 2.32
T
T
K
T
( - 1) 2
=1+ M
T 2 (Eq 2.55) 2.33
( - 1)
2
T K V
T T T
=1+
T 2 gc R T
(Eq 2.56) 2.33
2
T T K M
T
= i =1+ T
Ta Ta 5
(Eq 2.57) 2.33
V.5
2
K V
T = T = Ta + T T
T i 7592 (Eq 2.58) 2.33
T = To + T
i ic (Eq 2.59) 2.35
K =
T ( T (K)
i
Ta (K)
-1 ) M
5
2
(Eq 2.60) 2.35
V
G
1
= 3600
( )D
t
1 (Eq 2.61) 2.50
V
G
2
= 3600
( )D
t
2 (Eq 2.62) 2.50
V +V
G G
1 2
V =
T 2 (Eq 2.63) 2.50
Pa
a =
gc R Ta (K)
ref (Eq 2.64) 2.50

= a
ssl (Eq 2.65) 2.51
Vc = Ve - Vc
(Eq 2.66) 2.51
V
T
M=
38.9678 Ta (K)
ref (Eq 2.67) 2.51
{ }
3.5
( )
2
Vc
qc = P 1 + 0.2 a -1
ssl ssl
(Eq 2.68) 2.51
{ }
3.5
( )
2
V
i
qc = P 1 + 0.2 a -1
i ssl ssl
(Eq 2.69) 2.51
V.6
EQUATIONS
P = q c - qc
i (Eq 2.70) 2.51
W
Std
V =V
i i W
W Test (Eq 2.71) 2.51
H =H + H
P Po P
i ref ic
ref ref (Eq 2.72) 2.54
( )
1
g
ssl
gc a R
( )
ssl
T Ps
H = a ssl 1 -
P ssl P
i ssl
(Eq 2.73) 2.54
( )
1
g
ssl
gc a R
( )
ssl
T Pa
H = a ssl 1 -
P ssl P
i ssl
ref (Eq 2.74) 2.55
h = d tan (Eq 2.75) 2.57

y
h = L
a/c x (Eq 2.76) 2.57
T (K)
Std
H =H + h
Pc Pc T (K)
twr Test (Eq 2.77) 2.57
( )
5.255863
-6
Ps = P 1 - 6.8755856 x 10 H
ssl P
i (Eq 2.78) 2.57
( )
5.255863
-6
Pa = P 1 - 6.8755856 x 10 H
ssl Pc
(Eq 2.79) 2.58
-1
Curve slope = K Ta = 0.2 K Ta (K) (High speed)
T T (Eq 2.80) 2.60
V.7
0.2 T a (K)
Curve slope = K (Low speed)
T a2
ssl (Eq 2.81) 2.60
slope
K = (High speed)
T 0.2 T a (K)
(Eq 2.82) 2.60
slope a2
ssl
K = (Low speed)
T 0.2 T a (K)
(Eq 2.83) 2.61
-1
( )

qc
2 i
M = +1 -1
i -1 Ps
(Eq 2.84) 2.62
P =
( ) P
qc
i
qc
i
(Eq 2.85) 2.62
qc = qc + P
i (Eq 2.86) 2.62
Vpos = Vc - V
i
W (Eq 2.87) 2.63
Pa = P s - P
(Eq 2.88) 2.63
( )
1
g
ssl
gc a R
( )
ssl
T Pa
H = a ssl 1 -
Pc ssl P
ssl
(Eq 2.89) 2.63
CHAPTER 3
C =C cos ()
L L
max () max ( = 0) (Eq 3.1) 3.7
nz W
Ve =
s C qS
Ls
(Eq 3.2) 3.10
V.8
EQUATIONS
Ve C
s Ls
1 2
=
Ve C
s Ls
2 1 (Eq 3.3) 3.10
Ve C
s Ls
1 2
If = 0.8 , then = 0.64
Ve C
s Ls
2 1 (Eq 3.4) 3.10
C
Ls
1
= 1.56
C
Ls
2 (Eq 3.5) 3.10
= +
j (Eq 3.6) 3.17
L = Laero + L
Thrust (Eq 3.7) 3.17
L = nz W
(Eq 3.8) 3.17
L = T sin
Thrust G j
(Eq 3.9) 3.17
L = nz W = L aero + T sin
G j (Eq 3.10) 3.17
nz W LaeroL T sin
G j
C = = = +
L qS qS qS qS (Eq 3.11) 3.17
T sin
G j
C = C +
L Laero qS
(Eq 3.12) 3.17
T sin
G j
C =C +
L Laero nz W
C
L (Eq 3.13) 3.18
C =C
L Laero
+C
L W
G
(
T sin j
nz ) (Eq 3.14) 3.18
V.9
C
L (T sin j
1- G n
W z
) =C
Laero
(Eq 3.15) 3.18
C
Laero
( )
C =
L T sin j
1- G n
W z (Eq 3.16) 3.18
C =f
L ( C
T
, G , sin , nz
Laero W j ) (Eq 3.17) 3.18
C
Laero
=f ( , , Re) (Eq 3.18) 3.19
nz W nz W
C = =
Laero qS 2
P SM
2 ssl (Eq 3.19) 3.19
( )
W nz
( 2 P S ) M
C =
Laero 2
ssl (Eq 3.20) 3.19
R+2
Vs = Vs (For decelerations)
R+1
Test (Eq 3.21) 3.21
C
Ls
=C
L
Test
( R+1
R+2 ) (For decelerations)
(Eq 3.22) 3.21
R+1
Vs = Vs (For accelerations)
R+2
Test (Eq 3.23) 3.21
Vs
R = c Test
.
V
2 (Eq 3.24) 3.21
( )
. .
C =C +K V -V
Lmax Lmax d Std Test
.
Std V (Eq 3.25) 3.22
V.10
EQUATIONS
C
Lmax .
=C
Lmax .
+ K c CG ( Std
- CG
Test )
Std V, CG Std V (Eq 3.26) 3.25
()
Lt lt = T (Z) - D (Y)
G R (Eq 3.27) 3.26
() ()
T D
G Z R Y
C = -
Lt qS lt qS lt
(Eq 3.28) 3.26
Vc
Re = = Ve (
ssl

c
) (Eq 3.29) 3.27
T sin
G j
C =
T qS
G (Eq 3.30) 3.29
C
Lmax .
=C
Lmax .
+K
W ( WStd - WTest )
Std V, CG, W Std V, CG (Eq 3.31) 3.31
V = Vo + V
i ic (Eq 3.32) 3.36
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 3.33) 3.36
H =H + H
P Po P
i ic (Eq 3.34) 3.36
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 3.35) 3.36
nz = nz + nz
o ic
i (Eq 3.36) 3.36
nz = nz + nz
i tare (Eq 3.37) 3.36
nz W
Test
C =
Lmax 2
Test 0.7 P M S
ssl Test (Eq 3.38) 3.37
V
R= c . c
V
2 Test (Eq 3.39) 3.37
V.11
C
Lmax .
=C
Lmax
Test
( R+1
R+2 )
Std V (Eq 3.40) 3.37
( C
Laero
Std V, CG, W
.
) Pwr ON
= ( C
Lmax .
Std V, CG, W ) Pwr ON
-C
T
G
(Eq 3.41) 3.42
( C
Laero
Std V, CG, W
.
) Pwr OFF
= ( C
Laero .
Std V, CG, W ) Pwr ON
- C -C
Lt L
E
(Eq 3.42) 3.42
841.5 n z W
Ve =
s C S
Lmax
(Eq 3.43) 3.44
CHAPTER 4
Dp = C qS
Dp
(Eq 4.1) 4.4
D =L =C qS
i i L i (Eq 4.2) 4.5
L = C qS
L (Eq 4.3) 4.5
D =C qS
i D
i (Eq 4.4) 4.5
C
L
=
i R (Eq 4.5) 4.5
2
C
L
C =
D R
i (Eq 4.6) 4.6
2
C
L
C =
D
i
e R
(Eq 4.7) 4.6
D=D +D +D
i M (Eq 4.8) 4.7
V.12
EQUATIONS
C =C +C +C
D D D D
i M (Eq 4.9) 4.7
D = C qS
D (Eq 4.10) 4.8
2
C
L
C =C +
D Dp e AR
(Eq 4.11) 4.8
2
C
L
D=C qS+ qS
D e AR
(Eq 4.12) 4.8
L - W + T sin = 0
G j (Eq 4.13) 4.9
L = W - T sin
G j (Eq 4.14) 4.9
C = L
L qS (Eq 4.15) 4.9
W - T sin
G j
C =
L qS (Eq 4.16) 4.9
( )
2
W - T sin
G j
D=C qS +
D e AR qS
(Eq 4.17) 4.9
2
W
D = C qS +
D e AR qS
(Eq 4.18) 4.9
1 2
q= V
2 ssl e (Eq 4.19) 4.9
1 2
q= a V
2 T (Eq 4.20) 4.9
1
q= Pa M 2
2 (Eq 4.21) 4.10
V.13
2
C Ve S 2
D ssl
p 2W
D= +
2 2
e AR S Ve
ssl (Eq 4.22) 4.10
2
C a V S
D T 2
p 2W
D= +
2 2
e AR S a V
T (Eq 4.23) 4.10
2
C Pa S
D 2
p 2W
D= +
2 2
e AR S Pa M
(Eq 4.24) 4.10
2
C Pa M S
D 2
p (M)
2W
D= +
2 2
e AR S Pa M
(M) (Eq 4.25) 4.12
2
C P M S
2 ( W/ )
D ssl 2
D ()
= +
2 2
e AR S P M
(M) ssl (Eq 4.26) 4.12
D=f
( M, W ) (Eq 4.27) 4.13
.
W = f ( , , , V, L, N )
f (Eq 4.28) 4.14
.
( )
W
M, N , R e
f
=f
(Eq 4.29) 4.14
.
( )
W
M, N
f
=f
(Eq 4.30) 4.15
( )
T
Nx
=f M, N
(Eq 4.31) 4.15
V.14
EQUATIONS
( )
.
W T
f Nx
=f M,
(Eq 4.32) 4.15
T = T cos - T
Nx G j R
(Eq 4.33) 4.15
T = D (For small , where cos 1)

Nx j j
(Eq 4.34) 4.15
T
Nx
=D
(Eq 4.35) 4.15
.
( M, D )
W
f
=f
(Eq 4.36) 4.15
.
( M, W )
W
f
=f
(Eq 4.37) 4.16
Ta
=
T
ssl (Eq 4.38) 4.21
T
= OAT
T
=
T T T
ssl ssl (Eq 4.39) 4.21
.
W
= f ( M, OAT )
f
(Eq 4.40) 4.22
T = Ta 1 +
T
-1 2
2
M ( ) (Eq 4.41) 4.22

= a 1+
T
-1 2
2
M ( ) -1
(Eq 4.42) 4.22
a
=
P
ssl (Eq 4.43) 4.23
V.15
P
T
=
P
ssl (Eq 4.44) 4.23
T
= ( 1 + 0.2 M2 )
(Eq 4.45) 4.23
( 1 + 0.2 M )
3.5
T 2
=
(Eq 4.46) 4.23
.
W
= f ( M, OAT )
f

(Eq 4.47) 4.23
.
W
f
TSFC =
T
Nx
(Eq 4.48) 4.25
T =D
Nx
(Eq 4.49) 4.26
.
W D
f (Eq 4.50) 4.26
S.R. = nmi
W
f (Eq 4.51) 4.28
V
S.R. = . T
W
f (Eq 4.52) 4.28
t
S.E. =
W
f
Used (Eq 4.53) 4.28
S.E. = 1.
W
f (Eq 4.54) 4.29
Range = S.R. avg ( ) ( Fuel Used ) (Eq 4.55) 4.31
nmi = nmi x lb
lb (Eq 4.56) 4.31
V.16
EQUATIONS
TV DV
T T
THP = =
550 550 (Eq 4.57) 4.33
3
C a V S 2
D T
W
THP = +
1100 275 e AR S a V
T (Eq 4.58) 4.33
THP = THP p + THP

i (Eq 4.59) 4.34
C
D= DW
C
L (Eq 4.60) 4.35
C W V
D T
THP =
C 550
L (Eq 4.61) 4.35
2
L = W = C 1 a V S
L2 T (Eq 4.62) 4.35
1
3
( S)
2
2 2
W C
D
THP =
1 3
2
a2 C 550
L (Eq 4.63) 4.35
a =
ssl (Eq 4.64) 4.35
3
2
2W C
D
THP = 1 3
( S ssl )
2 2
C 550
L (Eq 4.65) 4.35
THPe = THP
(Eq 4.66) 4.35
3
2
2W C
D
THPe = 1 3
( S ssl )
2 2
C 550
L (Eq 4.67) 4.36
V.17
3 -1
THP = K V + K V
1 T 2 T (Eq 4.68) 4.37
2 -2
3K V -K V =0
1 T 2 T (Eq 4.69) 4.37
3 -1
3K V =K V
1 T 2 T (Eq 4.70) 4.37
3 THPp = THP
i (Eq 4.71) 4.37
3 Dp = D
i (Eq 4.72) 4.37
3C =C
Dp D
i (Eq 4.73) 4.37
C
D
THP = K o 3
2
C
L (Eq 4.74) 4.38
Ve
V =
T (Eq 4.75) 4.39
THPe
THP =
(Eq 4.76) 4.39

= a
ssl (Eq 4.77) 4.40
4
C Ve S 2
D ssl
W
THPe Ve = +
1100 275 e AR S
ssl (Eq 4.78) 4.40
= THP
P SHP (Eq 4.79) 4.41
THP = SHP
P (Eq 4.80) 4.41
.
W
f
THPSFC =
THP (Eq 4.81) 4.41
V.18
EQUATIONS
.
W
f
SHPSFC =
SHP (Eq 4.82) 4.42
.
W = THP
SHPSFC
f P (Eq 4.83) 4.42
( )
W+W
W f
=

Target (Eq 4.84) 4.47
( )
W +W
W aircraft f
=

Target (Eq 4.85) 4.48
W
aircraft 1
=
( ) ( )
+ W
W W f

Target Target (Eq 4.86) 4.48
OAT = Ta 1 + ( 1
2
K M
T
2
) (Eq 4.87) 4.48
H =H + H + Hpos
c o
ic (Eq 4.88) 4.59
Ta = To + T
ic (Eq 4.89) 4.59
Vc = Vo + V + Vpos
ic (Eq 4.90) 4.59
Vc
V =
T (Eq 4.91) 4.60
V
T
M=
a
ssl (Eq 4.92) 4.60
.
. W
f
W =
f
ref (Eq 4.93) 4.60
W =W
ref (Eq 4.94) 4.60
V.19
n
R = V t
Test j j
j=1 (Eq 4.95) 4.63
( )
T
R.F. =
Test W
1
ln
W
2 (Eq 4.96) 4.63
R
Std
= R.F.
Test
ln
( ) W
W
Std
Std
1
2 (Eq 4.97) 4.63
(
M = f Vc, H
Pc ) (Eq 4.98) 4.66
=f
(H ) Pc
(Eq 4.99) 4.67
W+W
=W
f
(Eq 4.100) 4.67
100 W (test) - W (target)

W (error) =
W (target)
(Eq 4.101) 4.67
C = K - 273.15 (Eq 4.102) 4.67
OAT = f Ta, M ( ) (Eq 4.103) 4.67
Ta = f ( OAT, M )
(Eq 4.104) 4.67
( )
S.R. = 661.483M
.
w
f
(Eq 4.105) 4.68
2q 2q
Ve = = a = VT
ssl (Eq 4.106) 4.73
SHP e = SHP
(Eq 4.107) 4.73
V.20
EQUATIONS
Ta = Ta + Ta
Std (Eq 4.108) 4.78
a M
( )
ssl
S.R. = .
W
f

(Eq 4.109) 4.78
V
T
Hot day
= 661.483 M
( )
Std

Hot day

Std (Eq 4.110) 4.81
.
W
f
Hot day
=W
.
f
Std
( )
Hot day

Std (Eq 4.111) 4.82
.
W
f
=
(Eq 4.112) 4.82
W
f
Used
Range = ( S.R. ) dW
f
0 (Eq 4.113) 4.86
W
2
Range = ( S.R. ) dW
W
1 (Eq 4.114) 4.87
( W ) W1 dW
W
2
Range = ( S.R. )
W
1 (Eq 4.115) 4.87
W
2
( )
661.483 M W dW
Range = .
W W W
1 f

(Eq 4.116) 4.87
( )
2
D =K +K W
3 4 (Eq 4.117) 4.88
V.21
R.F. = ( S.R. ) W
(Eq 4.118) 4.90
( W )
( )
661.483 M
R.F. = .
W
f

(Eq 4.119) 4.90
W
2
Range = ( R.F. ) dW
W W
1 (Eq 4.120) 4.90
2W
2W
C = =
L 2 2
Pa M S M SP
ssl (Eq 4.121) 4.101
L (
C = f W, M
2
) (Eq 4.122) 4.101
W
= W = Constant
D D
(Eq 4.123) 4.101
( )
661.483 M
. = Constant
W
f
(Eq 4.124) 4.102
TSFC = Constant
(Eq 4.125) 4.102
W
1
Range = R.F. ln
W
2 (Eq 4.126) 4.105
V.22
EQUATIONS
CHAPTER 5
TE = PE + KE (Eq 5.1) 5.2
h
PE = W dh
o (Eq 5.2) 5.2
PE = W H
( Pc
+ T correction
) (Eq 5.3) 5.2
2
KE = 1 W V
2 g T (Eq 5.4) 5.3
2
TE = W h + 1 W V
2 g T (Eq 5.5) 5.3
2
V
TE = h + T
W 2g (Eq 5.6) 5.3
2
V
T
E =h+
h 2g (Eq 5.7) 5.3
d E = d
dt h dt ( ) h+
V
2
T
2g (Eq 5.8) 5.7
V dV
d E = dh + T T
dt h dt g dt (Eq 5.9) 5.7
dV
Fx = W T
g dt (Eq 5.10) 5.8
T = T cos - T
Nx G j R
(Eq 5.11) 5.8
dV
- D - W sin = W T
T g dt
Nx
(Eq 5.12) 5.8
dh
V (vertical)
= dt
T
sin =
V (flight path) V
T T (Eq 5.13) 5.9
V.23
dV
- D - W dh 1 = W T
T g dt
Nx dt V
T (Eq 5.14) 5.9
V
T (T Nx
-D
) - dh = V T
dV
T
W dt g dt (Eq 5.15) 5.9
V
T (T Nx
-D
) = dE h
W dt (Eq 5.16) 5.9
Ps =
V
T (T Nx
-D
)
W (Eq 5.17) 5.9
dE
h
Ps =
dt (Eq 5.18) 5.10
V dV
Ps = dh + gT T
dt dt (Eq 5.19) 5.10
Ps =
V
T (T Nx
- D - D
i )
W (Eq 5.20) 5.13
Ps =
V
T (T Nx
- D - D
i )
W + W (Eq 5.21) 5.15
Ps =
V
T (T Nx
- D - Dp
)
W (Eq 5.22) 5.16
V (T + T - D)
T Nx Nx
Ps =
W (Eq 5.23) 5.17
Ps =
( P - P ) - ( Preq + Preq )
A A
W (Eq 5.24) 5.19
V.24
EQUATIONS
{ }
3.5
( )
2
Vc
qc = P 1 + 0.2 a -1
ssl ssl
(Eq 5.25) 5.28
Pa = P
ssl ( 1 - 6.8755856 x 10 H
-6
Pc ) 5.255863
(Eq 5.26) 5.28
-1
( )

2 qc
M= +1 -1
-1 Pa
(Eq 5.27) 5.28
OAT + 273.15
Ta =
1 2
1+ K M
2 T (Eq 5.28) 5.28
Ta
Test
h=H
Pc Ta
Std (Eq 5.29) 5.28
V = M gc R Ta
T (Eq 5.30) 5.28
W
Test
W
Std (Eq 5.31) 5.31
V
T M
Std Std Std
=
V M
T Test Test
Test (Eq 5.32) 5.32
V Ta
T
Std Std
=
V Ta
T Test
Test (Eq 5.33) 5.32
T = f Ta ( ) (Eq 5.34) 5.32
D = D -D =
(
2 W
2
Std
- W
2
Test )
Std Test 2
e AR S Pa M
(Eq 5.35) 5.32
V.25
Ta V
W T
Test Std Std
Ps = Ps + (T - D)
Std Test W Ta W Nx
Std Std
Test (Eq 5.36) 5.32
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 5.37) 5.36
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 5.38) 5.36
M = f Vc , H
( Pc ) (Eq 5.39) 5.37
.
W = Initial W - W dt
Test f (Eq 5.40) 5.37
C = K - 273.15 (Eq 5.41) 5.37
OAT = f Ta , M ( T ) (Eq 5.42) 5.37
Ta = f OAT, M
( ) (Eq 5.43) 5.37
V
T
Test
= f Vc , H
( Pc
, Ta
) (Eq 5.44) 5.37
V
T
Std
(
= f Vc, H p , T
c Std ) (Eq 5.45) 5.37
h=H
Pc
+ H
ref
Pc ( ) T
Ta
Std (Eq 5.46) 5.37
2
V
T
Test
E =h+
h 2g (Eq 5.47) 5.38
dE
h
Ps =
dt
Test (Eq 5.48) 5.38
Test
= sin
-1
( )
dh/dt
V
T
Test (Eq 5.49) 5.38
V.26
EQUATIONS
CCF = 1 + ( V
T
)g
Std dV
dh (Eq 5.50) 5.38
( )( )( )
V V
W T T
Test Std Std
Ps = Ps + (T - D)
Std Test W V W Nx
Std T Std
Test (Eq 5.51) 5.38
( )
Ps
dh Std
=
dt CCF
Std (Eq 5.52) 5.38
Std
= sin
-1
( ) ( dhdt )
V
T
Std
Std (Eq 5.53) 5.39
- < 0.1
Test Std (Eq 5.54) 5.39
CHAPTER 6
L
nz =
W
(Eq 6.1) 6.3
2 2
( W tan )
2
L = W + (Eq 6.2) 6.3
n2z = 1 + tan 2
(Eq 6.3) 6.3
tan = (n - 1)
2
z (Eq 6.4) 6.4
L cos = W (Eq 6.5) 6.4
1
nz =
cos (Eq 6.6) 6.4
W tan = W
g aR (Eq 6.7) 6.4
a = g tan
R (Eq 6.8) 6.4
V.27
a
R
= g (n - 1)
2
z (Eq 6.9) 6.4
2
V
R = aT
R (Eq 6.10) 6.5
2
V
T
R =
g tan (Eq 6.11) 6.5
2
V
T
R =
g (n - 1)
2
z (Eq 6.12) 6.6
V
T
=
R (Eq 6.13) 6.6
g
= tan
V
T (Eq 6.14) 6.6
=
g
V
T
(n - 1) 2
z
(Eq 6.15) 6.6
= tan
-1
( )F
W
Y
(Eq 6.16) 6.8
W
L =
cos (Eq 6.17) 6.8
L = F tan
Y (Eq 6.18) 6.9
F
Y
F = W tan +
R cos (Eq 6.19) 6.10
n
Y
n = tan +
R cos (Eq 6.20) 6.10
= tan -1 tan +
E ( n
cos
Y
) (Eq 6.21) 6.10
V.28
EQUATIONS
2
V
( )
T
R =
n
Y
g tan +
cos (Eq 6.22) 6.10
=
g ( tan +
n
Y
cos )
V
T (Eq 6.23) 6.10
gn
Y
=
V cos
T (Eq 6.24) 6.10
n = nz - cos
R (Eq 6.25) 6.12
2
V
T
R =
( wings level ) g ( nz - cos )
(Eq 6.26) 6.12
(
g nz - cos )
(wings level ) =
V
T (Eq 6.27) 6.12
L = C q S + T sin
L G j (Eq 6.28) 6.16
C q T
L G
nz = + sin
W/S W j (Eq 6.29) 6.16
C q
Lmax
nz =
max ( W/S )
min (Eq 6.30) 6.17
C
Lmax 2
nz = 0.7 Pa M
max ( W/S )
min (Eq 6.31) 6.17
2
nz = KM
max (Eq 6.32) 6.17
0.7
K = C P
( W/S ) Lmax a (Eq 6.33) 6.17
V.29
n
1 L
=
2
Vs V 2
( 1g ) A
(Eq 6.34) 6.18
V = Vs n
( 1g )
A L
(Eq 6.35) 6.18
2
a2 M
R =
2 4
g K M - 1 (Eq 6.36) 6.20
2 4
g K M - 1
=
aM (Eq 6.37) 6.21
0.7
K = C P
( W/S ) Lmax a (Eq 6.38) 6.21
R
min
V>V
A
=
( g
a2
n2 - 1
L
) M
2
(Eq 6.39) 6.23
max
V>V
A
= ( g n2 - 1
a
L ) 1
M
(Eq 6.40) 6.23
C
D
D = L
C
L (Eq 6.41) 6.29
C
D
T = nzW
C
L (Eq 6.42) 6.29
C
nz = T L
W C
D (Eq 6.43) 6.29
nz
sust max
= T
W ( ) C
C
L
D
max
( Jet )
(Eq 6.44) 6.29
V.30
EQUATIONS
T V ( T) L
( T)
nz =
W D V
(Eq 6.45) 6.29
THP
avail L
( Propeller)
( )
nz =
sust max W THPreq
min (Eq 6.46) 6.30
57.3 g 2
sust = nz -1 (deg/s)
V sust
T (Eq 6.47) 6.30
V 2
T
Rsust =
g n2z - 1
sust (Eq 6.48) 6.30
( )
.
W
T = f f
M,

T T (Eq 6.49) 6.32
D = T
(Eq 6.50) 6.33
2 2
D
Std-Test
= 1
2 ( nzW ) (
- nzW )
eAR S (0.7) P M Std Test
ssl Test
(Eq 6.51) 6.34
2
( ) + T e AR ( 0.7 ) S P
1 2
nz = nzW M
2 ssl Test
Std W Test
Std
(Eq 6.52) 6.34
nz
Std
= nz
Test ( ) W
W
Test
Std (Eq 6.53) 6.35
dV
Tex = T - D = W dh + W T
V dt g dt
T (Eq 6.54) 6.38
V.31
dV 11.3 Ps
T
=
dt V
T (Eq 6.55) 6.48
nz = nz + n + nz
o ic tare (Eq 6.56) 6.57
V = Vo + V
i ic (Eq 6.57) 6.63
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 6.58) 6.63
H =H + H
P Po P
i ic (Eq 6.59) 6.63
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 6.60) 6.63
nz = nz + nz
o ic
i (Eq 6.61) 6.63
nz = nz + nz
Test i tare (Eq 6.62) 6.63
nz W
Test
Test
C =
Lmax 2
Test 0.7 P M S
ssl Test (Eq 6.63) 6.63
V = a M
T (Eq 6.64) 6.64
T = T - T
Std (Eq 6.65) 6.66
2
Ps e AR S 0.7 P M
1g ssl
nz = + 1
sust V W
T
Std (Eq 6.66) 6.68
W
Std
Tex = T - D = Ps
V 1g
T (Eq 6.67) 6.68
( )
2
nzW
Std h
nz = M
sust M W
Std (Eq 6.68) 6.68
V.32
EQUATIONS
nz = ( W ) ( 0.7 P ssl
S ) CL M
2
(Eq 6.69) 6.71
( n W )
z Test
= ( 0.7 Pssl S ) CL M
2
(Eq 6.70) 6.71
CHAPTER 7
2
V
T
E =h+
h 2g (Eq 7.1) 7.2
V dV
Ps = dE h = dh + gT T
dt dt dt (Eq 7.2) 7.2
dV = dV dh
dt dh dt (Eq 7.3) 7.2
Ps = dh + V dV dh
dt g dh dt (Eq 7.4) 7.3
Ps = dh 1 + V dV
dt g dh (Eq 7.5) 7.3
dh = P 1
dt s V
1 + gT dV
dh (Eq 7.6) 7.3
1
CCF =
V
1 + gT dV
dh (Eq 7.7) 7.3
L - W cos + T sin = W
g az
G j (Eq 7.8) 7.5
T cos - T - D - W sin = W
g ax
G j R (Eq 7.9) 7.5
L = W cos (Eq 7.10) 7.5
dV
T cos - T - D - W sin = W T
G j R g dt = 0 (Eq 7.11) 7.6
V.33
T = T cos - T
Nx G j R
(Eq 7.12) 7.6
T - D = W sin
Nx
(Eq 7.13) 7.6
T -D
-1 Nx
= sin
W (Eq 7.14) 7.6
T -D
Nx
V sin = V = dh = Vv
W dt (Eq 7.15) 7.6
T -D T V-DV
Nx Nx P - Preq
ROC = dh = V= = A
dt W W W (Eq 7.16) 7.10
h h
t = 1 dh = 1 dh
0 dh 0 ROC
dt (Eq 7.17) 7.12
Vv = V sin
T (Eq 7.18) 7.14
V = V cos
hor T (Eq 7.19) 7.14
Rate of Climb = Ps
( 1+ V
1
dV
g dh
T ) (Eq 7.20) 7.20
Time to Climb =
h
2 ( 1+ V
dV
g dh
T
) dh
h Ps
1 (Eq 7.21) 7.20
dh + V
g dVT
dt =
Ps
(Eq 7.22) 7.21
dE = dh + V
g dV
h (Eq 7.23) 7.21
dE
h
dt =
Ps
(Eq 7.24) 7.21
V.34
EQUATIONS
E
h
2
1 dE
Time to Climb =
E Ps h
h
1 (Eq 7.25) 7.21
dE
= d
dW dW
h
( ) h+
V
2g
2
T
= dh
dW
V dV
+ gT
dW
T
(Eq 7.26) 7.25
E
W h
2 2
1
Fuel to Climb = dW = - dE
W E dE h
1 h h
1
dW (Eq 7.27) 7.25
.
W
- 1 = - dW = - dW dt = f
dE dE dt dE Ps
h h h
dW (Eq 7.28) 7.25
E . E
h W h
2 2
f 1 dE
Fuel to Climb = dE =
E Ps h E Ps h
h h .
1 1
W
f (Eq 7.29) 7.26
2
V
T
Test
E =h +
h Test 2g
Test (Eq 7.30) 7.37
( dhdt ) Test
= Ps
Test
( 1+
V
T
1
ref
g
dV
dh
T ) (Eq 7.31) 7.38
V V
W T T
Test Std Std
Ps = Ps + (T - D)
Std Test W V W Nx
Std T Std
Test (Eq 7.32) 7.38
D = D -D =
(
2 W
2
Std
- W
2
Test )
Std Test 2
e AR S Pa M
(Eq 7.33) 7.39
V.35
L = nz W
(Eq 7.34) 7.40
nz = cos
(Eq 7.35) 7.40
D =
2 (W 2
Std
cos2 -
Std
2
W
Test
cos2
Test )
2
e AR Ve S
ssl (Eq 7.36) 7.40
D =
2 ( W
2 2
n
Std z Std
-W
2
n2
Test z Test )
2
e AR Ve S
ssl (Eq 7.37) 7.40
( dhdt ) Std
= Ps
( Std
1
V dV
1 + gT
dh
T ) (Eq 7.38) 7.41
Std
= sin
-1
( ) dh
dt
V
T (Eq 7.39) 7.41
L = W cos - T sin
G j (Eq 7.40) 7.42
nz = L
W (Eq 7.41) 7.42
T
nz = cos - G sin
W j (Eq 7.42) 7.42
= f H , Ta
N ( P ) (Eq 7.43) 7.44
t
2
Distance = V cos dt
T t
1 (Eq 7.44) 7.46
t
2 .
Fuel Used = W dt
f t
1 (Eq 7.45) 7.47
C = K - 273.15 (Eq 7.46) 7.52
V.36
EQUATIONS
OAT = f Ta, M ( ) (Eq 7.47) 7.52
Ta = f ( OAT, M )
(Eq 7.48) 7.52
T (
V = f OAT, M
T ) (Eq 7.49) 7.53
h=H
P
c ref
+ H
Pc ( ) Ta
T
std (Eq 7.50) 7.53
CHAPTER 8
Fz = L = W cos (Eq 8.1) 8.3
Fx = D = W sin (Eq 8.2) 8.3
L = cos = cot
D sin (Eq 8.3) 8.3
V = V cos
hor T (Eq 8.4) 8.3
Vv = V sin
T (Eq 8.5) 8.3
V V cos
= cot = L
hor T
=
Vv V sin D
T (Eq 8.6) 8.3
Vv
sin =
V
T (Eq 8.7) 8.3
= sin
-1
( ) Vv
V
T (Eq 8.8) 8.4
= sin
-1
( ) dh/dt
V
T (Eq 8.9) 8.4
L = cot sin-1
D ( ) dh/dt
V
T
(Eq 8.10) 8.4
V.37
V cos
Glide Ratio = L = T
D Vv
(Eq 8.11) 8.4
V
GR = L T
D Vv
(Eq 8.12) 8.4
V =
T
2 2 2
V sin + V cos =
T T
2
V
2
T
( sin
2
+ cos2 ) (Eq 8.13) 8.5
dV
Fx = W sin - D = W T
g dt (Eq 8.14) 8.10
dV
D = sin - 1 T
W g dt (Eq 8.15) 8.10
dV dV
T T dh
=
dt dh dt (Eq 8.16) 8.10
dV
D = sin - 1 T dh
W g dh dt (Eq 8.17) 8.10
dh = V sin
dt T (Eq 8.18) 8.11
dV
D = sin - 1 T
g V sin
W dh T (Eq 8.19) 8.11
L = cos
W (Eq 8.20) 8.11
1
L = cot V dV
1 - gT
D T
dh (Eq 8.21) 8.11
( ) (dh/dt) 1
L = cot sin-1 V dV
V 1 - gT
D T
T
dh (Eq 8.22) 8.11
GR
L= V dV
1 - gT
D T
dh (Eq 8.23) 8.12
V.38
EQUATIONS
V dV
GR = L 1 - T T
D g dh (Eq 8.24) 8.12
Vc = V + Vpos
i (Eq 8.25) 8.29
H =H + Hpos
Pc P
i (Eq 8.26) 8.29
Ta( C ) = Ta ( K ) - 273.15
(Eq 8.27) 8.29
OAT = f Ta, M ( T ) (Eq 8.28) 8.29
Ta = f ( OAT, MT ) (Eq 8.29) 8.29
V
T
Test
=f
(V , H
c Pc
, Ta
) (Eq 8.30) 8.29
V
T
Std
=f
(V , H c Pc
,T
Std ) (Eq 8.31) 8.29
h=H
P
c ref
+ H
Pc ( ) T
Ta
Std (Eq 8.32) 8.29
2
V
T
Test
E =h+
h 2g (Eq 8.33) 8.30
dE
h
Ps =
dt
Test (Eq 8.34) 8.30
( )( )( )
V V
W T T
Test Std
Std Test W V W Nx
Std T Std
Test (Eq 8.35) 8.30
-1 dh/dt
= sin V
Test T
Test (Eq 8.36) 8.30
V.39
DCF = 1+ ( V
T
g
Std
dV
dh
T
) (Eq 8.37) 8.30
( )
Ps
dh Std
=
dt DCF
Std (Eq 8.38) 8.30
(dh/dt)
-1 Std
= sin V
Std T
Std (Eq 8.39) 8.30
V = Vo + V
i ic (Eq 8.40) 8.32
H =H + H
P Po P
i ic (Eq 8.41) 8.32
T = To + T
i ic (Eq 8.42) 8.32
V = 39.0 M Ta ( K )
T (Eq 8.43) 8.32
W =W -W
f f f
Used Start End (Eq 8.44) 8.32
t
d = V
Tavg 60
(Eq 8.45) 8.32
H
P
Range = d
Sea Level (Eq 8.46) 8.32
V.40
EQUATIONS
CHAPTER 9
R = (W - L) (Eq 9.1) 9.5
( )
S
1 2
1 W
T - D - (W - L) dS = 2 g VTO
0 (Eq 9.2) 9.6
T - D -(W - L) S =1 W
Avg 1 2
g (V )
2
TO
(Eq 9.3) 9.6
2
WV
TO
S =
1 2g T - D- (W - L)
Avg (Eq 9.4) 9.7
Work = T V t (Eq 9.5) 9.9
Tex = T - D - (W - L)
(Eq 9.6) 9.9
2
q = 1 V
2 (Eq 9.7) 9.9
D=C qS
D (Eq 9.8) 9.9
L=C qS
L (Eq 9.9) 9.9
C =C +C
D Dp D
i (Eq 9.10) 9.9
2
C
L
C =
D e AR
i (Eq 9.11) 9.10
2
C
L
C =C +
D e AR
Dp
(Eq 9.12) 9.10
D= C ( Dp
+
C
e AR
2
L
) qS
(Eq 9.13) 9.10
V.41
Tex = T - C ( Dp
+
C
e AR
2
L
) qS- W-C qS ( L )
(Eq 9.14) 9.10
dTex
dC
=
L
( 2C
e AR
L
) q S + ( q S )
(Eq 9.15) 9.10
e AR
C =
L 2
Opt (Eq 9.16) 9.10
(V )+ 50 W
50 ft 2 2
S = (T - D) dS = W -V
2 Lift off 2g 50 TO
(Eq 9.17) 9.12
S =
2
W ( V
2
50
2g
-V
(T - D)
2
TO
+ 50 )
Avg (Eq 9.18) 9.12
V =V - Vw
TOw TO
(Eq 9.19) 9.13
2
WV
TOw
S =
1w 2 g Tex
Avg w
(Eq 9.20) 9.13
( )
2
W VTOw+ Vw
S =
1 2 g Tex
Std
Avg (Eq 9.21) 9.13
( )
Tex 2
Avg w Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w Tex V
Std TOw
Avg (Eq 9.22) 9.13
( )
1.85
Vw
S =S 1+
1 1w V
Std TOw
(Eq 9.23) 9.14
V.42
EQUATIONS
S = S + S
2 2w 2
Std (Eq 9.24) 9.14
2
Tex S =1 W
g V -WS sin
Avg 1 2 TO 1
SL SL (Eq 9.25) 9.15
2
WV
TO
(T )
S =
1
SL + W sin
2g ex
Avg
(Eq 9.26) 9.15
( )
1
SL
S =
1 2g S
Std 1
SL
1- sin
2
V
TO (Eq 9.27) 9.15
( ) ( )( )
1.3
2.3 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.28) 9.16
( )( )( )
1.6
2.3 0.7 T
W N
Std Test Test
S =S
2 2 W Std T
Std Test Test N
Std (Eq 9.29) 9.16
( )( )( )( )
2.6 0.7 0.5
1.9 Pa
W N
Std Test Test Test
S =S
1 1 W Std N Pa
( )( )( )( )
2.6 0.8 0.6
1.9 Pa
W N
Std Test Test Test
S =S
2 2 W Std N Pa
S =
3
W ( V
2
TD
2g
(T - D)
- V
2
50
- 50 )
Avg (Eq 9.32) 9.19
V.43
(0 - V )
Stop
2
S = T-D-(W - L) dS = 1 W
4 Touchdown 2 g TD
(Eq 9.33) 9.19
2
-W V
TD
S =
4 2g T - D -(W - L)
Avg (Eq 9.34) 9.20
( 2+
E
h
) ( ) E
h
( )
E + 50 E + 50
( )
h h
W
Std Test
S =S
3 3 W Std
2 2
V -V
50 TD
E =
h 2g (Eq 9.36) 9.23
( )( )
2
W
Std Test
S =S
4 4 W Std

(Eq 9.38) 9.28
Pa
= 9.625
Ta
(Eq 9.39) 9.29
V =V - Vw
TDw TD
(Eq 9.40) 9.30
( )
1.85
V
S =S 1+ w
4 4w V
Std TD (Eq 9.41) 9.30
( )
4
SL
S =
4 2gS
Std 4
SL
1- sin
2
V
TD (Eq 9.42) 9.31
V.44
APPENDIX VI
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
VI
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
-1000 2193.818 1.0367 290.13 1.0069 663.753 1.0296 1.005 1.0276

-900 2185.956 1.0330 289.93 1.0062 663.526 1.0266 1.005 1.0249
-800 2178.117 1.0293 289.73 1.0055 663.300 1.0236 1.004 1.0221
-700 2170.300 1.0256 289.54 1.0048 663.073 1.0206 1.004 1.0193
-600 2162.506 1.0219 289.34 1.0041 662.846 1.0177 1.003 1.0165
-500 2154.735 1.0182 289.14 1.0034 662.619 1.0147 1.003 1.0137

-400 2146.986 1.0145 288.94 1.0028 662.392 1.0118 1.002 1.0110
-300 2139.260 1.0109 288.74 1.0021 662.165 1.0088 1.002 1.0082
-200 2131.557 1.0072 288.55 1.0014 661.938 1.0059 1.001 1.0055
-100 2123.876 1.0036 288.35 1.0007 661.710 1.0029 1.001 1.0027
0 2116.217 1.0000 288.15 1.0000 661.483 1.0000 1.000 1.0000
100 2108.581 0.9964 287.95 0.9993 661.256 0.9971 0.999 0.9973

200 2100.967 0.9928 287.75 0.9986 661.028 0.9942 0.999 0.9945
300 2093.375 0.9892 287.56 0.9979 660.800 0.9913 0.998 0.9918
400 2085.806 0.9856 287.36 0.9972 660.573 0.9883 0.998 0.9891
500 2078.259 0.9821 287.16 0.9966 660.345 0.9855 0.997 0.9864

600 2070.734 0.9785 286.96 0.9959 660.117 0.9826 0.997 0.9837
700 2063.231 0.9750 286.76 0.9952 659.889 0.9797 0.996 0.9810
800 2055.750 0.9714 286.57 0.9945 659.661 0.9768 0.996 0.9783
900 2048.291 0.9679 286.37 0.9938 659.433 0.9739 0.995 0.9756
1000 2040.854 0.9644 286.17 0.9931 659.205 0.9711 0.995 0.9729

1100 2033.438 0.9609 285.97 0.9924 658.977 0.9682 0.994 0.9703
1200 2026.045 0.9574 285.77 0.9917 658.748 0.9654 0.994 0.9676
1300 2018.673 0.9539 285.57 0.9911 658.520 0.9625 0.993 0.9649
1400 2011.324 0.9504 285.38 0.9904 658.292 0.9597 0.993 0.9623
1500 2003.995 0.9470 285.18 0.9897 658.063 0.9568 0.992 0.9596

1600 1996.689 0.9435 284.98 0.9890 657.834 0.9540 0.991 0.9570
1700 1989.404 0.9401 284.78 0.9883 657.606 0.9512 0.991 0.9543
1800 1982.141 0.9366 284.58 0.9876 657.377 0.9484 0.990 0.9517
1900 1974.899 0.9332 284.39 0.9869 657.148 0.9456 0.990 0.9490
2000 1967.678 0.9298 284.19 0.9862 656.919 0.9428 0.989 0.9464

2100 1960.479 0.9264 283.99 0.9856 656.690 0.9400 0.989 0.9438
2200 1953.301 0.9230 283.79 0.9849 656.461 0.9372 0.988 0.9412
2300 1946.145 0.9196 283.59 0.9842 656.232 0.9344 0.988 0.9386
2400 1939.010 0.9163 283.40 0.9835 656.003 0.9316 0.987 0.9360
2500 1931.896 0.9129 283.20 0.9828 655.773 0.9289 0.987 0.9334

2600 1924.803 0.9095 283.00 0.9821 655.544 0.9261 0.986 0.9308
2700 1917.731 0.9062 282.80 0.9814 655.314 0.9233 0.986 0.9282
2800 1910.680 0.9029 282.60 0.9807 655.085 0.9206 0.985 0.9256
2900 1903.651 0.8996 282.40 0.9801 654.855 0.9179 0.984 0.9230
VI.1
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
3000 1896.642 0.8962 282.21 0.9794 654.625 0.9151 0.984 0.9205

3100 1889.654 0.8929 282.01 0.9787 654.396 0.9124 0.983 0.9179
3200 1882.687 0.8896 281.81 0.9780 654.166 0.9097 0.983 0.9153
3300 1875.741 0.8864 281.61 0.9773 653.936 0.9069 0.982 0.9128
3400 1868.816 0.8831 281.41 0.9766 653.706 0.9042 0.982 0.9102
3500 1861.911 0.8798 281.22 0.9759 653.475 0.9015 0.981 0.9077

3600 1855.027 0.8766 281.02 0.9752 653.245 0.8988 0.981 0.9051
3700 1848.164 0.8733 280.82 0.9746 653.015 0.8961 0.980 0.9026
3800 1841.321 0.8701 280.62 0.9739 652.784 0.8934 0.980 0.9001
3900 1834.499 0.8669 280.42 0.9732 652.554 0.8908 0.979 0.8976
4000 1827.697 0.8637 280.23 0.9725 652.323 0.8881 0.978 0.8950

4100 1820.915 0.8605 280.03 0.9718 652.093 0.8854 0.978 0.8925
4200 1814.154 0.8573 279.83 0.9711 651.862 0.8828 0.977 0.8900
4300 1807.414 0.8541 279.63 0.9704 651.631 0.8801 0.977 0.8875
4400 1800.694 0.8509 279.43 0.9697 651.400 0.8774 0.976 0.8850
4500 1793.993 0.8477 279.23 0.9691 651.169 0.8748 0.976 0.8825

4600 1787.314 0.8446 279.04 0.9684 650.938 0.8722 0.975 0.8801
4700 1780.654 0.8414 278.84 0.9677 650.707 0.8695 0.975 0.8776
4800 1774.014 0.8383 278.64 0.9670 650.476 0.8669 0.974 0.8751
4900 1767.395 0.8352 278.44 0.9663 650.245 0.8643 0.974 0.8726
5000 1760.795 0.8320 278.24 0.9656 650.013 0.8617 0.973 0.8702

5100 1754.216 0.8289 278.05 0.9649 649.782 0.8591 0.973 0.8677
5200 1747.656 0.8258 277.85 0.9642 649.550 0.8565 0.972 0.8653
5300 1741.116 0.8227 277.65 0.9636 649.319 0.8539 0.971 0.8628
5400 1734.596 0.8197 277.45 0.9629 649.087 0.8513 0.971 0.8604
5500 1728.096 0.8166 277.25 0.9622 648.855 0.8487 0.970 0.8579

5600 1721.616 0.8135 277.06 0.9615 648.623 0.8461 0.970 0.8555
5700 1715.155 0.8105 276.86 0.9608 648.391 0.8435 0.969 0.8531
5800 1708.714 0.8074 276.66 0.9601 648.159 0.8410 0.969 0.8507
5900 1702.292 0.8044 276.46 0.9594 647.927 0.8384 0.968 0.8482
6000 1695.890 0.8014 276.26 0.9587 647.695 0.8359 0.968 0.8458

6100 1689.508 0.7984 276.06 0.9581 647.463 0.8333 0.967 0.8434
6200 1683.145 0.7954 275.87 0.9574 647.230 0.8308 0.967 0.8410
6300 1676.802 0.7924 275.67 0.9567 646.998 0.8282 0.966 0.8386
6400 1670.477 0.7894 275.47 0.9560 646.765 0.8257 0.965 0.8362
6500 1664.173 0.7864 275.27 0.9553 646.533 0.8232 0.965 0.8338

6600 1657.887 0.7834 275.07 0.9546 646.300 0.8207 0.964 0.8315
6700 1651.621 0.7805 274.88 0.9539 646.067 0.8181 0.964 0.8291
6800 1645.374 0.7775 274.68 0.9532 645.834 0.8156 0.963 0.8267
6900 1639.146 0.7746 274.48 0.9526 645.601 0.8131 0.963 0.8244
VI.2
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
7000 1632.937 0.7716 274.28 0.9519 645.368 0.8106 0.962 0.8220

7100 1626.747 0.7687 274.08 0.9512 645.135 0.8082 0.962 0.8196
7200 1620.576 0.7658 273.89 0.9505 644.902 0.8057 0.961 0.8173
7300 1614.424 0.7629 273.69 0.9498 644.669 0.8032 0.961 0.8150
7400 1608.291 0.7600 273.49 0.9491 644.435 0.8007 0.960 0.8126
7500 1602.177 0.7571 273.29 0.9484 644.202 0.7983 0.959 0.8103

7600 1596.082 0.7542 273.09 0.9477 643.968 0.7958 0.959 0.8080
7700 1590.006 0.7513 272.89 0.9471 643.735 0.7933 0.958 0.8056
7800 1583.948 0.7485 272.70 0.9464 643.501 0.7909 0.958 0.8033
7900 1577.909 0.7456 272.50 0.9457 643.267 0.7885 0.957 0.8010
8000 1571.889 0.7428 272.30 0.9450 643.033 0.7860 0.957 0.7987

8100 1565.887 0.7399 272.10 0.9443 642.799 0.7836 0.956 0.7964
8200 1559.904 0.7371 271.90 0.9436 642.565 0.7812 0.956 0.7941
8300 1553.939 0.7343 271.71 0.9429 642.331 0.7787 0.955 0.7918
8400 1547.993 0.7315 271.51 0.9422 642.097 0.7763 0.954 0.7895
8500 1542.066 0.7287 271.31 0.9416 641.863 0.7739 0.954 0.7872

8600 1536.156 0.7259 271.11 0.9409 641.628 0.7715 0.953 0.7849
8700 1530.265 0.7231 270.91 0.9402 641.394 0.7691 0.953 0.7827
8800 1524.393 0.7203 270.72 0.9395 641.159 0.7667 0.952 0.7804
8900 1518.538 0.7176 270.52 0.9388 640.925 0.7643 0.952 0.7781
9000 1512.702 0.7148 270.32 0.9381 640.690 0.7620 0.951 0.7759

9100 1506.884 0.7121 270.12 0.9374 640.455 0.7596 0.951 0.7736
9200 1501.084 0.7093 269.92 0.9367 640.220 0.7572 0.950 0.7714
9300 1495.303 0.7066 269.72 0.9361 639.985 0.7549 0.950 0.7691
9400 1489.539 0.7039 269.53 0.9354 639.750 0.7525 0.949 0.7669
9500 1483.793 0.7012 269.33 0.9347 639.515 0.7502 0.948 0.7647

9600 1478.066 0.6984 269.13 0.9340 639.280 0.7478 0.948 0.7624
9700 1472.356 0.6957 268.93 0.9333 639.044 0.7455 0.947 0.7602
9800 1466.664 0.6931 268.73 0.9326 638.809 0.7431 0.947 0.7580
9900 1460.990 0.6904 268.54 0.9319 638.573 0.7408 0.946 0.7558
10000 1455.333 0.6877 268.34 0.9312 638.338 0.7385 0.946 0.7536

10100 1449.695 0.6850 268.14 0.9306 638.102 0.7362 0.945 0.7514
10200 1444.074 0.6824 267.94 0.9299 637.866 0.7339 0.945 0.7492
10300 1438.471 0.6797 267.74 0.9292 637.630 0.7315 0.944 0.7470
10400 1432.885 0.6771 267.55 0.9285 637.394 0.7292 0.943 0.7448
10500 1427.317 0.6745 267.35 0.9278 637.158 0.7269 0.943 0.7426

10600 1421.767 0.6718 267.15 0.9271 636.922 0.7247 0.942 0.7404
10700 1416.234 0.6692 266.95 0.9264 636.686 0.7224 0.942 0.7383
10800 1410.718 0.6666 266.75 0.9257 636.450 0.7201 0.941 0.7361
10900 1405.220 0.6640 266.55 0.9251 636.213 0.7178 0.941 0.7339
VI.3
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
11000 1399.739 0.6614 266.36 0.9244 635.977 0.7156 0.940 0.7318

11100 1394.276 0.6589 266.16 0.9237 635.740 0.7133 0.940 0.7296
11200 1388.829 0.6563 265.96 0.9230 635.504 0.7110 0.939 0.7275
11300 1383.400 0.6537 265.76 0.9223 635.267 0.7088 0.938 0.7253
11400 1377.989 0.6512 265.56 0.9216 635.030 0.7065 0.938 0.7232
11500 1372.594 0.6486 265.37 0.9209 634.793 0.7043 0.937 0.7210

11600 1367.217 0.6461 265.17 0.9202 634.556 0.7021 0.937 0.7189
11700 1361.856 0.6435 264.97 0.9196 634.319 0.6998 0.936 0.7168
11800 1356.513 0.6410 264.77 0.9189 634.082 0.6976 0.936 0.7147
11900 1351.186 0.6385 264.57 0.9182 633.845 0.6954 0.935 0.7126
12000 1345.877 0.6360 264.38 0.9175 633.607 0.6932 0.935 0.7104

12100 1340.584 0.6335 264.18 0.9168 633.370 0.6910 0.934 0.7083
12200 1335.309 0.6310 263.98 0.9161 633.132 0.6888 0.933 0.7062
12300 1330.050 0.6285 263.78 0.9154 632.895 0.6866 0.933 0.7041
12400 1324.808 0.6260 263.58 0.9147 632.657 0.6844 0.932 0.7020
12500 1319.583 0.6236 263.39 0.9141 632.419 0.6822 0.932 0.7000

12600 1314.374 0.6211 263.19 0.9134 632.181 0.6800 0.931 0.6979
12700 1309.182 0.6186 262.99 0.9127 631.943 0.6778 0.931 0.6958
12800 1304.007 0.6162 262.79 0.9120 631.705 0.6757 0.930 0.6937
12900 1298.848 0.6138 262.59 0.9113 631.467 0.6735 0.930 0.6917
13000 1293.706 0.6113 262.39 0.9106 631.229 0.6713 0.929 0.6896

13100 1288.580 0.6089 262.20 0.9099 630.990 0.6692 0.928 0.6875
13200 1283.471 0.6065 262.00 0.9092 630.752 0.6670 0.928 0.6855
13300 1278.378 0.6041 261.80 0.9086 630.513 0.6649 0.927 0.6834
13400 1273.301 0.6017 261.60 0.9079 630.275 0.6627 0.927 0.6814
13500 1268.241 0.5993 261.40 0.9072 630.036 0.6606 0.926 0.6793

13600 1263.197 0.5969 261.21 0.9065 629.797 0.6585 0.926 0.6773
13700 1258.170 0.5945 261.01 0.9058 629.558 0.6564 0.925 0.6753
13800 1253.158 0.5922 260.81 0.9051 629.319 0.6542 0.925 0.6732
13900 1248.163 0.5898 260.61 0.9044 629.080 0.6521 0.924 0.6712
14000 1243.184 0.5875 260.41 0.9037 628.841 0.6500 0.923 0.6692

14100 1238.221 0.5851 260.22 0.9031 628.602 0.6479 0.923 0.6672
14200 1233.274 0.5828 260.02 0.9024 628.362 0.6458 0.922 0.6652
14300 1228.343 0.5804 259.82 0.9017 628.123 0.6437 0.922 0.6632
14400 1223.428 0.5781 259.62 0.9010 627.883 0.6416 0.921 0.6612
14500 1218.529 0.5758 259.42 0.9003 627.644 0.6396 0.921 0.6592

14600 1213.646 0.5735 259.22 0.8996 627.404 0.6375 0.920 0.6572
14700 1208.779 0.5712 259.03 0.8989 627.164 0.6354 0.919 0.6552
14800 1203.928 0.5689 258.83 0.8982 626.924 0.6334 0.919 0.6532
14900 1199.092 0.5666 258.63 0.8976 626.684 0.6313 0.918 0.6513
VI.4
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
15000 1194.272 0.5643 258.43 0.8969 626.444 0.6292 0.918 0.6493

15100 1189.468 0.5621 258.23 0.8962 626.204 0.6272 0.917 0.6473
15200 1184.679 0.5598 258.04 0.8955 625.964 0.6251 0.917 0.6454
15300 1179.906 0.5576 257.84 0.8948 625.724 0.6231 0.916 0.6434
15400 1175.149 0.5553 257.64 0.8941 625.483 0.6211 0.916 0.6414
15500 1170.407 0.5531 257.44 0.8934 625.243 0.6190 0.915 0.6395

15600 1165.681 0.5508 257.24 0.8927 625.002 0.6170 0.914 0.6375
15700 1160.970 0.5486 257.05 0.8921 624.761 0.6150 0.914 0.6356
15800 1156.275 0.5464 256.85 0.8914 624.520 0.6130 0.913 0.6337
15900 1151.595 0.5442 256.65 0.8907 624.280 0.6110 0.913 0.6317
16000 1146.930 0.5420 256.45 0.8900 624.039 0.6090 0.912 0.6298

16100 1142.281 0.5398 256.25 0.8893 623.797 0.6070 0.912 0.6279
16200 1137.647 0.5376 256.05 0.8886 623.556 0.6050 0.911 0.6260
16300 1133.028 0.5354 255.86 0.8879 623.315 0.6030 0.910 0.6241
16400 1128.424 0.5332 255.66 0.8872 623.074 0.6010 0.910 0.6222
16500 1123.836 0.5311 255.46 0.8866 622.832 0.5990 0.909 0.6202

16600 1119.262 0.5289 255.26 0.8859 622.591 0.5970 0.909 0.6183
16700 1114.704 0.5267 255.06 0.8852 622.349 0.5951 0.908 0.6165
16800 1110.161 0.5246 254.87 0.8845 622.107 0.5931 0.908 0.6146
16900 1105.633 0.5225 254.67 0.8838 621.865 0.5911 0.907 0.6127
17000 1101.119 0.5203 254.47 0.8831 621.623 0.5892 0.907 0.6108

17100 1096.621 0.5182 254.27 0.8824 621.381 0.5872 0.906 0.6089
17200 1092.138 0.5161 254.07 0.8817 621.139 0.5853 0.905 0.6070
17300 1087.669 0.5140 253.88 0.8811 620.897 0.5834 0.905 0.6052
17400 1083.215 0.5119 253.68 0.8804 620.655 0.5814 0.904 0.6033
17500 1078.776 0.5098 253.48 0.8797 620.412 0.5795 0.904 0.6014

17600 1074.352 0.5077 253.28 0.8790 620.170 0.5776 0.903 0.5996
17700 1069.943 0.5056 253.08 0.8783 619.927 0.5756 0.903 0.5977
17800 1065.548 0.5035 252.88 0.8776 619.684 0.5737 0.902 0.5959
17900 1061.167 0.5014 252.69 0.8769 619.442 0.5718 0.901 0.5941
18000 1056.802 0.4994 252.49 0.8762 619.199 0.5699 0.901 0.5922

18100 1052.451 0.4973 252.29 0.8756 618.956 0.5680 0.900 0.5904
18200 1048.114 0.4953 252.09 0.8749 618.713 0.5661 0.900 0.5885
18300 1043.792 0.4932 251.89 0.8742 618.470 0.5642 0.899 0.5867
18400 1039.484 0.4912 251.70 0.8735 618.226 0.5623 0.899 0.5849
18500 1035.191 0.4892 251.50 0.8728 617.983 0.5605 0.898 0.5831

18600 1030.912 0.4871 251.30 0.8721 617.739 0.5586 0.897 0.5813
18700 1026.648 0.4851 251.10 0.8714 617.496 0.5567 0.897 0.5795
18800 1022.397 0.4831 250.90 0.8707 617.252 0.5548 0.896 0.5777
18900 1018.161 0.4811 250.71 0.8701 617.009 0.5530 0.896 0.5759
VI.5
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
19000 1013.940 0.4791 250.51 0.8694 616.765 0.5511 0.895 0.5741

19100 1009.732 0.4771 250.31 0.8687 616.521 0.5493 0.895 0.5723
19200 1005.539 0.4752 250.11 0.8680 616.277 0.5474 0.894 0.5705
19300 1001.359 0.4732 249.91 0.8673 616.033 0.5456 0.893 0.5687
19400 997.194 0.4712 249.71 0.8666 615.788 0.5437 0.893 0.5669
19500 993.043 0.4693 249.52 0.8659 615.544 0.5419 0.892 0.5652

19600 988.906 0.4673 249.32 0.8652 615.300 0.5401 0.892 0.5634
19700 984.782 0.4654 249.12 0.8646 615.055 0.5383 0.891 0.5616
19800 980.673 0.4634 248.92 0.8639 614.810 0.5364 0.891 0.5599
19900 976.578 0.4615 248.72 0.8632 614.566 0.5346 0.890 0.5581
20000 972.496 0.4595 248.53 0.8625 614.321 0.5328 0.889 0.5563

20100 968.428 0.4576 248.33 0.8618 614.076 0.5310 0.889 0.5546
20200 964.374 0.4557 248.13 0.8611 613.831 0.5292 0.888 0.5529
20300 960.334 0.4538 247.93 0.8604 613.586 0.5274 0.888 0.5511
20400 956.308 0.4519 247.73 0.8597 613.341 0.5256 0.887 0.5494
20500 952.295 0.4500 247.54 0.8591 613.095 0.5238 0.887 0.5476

20600 948.296 0.4481 247.34 0.8584 612.850 0.5221 0.886 0.5459
20700 944.310 0.4462 247.14 0.8577 612.604 0.5203 0.885 0.5442
20800 940.338 0.4443 246.94 0.8570 612.359 0.5185 0.885 0.5425
20900 936.380 0.4425 246.74 0.8563 612.113 0.5167 0.884 0.5408
21000 932.435 0.4406 246.54 0.8556 611.867 0.5150 0.884 0.5390

21100 928.504 0.4388 246.35 0.8549 611.621 0.5132 0.883 0.5373
21200 924.586 0.4369 246.15 0.8542 611.375 0.5115 0.883 0.5356
21300 920.681 0.4351 245.95 0.8536 611.129 0.5097 0.882 0.5339
21400 916.790 0.4332 245.75 0.8529 610.883 0.5080 0.881 0.5322
21500 912.912 0.4314 245.55 0.8522 610.637 0.5062 0.881 0.5305

21600 909.047 0.4296 245.36 0.8515 610.391 0.5045 0.880 0.5289
21700 905.196 0.4277 245.16 0.8508 610.144 0.5028 0.880 0.5272
21800 901.358 0.4259 244.96 0.8501 609.897 0.5010 0.879 0.5255
21900 897.533 0.4241 244.76 0.8494 609.651 0.4993 0.879 0.5238
22000 893.721 0.4223 244.56 0.8487 609.404 0.4976 0.878 0.5222

22100 889.922 0.4205 244.37 0.8480 609.157 0.4959 0.877 0.5205
22200 886.137 0.4187 244.17 0.8474 608.910 0.4942 0.877 0.5188
22300 882.364 0.4170 243.97 0.8467 608.663 0.4925 0.876 0.5172
22400 878.604 0.4152 243.77 0.8460 608.416 0.4908 0.876 0.5155
22500 874.858 0.4134 243.57 0.8453 608.169 0.4891 0.875 0.5139

22600 871.124 0.4116 243.37 0.8446 607.921 0.4874 0.874 0.5122
22700 867.404 0.4099 243.18 0.8439 607.674 0.4857 0.874 0.5106
22800 863.696 0.4081 242.98 0.8432 607.426 0.4840 0.873 0.5089
22900 860.001 0.4064 242.78 0.8425 607.178 0.4823 0.873 0.5073
VI.6
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
23000 856.319 0.4046 242.58 0.8419 606.931 0.4807 0.872 0.5057

23100 852.649 0.4029 242.38 0.8412 606.683 0.4790 0.872 0.5040
23200 848.993 0.4012 242.19 0.8405 606.435 0.4773 0.871 0.5024
23300 845.349 0.3995 241.99 0.8398 606.187 0.4757 0.870 0.5008
23400 841.717 0.3977 241.79 0.8391 605.938 0.4740 0.870 0.4992
23500 838.099 0.3960 241.59 0.8384 605.690 0.4724 0.869 0.4976

23600 834.493 0.3943 241.39 0.8377 605.442 0.4707 0.869 0.4960
23700 830.899 0.3926 241.20 0.8370 605.193 0.4691 0.868 0.4944
23800 827.318 0.3909 241.00 0.8364 604.945 0.4674 0.868 0.4928
23900 823.750 0.3893 240.80 0.8357 604.696 0.4658 0.867 0.4912
24000 820.194 0.3876 240.60 0.8350 604.447 0.4642 0.866 0.4896

24100 816.651 0.3859 240.40 0.8343 604.198 0.4625 0.866 0.4880
24200 813.120 0.3842 240.20 0.8336 603.949 0.4609 0.865 0.4864
24300 809.601 0.3826 240.01 0.8329 603.700 0.4593 0.865 0.4848
24400 806.094 0.3809 239.81 0.8322 603.451 0.4577 0.864 0.4833
24500 802.600 0.3793 239.61 0.8315 603.201 0.4561 0.863 0.4817

24600 799.119 0.3776 239.41 0.8309 602.952 0.4545 0.863 0.4801
24700 795.649 0.3760 239.21 0.8302 602.703 0.4529 0.862 0.4786
24800 792.192 0.3743 239.02 0.8295 602.453 0.4513 0.862 0.4770
24900 788.747 0.3727 238.82 0.8288 602.203 0.4497 0.861 0.4754
25000 785.314 0.3711 238.62 0.8281 601.953 0.4481 0.861 0.4739

25100 781.893 0.3695 238.42 0.8274 601.703 0.4465 0.860 0.4723
25200 778.484 0.3679 238.22 0.8267 601.453 0.4450 0.859 0.4708
25300 775.087 0.3663 238.03 0.8260 601.203 0.4434 0.859 0.4693
25400 771.702 0.3647 237.83 0.8254 600.953 0.4418 0.858 0.4677
25500 768.329 0.3631 237.63 0.8247 600.703 0.4403 0.858 0.4662

25600 764.969 0.3615 237.43 0.8240 600.452 0.4387 0.857 0.4647
25700 761.620 0.3599 237.23 0.8233 600.201 0.4371 0.856 0.4631
25800 758.283 0.3583 237.04 0.8226 599.951 0.4356 0.856 0.4616
25900 754.957 0.3567 236.84 0.8219 599.700 0.4340 0.855 0.4601
26000 751.644 0.3552 236.64 0.8212 599.449 0.4325 0.855 0.4586

26100 748.342 0.3536 236.44 0.8205 599.198 0.4310 0.854 0.4571
26200 745.053 0.3521 236.24 0.8199 598.947 0.4294 0.854 0.4556
26300 741.774 0.3505 236.04 0.8192 598.696 0.4279 0.853 0.4541
26400 738.508 0.3490 235.85 0.8185 598.445 0.4264 0.852 0.4526
26500 735.253 0.3474 235.65 0.8178 598.193 0.4248 0.852 0.4511

26600 732.010 0.3459 235.45 0.8171 597.942 0.4233 0.851 0.4496
26700 728.778 0.3444 235.25 0.8164 597.690 0.4218 0.851 0.4481
26800 725.558 0.3429 235.05 0.8157 597.438 0.4203 0.850 0.4466
26900 722.350 0.3413 234.86 0.8150 597.186 0.4188 0.849 0.4451
VI.7
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
27000 719.153 0.3398 234.66 0.8144 596.935 0.4173 0.849 0.4436

27100 715.968 0.3383 234.46 0.8137 596.682 0.4158 0.848 0.4422
27200 712.793 0.3368 234.26 0.8130 596.430 0.4143 0.848 0.4407
27300 709.631 0.3353 234.06 0.8123 596.178 0.4128 0.847 0.4392
27400 706.479 0.3338 233.87 0.8116 595.926 0.4113 0.846 0.4378
27500 703.340 0.3324 233.67 0.8109 595.673 0.4099 0.846 0.4363

27600 700.211 0.3309 233.47 0.8102 595.421 0.4084 0.845 0.4349
27700 697.094 0.3294 233.27 0.8095 595.168 0.4069 0.845 0.4334
27800 693.987 0.3279 233.07 0.8089 594.915 0.4054 0.844 0.4320
27900 690.892 0.3265 232.87 0.8082 594.662 0.4040 0.844 0.4305
28000 687.809 0.3250 232.68 0.8075 594.409 0.4025 0.843 0.4291

28100 684.736 0.3236 232.48 0.8068 594.156 0.4011 0.842 0.4277
28200 681.675 0.3221 232.28 0.8061 593.903 0.3996 0.842 0.4262
28300 678.624 0.3207 232.08 0.8054 593.650 0.3981 0.841 0.4248
28400 675.585 0.3192 231.88 0.8047 593.396 0.3967 0.841 0.4234
28500 672.557 0.3178 231.69 0.8040 593.143 0.3953 0.840 0.4219

28600 669.540 0.3164 231.49 0.8034 592.889 0.3938 0.839 0.4205
28700 666.533 0.3150 231.29 0.8027 592.635 0.3924 0.839 0.4191
28800 663.538 0.3135 231.09 0.8020 592.381 0.3910 0.838 0.4177
28900 660.554 0.3121 230.89 0.8013 592.127 0.3895 0.838 0.4163
29000 657.580 0.3107 230.70 0.8006 591.873 0.3881 0.837 0.4149

29100 654.617 0.3093 230.50 0.7999 591.619 0.3867 0.836 0.4135
29200 651.665 0.3079 230.30 0.7992 591.365 0.3853 0.836 0.4121
29300 648.724 0.3065 230.10 0.7985 591.110 0.3839 0.835 0.4107
29400 645.794 0.3052 229.90 0.7979 590.856 0.3825 0.835 0.4093
29500 642.874 0.3038 229.70 0.7972 590.601 0.3811 0.834 0.4079

29600 639.965 0.3024 229.51 0.7965 590.346 0.3797 0.833 0.4066
29700 637.067 0.3010 229.31 0.7958 590.091 0.3783 0.833 0.4052
29800 634.180 0.2997 229.11 0.7951 589.836 0.3769 0.832 0.4038
29900 631.303 0.2983 228.91 0.7944 589.581 0.3755 0.832 0.4024
30000 628.436 0.2970 228.71 0.7937 589.326 0.3741 0.831 0.4011

30100 625.580 0.2956 228.52 0.7930 589.071 0.3728 0.830 0.3997
30200 622.735 0.2943 228.32 0.7924 588.815 0.3714 0.830 0.3983
30300 619.900 0.2929 228.12 0.7917 588.560 0.3700 0.829 0.3970
30400 617.076 0.2916 227.92 0.7910 588.304 0.3686 0.829 0.3956
30500 614.262 0.2903 227.72 0.7903 588.049 0.3673 0.828 0.3943

30600 611.458 0.2889 227.53 0.7896 587.793 0.3659 0.828 0.3929
30700 608.665 0.2876 227.33 0.7889 587.537 0.3646 0.827 0.3916
30800 605.882 0.2863 227.13 0.7882 587.281 0.3632 0.826 0.3903
30900 603.109 0.2850 226.93 0.7875 587.024 0.3619 0.826 0.3889
VI.8
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
31000 600.347 0.2837 226.73 0.7869 586.768 0.3605 0.825 0.3876

31100 597.595 0.2824 226.53 0.7862 586.512 0.3592 0.825 0.3863
31200 594.853 0.2811 226.34 0.7855 586.255 0.3579 0.824 0.3849
31300 592.122 0.2798 226.14 0.7848 585.999 0.3565 0.823 0.3836
31400 589.400 0.2785 225.94 0.7841 585.742 0.3552 0.823 0.3823
31500 586.689 0.2772 225.74 0.7834 585.485 0.3539 0.822 0.3810

31600 583.988 0.2760 225.54 0.7827 585.228 0.3526 0.822 0.3797
31700 581.297 0.2747 225.35 0.7820 584.971 0.3512 0.821 0.3784
31800 578.616 0.2734 225.15 0.7814 584.714 0.3499 0.820 0.3771
31900 575.944 0.2722 224.95 0.7807 584.456 0.3486 0.820 0.3758
32000 573.283 0.2709 224.75 0.7800 584.199 0.3473 0.819 0.3745

32100 570.632 0.2696 224.55 0.7793 583.941 0.3460 0.819 0.3732
32200 567.991 0.2684 224.36 0.7786 583.684 0.3447 0.818 0.3719
32300 565.360 0.2672 224.16 0.7779 583.426 0.3434 0.817 0.3706
32400 562.739 0.2659 223.96 0.7772 583.168 0.3421 0.817 0.3693
32500 560.127 0.2647 223.76 0.7765 582.910 0.3408 0.816 0.3680

32600 557.525 0.2635 223.56 0.7759 582.652 0.3396 0.816 0.3667
32700 554.933 0.2622 223.36 0.7752 582.394 0.3383 0.815 0.3655
32800 552.351 0.2610 223.17 0.7745 582.135 0.3370 0.814 0.3642
32900 549.779 0.2598 222.97 0.7738 581.877 0.3357 0.814 0.3629
33000 547.216 0.2586 222.77 0.7731 581.618 0.3345 0.813 0.3617

33100 544.663 0.2574 222.57 0.7724 581.360 0.3332 0.813 0.3604
33200 542.120 0.2562 222.37 0.7717 581.101 0.3319 0.812 0.3591
33300 539.586 0.2550 222.18 0.7710 580.842 0.3307 0.811 0.3579
33400 537.062 0.2538 221.98 0.7704 580.583 0.3294 0.811 0.3566
33500 534.547 0.2526 221.78 0.7697 580.324 0.3282 0.810 0.3554

33600 532.042 0.2514 221.58 0.7690 580.065 0.3269 0.810 0.3541
33700 529.547 0.2502 221.38 0.7683 579.805 0.3257 0.809 0.3529
33800 527.061 0.2491 221.19 0.7676 579.546 0.3245 0.808 0.3517
33900 524.584 0.2479 220.99 0.7669 579.286 0.3232 0.808 0.3504
34000 522.117 0.2467 220.79 0.7662 579.026 0.3220 0.807 0.3492

34100 519.659 0.2456 220.59 0.7655 578.766 0.3208 0.807 0.3480
34200 517.211 0.2444 220.39 0.7649 578.506 0.3195 0.806 0.3468
34300 514.772 0.2433 220.19 0.7642 578.246 0.3183 0.805 0.3455
34400 512.342 0.2421 220.00 0.7635 577.986 0.3171 0.805 0.3443
34500 509.922 0.2410 219.80 0.7628 577.726 0.3159 0.804 0.3431

34600 507.511 0.2398 219.60 0.7621 577.465 0.3147 0.804 0.3419
34700 505.109 0.2387 219.40 0.7614 577.205 0.3135 0.803 0.3407
34800 502.716 0.2376 219.20 0.7607 576.944 0.3123 0.802 0.3395
34900 500.333 0.2364 219.01 0.7600 576.683 0.3111 0.802 0.3383
VI.9
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
35000 497.959 0.2353 218.81 0.7594 576.423 0.3099 0.801 0.3371

35100 495.593 0.2342 218.61 0.7587 576.162 0.3087 0.800 0.3359
35200 493.237 0.2331 218.41 0.7580 575.900 0.3075 0.800 0.3347
35300 490.890 0.2320 218.21 0.7573 575.639 0.3063 0.799 0.3335
35400 488.552 0.2309 218.02 0.7566 575.378 0.3051 0.799 0.3323
35500 486.223 0.2298 217.82 0.7559 575.116 0.3039 0.798 0.3311

35600 483.904 0.2287 217.62 0.7552 574.855 0.3028 0.797 0.3300
35700 481.593 0.2276 217.42 0.7545 574.593 0.3016 0.797 0.3288
35800 479.291 0.2265 217.22 0.7539 574.331 0.3004 0.796 0.3276
35900 476.997 0.2254 217.02 0.7532 574.069 0.2993 0.796 0.3264
36000 474.713 0.2243 216.83 0.7525 573.807 0.2981 0.795 0.3253

36100 472.424 0.2232 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2969 0.794 0.3241
36200 470.159 0.2222 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2955 0.794 0.3225
36300 467.905 0.2211 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2941 0.794 0.3210
36400 465.661 0.2200 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2927 0.794 0.3194
36500 463.429 0.2190 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2913 0.794 0.3179

36600 461.207 0.2179 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2899 0.794 0.3164
36700 458.996 0.2169 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2885 0.794 0.3148
36800 456.795 0.2159 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2871 0.794 0.3133
36900 454.605 0.2148 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2857 0.794 0.3118
37000 452.425 0.2138 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2843 0.794 0.3103

37100 450.256 0.2128 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2830 0.794 0.3089
37200 448.097 0.2117 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2816 0.794 0.3074
37300 445.949 0.2107 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2803 0.794 0.3059
37400 443.810 0.2097 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2789 0.794 0.3044
37500 441.682 0.2087 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2776 0.794 0.3030

37600 439.565 0.2077 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2763 0.794 0.3015
37700 437.457 0.2067 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2749 0.794 0.3001
37800 435.360 0.2057 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2736 0.794 0.2986
37900 433.272 0.2047 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2723 0.794 0.2972
38000 431.195 0.2038 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2710 0.794 0.2958

38100 429.128 0.2028 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2697 0.794 0.2944
38200 427.070 0.2018 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2684 0.794 0.2929
38300 425.023 0.2008 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2671 0.794 0.2915
38400 422.985 0.1999 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2658 0.794 0.2901
38500 420.957 0.1989 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2646 0.794 0.2888

38600 418.938 0.1980 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2633 0.794 0.2874
38700 416.930 0.1970 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2620 0.794 0.2860
38800 414.931 0.1961 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2608 0.794 0.2846
38900 412.941 0.1951 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2595 0.794 0.2833
VI.10
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
39000 410.961 0.1942 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2583 0.794 0.2819

39100 408.991 0.1933 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2570 0.794 0.2805
39200 407.030 0.1923 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2558 0.794 0.2792
39300 405.078 0.1914 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2546 0.794 0.2779
39400 403.136 0.1905 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2534 0.794 0.2765
39500 401.203 0.1896 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2522 0.794 0.2752

39600 399.280 0.1887 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2509 0.794 0.2739
39700 397.365 0.1878 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2497 0.794 0.2726
39800 395.460 0.1869 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2485 0.794 0.2713
39900 393.564 0.1860 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2474 0.794 0.2700
40000 391.677 0.1851 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2462 0.794 0.2687

40100 389.799 0.1842 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2450 0.794 0.2674
40200 387.930 0.1833 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2438 0.794 0.2661
40300 386.070 0.1824 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2426 0.794 0.2648
40400 384.219 0.1816 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2415 0.794 0.2636
40500 382.377 0.1807 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2403 0.794 0.2623

40600 380.544 0.1798 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2392 0.794 0.2610
40700 378.719 0.1790 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2380 0.794 0.2598
40800 376.903 0.1781 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2369 0.794 0.2585
40900 375.096 0.1772 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2357 0.794 0.2573
41000 373.298 0.1764 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2346 0.794 0.2561

41100 371.508 0.1756 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2335 0.794 0.2548
41200 369.727 0.1747 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2324 0.794 0.2536
41300 367.954 0.1739 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2313 0.794 0.2524
41400 366.190 0.1730 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2301 0.794 0.2512
41500 364.434 0.1722 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2290 0.794 0.2500

41600 362.687 0.1714 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2279 0.794 0.2488
41700 360.948 0.1706 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2269 0.794 0.2476
41800 359.217 0.1697 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2258 0.794 0.2464
41900 357.495 0.1689 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2247 0.794 0.2452
42000 355.781 0.1681 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2236 0.794 0.2440

42100 354.075 0.1673 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2225 0.794 0.2429
42200 352.377 0.1665 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2215 0.794 0.2417
42300 350.688 0.1657 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2204 0.794 0.2406
42400 349.006 0.1649 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2193 0.794 0.2394
42500 347.333 0.1641 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2183 0.794 0.2383

42600 345.668 0.1633 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2172 0.794 0.2371
42700 344.010 0.1626 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2162 0.794 0.2360
42800 342.361 0.1618 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2152 0.794 0.2348
42900 340.720 0.1610 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2141 0.794 0.2337
VI.11
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
43000 339.086 0.1602 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2131 0.794 0.2326

43100 337.460 0.1595 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2121 0.794 0.2315
43200 335.842 0.1587 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2111 0.794 0.2304
43300 334.232 0.1579 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2101 0.794 0.2293
43400 332.629 0.1572 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2091 0.794 0.2282
43500 331.035 0.1564 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2081 0.794 0.2271

43600 329.447 0.1557 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2071 0.794 0.2260
43700 327.868 0.1549 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2061 0.794 0.2249
43800 326.296 0.1542 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2051 0.794 0.2238
43900 324.731 0.1534 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2041 0.794 0.2227
44000 323.174 0.1527 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2031 0.794 0.2217

44100 321.625 0.1520 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2021 0.794 0.2206
44200 320.083 0.1513 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2012 0.794 0.2196
44300 318.548 0.1505 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.2002 0.794 0.2185
44400 317.021 0.1498 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1992 0.794 0.2175
44500 315.501 0.1491 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1983 0.794 0.2164

44600 313.988 0.1484 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1973 0.794 0.2154
44700 312.483 0.1477 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1964 0.794 0.2143
44800 310.984 0.1470 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1955 0.794 0.2133
44900 309.493 0.1462 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1945 0.794 0.2123
45000 308.010 0.1455 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1936 0.794 0.2113

45100 306.533 0.1448 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1927 0.794 0.2103
45200 305.063 0.1442 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1917 0.794 0.2093
45300 303.600 0.1435 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1908 0.794 0.2083
45400 302.145 0.1428 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1899 0.794 0.2073
45500 300.696 0.1421 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1890 0.794 0.2063

45600 299.254 0.1414 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1881 0.794 0.2053
45700 297.820 0.1407 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1872 0.794 0.2043
45800 296.392 0.1401 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1863 0.794 0.2033
45900 294.971 0.1394 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1854 0.794 0.2023
46000 293.556 0.1387 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1845 0.794 0.2014

46100 292.149 0.1381 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1836 0.794 0.2004
46200 290.748 0.1374 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1827 0.794 0.1994
46300 289.354 0.1367 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1819 0.794 0.1985
46400 287.967 0.1361 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1810 0.794 0.1975
46500 286.586 0.1354 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1801 0.794 0.1966

46600 285.212 0.1348 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1793 0.794 0.1956
46700 283.844 0.1341 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1784 0.794 0.1947
46800 282.484 0.1335 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1775 0.794 0.1938
46900 281.129 0.1328 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1767 0.794 0.1928
VI.12
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
H Pa Ta a
ft psf K kn
47000 279.781 0.1322 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1758 0.794 0.1919

47100 278.440 0.1316 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1750 0.794 0.1910
47200 277.105 0.1309 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1742 0.794 0.1901
47300 275.776 0.1303 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1733 0.794 0.1892
47400 274.454 0.1297 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1725 0.794 0.1883
47500 273.138 0.1291 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1717 0.794 0.1874

47600 271.828 0.1285 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1708 0.794 0.1865
47700 270.525 0.1278 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1700 0.794 0.1856
47800 269.228 0.1272 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1692 0.794 0.1847
47900 267.937 0.1266 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1684 0.794 0.1838
48000 266.653 0.1260 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1676 0.794 0.1829

48100 265.374 0.1254 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1668 0.794 0.1820
48200 264.102 0.1248 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1660 0.794 0.1812
48300 262.835 0.1242 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1652 0.794 0.1803
48400 261.575 0.1236 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1644 0.794 0.1794
48500 260.321 0.1230 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1636 0.794 0.1786

48600 259.073 0.1224 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1628 0.794 0.1777
48700 257.831 0.1218 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1620 0.794 0.1769
48800 256.595 0.1213 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1613 0.794 0.1760
48900 255.364 0.1207 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1605 0.794 0.1752
49000 254.140 0.1201 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1597 0.794 0.1743

49100 252.921 0.1195 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1590 0.794 0.1735
49200 251.709 0.1189 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1582 0.794 0.1727
49300 250.502 0.1184 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1574 0.794 0.1718
49400 249.301 0.1178 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1567 0.794 0.1710
49500 248.106 0.1172 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1559 0.794 0.1702

49600 246.916 0.1167 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1552 0.794 0.1694
49700 245.732 0.1161 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1544 0.794 0.1686
49800 244.554 0.1156 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1537 0.794 0.1678
49900 243.381 0.1150 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1530 0.794 0.1669
50000 242.215 0.1145 216.65 0.7519 573.573 0.1522 0.794 0.1661
VI.13
APPENDIX VII
COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION
VII
-32
30,000
35,000
25,000
- ft
40,000
20,000
itude
45,000
-28 lt
ureA
50,000
ss 15,000
Pre
55,000
-24
60,000
65,000
M
-20 =
10,000
.9
5
M
=
-16 .90
M
=.
85
M
Vc
VII.1
=.
-12 80
M 00
=. 5,0
75
M
-8 =.
7
Compressibility Correction - kn
M
=.
6
COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION
-4
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
V
c
APPENDIX VIII
AIRSPEED, ALTITUDE, MACH NUMBER
VIII
AIRSPEED, ALTITUDE, MACH NUMBER
3
Pressure Altitude -10 ft
HP
40 30 20 10 0
1.0
0.9
0.8
Mach Number
0.7
M
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Vc
VIII.1
APPENDIX IX
ATMOSPHERIC AIR TEMPERATURE

DETERMINATION
IX
ATMOSPHERIC AIR TEMPERATURE DETERMINATION
K = 0.95
K=1
50 0.9
80 70 60 50
40 100
40
30 90 0.8
30
80
20 20
70
10 0.7
10
60
Ambient Temperature - C
Inticated Temperature - C
0 0
50
0.6
Mach Number
-10 40 -10
Ta
M
-20 30 -20
i
T
20
-30 -30 0.5
10
-40 -40
0
-50 -50 0.4
-10
-60 -20
-60
-70 -30 0.3

-70
-40
-80
-80
-50
-90 0.2
IX.1
APPENDIX X
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
X
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Temperature - F
20
10
-10
-20
Note:
-30
Absolute Temperature
-40
R = F + 459.4
-50 K = C + 273
-60
-70
-80
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Temperature - C
X.1
APPENDIX XI
STATIC PRESSURE, PRESSURE ALTITUDE
XI.1
Pressure Static Pressure - psf
Altitude - Ps
ft
HP 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1000 2193.8 2194.6 2195.4 2196.2 2197.0 2197.8 2198.5 2199.3 2200.1 2200.9
-900 2186.0 2186.7 2187.5 2188.3 2189.1 2189.9 2190.7 2191.5 2192.2 2193.0
-800 2178.1 2178.9 2179.7 2180.5 2181.2 2182.0 2182.8 2183.6 2184.4 2185.2
-700 2170.3 2171.1 2171.9 2172.6 2173.4 2174.2 2175.0 2175.8 2176.6 2177.3
-600 2162.5 2163.3 2164.1 2164.8 2165.6 2166.4 2167.2 2168.0 2168.7 2169.5
-500 2154.7 2155.5 2156.3 2157.1 2157.8 2158.6 2159.4 2160.2 2160.9 2161.7
-400 2147.0 2147.8 2148.5 2149.3 2150.1 2150.9 2151.6 2152.4 2153.2 2154.0
-300 2139.3 2140.0 2140.8 2141.6 2142.3 2143.1 2143.9 2144.7 2145.4 2146.2
-200 2131.6 2132.3 2133.1 2133.9 2134.6 2135.4 2136.2 2136.9 2137.7 2138.5
-100 2123.9 2124.6 2125.4 2126.2 2126.9 2127.7 2128.5 2129.2 2130.0 2130.8
0 2116.2 2115.5 2114.7 2113.9 2113.2 2112.4 2111.6 2110.9 2110.1 2109.3
100 2108.6 2107.8 2107.1 2106.3 2105.5 2104.8 2104.0 2103.2 2102.5 2101.7
200 2101.0 2100.2 2099.4 2098.7 2097.9 2097.2 2096.4 2095.7 2094.9 2094.1
300 2093.4 2092.6 2091.9 2091.1 2090.3 2089.6 2088.8 2088.1 2087.3 2086.6
400 2085.8 2085.1 2084.3 2083.5 2082.8 2082.0 2081.3 2080.5 2079.8 2079.0
500 2078.3 2077.5 2076.8 2076.0 2075.2 2074.5 2073.7 2073.0 2072.2 2071.5
600 2070.7 2070.0 2069.2 2068.5 2067.7 2067.0 2066.2 2065.5 2064.7 2064.0
700 2063.2 2062.5 2061.7 2061.0 2060.2 2059.5 2058.7 2058.0 2057.2 2056.5
800 2055.7 2055.0 2054.3 2053.5 2052.8 2052.0 2051.3 2050.5 2049.8 2049.0
900 2048.3 2047.5 2046.8 2046.1 2045.3 2044.6 2043.8 2043.1 2042.3 2041.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1000 2040.9 2040.1 2039.4 2038.6 2037.9 2037.1 2036.4 2035.7 2034.9 2034.2
1100 2033.4 2032.7 2032.0 2031.2 2030.5 2029.7 2029.0 2028.3 2027.5 2026.8
1200 2026.0 2025.3 2024.6 2023.8 2023.1 2022.4 2021.6 2020.9 2020.1 2019.4
1300 2018.7 2017.9 2017.2 2016.5 2015.7 2015.0 2014.3 2013.5 2012.8 2012.1
1400 2011.3 2010.6 2009.9 2009.1 2008.4 2007.7 2006.9 2006.2 2005.5 2004.7
1500 2004.0 2003.3 2002.5 2001.8 2001.1 2000.3 1999.6 1998.9 1998.1 1997.4
1600 1996.7 1996.0 1995.2 1994.5 1993.8 1993.0 1992.3 1991.6 1990.9 1990.1
1700 1989.4 1988.7 1987.9 1987.2 1986.5 1985.8 1985.0 1984.3 1983.6 1982.9
1800 1982.1 1981.4 1980.7 1980.0 1979.2 1978.5 1977.8 1977.1 1976.3 1975.6
1900 1974.9 1974.2 1973.5 1972.7 1972.0 1971.3 1970.6 1969.8 1969.1 1968.4
2000 1967.7 1967.0 1966.2 1965.5 1964.8 1964.1 1963.4 1962.6 1961.9 1961.2
2100 1960.5 1959.8 1959.0 1958.3 1957.6 1956.9 1956.2 1955.5 1954.7 1954.0
2200 1953.3 1952.6 1951.9 1951.2 1950.4 1949.7 1949.0 1948.3 1947.6 1946.9
2300 1946.1 1945.4 1944.7 1944.0 1943.3 1942.6 1941.9 1941.1 1940.4 1939.7
2400 1939.0 1938.3 1937.6 1936.9 1936.2 1935.5 1934.7 1934.0 1933.3 1932.6
2500 1931.9 1931.2 1930.5 1929.8 1929.1 1928.3 1927.6 1926.9 1926.2 1925.5
2600 1924.8 1924.1 1923.4 1922.7 1922.0 1921.3 1920.6 1919.9 1919.1 1918.4
2700 1917.7 1917.0 1916.3 1915.6 1914.9 1914.2 1913.5 1912.8 1912.1 1911.4
2800 1910.7 1910.0 1909.3 1908.6 1907.9 1907.2 1906.5 1905.8 1905.1 1904.4
2900 1903.7 1902.9 1902.2 1901.5 1900.8 1900.1 1899.4 1898.7 1898.0 1897.3
XI.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
3000 1896.6 1895.9 1895.2 1894.5 1893.8 1893.1 1892.4 1891.7 1891.1 1890.4
3100 1889.7 1889.0 1888.3 1887.6 1886.9 1886.2 1885.5 1884.8 1884.1 1883.4
3200 1882.7 1882.0 1881.3 1880.6 1879.9 1879.2 1878.5 1877.8 1877.1 1876.4
3300 1875.7 1875.0 1874.4 1873.7 1873.0 1872.3 1871.6 1870.9 1870.2 1869.5
3400 1868.8 1868.1 1867.4 1866.7 1866.1 1865.4 1864.7 1864.0 1863.3 1862.6
3500 1861.9 1861.2 1860.5 1859.8 1859.2 1858.5 1857.8 1857.1 1856.4 1855.7
3600 1855.0 1854.3 1853.7 1853.0 1852.3 1851.6 1850.9 1850.2 1849.5 1848.8
3700 1848.2 1847.5 1846.8 1846.1 1845.4 1844.7 1844.1 1843.4 1842.7 1842.0
3800 1841.3 1840.6 1840.0 1839.3 1838.6 1837.9 1837.2 1836.5 1835.9 1835.2
3900 1834.5 1833.8 1833.1 1832.5 1831.8 1831.1 1830.4 1829.7 1829.1 1828.4
APPENDIX XII
IMPACT PRESSURE, CALIBRATED AIRSPEED
XII.1
Impact Pressure - psf
qc
Calibrated
Airspeed-
kn 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Vc
50 8.48 8.82 9.17 9.53 9.89 10.26 10.64 11.02 11.41 11.81
60 12.21 12.62 13.04 13.47 13.90 14.34 14.78 15.24 15.70 16.16
70 16.64 17.12 17.60 18.10 18.60 19.10 19.62 20.14 20.67 21.20
80 21.75 22.30 22.85 23.41 23.98 24.56 25.15 25.74 26.33 26.94
90 27.55 28.17 28.79 29.43 30.07 30.71 31.37 32.03 32.69 33.37
100 34.05 34.74 35.43 36.13 36.84 37.56 38.28 39.01 39.75 40.50
110 41.25 42.01 42.77 43.55 44.33 45.11 45.91 46.71 47.52 48.33
120 49.15 49.98 50.82 51.66 52.51 53.37 54.24 55.11 55.99 56.88
130 57.77 58.67 59.58 60.49 61.42 62.35 63.28 64.23 65.18 66.14
140 67.10 68.07 69.06 70.04 71.04 72.04 73.05 74.06 75.09 76.12
150 77.16 78.20 79.26 80.32 81.38 82.46 83.54 84.63 85.73 86.83
160 87.94 89.06 90.19 91.32 92.46 93.61 94.77 95.93 97.10 98.28
170 99.47 100.66 101.86 103.07 104.28 105.51 106.74 107.98 109.22 110.47
180 111.74 113.00 114.28 115.56 116.85 118.15 119.46 120.77 122.09 123.42
190 124.76 126.10 127.45 128.81 130.18 131.55 132.94 134.33 135.72 137.13
200 138.54 139.96 141.39 142.83 144.27 145.72 147.18 148.65 150.13 151.61
210 153.10 154.60 156.10 157.62 159.14 160.67 162.21 163.75 165.31 166.87
220 168.44 170.02 171.60 173.19 174.80 176.41 178.02 179.65 181.28 182.92
230 184.57 186.23 187.89 189.57 191.25 192.94 194.63 196.34 198.05 199.78
240 201.51 203.24 204.99 206.75 208.51 210.28 212.06 213.85 215.64 217.44
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
250 219.26 221.08 222.91 224.74 226.59 228.44 230.30 232.17 234.05 235.94
260 237.84 239.74 241.65 243.57 245.50 247.44 249.38 251.34 253.30 255.27
270 257.25 259.24 261.24 263.24 265.26 267.28 269.31 271.35 273.40 275.46
280 277.53 279.60 281.68 283.78 285.88 287.99 290.10 292.23 294.37 296.51
290 298.66 300.83 303.00 305.18 307.37 309.56 311.77 313.99 316.21 318.44
300 320.69 322.94 325.20 327.47 329.74 332.03 334.33 336.63 338.95 341.27
310 343.60 345.94 348.30 350.66 353.02 355.40 357.79 360.19 362.59 365.01
320 367.43 369.87 372.31 374.76 377.22 379.70 382.18 384.67 387.17 389.67
330 392.19 394.72 397.26 399.80 402.36 404.93 407.50 410.09 412.68 415.28
340 417.90 420.52 423.15 425.80 428.45 431.11 433.78 436.46 439.16 441.86
350 444.57 447.29 450.02 452.76 455.51 458.27 461.04 463.82 466.61 469.41
360 472.22 475.04 477.87 480.71 483.56 486.42 489.29 492.17 495.06 497.96
370 500.87 503.79 506.72 509.66 512.61 515.57 518.55 521.53 524.52 527.53
380 530.54 533.56 536.60 539.64 542.70 545.76 548.84 551.93 555.02 558.13
390 561.25 564.38 567.52 570.67 573.83 577.00 580.18 583.38 586.58 589.80
400 593.02 596.26 599.51 602.76 606.03 609.31 612.60 615.91 619.22 622.54
410 625.88 629.22 632.58 635.95 639.33 642.72 646.12 649.53 652.96 656.39
420 659.84 663.30 666.77 670.25 673.74 677.24 680.76 684.28 687.82 691.37
430 694.93 698.50 702.09 705.68 709.29 712.91 716.54 720.18 723.83 727.50
440 731.17 734.86 738.56 742.27 746.00 749.73 753.48 757.24 761.01 764.80
XII.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
450 768.59 772.40 776.22 780.05 783.90 787.75 791.62 795.50 799.39 803.30
460 807.21 811.14 815.09 819.04 823.01 826.98 830.98 834.98 839.00 843.02
470 847.07 851.12 855.19 859.26 863.36 867.46 871.58 875.71 879.85 884.01
480 888.17 892.35 896.55 900.75 904.97 909.21 913.45 917.71 921.98 926.27
490 930.57 934.88 939.20 943.54 947.89 952.25 956.63 961.02 965.42 969.84
500 974.27 978.71 983.17 987.64 992.13 996.62 1001.13 1005.66 1010.20 1014.75
510 1019.32 1023.90 1028.49 1033.10 1037.72 1042.35 1047.00 1051.66 1056.34 1061.03
520 1065.74 1070.46 1075.19 1079.94 1084.70 1089.47 1094.26 1099.06 1103.88 1108.71
530 1113.56 1118.42 1123.30 1128.19 1133.09 1138.01 1142.94 1147.89 1152.85 1157.83
540 1162.82 1167.83 1172.85 1177.89 1182.94 1188.00 1193.08 1198.18 1203.29 1208.41
550 1213.55 1218.71 1223.88 1229.07 1234.27 1239.48 1244.71 1249.96 1255.22 1260.50
560 1265.79 1271.10 1276.42 1281.76 1287.11 1292.48 1297.87 1303.27 1308.69 1314.12
570 1319.57 1325.03 1330.51 1336.01 1341.52 1347.04 1352.59 1358.15 1363.72 1369.31
580 1374.92 1380.54 1386.18 1391.84 1397.51 1403.20 1408.90 1414.62 1420.36 1426.11
590 1431.88 1437.67 1443.47 1449.29 1455.13 1460.98 1466.85 1472.74 1478.64 1484.56
600 1490.50 1496.46 1502.43 1508.42 1514.42 1520.44 1526.48 1532.54 1538.61 1544.70
610 1550.81 1556.94 1563.08 1569.24 1575.42 1581.61 1587.82 1594.05 1600.30 1606.57
620 1612.85 1619.15 1625.47 1631.81 1638.16 1644.53 1650.92 1657.33 1663.76 1670.20
630 1676.66 1683.14 1689.64 1696.16 1702.69 1709.25 1715.82 1722.41 1729.02 1735.65
640 1742.29 1748.96 1755.64 1762.34 1769.06 1775.80 1782.56 1789.34 1796.13 1802.95
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
650 1809.78 1816.63 1823.51 1830.40 1837.31 1844.24 1851.19 1858.15 1865.14 1872.15
660 1879.18 1886.21 1893.27 1900.36 1907.46 1914.59 1921.73 1928.89 1936.07 1943.28
670 1950.50 1957.74 1964.99 1972.27 1979.57 1986.88 1994.22 2001.57 2008.94 2016.33
680 2023.74 2031.17 2038.61 2046.08 2053.56 2061.06 2068.58 2076.12 2083.67 2091.25
690 2098.84 2106.45 2114.08 2121.72 2129.39 2137.07 2144.77 2152.49 2160.23 2167.98
700 2175.75 2183.54 2191.35 2199.17 2207.01 2214.87 2222.75 2230.64 2238.55 2246.48
710 2254.43 2262.39 2270.37 2278.37 2286.38 2294.42 2302.47 2310.53 2318.62 2326.72
720 2334.83 2342.97 2351.12 2359.29 2367.47 2375.67 2383.89 2392.13 2400.38 2408.65
730 2416.93 2425.24 2433.55 2441.89 2450.24 2458.61 2466.99 2475.39 2483.81 2492.25
740 2500.70 2509.16 2517.64 2526.14 2534.66 2543.19 2551.74 2560.30 2568.88 2577.48
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USNTPS-FTM-No.

U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL

FIXED WING STABILITY AND CONTROL

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

NAVAL AIR WARFARE CENTER

Revised January 1997

FLIGHT TEST MANUAL

FIXED WING STABILITY AND CONTROL

FIXED WING STABILITY AND CONTROL

4 LONGITUDINAL FLYING QUALITIES 4

5 LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL FLYING QUALITIES 5

6 ASYMMETRIC POWER FLYING QUALITIES 6

7 TRANSONIC -SUPERSONIC FLYING QUALITIES 7

III FIGURES III

1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEST PILOT AND ENGINEER 1.3

1.3 CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY 1.6

1.4 MECHANICS OF DYNAMICS 1.10

1.5 INFLUENCE OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM ON FLYING

1.6 THE U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL DEMONSTRATION

1.2 Typical Patterns of Pilot Attention and Expenditure of Energy Required

1.3 An Airplane in Flight is Similar to a Spring-Mass-Damper System 1.11

1.4 The Complex Plane 1.12

1.5 Effect of Increasing Spring Constant 1.13

1.6 Relationship of Position of Roots on Complex Plane to Motion

1.7 Time Response of a Second Order System to a Step Input 1.16

1.8 Typical First Order Response 1.16

1.9 Determination of Damping Ratio for Lightly Damped System 1.18

1.10 Determination of Second Order Response Characteristics for Heavily

1.11 Determination of C1 and C1 from Half-Cycle Amplitude Ratio 1.21

1.12 Graphical Method for Determining T 1 and C 1 1.22

CCRIT = 2M K/ M eq 1.4 1.13

1,2 = n i n 1 2 eq 1.8 1.14

1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF FLYING QUALITIES TESTING

1. Preflight ground or deck operations.

involve engine airstart, fire extinguishment, jettison of equipment, or simply abandoning

The prime reason for conducting flying qualities investigations, then, is to

1. Substantiate, if possible, the pilot's qualitative opinion.

A balance between qualitative and quantitative testing must be achieved in any

1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEST PILOT AND ENGINEER

1.2.1 The Test Pilot

1. The airplane undergoing evaluation and airplanes in general.

In particular, a thorough knowledge of the flight control system is essential if the

1.2.2 The Project Engineer

The project engineer will normally be responsible for the determination of

1.3 CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY

Damping of the motion is defined as a progressive diminishing of its amplitudes

The pilot's opinion of controllability is shaped by several factors. The most

(A) (B) (C) (D)

(A) Stable Airplane

(A) Optimized Stability and Control Characteristics

(B) Poor Stability and Control Characteristics

(C) Unstable Airplane

Pilot Attention Devoted to Maintaining a Required Flight

Pilot Attention which can be Devoted to Other Duties

1.4 MECHANICS OF DYNAMICS

1.4.1 The Spring-Mass-Damper System

Spring K Spring Static Damper Airflow

C = damping constant, a measure of the strength of the viscous damper

K = spring constant, a measure of the stiffness of the spring

= displacement of the mass from an equilibrium position.

= velocity of the mass.

The spring-mass-damper system is a second-order system since its describing

The degree of dynamic stability of a second order system is generally expressed in

The characteristic equation for the spring-mass-damper system may be written in